Unit 8 Foundations

Listing Causes and Effects in a Reading

Learning Objective:

 Identify cause(s) and effect(s) in a reading.

LESSON
Identifying causes and effects in a reading is an essential skill to develop for several reasons.
First, it will enable you to understand more complex texts more fully. Second, it will help you
develop an outline for a cause and effect essay. Finally, it will provide you with the
vocabulary and understanding to create a thoughtful and comprehensive discussion of topics
in a cause and effect essay.

Identifying the causes and effects in a text is not always a straightforward exercise. In this
lesson, you will learn five strategies to identify the causes and effects in a reading.

Strategy 1: Find the topic.

One key strategy to finding the topic of a reading is being able to identify words and their
synonyms that are repeatedly used throughout the text. These repeated terms signal to the
reader the primary phenomena, issues, problems, or topics addressed in the reading.

For example, if you are reading an essay and you find the term "childhood obesity"
throughout the text, then you will know that childhood obesity is the topic.

It is also important to be able to pick out those additional terms that are closely related to the
primary term. These are typically synonyms, which are words that share the same or similar
meaning. For example, a synonym for "childhood obesity" might be "overweight children."

Strategy 2: Find the thesis.

A thesis is essential to the organization of any essay. It provides a roadmap, so to speak, of the
writer's thoughts, arguments, and conclusions. The thesis statement is also very helpful in
signaling the purpose of the reading, which will also help reveal its causes and effects.

The thesis of a cause and effect essay will look like one of the following two examples.

Example:

Childhood obesity is the cause of a multitude of dangerous and debilitating physical,

psychological, and social conditions, such as pre-diabetes, cardiovascular conditions,
depression, and social ridicule.

OR
 Childhood obesity is caused by many factors, such as unavailable and expensive
healthy food, reduced opportunities for physical exercise at school and at home, and
societal perceptions about the safety of children playing outdoors.

By finding the thesis, you will be able to begin picking out the causes and effects in the
reading. Using the first example, the thesis is that childhood obesity is the reason (cause) for
many harmful consequences (effects).

Strategy 3: Find signal words.

Cause and effect essays employ words signal words such as like, because, since,
consequently, this led to/so, if/then, as a result of, first/second/third cause, first/second/third
result or effect, due to, first/second/third, then, subsequently, thus, for, but, as, therefore, and
so. These words are clues to you about the relationships described.

Here is an example:

Childhood obesity is the result of multiple and often multifaceted causes. Therefore,
it is key to identify such causes. The first cause of childhood obesity is the
unavailability of affordable and nutritious food options. The second cause of
childhood obesity is… etc. Due to these factors, childhood obesity has become more
prevalent in our culture. Thus, we need to take a long, hard look at these issues and
determine how we might help obese children and their families to make sustainable
and healthy changes.

Strategy 4: Find the essay's organization.

Cause and effect essays are arranged in particular ways. If you can identify the organization
of the ideas, you can identify the causes and effects more easily. There are typically two
patterns used when organizing a cause and effect essay:

1. Many effects stem from one cause.

In this type of essay, the writer is addressing all of the effects that stem from a single
cause.

2. Many causes lead to one effect.

In this type of essay, the writer is outlining all of the causes that lead to one effect.

Strategy 5: Find causal chains.

In reading a cause and effect essay, it is important to watch out for patterns where one thing
affects another and so on. It may not always immediately be clear if you are reading about a
cause or an effect. Further, there are times in which an effect can become the cause of a
subsequent effect, and so forth. This connection between cause and effect is referred to as a
causal chain, or sometimes as the domino effect.

Here is an example:
 One winter day, I decided to go downhill skiing. It had been years since I had last
skied, and since I had always thought of myself as quite a good skier, I simply dusted
off my old, out-of-date skis and hit the slopes. On my first run down the mountain, I
hit a patch of ice and fell down. The bindings on my skis did not release and I
subsequently crashed into several other skiers. One of those skiers was a beautiful
woman who was on the very first run of her life. Both of us were injured enough that
the ski patrol had to take us down the mountain on sleds as a precaution. Fortunately,
neither of us were hurt very badly and we spent the rest of the day together in the
lodge. It turned out that we lived only three blocks away from each other back in the
city. After dating for two years, we actually got married.

What is the main effect addressed in this example? The initial cause could be said to be the
narrator's decision to go skiing although he had not been skiing in years. But that effect—the
skiing—is also another cause. The narrator wore old skis with bad bindings and hit a patch of
ice. This caused him to fall and crash into other people. This is another effect. So the falling
and crashing is a cause and an effect. The crash caused the narrator and a woman to get hurt,
which then led to a day in the lodge and eventual marriage. Therefore, the main effect is that
the narrator got married.

Logical Fallacies and Causal Relationships

Learning Objectives:

 Identify logical fallacies relating to causal relationships.

LESSON
A logical fallacy is faulty reasoning used to support an idea, theory, thesis, or hypothesis.
When a careful reader identifies a logical fallacy, it may cause him or her to question the
validity of the entire argument, so it is important to identify logical fallacies in both your own
and others' writing.

Think of logical fallacies as cracks in the foundation of a home. Some may be nearly naked to
the invisible eye; others are large, gaping crevices. Either has the potential to eventually or
suddenly cause your foundation to crumble and your house to fall. Logical fallacies in a text
can work in the same fashion. Some may be challenging to spot; others may be quite obvious.
Learning to identify and understand logical fallacies will help you better analyze the writing
of others and know which arguments are strongest upon which to base your own reasoning.

In this lesson, you will be introduced to seven common logical fallacies.

1. Slippery slope

The slippery slope fallacy is basically how it sounds. It is a premise that if "A"
happens, then so will "B...C...D..." and so forth, through a series of small steps.

For example, if I do not get straight A's in high school, then I won't get into an Ivy
League college, then I will not get a good job, and I will be stuck in a terrible job for
the rest of my life.
2. Post hoc fallacy or false cause

This fallacy implies that "A" caused "B" because "A" happened before "B."

For example, I chose not to wash my sports uniform. Our team won the game. We
won the game because I did not wash my uniform. I will no longer wash my uniform
before games so that we will continue to win.

3. Genetic fallacy

This is the assumption that since "A" is associated with "B," "A" and "B" share the
same good and bad traits.

For example, Hitler loved the work of the music composer Wagner. Since Hitler is
associated with Wagner and Hitler was a terrible human being, Wagner must also be
an equally terrible person.

4. Cherry picking

Cherry picking is a fallacy that relies upon choosing only that data or evidence that
will lead to your desired outcome rather than revealing the full picture.

This is not uncommon in the courtroom. Some attorneys may choose to ignore the
evidence that goes against their cases, setting forth only the "facts" that support a
verdict in favor of their clients.

5. Fallacy of the single cause

This is the assumption that an event has only one cause.

For example, in the instance of a shutdown of a large corporation, we begin to ascribe

one reason why it happened. We might say that the business mismanaged its finances
and went bankrupt. However, there is usually more than a single cause for major
events; in this case, it might also be that the company has engaged in illegal activities
or the corporation was taken over by a global conglomerate in addition to the
bankruptcy.

6. Correlation proves causation

This is the logical fallacy that because "A" and "B" happen to occur at the same time,
there is a causal relationship.

For example, whenever I develop a rash, I put lotion on it and the rash goes away. The
lotion must cause the rash to disappear. However, the rash may just go away
eventually whether I put lotion on it or not.

7. Reversing causal direction

This is the implication that "A" causes "B" without considering that "B" causes "A."
 For example, each night when the streetlights turn on, the sun begins to set. The
streetlights (A) must cause the sun to set (B). However, the streetlights obviously have
no influence on the sun. The sun setting (B) is the reason the streetlights come on (A).

Responding Effectively to Essay Assignments

Learning Objectives:

 Select an appropriate essay structure and format to effectively respond to college-level writing assignm
 Develop a thesis statement in response to an essay question to show understanding of a reading or cla

LESSON
It is possible to develop a well-written essay for a college class and still make a poor grade if
the essay does not properly respond to the prompt that you were given. To make sure that you
do not waste time and effort, you need to be able to translate the essay questions that you will
encounter in any college writing assignments.

In this lesson, you will learn the four steps to properly respond to college writing assignments
and how to develop effective thesis statements in response to those assignments.

Step 1: Understand the question type.

It is important to recognize what an essay question is asking. It is helpful to recognize the four
major categories of essay questions: summarizing, explaining relationships, applying
previously learned principles, and expressing your opinion.

Here are examples of each major category of essay questions.

Summarizing essay question:

In your own words, summarize the plot of A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens.

Explaining relationships essay question:

What is/are the relationship(s) between human personalities and their choice of pet? For
example, what are the commonalities among people who adopt dogs versus cats or birds?

Applying learned principles essay question:

Applying the previously learned principles of bioethics—beneficence (of benefit to the

patient), nonmaleficence (doing no harm), justice (fairness), and autonomy (the right to make
one's own decisions)—is it ethical for people to refuse vaccinations?

Expressing your opinion essay question:

In your opinion, should all cities provide varied forms of public transportation systems? Why
or why not?

Step 2: Identify the keywords.

If you can look closely at the language used in the essay question, you will know what your
instructor is asking of you. Keywords like state and list indicate that you should summarize
material while criticize or thoughts suggest that you should express your opinion.

Step 3: Identify the essay structure.

Once you have identified the question type and keywords, you will understand how to identify
the type of essay you need to write. For example, if you are asked to discuss the consequences
of a situation, you should write an essay that looks into the effects of that situation, so you
might choose to write a cause and effect essay. Other types of essay structures include
definition, compare and contrast, analysis, and argument/persuasion.

Step 4: Develop your thesis statement.

Finally, develop your thesis statement. Consider using wording from the question in your
thesis. For example, if the essay question reads, "Outline the stages of mitosis," your thesis
might begin, "There are six stages in mitosis..."

Below is a chart that outlines the four major question types, the possible keywords used in the
prompts, the corresponding organizational structure, and sample prompts and thesis
statements.

Essay Sample thesis

Question Type Keywords Sample Prompt
structure statement
Summarize/
restate the
material There are three
major steps in the
trace, state,
List the major steps rock cycle—
Summarize review, outline,
in the rock cycle. metamorphic,
list, enumerate
Definition and igneous, and
example sedimentary.

The Senate and the

Compare/ House of
contrast Representatives
Discuss the
have a symbiotic
compare, relationship between
Explain relationship—one
contrast, relate, the Senate and the
relationships could not exist
explain, discuss House of
Cause/effect without the other as
Representatives.
evidenced in four
particular
situations.
Apply explain, prove, Analysis In 2011, a Cezanne The age,
previously illustrate, justify, painting, The Card complexity, and
learned show, analyze, Players, sold for provenance of
principles. evaluate more than $250 Cezanne's The
million. Explain Card Players
why the painting justifies the high
 sold for more than
Transfer
any other painting, price it fetched in
principles
even accounting for 2011.
learned in the
inflation.
course to
another
situation.
There are three
reasons why the
What time do you
Express your criticize, opinion, school day should
Persuasion think the school day
opinion think, feel not start before
should begin?
nine o'clock in the
morning.

Creating an Outline for a Cause and Effect Essay

Learning Objective:

 Create an outline for a cause and effect essay.

LESSON
Among the most common college writing assignments is the cause and effect essay. You may
be asked to examine a cause, in other words, a thing or person that is the source or origin of
certain effects. Effects can take the form of actions, phenomena, states, problems, illnesses,
environments, and so forth. Regardless of the cause and effect you select, the development of
an outline is helpful. In this lesson, you will learn the two primary methods for organizing a
cause and effect essay and how to select the method that best suits your subject matter.

Determining the Relationships Between Cause and Effect

It is important to understand what is cause and what is effect. While this may appear obvious
in some cases, it is not always so. A cause may have multiple effects; a cause may in turn
become an effect, as well.

For example:

I have decided to prepare breakfast for my family. While frying the bacon, I knock
several eggs off the countertop. As I reach for a towel to clean up the mess, the dog
jumps on the counter and knocks the sizzling bacon pan from the stove. Hot oil spills
everywhere, burning my hands. The bacon also lands in the egg mess and becomes
inedible. Breakfast is ruined and I am injured.

What is the cause of these effects? The initial cause of the accident could be said to be the
falling of the eggs onto the floor. If that had not happened, the narrator would not have
reached for a towel, giving the dog the opportunity to knock the pan of hot grease over.
However, that effect—the dog knocking over the hot grease—is also a cause. The dog
knocking over the hot grease led to severe hand burns. This is another effect. The dog
knocking over the hot grease caused the bacon to fall into a puddle of uncooked egg,
rendering it inedible. This is yet another effect. The effect is that breakfast was ruined and the
narrator was injured.

This scenario is just one demonstration of the complexity of cause and effect and is often
referred to as a causal chain, or domino effect, because a string of events building on each
other leads to a final effect. This complexity is another reason why organizing your thoughts
and ideas into an outline prior to writing a cause and effect essay is essential. Without
adequate planning, you might miss an event in the causal chain or fail to make relationships
between events in the causal chain clear.

There are two major ways to organize a cause and effect essay: many effects stem from one
cause or many causes lead to one effect.

1. Many effects stem from one cause.

In this type of essay, you are outlining all the effects stemming from a single cause. It is
critical as you approach a cause and effect essay that you make the relationships between the
effects and cause clear, as in the preceding example. If you address many causes at the same
time as many effects, it will be unclear to the reader how they are connected to each other.

Example:

Cause: Childhood obesity

Effects: A number of immediate and long-term health and psychosocial effects

Outline:

I. Introductory Paragraph
A. Thesis statement: Today's parents have an obligation to help their children
maintain a healthy weight because childhood obesity presents a number of
negative health and psychosocial effects, both immediately and in the future.
II. Body Paragraphs (Effects)

A. Immediate Effects
i. Health Effects
1. Obesity can result in the development of cardiovascular
diseases, such as high cholesterol and high blood pressure.
2. Obesity can put children in danger of pre-diabetes, a condition
linked to increased potential for development of diabetes.
3. Obesity is linked to sleep apnea, a condition that contributes to
insomnia, fatigue, and mental illness.
4. Obesity is known to negatively impact bones and joints.
5. Obesity contributes to a child's inability to participate in vital
physical activities.
ii. Psychosocial Effects
1. Obesity has the potential to bring on increased feelings of
sadness, low self-esteem, and depression.
 2. Obesity (and its related effects of hypertension and sleep apnea)
can lead to anxiety.
3. Obesity may negatively influence the forming of essential peer
groups and create a difficulty forming friendships.
4. Obesity may give rise to feelings of isolation due to the inability
to participate in vital physical activities with schoolmates or
peers.
5. Obese children are more likely to be bullied by their
schoolmates or peers.
B. Long-term Effects

i.Health Effects
1. Obesity is associated with higher rates of heart disease later in
life.
2. Obese children are at an increased risk of developing type 2
diabetes as adults.
3. Obesity increases the likelihood of adult stroke.
4. Obesity is linked to the adult development of osteoarthritis.
5. Children who are obese are at greater risk for continued obesity
as adults.
ii. Psychosocial Effects
1. Obesity increases the risk of long-term depression.
2. Obesity increases the risk for long-term anxiety.
3. Obese individuals experience increased loneliness due to
difficulty in forming and sustaining long-term relationships.
4. Obese individuals are more likely to experience social isolation.
5. Obesity often invites criticism and judgment from peers,
coworkers, family members, and communities at large.
III. Concluding Paragraph

A. Childhood obesity contributes to a number of dangerous, damaging, and

potentially unavoidable short- and long-term physical, psychological, and
social effects. Parents have the opportunity to encourage and foster healthful
eating and exercise habits in their children so as to avoid the devastating
consequences of childhood obesity.

As you can see in this outline, a number of immediate and long-term health and psychosocial
effects (many effects) stem from childhood obesity (one cause). If you choose to organize
your essay in this manner, it is important to clarify for your reader that while there could be
multiple causes for the discussed effects, your essay is focused on one specific cause. For
example, there are many potential causes of the effects listed in the outline, but this essay is
focused on childhood obesity as the cause of those effects.

2. Many causes lead to one effect.

In this type of essay, you are outlining all the causes leading to a single effect. Again, avoid
including more than one effect or it will be unclear which cause led to which effect.

For example:
 Effect: childhood obesity

Causes: cost and availability of healthy foods, changes in the education system
(increased seat time and decreased recess/gym), changes in family structure, and
perception of decreased safety

Outline:

I. Introductory Paragraph
A. Thesis statement: While many are quick to blame fast food and television for
juvenile obesity, the actual causes are more varied and complex.
II. Body Paragraphs (Causes)

A. Providing nutritious meals for children is difficult due to the unavailability of

healthy foods.
i. Many American families survive on minimum wage, making
purchasing healthful foods financially difficult.
ii. Many poor urban areas lack grocery stores.
iii. Many poor urban areas are overrun with inexpensive and unhealthful
fast-food restaurants.
B. Changes in education are associated with increased rates of childhood obesity.

i. Many schools, particularly in poor urban areas, can no longer afford to

offer "special" courses, including physical education and after-school
sports activities.
ii. Schools have decreased recess time and increased seat time in order to
extend study time for state tests.
iii. School food is often unbalanced and unhealthy.
C. Changes in the family structure have contributed to a more sedentary lifestyle
for children.

i. More families are comprised of single parents and/or dual working

parents, leading to an increased number of "latch key" kids who are
unable to play outside after school.
ii. More families are comprised of parents who must work more than one
job in order to support their children, leading to children's participation
in sedentary afterschool programs or being left in the care of
individuals who are unable to oversee outdoor playtime.
D. Society's perception of decreased safety has led to a decrease in children's
outdoor playtime.

i. There is an increased number of Amber alerts (reports of child

abductions).
ii. Twenty-four-hour news coverage with headline stories of child
abduction, inciting greater fear among parents and families.
iii. While incidents of child abduction have actually decreased, parents are
still unwilling to let children play outside.
III. Concluding Paragraph
 A. While society's view of childhood obesity remains biased, there are in actuality
a variety of causes contributing to the phenomenon that must be examined
more closely.

In this outline, the cost and availability of healthy foods, changes in the education system,
family structure, and perception of decreased safety (many causes) lead to childhood obesity
(one effect) that the writer will develop when he or she writes this essay.

Writing an Essay Showing Cause and Effect Pattern

Learning Objective:

 Write a multi-paragraph cause and effect essay.

LESSON
Cause and effect essays will be among the most common writing assignments you come
across in college. You may be asked to examine a cause, in other words, a thing or person that
is the source or origin of certain effects. For instance, you may be asked to write an essay
describing how World War II affected the stature of the United States as a world leader in the
twentieth century.

Effects can take the form of actions, phenomena, states, problems, illnesses, environments,
and so forth. Cause and effect essays are important examinations of what are often complex
issues. They can challenge preconceived notions about ideas and opinions. Cause and effect
essays also help the writer and the reader better understand the "whys" and "hows" behind
their thinking.

Further, these assignments require you to closely examine the relationship(s) between
cause(s) and effect(s). What is "cause" and what is "effect" is not always obvious. Keep in
mind causal chains, where what may begin as a cause becomes one of many further effects,
and that what starts out as an effect may cause additional effects.

For example, showing how driving a car increases global warming is an example of a causal
chain:

A. Driving a car has the effect of releasing carbon dioxide.

B. Carbon dioxide has the effect of trapping the sun's energy.
C. The energy of the sun has the effect of raising the average global temperature.

So, driving a car leads to an increase in global warming.

In this lesson, you will learn eight steps to writing a cause and effect essay:

1. Understand your assignment.

2. Gather ideas.
3. Create a working thesis.
4. Develop an outline.
5. Develop paragraphs that support your thesis.
6. Write a conclusion.
 7. Write an introduction.
8. Revise your essay.

Step 1: Understand your assignment.

When approaching an assignment, it is essential to understand what you are being asked to
write. It is helpful to read any guidelines and instructions provided to you. Examine the essay
prompt carefully. Do you need to address causes or effects? Are you being asked to write an
essay in which you are looking at an issue where many effects stem from one cause? Or are
you tasked with writing about a situation where many causes lead to one effect? Keywords,
also called signal words, such as why, factors, causes, effects, results, reasons, influences,
consequences, and outcomes indicate that you need to write a cause and effect essay.

Example 1:

Cause: childhood obesity

Effects: A number of immediate and long-term health and psychosocial effects.

Example 2:

Effect: childhood obesity

Causes: cost and availability of healthy foods, changes in the education system
(increased seat time and decreased recess/gym), changes in family structure, and
perception of decreased safety.

Step 2: Gather ideas.

There are a number of idea-gathering strategies that may be helpful to you here. For example,
a cause and effect graphic organizer could work. Draw a circle. Place the one cause in that
circle. Then put all of the effects around it. It essentially becomes a webbing or cluster.

Conversely, you could place the effect in the circle and put all of the causes around it.
Other ideas could include creating a brainstorming list. If you are working with a many causes
lead to one effect essay, begin by writing the effect at the top of a piece of paper. Then spend
some time freewriting ideas about potential causes. You may find that additional causes
branch off of other causes. The same can be done for a many effects stem from one cause
essay.

Step 3: Create a working thesis.

Creating a working or tentative thesis statement is vital to the development and organization
of your ideas and your essay. Your thesis is what you are setting out to demonstrate through
your writing. A working thesis is one that may need to be revised somewhat later as you
develop the sound reasoning, examples, and illustrations to support it.

Your working thesis should fit the characteristics of a good thesis in general: it must be
specific, clearly state your main idea, and demonstrate for your reader why the topic is
important. For a cause and effect essay, your thesis also needs to alert your reader that he or
she will learn about the causes OR the effects.

Example 1:

Many effects stem from one cause:

Thesis statement: Today's parents have an obligation to help their children maintain a
healthy weight because childhood obesity presents a number of negative health and
psychosocial effects, both immediately and in the future.

Example 2:

Many causes lead to one effect:

Thesis statement: While many are quick to blame fast food and television for juvenile
obesity, the actual causes are more varied and complex.

Step 4: Develop an outline.

Sometimes it is useful to simply sketch a rough outline listing the causes or effects you plan
on incorporating into your essay and create a more detailed outline after you have written the
rough draft. This allows the outline to be used as a way of developing your essay and
organizing your ideas as well as a revision tool that helps you check whether or not your
organizational strategy makes sense.

Here is an example of a rough outline developed for this purpose on the topic of childhood
obesity.

Cause: Childhood obesity

Effects: A number of immediate and long-term health and psychosocial effects

Outline:
 I. Introductory Paragraph
A. Thesis statement: Today’s parents have an obligation to help their children
maintain a healthy weight because childhood obesity presents a number of
negative health and psychosocial effects, both immediately and in the future.
II. Body Paragraphs (Effects)

A. Immediate Effects
i. High blood pressure
ii. Diabetes
iii. Depression
iv. Bullying
B. Long-term Effects

i. Heart disease and stroke

ii. Diabetes
iii. Depression and loneliness
III. Concluding Paragraph

A. Childhood obesity contributes to a number of dangerous, damaging, and

potentially unavoidable short- and long-term physical and psychosocial effects.
Parents have the opportunity to encourage and foster healthful eating and
exercise habits in their children so they can avoid the devastating consequences
of childhood obesity.

If you choose to organize your essay in this manner, it is important to clarify for your reader
that while there could be multiple causes for the topic, in this case, childhood obesity, your
essay is focused on the effects of that condition.

Step 5: Develop paragraphs that support your thesis

Once you have developed your thesis and sketched an outline, you can begin writing body
paragraphs that support your thesis. Paragraphs should adhere to the MEAL concept:

Main Idea: your topic sentence, identifying one of the many causes (or effects)
supporting the thesis.

Evidence: facts, expert opinion, or anecdotal evidence proving the causal

relationship described in the topic sentence.

Analysis: explaining how the evidence supports the topic sentence.

Link: a transition from one paragraph to the next, as well as back to the thesis.

Step 6: Write a conclusion

The conclusion needs to summarize and synthesize, or bring together, the most important
details of your essay. It should also give your reader a new way of looking at your main idea.
It reminds the reader of your thesis and reinforces the main points you have made.

Step 7: Write an introduction

There are four elements of an effective introduction:

A. Hook
B. Tone
C. Background
D. Thesis

An effective introduction hooks the reader with a compelling idea, sets the tone for the rest of
the essay, provides any necessary background or context for the reader, and presents the
thesis.

Step 8: Revise your essay.

When you have a draft of your essay, revise it by asking yourself these questions:

a. Have I followed the assignment?

b. Is this a many effects stem from one cause essay or a many causes lead to one effect
essay? What is my main cause or what is my main effect?
c. Do my body paragraphs support my thesis?
d. Is all my support relevant?
e. Do I need more or less support?
f. Have I included the transitions necessary to guide the reader from point to point?
g. Does my conclusion summarize and synthesize the most important details?
h. Does my introduction hook the reader and provide adequate background/introduction
to my topic?

This is also where developing a more formal outline based on what you actually have written
in the draft can help you discover weaknesses or areas in need of more detail and support.

A more detailed outline of this essay on childhood obesity might look something like this:

Formal Outline

I. Introductory Paragraph
A. Thesis statement: Today’s parents have an obligation to help their children
maintain a healthy weight because childhood obesity presents a number of
negative health and psychosocial effects, both immediately and in the future.
II. Body Paragraphs (Effects)

A. Immediate Effects
i. Health Effects
1. Obesity can result in the development of cardiovascular
diseases, such as high cholesterol and high blood pressure.
2. Obesity can put children in danger of pre-diabetes, a condition
linked to increased potential for development of diabetes.
3. Obesity is linked to sleep apnea, a condition that contributes to
insomnia, fatigue, and mental illness.
4. Obesity is known to negatively impact bones and joints.
5. Obesity contributes to a child’s inability to participate in vital
physical activities.
 ii. Psychosocial Effects
1. Obesity has the potential to bring on sadness, low self-esteem,
and depression.
2. Obesity (and its related effects of hypertension and sleep apnea)
can lead to anxiety.
3. Obesity may influence and impact the forming of essential peer
groups and a difficulty forming friendships.
4. Obesity may give rise to feelings of isolation due to inability to
participate in vital physical activities with schoolmates or peers.
5. Obese children are more likely to be bullied by their
schoolmates or peers.
B. Long-term Effects

i. Health Effects
1. Obesity is associated with higher rates of heart disease later in
life.
2. Obese children are at an increased risk of developing type 2
diabetes as adults
3. Obesity increases the likelihood of adult stroke.
4. Obesity is linked to the adult development of osteoarthritis.
5. Children who are obese are at greater risk for continued obesity
as adults.
ii. Psychosocial Effects
1. Obesity increases the risk of long-term depression.
2. Obesity increases the risk for long-term anxiety.
3. Obese individuals experience increased loneliness due to
difficulty in forming and sustaining long-term relationships.
4. Obese individuals are more likely to experience social isolation.
5. Obesity often invites criticism and judgment from peers,
coworkers, family members, and communities at large.
III. Concluding Paragraph

A. Childhood obesity contributes to a number of dangerous, damaging, and

potentially unavoidable short- and long-term physical and psychosocial effects.
Parents have the opportunity to encourage and foster healthful eating and
exercise habits in their children so they can avoid the devastating consequences
of childhood obesity.

Remember, you may need to add information, remove information, or reorganize your
writing. Being a careful reviewer of your own work is key to a quality essay. When you have
completed this step, be sure to go back one more time to verify that your grammar, spelling,
and punctuation are correct.

umbers

Learning Objective:

 Identify when to use words to refer to numbers and when to use Arabic numerals.
LESSON
Writers usually write out numbers they can write in a word or two and use Arabic numerals
(0, 1, 2, 3...) to express larger numbers. However, most writers also follow a set of general
guidelines about which numbers should be written out and which should be expressed in
numerals. In this lesson, you will learn when to use words and when to use numerals to
express various numbers.

Words

Numbers should be written out in these situations:

1. Numbers expressed in two words or less. Write out and hyphenate any number
between twenty-one and ninety-nine. Numbers outside this range do not require a
hyphen.

Eleven students

One hundred books

Seventy-nine animals

Thirty-four days

Fifty-five miles per hour

1. Large rounded numbers or estimated numbers.

Five trillion

Five thousand

Seven hundred

1. Numbers at the beginning of a sentence. If the number is so large that it would be

awkward to write out, rephrase the sentence so that the number is not the first word.

Four hundred and two staff members are in that unit. This could be rephrased to avoid the
number at the beginning of the sentence: There are 402 staff members in that unit.

Twenty-five trucks arrived with supplies.

1. Numbers in dialogue.

"Sabrina swam five hundred and seven laps," he marveled.

"I put two hundred and twenty pieces of candy in the jar," she announced.

"How long will it take you to run a hundred and thirty-five miles?" he asked.

1. Centuries and decades. These should be lowercase.

The nineteenth century

The eighties

The roaring twenties

1. Ordinal numbers, such as first, second, and third

Her first birthday

My second cupcake

His fifth time around the track

1. Simple fractions

One fourth of an ounce

One half of a cake

Two thirds of the pie

1. Time of day with "o'clock" and on the half and quarter hour.

Five o'clock

Half past two

A quarter past ten

Numerals

Arabic numerals are the ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The following types of numbers
are usually expressed as Arabic numerals:

1. Decimals

7.5 ounces

2.5 grams

3.13 pounds

1. Specific time of day. Use noon or midnight instead of 12.

3:35 p.m.

4:47 a.m.

12:25 p.m.
 1. Dates and years

July 22, 1954

April 3, 1966

September 9, 2011

1. Scores

The final score was 28 to 14.

She won the game 8 – 6.

He never recovered from the 15 – 14 loss.

1. Money references

He owed her $216.30.

She gave him $14.65.

Her change was $4.23.

1. Mixed numbers

Mix in 3 ½ cups of flour.

Her waist was 25 ¼ inches around.

Give him 2 ¼ tablespoons of the medicine after every meal.

Other Rules

There are a couple of other rules to keep in mind when you use numbers in your writing:

1. Be consistent.

It is important to treat related numbers in a sentence consistently. If you choose to use Arabic
numerals, then use them throughout that sentence. The same is true if you choose to write out
numbers. You can bend the guidelines for using numbers if you have a purpose and are
consistent.

Incorrect: Each of the 12 children sorted out seventy-five cans of food for donation.

Correct: Each of the twelve children sorted out seventy-five cans of food for donation.

Also correct: Each of the 12 children sorted out 75 cans of food for donation.
 1. When in doubt, check your style guide. While the general rules above will suit most
situations, there is some variation between MLA, APA, AP, and The Chicago Manual
of Style.

Semicolons, Colons, and Commas

Learning Objectives:

 Employ correct use of semicolons in a sentence.

 Employ correct use of colons in a sentence.
 Employ correct use of commas with dates and addresses.

LESSON
In this lesson, you will learn how to correctly use semicolons and colons in your writing. You
will also learn the correct way to use commas in dates and addresses.

Semicolons

A semicolon (;) looks like a combination of a period and a comma and is used in three
different situations.

1. To join two independent clauses. You can use a semicolon like a period to join two
independent clauses; however, unlike a period, do not capitalize the first letter of the
second independent clause unless it is a proper noun.

For example:

Writing is difficult work; it requires much time and effort.

Good writers write multiple drafts of the same essay; furthermore, they always
proofread an essay before they turn it in.

2. With conjunctive adverbs. Also use a semicolon before conjunctive adverbs—e.g.,

moreover, however, and nevertheless—if there is an independent clause on either side
of the conjunctive adverb.

Here is a list of some conjunctive adverbs:

accordingly finally meanwhile similarly

also furthermore moreover specifically
anyway hence nevertheless still
besides however next subsequently
certainly indeed nonetheless then
consequently instead now therefore
conversely likewise otherwise thus

For example:
 It is wise to finish your homework immediately; however, for procrastinators, this is
easier said than done.

In the example above, the semicolon is necessary because there is a complete thought
on either side of the conjunctive adverb. Note that conjunctive adverbs also require a
comma after them.

Procrastinators, however, can change their ways.

In this example, a semicolon is not used because there is not an independent clause on
either side of the conjunctive adverb. In this case, you should encase the conjunctive
adverb in commas.

3. To delineate items in a list when the items already contain a comma. Generally,
commas are used to separate three or more items in a series; however, when the items
in the series already contain a comma, it is more effective to separate the items with
semicolons. This avoids confusion.

For example:

The following sentence is unclear. See if you can tell if the group has four members or
eight.

Incorrect: The group included Mr. King, the president, Ms. Kennedy, the vice
president, Mr. Green, the secretary, and Mrs. Brown, the treasurer.

Now see how the sentence looks with semicolons in the list.

Correct: The group included Mr. King, the president; Ms. Kennedy, the vice president;
Mr. Green, the secretary; and Mrs. Brown, the treasurer.

By adding semicolons to the sentence, the writer's meaning is clearer. The semicolons
separate the people with their titles, so the reader can tell there are four people in the
group.

Colons

Like a semicolon, a colon (:) also has three main uses.

1. Before a series of items. Use a colon when you want to introduce a list. Be sure that
an independent clause precedes the colon. The colon should not split an independent
clause. Additionally, do not use a colon directly after words like including, included,
and such as.

For example:

Correct: I went to the store and bought a number of items: bananas, bread, chicken,
lettuce, and ice.
 In this sentence, I went to the store and bought a number of items is an independent
clause, so a colon precedes the list.

Incorrect: I went to the store and bought: bananas, bread, chicken, lettuce, and ice.

I went to the store and bought is not an independent clause, so a colon should not
precede the list.

Incorrect: I went to the store and bought all I needed, including: bananas, bread,
chicken, lettuce, and ice.

A colon should not be used after including.

Another example:

Correct: To apply for the job, I needed the following items: a completed application,
cover letter, resume, and list of references.

To apply for the job, I needed the following items is an independent clause, so a colon
precedes the list.

Incorrect: To apply for the job, I needed: a completed application, cover letter,
resume, and list of references.

To apply for the job, I needed is not an independent clause, so a colon should not
precede the list.

Another example:

Correct: My teacher posted all the materials we needed to complete our assignment,
including a guideline sheet, a citation guide, and a rubric.

No colon is needed after including.

Incorrect: My teacher posted all the materials we needed to complete our assignment,
including: a guideline sheet, a citation guide, and a rubric.

1. A colon should not be used after including.

2. Between an independent clause and an explanation, rule, or example. Use a colon
when the second independent clause explains or otherwise fills in information raised
in the first independent clause.

For example:

Now that your flowers are wilting, you can see what I mean: the summers here are far
too warm.

The summers here are far too warm gives more information about what the speaker is
referring to when he says you can see what I mean. The colon is placed before the
explanation that gives more information about the first clause.
 3. Before a quote. You can use a colon to introduce a quote, especially a block quote of
more than three or four lines.

For example:

One can understand how cold it was from Hart's words: "The snow clung to the
smallest twigs of every tree" (37).

Since there are better ways of introducing shorter quotes, it is more common to use a
colon to introduce longer quotes.

In his journal, Hart paints a vivid portrait of the storm:

The snow clung to the smallest twigs of every tree, and a thousand patterns of lace
arrayed themselves against the night sky. It lay heaped up over tree roots like mounds
of whipped cream and trimmed the back fence in unfurled rows of white silk ribbons
(37).

There are other uses for the colon that are less common, such as:

4. Before a subtitle. Use a colon to separate the title from the subtitle.

For example:

CSI: SVU

Star Trek: The Next Generation

Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead

5. After the salutation of a business letter. In a personal letter, you follow your
salutation (e.g. "Dear Tom") with a comma. A business letter, however, requires a
colon.

For example:

To whom it may concern:

Dear Ms. Saunders:

To the hiring manager:

Commas with Dates and Addresses

When incorporating dates, addresses, or portions of an address in your writing, it is important

to know how to punctuate them correctly. Here are some rules to remember.

1. Do not use a comma between the month and the day of the month.

For example:
 Incorrect: My son was born on April, 5.

Correct: My son was born on April 5.

2. Commas are not used when only a month and a year are stated.

For example:

Incorrect: My son was born in April, 2009.

Correct: My son was born in April 2009.

3. In addresses, commas are always used between a city and its state, and the state is
followed by a comma unless it appears at the end of a sentence.

For example:

Incorrect: The conference is in Boston Massachusetts, which will probably be snowy

at that time of the year.

Correct: The conference is in Boston, Massachusetts, which will probably be snowy at

that time of the year.

4. Do not use commas following cities when they are used alone. The same applies to
states when used alone.

For example:

Incorrect: The conference is in Boston, and will probably be full, so it's best to register
early.

Correct: The conference is in Boston and will probably be full, so it's best to register
early.

5. When writing street addresses, use commas after the street address and between the
city and state abbreviation, but not between the state abbreviation and the zip code.

For example:

Incorrect: My new address is 52 Camilla Lane San Jose CA 95124.

Correct: My new address is 52 Camilla Lane, San Jose, CA 95124.

6. Commas are used in dates between the day of the week; the month and day of the
month; and the year. The exception to placing a comma after an address is when it is
at the end of a sentence.

For example:
 Incorrect: My son was born on Sunday April 5 2009 in Grand Junction Colorado,
where we lived at the time.

Correct: My son was born on Sunday, April 5, 2009, in Grand Junction, Colorado,
where we lived at the time.

In the corrected sentence, commas appear after the day of the week (Sunday), the
month and the day of the year (April 5) and the year (2009) as well as a city (Grand
Junction) and state (Colorado).

Using Context Clues

Learning Objective:

 Use context clues to define unknown vocabulary in a reading.

LESSON
In this lesson, you will learn how to find the meaning of unknown words in a reading by using
context clues. Context clues will expand your vocabulary by helping you guess the meaning
of a word based on how it is used in a sentence or paragraph. This allows you to keep reading
an article or essay without stopping to look words up in a dictionary, which saves you time
while still allowing you to understand what you are reading.

There are two advantages to using context clues to expand your vocabulary and improve your
reading comprehension.

First, if you skip over words you don't understand, the meaning of what you are reading
becomes a little unclear. Depending on how many words you have to skip over or how
important each word is in the passage, it can seem as if you have just looked at a bunch of
words on the page and have no idea what they mean.

Second, if you go to a dictionary every time you don't understand a word, it is not only
frustrating to repeatedly interrupt the flow of reading, but the word might actually have many
ways of being defined. This could leave you a little closer to understanding what the word
means but no closer to understanding what the author is trying to say.

Fortunately, there is a four-step process for using context clues to define unfamiliar words in a
reading.

Step 1: Look for examples of the unknown word in the sentence.

Writers often provide examples of words as a way of making sure people understand exactly
what they mean; this is the easiest way to use context clues.

Example:

People generally use coniferous trees, such as pine, fir, and blue spruce, as Christmas
trees.
You see here that "fir" and "blue spruce" are two examples of "coniferous trees." If you don’t
know anything about coniferous trees – which are trees that do not lose their color and leaves
– you can safely assume that they share the same characteristics as pines, firs, and blue
spruces.

Step 2: If there are no examples of the word in the sentence, look for antonyms or
synonyms of the word somewhere in the sentence.
Synonyms are words that share a similar meaning. For example, in a sentence, you could use
the words "decrease," "reduce," "cut," or "lessen" and still make the same point.

Antonyms, on the other hand, are words that have opposite meanings. "Competent" and
"inept" are examples of antonyms.

Writers use both synonyms and antonyms in their writing, so if you find an unfamiliar word in
the sentence, look for a synonym or antonym that you recognize, and allow it to lead you to
the definition.

Example:

I was so infuriated by the pointless, ineffectual instruction manual that my typical

good humor had escaped me all day long.

Here, you see that the word "ineffectual" has the word "pointless" right before it and both are
used to describe the instruction manual. It is safe to assume that "pointless" is a synonym for
"ineffectual."

You can also see that "infuriated" is presented as the opposite of "good humor," which tells
that the two are antonyms. You may not know the exact meaning of "infuriated," but you
know that a general definition would be "bad humor."

Step 3: If the word has no examples and there are no antonyms or synonyms, try
substituting a familiar word for the one you don’t know.
Example:

Riding the roller coaster was exhilarating, and my heart raced like it did when I was
kid.

If you don’t know what the word "exhilarating" is, take it out of the sentence – "Riding the
roller coaster was __________ and my heart raced like it did when I was kid." – and then start
substituting words until you find one that fits with everything else in the sentence.

In this case, "fun" would work, but "thrilling" would work even better because it matches
more closely with "my heart raced."

Step 4: Rely on your own knowledge and experience.

Your own knowledge and experience also provide clues that you can use to figure out the
meaning of an unfamiliar word.

Example:
 Johnny's mom commended him for cleaning up his room without being told.

If you do not know what "commended" means, put yourself in Johnny's or his mom's shoes. If
your son cleaned up his room without your asking, what would you do? You probably
wouldn't complain or criticize; instead, you would praise and applaud him. You were able to
determine the meaning of the word without any examples, synonyms, or antonyms.

This step is more useful when you are reading about something that you know more about.
You may find that it is not helpful when you first enter an anthropology, psychology, or
sociology class and begin reading your text.

Identifying Word Parts

Learning Objective:

 Use word parts to define unknown vocabulary in a reading.

LESSON
In this lesson, you will learn to how to find the meaning of words you don't know in a reading
by using word parts. When you come across an unfamiliar word in a passage, one of the ways
to determine its meaning is to break the word down to smaller parts. These are known as word
parts and there are three types: root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Just as context clues help
you define a word by applying what you know about the key words around it, word parts help
you define a word by applying what you know about the key parts of the word itself.

Root words are basic words that cannot be reduced to a smaller word and have a meaning all
on their own. They can often stand alone as independent words although there are some core
roots that help form many of the words people use.

A prefix is a word part that is attached to the beginning of a root word to enhance or change
its meaning. It cannot stand on its own as an independent word.

A suffix is a word part added to the end of a root word that can sometimes enhance or change
its meaning, but mostly it can change a word's part of speech or changes a singular word into
a plural one. Like a prefix, it cannot stand on its own as an independent word.

For example, the word "bicycling" is made up of the root word "cycle," which means circle or
wheel, the prefix "bi," meaning two, and the suffix "ing," which makes it a participle.

There are two ways to approach word parts. First, you can memorize the word parts.
Deciphering unknown words becomes easier with each word prefix, root, and suffix that you
learn. The "Common Word Parts List" below does not list every possible word part, but it will
give you a good place to start. Consider creating flash cards for each word part and have your
friends and family quiz you.

Another strategy to use to discover a word's meaning is to think of familiar words that have
the same roots as the new word. Since English is a mixture of many Latin- and German-based
languages, you can also think of foreign words. Then you can deduce what the new word
means based on the familiar words that you know.
For example, here is what you can do if you come upon the word "transcription."

First list words that you know that either begin with trans- or tran- or have the root word,
script.

Prefix: Tran- Root word: Script

transport script
transcontinental postscript
translate inscription
transaction description

Then look for commonalities in each word group.

transport Moving from one place to another

transcontinental Going across a continent
translate Defining a word or term in a different languag
transaction Moving or exchanging money
script A piece of writing
postscript Notes at the end of a book
inscription Writing in book or in stone
description Telling what something is

The trans- and tran- words all deal with moving an actual thing or an idea; whereas the script
words all have something to do with writing. You can thereby assume that "transcription"
means moving something into writing.

Once you have taken the time to understand what transcription means, you can guess the
meaning of related words even more quickly. You can assume that words beginning with
"trans" have something to do with moving something and words with "script" as a root have
something to do with writing.

By both memorizing the word parts and understanding them by breaking them down to
familiar words, you will begin reading more quickly and understanding more of what you
read.

Common Word Parts List

Common Prefixes Meaning Example

a, ab, abs away, from absent, abstain
ad, a, ac, af, ag, an, ar, at, as to, toward adhere, annex, affix, adap
bi, bis two bicycle, biped, bisect
circum around circumference
com, con together, with combination, connect
de opposite, from, away detract, defer, delete
dis, dif, di apart, not disperse, different
epi upon, on top of epicenter
equi equal equality, equitable
ex, e out, from, forth eject, exhale, exit
hyper over, above hyperactive, hypersensitiv
hypo under, beneath hypodermic
in, en in, into, not inject, endure, incorrect
inter between, among international, intercede
mal, male bad, ill malpractice, malevolent
mis wrong mistake, misunderstand
mono alone, single, one monotone, monopoly
non not nonsense
ob in front of, against obvious
omni everywhere, all omnipresent
pre before predawn, preview
pro forward proceed, promote
re again, back recall, recede
retro backward, behind, back retroactive
se apart, secede, secure
sub under subway
super greater, beyond supernatural, superstition
trans across, beyond transcend, transcontinenta
un, uni (pronounced yoon, yoon-ee) one unilateral, unity
un (pronounced uhn) not unhappy, unethical
Common Core Roots Meaning Example
bas low basement
cap, capt take, seize capture, capable
cred believe credible
dict speak predict, dictionary
duc, duct lead induce, conduct
fac, fact make, do artifact, facsimile
graph write autograph, graphic
log word, study of dialog, biology
scrib, script write transcribe, subscription
spec, spect see specimen, aspect
tact touch contact, tactile
ten hold tenacious, retentive
therm heat thermostat, thermometer
ver true verify
Common Suffixes Meaning Example
-able, -ible able to (adjective) usable
-er, -or one who does (noun) competitor
-fy to make (verb) dignify
-ing forms a participle running, acting
-ism the practice of (noun) rationalism, Catholicism
-ist one who practices (noun) feminist, environmentalis
-ive forms an adjective creative
-ize bring about, make (verb) popularize
-less without, lacking (adjective) meaningless
-logue, -log type of speaking or writing (noun) prologue, dialog
-ment act or process of (noun) enjoyment
-ness the condition of (noun) aggressiveness
-ship the art or skill of (noun) sportsmanship
-tion turns a verb into a noun indication, separation
-tude the state of (noun) rectitude

Essential College Skills: The Importance of Your Voice

LESSON
Many new college students may feel intimidated when they first start classes. You may find
yourself surrounded by graduate students, professors, or classmates who always seem to know
the right answer. It's important to remember you bring different ideas and experiences to
classroom conversations. Your unique voice or understanding of a subject is important. Use it
with confidence and speak up respectfully when you have a question or opinion to share.
Doing so will further your understanding of the subject, may help others learn, and could
improve your grade if the instructor emphasizes student involvement.

Using your voice more frequently in the classroom, when appropriate, could also improve
your writing. It is important to write college essays with an authoritative and credible written
voice. You can hone that voice by learning to share ideas openly.

Add your voice to class conversation and keep these tips in mind:

Learn the jargon: Every area of study uses unique technical language, or jargon, which
outsiders might find difficult to understand. Engineers talk to other engineers using words a
musician, artist, or an accountant might not know; and, vice versa. Learning the professional
language in your field of study will enhance your understanding of the subject and give you
added authority. It can take years and work experience to fully understand the nuances of a
professional language, but it's worth your time to start building that vocabulary. To do so,
attend class, stay on top of assignments, network with others in your desired field, and look
for internship opportunities.

Discover the real life advantage: Your life experiences may help you learn concepts which
could otherwise be tough to understand. Use those experiences, such as past jobs,
relationships, successes, and failures, to help you better articulate ideas. For instance, suppose
you worked in a grocery store in high school, checking out shoppers of all economic
backgrounds. That experience may help your understanding of social policies in a collegiate
political science course. When you can connect real life to an abstract concept, your
understanding of it will improve. Life experience is one of the biggest advantages adult
learners bring to the classroom.

Share ideas openly: Don't sit quietly while classmates discuss a topic. Your voice is
important, too. You may not always know as much as the student next to you, your professor,
or the textbook author, but you can offer a new perspective. College is a time of self-
discovery. Value your opinions enough to share them. If you are borrowing ideas from
another source, remember to give credit where it's due.
Find your confidence: College students who lack the confidence to go to their instructor with
a concern or question could have difficulty. It's important that you feel confident visiting your
professor at his or her office if you need help with the material or are concerned about your
grade. More often than not, your instructor will gladly listen.