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 International Journal of Environmental Research

International Journal of Environmental Research is a multidisciplinary journal concerned with all aspects of environment.
In pursuit of these, environmentalist disciplines are invited to contribute their knowledge and experience. International
Journal of Environmental Research publishes original research papers, research notes and reviews across the broad field of
environment. These include but are not limited to environmental science, environmental engineering, environmental
management and planning and environmental design, urban and regional landscape design and natural disaster management.
Thus high quality research papers or reviews dealing with any aspect of environment are welcomed. Papers may be
theoretical, interpretative or experimental.

CONTENTS
Volume 1, Number 2, Spring 2007

1. Biodegradation of Phenanthrene by Mixed Culture Consortia in Batch Bioreactor Using 80

Central Composite Face-Entered Design
Nasrollahzadeh, H. S., Najafpour, G. D. and Aghamohammadi, N., (Malaysia, Iran)

2. Identification of Fish-Eating Birds 88

Behrouzirad, B., (Iran)

3. Performance of a Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) Augmented Activated Sludge Process 96

Treating Semi-Aerobic Leachate
Aghamohammadi, N., Hamidi, A. A., Hasnain Isa, M., Zinatizadeh, A. A., Nasrollahzadeh Saravi, H.
and Ghafari, Sh., (Malaysia, Iran)

4. Pretreatment of Municipal Wastewater by Enhanced Chemical Coagulation 104

Sarparastzadeh, H., Saeedi, M., Naeimpoor, F. and Aminzadeh, B., (Iran)

5. Evaluation of Navab Regeneration Project in Central Tehran, Iran 114

Bahrainy, H. and Aminzadeh, B., (Iran)

6. Economic Valuation of Premature Mortality and Morbidity 128

Karimzadegan, H., Rahmatian, M., Farhood, D. and Yunesian, M., (Iran, USA)

7. Development of Water Quality Test Kit Based on Substrate Utilization and Toxicity Resistance 136
in River Microbial Communities
Monavari, S. and Guieysse, B., (Sweden)

8. The Relationship Among Infection Intensity of Viscum album with some Ecological Parameters 143
of Host Trees
Kartoolinejad, D., Hosseini, S. M., Mirnia, S. K., Akbarinia, M. and Shayanmehr, F., (Iran)

9. An Environmental & Economic Analysis for Reducing Energy Subsidies 150

Shafie-Pour Motlagh, M. and Farsiabi, M. M., (Iran)

10. Fate of Intermediate Biodegradation Products of Triethylamine in a Compost-Based 163

Biofiltration System
Torkian, A., Keshavarzi Shirazi, H. and Mehrdadi, N., (Iran)

11. Natural and Human-Induced Impacts on Coastal Groundwater 170

Mehrdadi, N., Daryabeigi Zand, A. and Matloubi, A. A., (Iran)

12. Technical and Economical Selection of Optimum Transfer-Transport Method in Solid Waste 179
Management in Metropolitan Cities
Ghiasinejad, H. and Abduli, S., (Iran)

13. Measuring Urban Sustainability: Developing a Conceptual Framework for Bridging the Gap 188
Between Theoretical Levels and the Operational Levels
Masnavi, M. R., (Iran)
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Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 80-87, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Biodegradation of Phenanthrene by Mixed Culture Consortia in Batch

Bioreactor using Central Composite Face-Entered Design

Nasrollahzadeh, H. S.1, Najafpour, G. D.2* and Aghamohammadi, N.3

1
School of Biological Sciences, University Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Mazandaran, Babol, Iran
3
School of Civil Engineering, University Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus,
14300 Nibong Tebal, Seberang Perai Selatan, Penang, Malaysia
Received 5 Feb 2005; Revised 26 Dec 2006; Accepted 15 Jan 2007
ABSTRACT: Biodegradation of Phenanthrene (PHE) was studied in aqueous culture to demonstrate
the potential of the mixed culture in degrading high concentration of PHE. The experiments were
conducted to monitor biodegradation of Phenanthrene for duration of 6 days. Biodegradation of
PHE was successfully achieved in low and middle concentration by the isolated mixed culture. A full
factorial Central Composite Design of experiments was used to construct response surfaces with
the removal, the extent of PHE degradation and the specific growth rate as responses. The initial
Phenanthrene concentration (X1) and the reaction time (X2) were used as design factors. The result
was shown that experimental data fitted with the polynomial model. Analysis of variance showed a
high coefficient of determination value in the range of 0.936–0.999. The maximum biodegradation of
PHE in terms of the removal of PHE (Y1) was found to be 0.100 mg/mg (degraded PHE/initial PHE).
The maximum extent of biodegradation relative to initial PHE concentration and biomass (Y2) was
0.171 mg/mg/mg (degraded PHE/initial PHE/biomass). This maximum biodegradation correspond to
the factors combination of middle level of PHE content (X1= 19.06 mg/L) and the highest level of
reaction time (X2 = 132.00 hours). The removal efficiency of PHE biodegradation was achieved
100%. Polynomial model was found useful to predict PHE degradation under the experimental studied.
It was observed that optimum biodegradation of PHE can be successfully predicted by RSM.

Key words: Biodegradation, Phenanthrene, Mixed culture, Response surface methodology, Central
composite design
*Corresponding author: Email-najafpour@nit.ac.ir

INTRODUCTION
Toxic organic compounds (xenobiotics) cause
serious environmental and health risks. Polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the xenobiotics
compounds that are products of incomplete
combustion of organic matter. Currently, the vast
majority of environmental PAH concentrations are
generated from industrial activities such as
gasification/liquification of fossil fuels, coke and
coal-tar production, wood preservation and
treatment processes, fuel and asphalt production
(Freeman and Cattell, 1990; Wild and Jones, 1995).
Wastewater analyses reveal high PAHs
concentrations from sources of industrial waste,
domestic sewage, atmospheric rainfall, airborne
pollutants and road surface run-off (Carolyn, et
al., 2003).
80
Phenanthrene, one of the most abundant PAHs in
the environment (Cerniglia, 1993), is included in
the U.S. EPA list of priority pollutants (Keith and
Telliard, 1979; Supakaa, 2001). Biological
treatment has been used to treat contaminated sites
for many years. As with other treatment strategies,
the effectiveness and cost of bio-treatment
technologies are both site-specific and
contaminant-specific. Because of the potential
advantages offered by bioremediation, there
remains a strong interest in the continued
development of bio-treatment processes.
Bioremediation techniques are typically more
economical than traditional methods such as
incineration and some pollutants can be treated
on site, thus reducing exposure risks for clean-up
 Nasrollahzadeh, H. S., et al.
personnel or potentially wider exposure as a result
of transportation accidents. Since bioremediation
is based on natural attenuation the public considers
it more acceptable than other technologies (Vidali,
2001). In recent years, a biodegradation study on
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has
received great attention because PAHs are
ubiquitous environmental pollutants and some are
toxic, mutagenic or carcinogenic and resistant to
biodegradation (Lei, et al., 2002; White, 1986;
Pahlman and Pelkonen, 1987; Kramers and Van
der Heijden, 1990). Bioremediation is a low cost
and low disturbance solution for cleaning those
sites and has already been tested for several PAHs
(Kastner and Mahro, 1996).
Statistical design of experiments is a time and
money saving method by decreasing significantly
the number of trials needed to study a multi-variable
phenomenon. This is very useful when screening
probable factors for cases involving second-order
models (Rigasa, et al., 2005). In addition, the
design expert too is used to compute the multiple
interactions between the main factors.
Response surface method (RSM) is a
collection of mathematical and statistical
techniques that could generate three dimensional
plots and display statistical analyses on how the
responses are influenced by the process variables.
RSM also applied the optimum operating conditions
for the system and to identify the region which
satisfies the operating specifications (Montgomery,
2001). The most popular RSM design is the central
composite design (CCD) for analysis of
experimental data. The CCD is applied to estimate
the coefficients of a particular model equation.
The CCD method is efficient and flexible,
providing sufficient information on the effects of
variables and overall experimental error with a
minimum number of experiments Montgomery,
2001). Center points in CCD design are usually
repeated 4-6 times to get a good estimate of
experimental error (pure error). Five center points
will be created by default for experimental design
with two factors. Central composite designs
generally require 5 levels for each factor: -Alpha,
-1, 0, 1 and +Alpha. In this study, Alpha value is
taken as one resulting in 3 levels, Lowest (-1),
middle (0), highest (+1) which is more specifically
known as central composite face entered design
(CCFD). Full factorial design for two variables
81
study requires 13 experimental trials. RSM has
successfully been applied to study and optimize
the biodegradation of toxic compound (PAHs,
PCBs and Pesticides) such as lindane (Rigasa, et
al., 2005). The objective of the present work is to
investigate the Phenanthrene biodegradation in
aqueous culture of a mixed strain using the central
composite face-centered design (CCFD). The
main factors (variables) investigated were the
initial PHE concentration and reaction time based
on preliminary screening experiment (data not
shown). The interaction between factors
influencing dependent (response) parameters such
as removal of PHE (Y1), extent of biodegradation
relative to initial PHE concentration and biomass
(mg/mg/mg) (Y2) and the specific growth rate
(Y3) were studied.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Mixed strains of microorganisms were
obtained from Pria industrial zone, Butterworth,
Malaysia. The mixed culture contains Gram
positive and negative microorganisms. Nutrient
broth was used to screen the strains. The
propagation was carried out in basal media at pH
7.2 based on the method proposed by Lei, et al.,
2002. A stock solution of Phenanthrene was made
by dissolving PHE in ethanol solution (less than
1%) and then it was transferred to mineral salt
media (MSM) for final concentration.
Phenanthrene degradation experiments were
conducted in 100-ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing
50 ml of MSM media. The acclimated seed
culture was prepared and harvested at mid-
exponential phase. 1.5 mL of seed culture was
transferred to MSM media in three different flask
containing 17, 55.5, 94 mg/L Phenanthrene,
respectively. The media were incubated at 25 oC
with a rotary shaker at 150 rpm. Since the
presence of Phenanthrene solid affected the
measurement of broth optical density, cultures
were filtered through cotton wool to remove solid
Phenanthrene and then rinsed by magnesium
sulfate to release microbe into the vessel. The
optical densities of the filtrates containing
suspended cells were measured by
spectrophotometer (Cecil, 1010, England) at a
wavelength of 600nm (OD600nm).
The samples taken from culture broth were
acidified to pH 2 with 2N sulfuric acid and were
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 80-87, Spring 2007

extracted three times, with ethyl acetate using half The response selected were the removal of
culture volume (25 mL). The extracts were PHE (Y1), extent of biodegradation relative to
pooled, dried with anhydrous Na 2 SO4 and the initial PHE concentration and biomass (mg/mg/
solvent was removed by gentle nitrogen current. mg) (Y2) and the specific growth rate (Y3). After
Phenanthrene was quantified by GC (Perkin running these 13 trials, the corresponding quadratic
Elmer Clarus 500, USA) equipped with a flame models for the above response and parameters
ionization detector (FID) using a PTE-5 capillary were computed.
column, 30 m of length, 0.25 mm of inside diameter
and 0.25 mm of coated film thickness (Supelco, RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
USA). Squalene is used as an internal standard. Experimental data were found to be best fitted
Helium was used as carrier gas for the FID. The to polynomial model and regression coefficient was
PHE was deter mined on temperature determined. Once the experiments are performed
programming. The oven temperature was initially the coefficients of the polynomial model were
set at 50 oC for 3 min and then the temperature calculated using the equation as follow (Ramesh
was increased to 280 oC at a rate of 10 oC/min. Balusu, et al., 2005).
The injector and detector temperatures were set k k k k
at 290 o C. The data were obtained and the Y = β0 + ∑ βi .X i + ∑ β ii . X i 2 + ∑∑ β .X .X ij i j +e (1)
experiments were repeated in triplicates for i =1 i =1 ii ≤ j j

accuracy and the means wer e employed. Where, i and j are the linear and quadratic
Standard deviations were low, most of the data in coefficients, respectively, ß is the regression
the range of 5 to 8 percent. coefficient, k is the number of factors studied and
optimized in the experiment and e is the random
The statistical analyses were performed using
error. Statistical parameters obtained from the
Design-Expert (DOE) software (version 6.0.7).
analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the quadratic
The response surface method (RSM) of statistical
models of the PHE biodegradation are given in
analysis system and design expert was used to
Table 2. Since R 2 always decreases when a
statically analyze the experimental data. A central
regression variable is dropped from a regression
composite face entered design (CCFD) was
model in statistical modeling the adjusted R2 which
applied with two design factors, which are the
takes the number of regression variables into
initial Phenanthrene concentration (X1) and the
account is usually selected (Ahmadi, et al., 2005).
reaction time (X2). The factor levels are such that
The R2 coefficient gives the proportion of the total
the upper level corresponds to +1, the lower level
variation in the response variable explained or
to -1 and the middle level to zero. Table 1 shows
accounted for by the predictors (X’s) included in
the 32 full factorial designs based on CCFD with
the model (Hamsaveni, et al., 2001).
both coded and actual values are presented.
Table 1. Arrangement of the CCFD for the two independent variables and their coded, experimental and
predicted values for removal of PHE (Y1), extent of degradation relative to initial PHE concentration and
biomass (Y2) and the specific growth rate (Y3)
Run Variables/Coded Actual Predicted Actual Predicted
X1 X2 Y1 Y2
1 17(-1) 12(-1) 0.052 0.130 0.018 0.015
2 94(+1) 12(-1) 0.11 -0.051 0.022 0.019
3 17(-1) 132(+1) 1.00 0.999 0.170 0.180
4 94(+1) 72(0) 0.830 0.810 0.020 0.022
5 17(-1) 72(0) 0.830 0.760 0.047 0.062
6 94(+1) 12(-1) 0.410 0.590 0.012 0.027
7 55.5(0) 132(+1) 0.076 0.160 0.011 0.017
8 55.5(0) 72(0) 0.990 1.020 0.100 0.099
9 55.5(0) 72(0) 0.830 0.800 0.040 0.045
10 55.5(0) 72(0) 0.890 0.0800 0.070 0.045
11 55.5(0) 72(0) 0.840 0.0800 0.050 0.045
12 55.5(0) 72(0) 0.700 0.0800 0.060 0.045
13 55.5(0) 72(0) 0.830 0.800 0.035 0.045

82
 Biodegradation of Phenanthrene
Table 2. Summery of analysis of variance (ANOVA)
for the polynomial model
Variables Y1
R2 0.936
R2 adjusted 0.905
Prob.>F <0.0001
(Significant)
Lack of fit (LOF) 0.1108
*
S.D 0.11
**
PRESS 0.34
Adequate precision
15.823
* Standard deviation, ** Predicted Residual Error Sum of Squares
In the present study, the adjusted R2 ranged
from 0.936 (Y1) to 0.999 (Y3). The regression
coefficient of determination (R2) of the model in
this study indicated that the polynomial model
adequately represent the relationship between the
variables study.
In order to gain a better understanding of the
results, the predicted values for removal of PHE
(Y1), extent of biodegradation relative to initial
PHE and biomass (Y2) and the specific growth
rate (Y3) in the present study are given in Table 1
(the regression coefficients of the polynomial
models). A detailed discussion on Table 1 is
presented in the following sections. About 13 trails
were generated for the 2- factorial CCFD.
Statistical parameters for removal of PHE
(Y1) obtained from the analysis of variance
(ANOVA) for the quadratic models of the PHE
biodegradation are given in Table 2. The significant
effects (factors and interactions) were indicated
by p-values less than 0.05, since these are
significantly different from zero at the 95%
confidence level. The adequacy of the model, the
lack-of fit (LOF) test and the adequacy of
precision were presented for suggested quadratic
model. The regression coefficient was in the 0.936
indicating that Y1 response is significantly fitted
by polynomial model (Table 2).
Based on the statistical analysis, LOF was not
significant and regression was significant for the
polynomial model (Table 2). The p-values of
regression for the resulted experiment were
0.0001. The model summary statistics values
shows the standard deviation value, the R-squared
value, adjusted R-squared value and the predicted
residual error sum of squares value (PRESS)
statistic for complete model, at which low standard
deviation, R-squared near 1 and relatively low
PRESS are desirable (Design Expert Version
6.0.7). Also, the predicted values obtained from
Y2 model fitting technique were seen to be sufficiently
0.937 correlated to the observed values in Table 2.
0.892
0.0005 Therefore, the polynomial model (built with codified
(Significant) factors) was selected to describe the response
0.4279 surface of PHE biodegradation within this region:
0.015
0.006 Y1 = 0.8 - 0.088X1 + 0.43X2 - 0.12X12 - 0.20X22 (2)
15.899 In the polynomial models obtained equation 2,
positive signs for coefficient β 2 (+ 0.43) for
removal of PHE (Y1) indicated that the
biodegradation increase with increased level of
factor reaction time (X2). Moreover, a negative
sign for regression coefficient of β1 (- 0.088) for
Y1 show removal of PHE decreases with
increase in the initial PHE concentration value
(X1).
The Fig. 1a shows three dimensional plots of
Y1 for removal of PHE. T he maximum
achievable removal of PHE was almost 100%
when the PHE concentration lower than 55.5 mg/
L was used. The rapid reduction of PHE in the
medium might be due to assimilation of PHE in
the cell. The removal of PHE was minimal after
132 h of reaction time (X2) when the highest initial
concentration of PHE was used (i.e. 94 mg/L).
This Fig. (1a) also shows that the removal of PHE
increase with increased reaction time (X2).
Therefore, the removal of PHE is likely to
increase with increased reaction time (X2) and
decrease with increased initial concentration of
PHE. Initial PHE concentration should be made
to the lowest possible level because this compound
is toxic for mixed culture in high concentration
and exhibited inhibitory effect.
The extent of biodegradation relative to initial
PHE and biomass (Y2) based on experimental
design is shown in Table 1. A polynomial regression
model was made by using coded values from the
estimation of data:
Y2 = 0.045 - 0.018X1 + 0.041X2 + 0.013X22 -
0.039X1X2 - 0.02X1X22 (3)
Based on this statistical analysis, LOF was
not significant and regression was significant for
the polynomial model for equation 3. The p-values
of the LOF and regression for the polynomial
model were 0.4279 and 0.0005, respectively.
83
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 80-87, Spring 2007

Table 3. The calculated and measured values of dependent response

Predicted values Actual values
Response Criteria Error* S.D
(DOE) (exp.)
Y1 Maximum 0.100 (mg/mg) 0.987 (mg/mg) + 0.007 ± 0.005
Y2 Maximum 0.171 (mg/mg/m) 0.125 (mg/mg/mg) - 0.019 ± 0.016
*Error: (Yi) exp “ (Yi) DOE.
The experimental data were 43 mg/l for initial PHE concentration (X1) and 104 hours for reaction time (X2).

1.04 0.175
0.135
0.77
0.095
0.49

Y2
0.055
0.22
0.015
Y1

-0.05

94.00 132.0
94.0
132.00 74.75 102.0
74.8
102.00 72.0
55.50 55.5
72.00
36.25 X1 X2 42.0 36.3
42.00 X1
X2 12.0 17.0
12.00 17.00

(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Three-dimensional plots of the polynomial model within a full factorial central-composition design: (a)
Removal of PHE (mg/mg) (Y1) (b) Extent of biodegradation relative to initial PHE mass and biomass
(mg/mg/mg) (Y2)

Overlay Plot
132.00

Y3: 0.008

Y1: 0.97
102.00
Y2: 0.07

X2
72.00 5

42.00

12.00
17.00 36.25 55.50 74.75 94.00
X1
Fig. 2 . Overlay plot for the factors initial concentration (X1) and
reaction time (X2) in the optimum region

84
 Nasrollahzadeh, H. S., et al.
This is associated with a regression coefficient
of 0.937 indicating the experimental result is best
fitted by a polynomial model.
The adequate precision ratio was 15.899
indicates an adequate signal. Adequate precision
measures the signal to noise ratio. A ratio greater
than 4 is desirable (Parajo, et al., 1992). The
standard deviation was 0.015 and PRESS was
0.005 which are found to be satisfing with
suggested polynomial model. The corresponding
analysis of ANOVA is presented in Table 2.
Fig. 1b shows the extent of biodegradation
relative to initial PHE and biomass (Y2). It can
be seen that the optimum conditions for extent of
biodegradation relative to initial PHE and biomass
(Y2) differs from removal of PHE (Y1). This is
because Y2 is defined by taking into account the
amount of biomass produced in the system, at
which the biomass undergoes different growth
phase throughout the reaction time (X2),
consequently making Y2 values inconsistent (since
the biomass is the denominator in Y2).
Thus, a lower initial PHE concentration (X1)
and a higher reaction time (X2) are needed for
the maximum relative biodegradation Y2. Figure
2 also shows that an increase in initial PHE
concentration (X1) decreases the Y2 because at
high concentration this compound is toxic for
microorganisms. The maximum biodegradation
of PHE, expressed as the extent of biodegradation
relative to initial PHE concentration and biomass
(Y2) was found equal to 0.17 mg/mg/mg (degraded
PHE/initial PHE/biomass) when the lowest initial
PHE concentration (X1) was used (i.e.17 mg/L)
after 132 h reaction time (X2).The response
curvature shows a maximum region towards
minimum value of 17 mg/l (X1) and maximum
value of 132 h (X2). It is observed that Y was
more susceptible to the change in X1 at both low
PHE concentrations (i.e. 17< X1<36 mg/L) than
that in high PHE concentration (i.e. 85 <X1<94
mg/L) and high reaction time (X2 = 102 -132 h).
The predicted and actual values are shown in Table
1. The highest extent of biodegradation relative
to initial PHE concentration and biomass (Y2)
(0.17 mg/mg/mg (degraded PHE/initial PHE/
biomass) was observed at run number 3, where
the factors of initial PHE concentration (X1) was
used the lowest initial concentration and reaction
time (X2) was used at highest level, respectively.
85
Ther efore, a relatively low initial PHE
concentration (X1) which is less than 55.5 mg/l
and reaction time (X2) that is less than 72 hours
were observed to be favorable for higher extent
of biodegradation relative to initial PHE
concentration and biomass (Y2).
Since the optimum condition of one response
differs to the other, therefore it is crucial to
optimize the design criteria favorable for responses
desired. By overlaying critical response contours
on a contour plot we can visually search for the
best combination design parameters. The overplay
plot was generated by superimposing the contours
for the various response surfaces such as Y1, Y2.
The shaded portion of the overlay plot defined the
permissible values of the dependent variables as
shown in Fig. 2. The area that satisfies the
constraints are grey colored. The design criteria
are at Y1 to be more than 0.97 and Y2 more than
0.125. The selected mixed culture had a maximum
biodegradation of PHE, as expressed the removal
of PHE (Y1) was found to be 0.100 mg/mg
(degraded PHE/initial PHE) and was 0.171 mg/
mg/mg (degraded PHE/initial PHE/biomass) in
terms of the extent of biodegradation relative to
initial PHE concentration and biomass (Y2). This
was achieved at the middle level of PHE content
(X1 = 19.06 mg/L) and the highest level of reaction
time (X2 = 132.00 hours). The removal efficiency
of PHE biodegradation was achieved 100%. A
verification of the suggested design factors for
optimal responses was justified by conducting
experiment with initial PHE concentration (X1)
and reaction time(X2) factors selected from the
overlay region. Table 1 compares the experimental
results with predicted values from the regression
model of DOE. The standard deviation was
between 0.0004-0.016 which is low. These
experimental results are in close agreement with
the model prediction.
The present work is a statistical and optimization
studies concerned with process parameters to
define a suitable range for the best treatment and
the bio-remediation of PAH in the treated industrial
effluents. The F/M ratio was not considered as a
variable in this process since the sludge was not
considered as a critical process parameter in
digestion of PAH. The media pH was initially
adjusted the change of pH was observed during
the course of biodegradation of PAH.
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 80-87, Spring 2007

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Design Expert Version 6.0.7, User’s Guide, Section 12,
was carried out in batch bioreactor using response
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Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 88-95, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Identification of Fish-Eating Birds

Behrouzirad, B. *

Department of the Environmental Science, Science and Research Campus,

IAU, Ahwaz, Iran

Received 20 July 2006; Revised 26 Nov 2006; Accepted 15 Dec 2006

ABSTRACT: There are 61 species in 14 families of fish-eating birds in Iran. The fish-eating birds of
the north of Iran belong to 41 species in 10 families which include 67.2 percent of total fish eating
bird species and 71% of fish-eating bird’s family of Iran. Resident birds constitute 13% of the fish-
eating birds of the Caspian Sea coasts and the rest are migratory in autumn and winter. There exist
3 globally threatened species of fish-eating birds of the world at the north of Iran, which are Oxyura
leucocephala, Phalacrocorax pygmeus, and Pelecanus crispus wintering in the south coast wetlands
of the region. Seventeen percent of the fish-eating birds of the north of Iran are aquatic, 5% terrestrial
and 78 % wadding. The Phalacrocorax carbo and Phalacrocorax pygmeus are wintering and
breeding migratory in the wetlands of the region, which feed in the fish ponds and wetlands. The
main habitats of fish-eating birds are Miankaleh and Amirkelayeh wildlife refuge, Anzaly marsh and
Gomishan Ramsar Sites. Oxyura lecucephala, Phalacrocorax pygmeus and Pelecanus crispus are
protected species in Iran and the rest are not allowed to be eaten by Islamic rule, for the same reason
they are not being threatened by Muslim men.

Key words: Fish-eating bird, Caspian Sea, Wetlands, Wintering, Breeding

*Corresponding author: Email-behrouzirad@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
The study area is wetlands and coasts of
Caspian Sea in north of Iran (Gilan, Mazandaran
and Golestan provinces). The wetlands of Gilan,
Mazandaran and Golestan comprise almost
unbroken chain of freshwater lakes and marshes,
brackish lagoons, irrigation ponds and rice
paddies. Two of the most important wetlands in
these lowlands are Anzaly marsh and the Gorgan
Bay / Miankaleh complex (Evan, 1994, Scott,
1970 and 1995, Behrouzirad, 1997). One of the
most important types of the wetland in the south
Caspian lowlands are the Ab-Bandans, a small
man made reservoirs. These shallow wetlands
provide excellent feeding and roosting habitat for
large number of fish-eating birds (Scott, 1995).
Fish-eating birds have important role in Nature
(Doorbon, 1984).The structure and behavior of
every organism has involved in relation on its
environment. Each has adapted to exploit a
particular niche in which it is able to compete
successfully with other organisms. Fish-eating
birds as a group are suited to feed and breed in
envir onments in which water forms a
fundamental part. Within this general scheme,
however, a wide range of forms has been
developed to take advantage of particular
environmental niches, so that at critical times
competition between closely related groups is
avoided. Fish-eating birds are biological indicator
in aquatic environment, because these birds
belong to the top level of food chain in aquatic
ecosystems and the heavy metals calculate in
various tissues of these birds. Hg was 2.89 ppm
in feather of fish-eating birds in Khozestan and
Persian Gulf coasts in south of Iran (Esmaili, ,
2006). Ecological changed in northern wetlands
of Iran caused changing number of breeding and
wintering of fish-eating bird’s population.
Ecological values of fish eating birds in aquatic
ecosystems in natural environment emphasizes
to identification and investigation of these birds.

88
 Behrouzirad, B.

MATERIALS & METHODS (Table 1 and Map 1), has been carried out in Oct,
Identification of fish-eating birds of the south 2004-Oct, 2005, using binocular and telescope and
coast of the Caspian Sea lowlands and wetlands some species of the birds have also been shot.
Table 1. Habitats surveyed in north of Iran
Habitats Name Province
Anzaly marsh, Siahkeshim, Selkeh, Amirkelaye, Caspian coast, Alalan woodlands, Lavandavil Gilan
swamps, Some Ab-Bandans, Lagoon Kiashar, Mouth of Sefidrud, Bojagh
Ajygol, Alagol, Olmagol, Voshmgir Dam, Ab-Bandans, Gomishan marsh, Bibishivan, Inche Borone, Golestan
Miankaleh, Gorgan Bay, Feridonkenar Damgah, Caspian coast, Ab-Bandans, Ramsar airport Mazandaran
wetlands, Khoshkedaran woodland

Caspian Sea

IRAN

Persian Gulf

Map 1. Habitats of fish-eating birds in northern part of Iran

1-Alagol, Agygol, Ulmagol (wintering), 2-Gomishan (wintering), 3-Miankaleh (wintering and breeding), 4-Khoshkedaran (breeding), 5-Ramsar airport
(breeding), 6-Amirkelaye (wintering and breeding), 7-Anzaly marsh (witering and breeding), 8-Alalan woodland (breeding), 9- Abas abad reservoir(breeding
1970s and wintering now), 10- Ab-bandans.

RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

Forty one species of fish eating birds belonging
to 10 families have been identified along the south
coasts of Caspian Sea and northern wetlands (Fig
1 and Table 2). These coastal areas are of great
value as a wintering station for over a million birds,
including fish-eating birds and waterfowl. Fish-
eating birds live in marshes, wetlands, rivers mouth
and sea coasts. There are the following three
groups of fish- eating birds at Caspian coasts and
wetlands.
Migration-based grouping
Migratory breeders
Three species of fish-eating birds
(Chlidoniass hybridus, Sterna albifrons and
Sterna hirundo) migrate to the region in spring
to breed in wetlands, marshes, and Ab-Bandans
(Man made wetlands). The globally threatened
species Phalacrocorax pygmeus (IUCN, 2004)
was the migratory breeder and wintering in Anzaly
marsh in Siahkeshim protected area. The breeding
population of this species was considerable during
1970s in Anzaly marsh (Scott, 1995). During 1980s
and 1990s it is not bred in the region. The breeder
population of this species has returned to the
Anzaly marsh since 2004 and about 80-100 pairs
of this species bred in this marsh in 2004-2005
(Behrouzirad 2005). Breeder population of the
Chlidonians hybridus is more than the other two
species. About 25000 pair of these species breed

89
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 88-95, Spring 2007

Table 2. Fish eating birds of northern wetlands of Iran

IUCN*
Scientific name Family National law Migration Population Habitat
criteria
Tachybaptus Podicipedidae Non protected - Resident Common Water
Podiceps nigricollis Podicepcidae Non protected - Resident Common Water
Podiceps auritus Podicepcidae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Podiceps grisegena Podicepcidae Non protected - Resident Common Water
Podiceps cristatus Podicepcidae Non protected - Resident Common Water
Botarus stellaris Ardeidae Non protected - Resident Rare Water
Ixobrychus minutus Ardeidae Non protected - Resident Common Coast
Nycticorax Ardeidae Non protected - Resident Common Coast
Ardeola ralloides Ardeidae Non protected - Resident Common Coast
Egretta alba Ardeidae Non protected - Resident Common Coast
Egretta garzetta Ardeidae Non protected - Resident Common Coast
Ardea cinerea Ardeidae Non protected - Resident Common Coast
Pelecanus Pelecanidae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Pelecanus crispus Pelecanidae Protected Vulenerable Wintering Rare Water
Larus argentatus Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Larus genei Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Larus ridibundus Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Larus minutus Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Larus marinus Laridae Non protected - wintering Common Water
Larus canus Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Larus fuscus Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Chlidonias hybridus Laridae Non protected - Breeding Common Water
Chelidonias Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Sterna hirundo Laridae Non protected - Breeding Common Water
Sterna albifrons Laridae Non protected - Breeding Common Water
Gelochelidon Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Hydroprogne Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Chelidonias nigra Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Sterna sandivensis Laridae Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Phalacrocorax carbo Phalacrocoracid Non protected - Wintering Common Water
Phalacrocorax Phalacrocoracidae Protected Vulenerable Wintering Rare Water
pygmeus
Alcedo atthis Alcedenidae Non protected - Resident Common Terrestrial
Pandion haliaetus Pandionidae Protected - wintering Rare in Iran Terrestrial
Oxyura leucocephala Anatidae Protected Vulenerable Wintering Rare Water
Mergus merganser Anatidae Non protected Rare in Iran Wintering Rare in Iran Water
Mergus serattor Anatidae Non protected Rare in Iran Wintering Rare in Iran Water
Mergus albelus Anatidae Non protected Rare in Iran Wintering Rare in Iran Water
Stercorarius Stercoraridae Non protected Rare in Iran Wintering Rare in Iran Water
pomarinus
Stercorarius
Stercoraridae Non protected Rare in Iran Wintering Rare in Iran Water
parasiticus
Gavia arctic Gavidae Non protected Rare in Iran Wintering Rare in Iran Water
Gavia stelata Gavidae Non protected Rare in Iran Wintering Rare in Iran Water
*IUCN: International Union Conservation nature and natural resource

90
 Identification of Fish-Eating Birds

Table 3. Population of breeding species of fish-eating birds in north of Iran

Species Breeding No. Breeding Habitat Reference
Sterna albifrons 300-400 pairs Miankaleh and Ab-Bandans Scott 1970s
Sterna albifrons 80-100 pairs Miankaleh Behrouzirad 1980s
Sterna albifrons 10 pairs Miankaleh Behrouzirad 2004-2006
Phalacrocorax pygmeus Few pairs Anzaly marsh Scoot 1970
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 20pairs Anzaly marsh Behrouzirad 2004-2006
Chlidonias hybridus 2000-4000 pairs Anzaly marsh Scott 1970s
Chlidonias hybridus 5000 pairs Anzaly marsh Behrouzirad 1980
Chlidonias hybridus 1500 pairs Anzaly marsh Behrouzirad 2004-2006
Chlidonias hybridus 1500 pairs Marzan Abad and Zarincola Ab-Bandans Behrouzirad 2004-2006
in Mazandaran
Sterna hirundo Several pairs Anzaly marsh Scott 1970
Sterna hirundo 10-20 pairs Miankaleh Scott 1995
Sterna hirundo 8 pairs Anzaly marsh Behrouzirad 1983
Sterna hirundo 11 pairs miankaleh Behrouzirad 2005

16
14
12
species numbe

10
8
6
4
2
0

ae
e

e
ae

ae
e

ae

ae
ae

e
da

da

a
da

id
id
rid

id
rid

id
tid
ei

di

ci

n
av

on
an
La

rd

ra

de
na
pe

ra

ec

di
co
A

e
A

co
ci

lc
n
l
er
di

Pe
ro

Pa

A
St
Po

ac
al
Ph

Fig. 1. Number of species of fish-eating birds in north of Iran

in Europe (Stanly1983, Allan 1998). Also about Residents

1500 breed in Marzan Abad and Zarincola Ab-
bandans in Mazandaran province and more than
1500 pair in Anzaly marsh in Gilan (Table 3).
More than 500 checks of this species have
been ringed in Anzaly marsh during 1980s
(Behrouzirad, 1983). Sterna albifrons was one
of the breeder migratory species at around of
Miankeleh wildlife refuge during 1970s (Scott,
1970s). The breeder population of this species was
500 pair, but a small population has been bred at
Miankaleh during 1980s (Behrouzirad, 1985).
Because of rising of Caspian Sea level during two
last dedicate, the breeding habitats of the Sterna
albirons disturbed and during 2004 and 2005 a
few pairs of this species bred around the
Miankeleh. The breeding population of Sterna
albifrons was les than 10 pair in 2006 summer in
the Miankaleh. (Table 3).
Eleven species of fish-eating birds are resident
of the south coast of the Caspian Sea and northern
wetlands. Thachybaptus ruficollis, Ardea
cinerea, Egretta garzetta and Alcedo atthis are
represent this group (Fig. 2).
Wintering
These birds migrate to the region in autumn
and winter (Fig. 2). The Saw-bill Ducks and a lot
of Gull species and Terns represent this group.
Oxyura lecocephala is the wintering species of
north wetlands of Iran. It is a globally threatened
species. Miankaleh and Amirkelaye wildlife refuges
and Lapo Zaghmarz and Seyed Mohaleh Ab-
Bandans are wintering habitats of this species. The
globally threatened species Phalacrocorax
pygmeus is a wintering species of northern wetland
of Iran. The main wintering habitat for Pelecanus
crispus are Gomishan and Miankaleh (Table 4).

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 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 88-95, Spring 2007

Table 4. Wintering population of globally threatened fish-eating birds in northern wetlands

Wintering
Species Habitats Reference
population
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 650 Anzaly marsh Scott 1970s
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 254 Lavandavil marshes Behrouzirad 2006
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 100 Amirkelayeh Scott 1970s
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 28 Miankaleh Scott 1970s
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 453 Lavandavil marshes Behrouzirad 1994
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 300 Kiashar lagoon Scott 1970s
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 629 Lavandavil Behrouzirad 2004
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 100 Seyed Mohaleh Ab-Bandan Scott 1970s
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 1150 Anzaly marsh Behrouzirad 1995
Phalacrocorax pygmeus 35 Amirkelaye Behrouzirad 1995
Pelecanus crispus 690 Miankaleh Scott 1970s
Pelecanus crispus 800 Miankaleh Behrouzirad1994
Pelecanus crispus 1 Amirkelaye Behrouzirad1994
Pelecanus crispus 234 Gomishan Behrouzirad1994
Pelecanus crispus 835 Gomishan Behrouzirad 2004
Pelecanus crispus 6 Anzaly marsh Scott 1970s
Pelecanus crispus 41 Kiashar lagoon Scott 1970s
Pelecanus crispus 334 Gomishan Scott 1970s
Pelecanus crispus 112 Gomishan Behrouzirad 2005
Oxyurea leucocephala 25 passage Anzaly marsh Scott 1970s
Oxyurea leucocephala 27 Seyed Mohaleh Ab-Bandan Scott 1970s
Oxyurea leucocephala 453 Miankaleh Scott 1970s
Oxyurea leucocephala 19 Alagol Scott 1970s
Oxyurea leucocephala 1450 Alagol Scott 1970s
Oxyurea leucocephala 3 Miankaleh Behrouzirad 2005

Breeding migratory
12%
Resident
28%

Wintering
migratory
60%

Fig. 2. Relative temporal abundance of fish-eating birds

Habitat preference based grouping

Habitat preference-based of fish-eating birds
of the south coast of the Caspian Sea and wetlands
are divided into the three following groups, (Fig3):
Terrestrial species
These species live on land and are not
swimmers; they only depend on water bodies for
feeding. Tow species (Alcedo atthis and Pandion
haliaetuse) represent this group.
Wadding birds
These species live along the edges of water
bodies, but do not swim. Species of Ardeidae
represent this group.
Aquatic birds
These swimming species feed in various water
bodies (saline, Fresh and Brackish water)
(Doorbon, 1984).

92
 Behrouzirad, B.

Phalacrocoracidae, Pelecanidae, Podicepcidae Common species

and Laridae species represent this group.
Population based grouping
Based on population fish-eating birds of the
Caspian coasts can be divided into the following
tow groups, (Fig. 4).
Threatened species
These species are globally threatened and
their population is very low in the region. They
have been listed on Red Data Book of IUCN,
2004. Dalmation pelican Pelecanus crispus,
Pygmy Cormorant Phalacrocorax pygmeus and
White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala belong
to this group. Breeding population of
Phalacrocorax pygmeus was 80-100 pair in
Anzaly marsh, wintering population of Pelecanus
crispus was about 500 individual ( mainly in
Gomishan and Miankeleh ) and wintering
population of Oxyura leucocepha was 3
individuals in Miankaleh (Table 4). Eight species
are not globally threatened, but are rare in north
of Iran (Table 2).
Population of these species is common in the
region. Herons Ardeidea and Laridae species
represent this group.
Classification based on feeding behavior
Based on feeding behavior fish- eating bird is
divided into the following four groups (Fig. 5).
• Group moving, moving feeders, these birds
move in group and feed while moving (Barber
1989). Cormmorant Phalacrocorax Carbo
represents this group.
• Individual, moving and still-feeder, these birds
move individually and feed while still. Great White
Egret Egretta Alba and Grey Heron Ardea
cinerea represent this group.
• Combined moving and feeding behavior, these
species show a combined feeding and moving
behavior as the earlier two categories. Ardeidae
species represent this group.
• Individual moving and moving feeder, these
birds move individually and feed while moving,
White Headed Duck .Oxyura leucocephala
represent this group.

T erresterial
Shorline 5%
13%

Water
82%
Fig. 3. Relative abundance of fish-eating birds on habitat preference

Globally Individualy St ill

T hreatened moving 15%
Rare in Iran 7% 20%
22%

Group
Individualy
Moving
moving,
58%
Common St ill
71% 7%

Fig. 4. Abundance percentage of fish-eating Fig. 5. Abundace percentage of Fish-eating birds

birds population feeding behavior

93
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 88-95, Spring 2007

Miankaleh peninsula, and Gorgan Bay wildlife The Anzaly marsh comprises a complex of
refuge (most of the peninsula is covered with a large, shallow, eutrophic, freshwater lagoons,
carpet of herbaceous plants and grasses. The marshes and seasonally flooded grasslands,
western half also supports scrubby woodland. The separated from the Caspian Sea by a sandy barrier,
extensive seasonally flooded marshes at the west about one km wide, with open grassland,
end of the bay are dominated by sedges), Agygol, pomegranate scrub and sand dune vegetation and
Olmagol, Alagol, (isolated lakes in a region of Amirkelaieh wildlife refuge (Amirkelayeh marsh
gently undulating grassy plain on the Turkman is a permanent, eutrophic, freshwater with rich
Steppes east of the Caspian Sea.), Ab-Bandans growth of floating and submerge vegetation,
(man made wetlands) and Gomishan marsh (The extensive fringing reed-beds of Typha and
recent 1.8 m rise in the level of the Caspian Sea Phragmites and some Willow thickets) Ramsar
has resulted in extensive flooded of these plains, sites, Abas-abad marsh (Abbas-abad marsh is a
with the result that the Gomishan marshes now small water storage reservoir used for irrigation
comprise a large area of shallow, brackish lagoons purposes in an area of deciduous woodland on
and marshes covering at least 15000 ha.), in the narrow coastal plain of the Caspian Sea, about
Mazandaran province, Anzaly marsh, Siahkeshim 5 km south of Astara), in Gilan province are
protected area, Selkeh wildlife refuge (Siahkeshim regarded as sensitive and important area for fish-
and Selkeh are part of the Anzaly marsh. eating birds (Table 5).
Table 5. Sensitive habitats for wintering and breeding fish-eating birds in northern Iran
Name Breeding Wintering sites
Phalacrocorax Carbo Alalan, near Hashtpar , Abas abad, closed to Miankaleh, Gomishan , Anzaly
Astara, Khoshkedaran before 1980s , Ramsar marsh, Amirkelayeh,
airport at recent years
Phalacrocorax pygmeus Anzaly marsh before 1970s. in Siahkeshim ( recent Anzaly marsh, Miankaleh,
years) Lavandavil, Amirkeleyeh
Anatidae - Miankaleh , Anzaly marsh
Larus sp - Anzaly marsh, Miankaleh
Protected Area, Caspian Coasts,
Ab-Bandans,
Pelecanus crispus - Gomishan, Miankeleh
Ardeidae Anzaly marsh, Khoshkeh daran before 1990s, Anzaly marsh, Miankaleh,
Alalan marsh, Ramsar airport marshes recent years Amirkeleyeh,
Podicipididae Anzaly marsh, Amirkelaye Anzaly marsh, Amirkelaye,
Miankaleh
Sterna ssp Miankaleh, some Ab-Bandans, Anzaly marsh Anzaly marsh, Miankaleh,
Amirkelayeh, Ab-bandans
Chlidonias hybrida Anzaly marsh, Ab-bandans of Mazandaran Anzaly marsh, Miankaleh,
(breeding). Amirkelayeh, Ab-bandans

CONCLUSION
Fourteen fish-eating birds family exist in Iran
that constitute about 7.4 percent of bird families
in the country (Behrouzirad, 1997) .Ten families
constituting 41 identified fish-eating bird species
exist along the southern coast of the Caspian sea
,which constitute 67.2 percent of total fish-eating
and 8 percent of total bird species observed in
Iran. Tow species Alcedo atthis, a resident and
Pandion haliaetus a winter migratory are
terrestrial birds, but feed on fish in wetlands. Eight
species of Herons live along the margin of water
bodies, of which Ardea cinerea, Egretta Alba,
Egretta garzetta and Nycticorax nycticorax can
be observed throughout the year and breed with
Cormorants in Alalan woodland marsh, Anzaly
marsh and around the woodland marshes of the
Ramsar airport. Breeding population of all above
mentioned species have been greatly disturbed in
Abas-abad marsh due to heavy deforestation.
Their breeding is currently restricted to Alalan and
Ramsar airport marshes with very limited breeding
in Anzaly marsh.

94
 Identification of Fish-Eating Birds
The Podicipedidae species are common wintering
birds in Anzaly marsh, Amirkelaieh and Miankaleh,
but the Tachybaptus ruficollis breed in Ab-
bandans, Anzaly marsh and Miankaleh.
About 15000 pairs of Phalacrocorax carbo
with Ardeidae species were reported to breed in
Abas-abad and nearby marshes during 1970s
(Evan, 1994, Scott, 1970 and 1995, Behrouzirad,
1979 and 1997), but the number is limited to 5000
pairs in Ramsar airport and Alalan in 2004-2006
(Behrouzirad 2006). After tens of years the Pygmy
Cormorant Phalacrocorax pygmeus regard as a
globally threatened species (IUCN, 2004) used to
breed in Anzaly marsh during 1970s ( Scott, 1970s)
retuned to the Anzaly marsh and in 2006, 80-100
pair have been bred on the Salix tree in the
Siahkeshim protected area (Behrouzirad, 2006) .
All Gull species Larus sp.are wintering birds
throughout the Caspian region of Iran. Tow Tern
species Sterna albifrons and Chlidonias
hybridus breed in the various wetlands of the
region. Diversity of Laridae with 15 species is
more than the others and Alcedenidae and
Pandionidae are less than other families (Fig. 1).
Bitren Butarus stelaris is rare species that breed
in reed-beds of the region (Scott 1970s), but no
longer found to breed in the area, although limited
wintering is reported (Behrouzirad, 1997). Two
species of Skua, Stercoraridae, Stercorarius
pomarinus and Stercorarius parasiticus and two
species of Divers, Gavidae Gavia arctic and
Gavia stelata are only observed in the Caspian
Sea and not in the wetlands. No information on
population status of these species is currently
available. Abundance and diversity of fish-eating
birds in various habitat of the Caspian region
depend on the security and food abundance. From
breeding point of view Anzaly marsh, Ramsar
airport, and Alalan are regarded as sensitive areas
and from wintering point of view; Miankaleh,
Anzaly marsh, Gomishan and Amirkelaieh are
regarded as sensitive areas (Table 5).
REFERENCES
Allan, D. G., (1998). Whisked Tern Breeding in the
Southeastern Transvaal Highvald, South Africa,
Cormorant, 16, (1), 23-29.
Behrouzirad, B., (1984). Feeding behavior of cormorant
in fish pond in Khozestan Province unpublished report,
15.
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Behrouzirad, B., (1977-1991). Pelicans ringing report in
Uromieh Lake unpublished reports.
Behrouzirad, B., (1977-1979), Cormorants ringing report
in Gilan and Mazandaran Province, unpublished
reports.
Behrouzirad, B. (1977-1984), Terns ringing reports in
Gilan Province, unpublished reports.
Behrouzirad, B., (1987), Dalmation Pelecan as a
Threatened species, J. Environ., D.O.E. Spring 1997. 2
(3), 17-29.
Behrouzirad, B., (1997): Animal migration, (in Farsi),
Seasonal Journal of Environment, D.O.E.Winter 1997.
Behrouzirad, B, 1983, Birds ringed and recoverd in Iran,
Uring Data Bank, 1983.
Behrouzirad, B., 1995- 2005, Mid-winter Water birds
count, (in Farsi) unpublished reports, D.O.E.
Barber ,S,G.M.&T.J.Wassenorey (1989). Feeding
ecology of the picivorus birds, Marin Biology, Astralia.
Carss, D. N. and Marqivs, M., (1991). Avian peredation
at farmland and natural fisheries, Institute of terrestrial
ecology, Scotland.
Doorbon, J. (1984): Picivorus birds on the saline lake,
Journal of the sea research Group, the Netherlands.
Esmaili, A., & et al, (2006), Hg consentration in feather
of Fish-eating birds in Kozestan province and Persian
Gulf coasts. Abstracts of The 3th Iranian Congress on
Environment Crises and their Rehabilitation
Methodologies, Ahwaz, 27-29-Dec.
Evan, D.,(1994). Important birds area in the Middle East.
IUCN.
IUCN, (2004), Red Data Book of IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland.
Scott, D., (1995). A Directory of wetlands in the Middle
East, IUCN.
Scott, D, (1970-1979). Birds survey reports,
unpublished reports, D.O.E.
Stanly, C., (1983). the birds of the Western Palearctic,
Vol 1, Oxford.
Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 96-103, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Performance of a Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC) Augmented

Activated Sludge Process Treating Semi-Aerobic Leachate

Aghamohammadi, N.1, Hamidi, A. A.1*, Hasnain, Isa M. 1, Zinatizadeh, A. A.2,

Nasrollahzadeh Saravi, H.3 and Ghafari, Sh.4

School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, University Sains Malaysia,

1

14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia

2
Water and Environment Division, Water and Power Industry Institute for Applied and
Scientific Higher Education, Kermanshah, Iran
3
Ecological Academy of Caspian Sea (EACS), P. O. Box 961, Sari, Iran
4
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaysia,
50603 Kuala Lampur, Malaysia

Received 20 March 2006; Revised 28 Oct 2006; Accepted 29 Nov 2006

ABSTRACT: Semi-aerobic leachate is characterized by organic matter (COD, BOD) which is relatively
low in concentration and difficult to biodegrade. In conventional treatment systems, the low
biodegradability is attributed to partial stabilization of leachate at the landfill. Biological treatment
of leachate in Malaysia is not well established and any important data for the treatment process is
not available. The behavior of microbes is unknown for semi aerobic leachate. This research was
conducted to establish some of the important data in the biological treatment of semi-aerobic leachate
with and without the influence of powdered activated carbon (PAC). For the present study, semi
aerobic leachate was collected from Pulau Burung Landfill Site (PBLS), Nibong Tebal, Penang,
Malaysia. The experiment involved operating two 16 L laboratory-scale activated sludge reactors
in parallel at room temperature and adjusted to pH of 6.5±0.5. One of the reactors was supplemented
with powdered activated carbon (PAC) of 75-150 µm size to observe its effect on leachate
biodegradation. The results showed enhanced reactor performance due to PAC addition COD, NH4-
N, NO3-N, TKN, BOD and colour removals was higher.

Key words: Semi-aerobic leachate, powdered activated carbon, activated sludge process
*Corresponding author: Email-cehamidi@eng.usm.my

INTRODUCTION
Sanitary landfill leachate is typically considered
to be a very strength wastewater containing many
organic and inorganic components. A previous
study on combined landfill leachate and domestic
wastewater treatment demonstrated that these
could be treated at suitable mixing ratio. However,
an increase in leachate ratio caused diminution in
the overall organic substrate removal rate in batch
reactors (Cecen and Aktas, 2001). More to the
point, severe nitrification inhibition may be
observed in high–strength leachates due to high
free ammonia levels and presence of other
inhibitors (Aktas and Cecen, 2001). Activated
carbon addition in the form of powdered activated
carbon (PAC) is known for its ability to enhance
biological treatment efficiency, removing
refractory organic compounds as well as enhancing
nitrification (USEPA Manual, 1995; Kang, et al.,
1990). Consequently, PAC addition to activated
sludge has been examined by several researchers.
Organic matter removal in a PAC treatment
system is made possible by a combination of
adsorption and biodegradation. Activated carbon
in conjunction with activated sludge increases the
removal efficiency by adsorbing non-biodegradable,
toxic and/or inhibitory organics and also some

96
 Aghamohammadi N., et al.

metals (Metcalf and Eddy, 2004). The mechanism leachate was characterized and the results are
consists of the stimulation of biological activity by presented in Table 1. The samples were stored at
bio-regeneration of PAC. Activated carbon 4 ºC. The low BOD5/COD ratio (0.17) and high
provides an attachment surface for micro- ammoniacal nitrogen concentration (1225 mg/L)
organisms to bio-regenerate the activated carbon indicate low biodegradability and high degree of
(Sublette, et al., 1982; Orhansky and Narkis, stabilization of leachate within the landfill,
1997). This study was conducted to determine the implying high refractory fraction of the COD
effectiveness of PAC supplementation to (Activated contents (Kurg and Ham, 1997). A sludge sample
Sludge Process) ASP for improvement of as seed was taken from a sedimentation tank of
nitrification in semi-aerobic leachate treatment. It wastewater treatment plant in a textile industry,
was also aimed to determine appropriate reactor Penang, Malaysia. The characteristics of the seed
operating conditions. No studies have been are as shown in Table 2. In order to acclimatize the
reported on nutrient removal (COD, NH4 -N,) seed, it was stepwise exposed under different
removal from landfill leachate using an activated dilutions of Leachate. Figure 1 shows the
sludge in conjunction with activated carbon process experimental setup used in this study. Two activated
to date. This study was conducted to determine the sludge reactors were fabricated by plexiglass. The
effectiveness of PAC supplementation to Activated aeration tanks and secondary clarifiers had volumes
Sludge Process (ASP) for improvement of COD,
Table 2. Characteristics of activated sludge
NH4-N, NO3-N, TKN, BOD and color removal in
Parameters Variation range Average
semi-aerobic leachate treatment.
pH 7-7.66 7.33
TCOD (mg/L) 13800-13879 13839
MATER IALS & ME THO DS SCOD (mg/L) 224-232 228
Leachate samples were collected from a MLSS (mg/L) 9748-9752 9750
MLVSS (mg/L) 8058-8062 8060
municipal waste semi-aerobic landfill (Pulau
SVI(mL/g) 98.5
Burung Landfill Site, PBLS), situated within
Byram Forest Reserve at 5º 24’ N, 100º 24’E in of 16 L and 1.8 L, respectively. One of the reactors
Penang, Malaysia. The total area of the landfill is was operated as an AS reactor and to the other,
23.7 ha and it is equipped with a leachate collection PAC was also added (AS+PAC). Leachate was
pond. This site has a natural marine clay liner.The continuously fed to the system with a peristaltic
site was developed semi-aerobically and is one of pump.
the only three sites of its kind in Malaysia. The
Pre-experiment was firstly conducted to
determine the optimum dosage of PAC for the
Table 1. Characteristics of leachate taken from
PBLS (February-August 2005)
continuous experiments. Powdered activated
carbon with size 75-150 µm was used for this
Variation
Parameters
Range
Average purpose. PAC was pre-dried at 103ΪC before
pH 8.3-8.8 8.5 being used in the experiments. The study was
TCOD (mg/L) 2533-2880 2680 carried out in a batch experiment involving six
SCOD (mg/L) 2310-2850 2360 1-L beakers with 600 mL leachate and 200 mL
BOD 5 (mg/L) 252-730 377
BOD 5 /COD 0.09-0.29 0.17
activated sludge. Different amounts (0-4 g/L) of
Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO 3 ) 5658-5662 5660 PAC was then added to the beakers and the
Colour (Pt.Co.) 4000-4560 4200 contents were aerated for two days. The results
Ammoniacal nitrogen 1188-1812 1400 (Fig. 1) suggested the use of 3 g/L PAC in the
(mg/L) continuous flow study.
TKN 1440-2191 1745
Nitrate (mg/L) 1-50 14.2
Nitrite (mg/L) 20-110 40
The effect of PAC on the activated sludge
Turbidity ( FAU) 418-420 419 process (ASP) was examined via aerated batch
Sulphate (mg/L SO 4 =) 90-110 100 reactors (ABR) and continuous flow studies (CF).
Phosphate (mg/L PO 4 3-) 38-40 39 The reactor was initially operated in batch wise
T.S.S (mg/L) 78-80 79
Fe (mg/L) 6.60 6.60
for 10 days and then run in continuous mode. Detail
Zn (mg/L) 0.26 0.26 information about the reactor operation is as
Pb (mg/L) 0.34 0.34 follows:

97
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 96-103, Spring 2007
60
COD Removal (%)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3
PAC dosage (g/L)
Fig. 1. Optimum dosage of PA
In a batch experiments, the reactor was daily
fed following effluent withdrawal. For the purpose
of comparison, two reactors, AS and AS+PAC,
was simultaneously run in batch mode for 10 days.
In this period, some process and operating factors
like pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen (DO)
concentration were fixed based on the literature
at values of 7, 28 ºC and more than 3 mg/L,
respectively. In an interval of 24 h, the mixed liquor
content of the reactor was allowed to settle for 1
h. and 0.7 L of the supernatant was then
discharged. The same amount of leachate was
charged for next batch. The reactor performance
was investigated in terms of TCOD, SCOD
removal efficiency. Since PAC was wasted daily
with the withdrawn sludge, PAC supplementation
was made daily with the feed to maintain almost
3 g PAC/L of the mixed liquor.
In this step, experiments were continued in
continuous-flow (CF) activated sludge reactors
(AS and AS+PAC) with sludge recycling. Two
continuous flow (CF) systems were employed to
study the effect of PAC addition on the ASP. The
1. Feedtank
1. Feed tank
2. Peristaltic
2. Peristaltic
pump
3. Magnetic
3. Magnetic
stirrer
4. Aeration
4. Aeration tanktank (with
11
22
33
reactors were operated under hydraulic retention
time of 2.7 days in the course of the experiments
(up to 30 days). The sludge was recycled to the
aeration tank manually. Both reactors, PAC and
NON-PAC were run concurrently. The reactors
were operated at room temperature of 25± 2 °C.
In this step, the feed concentrations on average
were: TCOD: 903 mg/L, SCOD: 804 mg/L, NO3-
4 5 N: 6 mg/L, Colour: 1530 mg/L, Turbidity: 92 FAU,
NH4-N: 560 mg/L and the loading rate was 0.2 g
(SCOD)/L.d. During operation, both reactors
were adjusted at pH of 7.0±0.5 by adding 6N
NaOH or 6N H2SO4. Sufficient air was provided
by aquarium pumps to maintain the DO level
above 4 mg/L. The MLVSS concentration was
maintained constant at about 4000 mg/L. Influent
and effluent TCOD, SCOD, pH, MLSS, MLVSS,
NH 4 - N, NO 3 - N, Color and Turbidity were
measured regularly. A variation less than ±5% in
effluent COD concentration was considered as
steady state condition.
Analyses were carried out in accordance with
Standard Methods for the examination of water
and wastewater, (APHA, 1999). COD analyses
were performed by the dichromate closed refluxed
method. As nitrite ions interfere in COD analyses,
therefore COD data were corrected by considering
the nitrite nitrogen concentrations. Soluble COD
(SCOD) was determined after filtering the sample
by GFC filter (Advantec). NH4-N analysis was
carried out by the Nessler method. NO3-N, NO2-
N and TKN concentrations were determined by
a HACH DR/2010 spectrophotometer. MLSS
analysis was carried out by drying the residue on
GFC filter for one hour at 105 ºC.
5. Clarifier
5. Clarifier
pump
6.Air
Airpump
pump 6
6.
stirrer
(with or without
or without PAC) PAC)
44
Effluent
Effluent
55
Waste
Waste
sludge
sludge
Fig. 2. Experimental setup
98
 Performance of a Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)
MLVSS analyses were carried out by igniting
the MLSS analysis residue for 15 min at 550 ºC.
For pH measurement, a HACH pH meter was
used. BOD5 analysis was performed by modified
Winkler’s method, (APHA, 1999).
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Fig. 3. shows a fluctuation in TCOD removal
efficiency from 3% to 14% in ABR NON-PAC
reactor for first 10 days. It shows that most part
of organic matter content of leachate is not
biodegradable (corresponding to OLR of 0.1 g
COD/L.d). A14% removal efficiency in TCOD
was achieved on day of 4th. of reactor operation.
It was then decreased to about 4%. This was
attributed to high refractory fraction of influent
TCOD which causes inhibition to the biological
process. At the same time, COD removal efficiency
was measured in the ABR PAC reactor where
maximum efficiency of 38% was achieved on 4th.
day (Fig. 4). COD removal was then maintained
at about 30%. Evaluation of effluent COD data led
to the conclusion that a decrease in COD removal
efficiency resulted from an accumulation of non-
biodegradable organic compounds in the system.
COD removal by PAC was 3.1%. The feeding
mode was changed from batch to continous after
10 days. The COD removal results are presented
in Figures 3 and 4. The steady state effluent
SCOD concentrations in this period were about
650 mg/L. Figure 3 represents the COD removal
in PAC reactor. After 10 days of batch study,
continuous flow run was carried out in AS+ PAC.
The positive effect of PAC was most pronounced
in the stage of aeration where SCOD became
adsorb onto PAC. This was in similar with the
20
16
Batch
12
Removal %
0
1 3 5 7 9 11
Fig. 3. COD removal efficiency in NON-PAC reactor
value (25%) reported by Cecen, et al. (2003). The
results shown in Figure 4 indicated that in the AS
reactor, the COD removal was first increased
when readily biodegradable COD was removed.
This trend was drastically decreased when mainly
non-biodegradable matter was present. Figure 5
and 6 depict the variation of NH4-N and TKN
removal efficiency as the process responses. A
slight increasing trend from a minimum value of
about 45 % to maximum 60% was achieved for
both responses. Figure 7 shows the changes in
NO3-N removal during the continuous operation.
The concentration of NOx-N in the influent was
not detected, while it was noticeably significant in
the effluent as a consequence of NH 4 -N
conversion to NO x -N. Regarding the high
concentration of colour in the leachate, it was
shown that in aerated activated sludge reactor
PAC the colour removal was much higher (50%)
than in the NON-PAC reactor (1%) (Fig. 8). A
statistic approach to compare the differences of
the variation trends of each pair of the responses
was carried out using the One-Way ANOVA test
available in the SPSS 13.0 software. The One-
Way ANOVA procedure produces a one–way
analysis of variance for a quantitative dependent
variable by a single factor variable. The Levene
statistics obtained for each pair of the responses
(TCOD removal, NH4-N removal and TKN
removal in PAC and NON PAC reactors) to test
the equality of group variances are given in Table
3. The Levene statistics of the TCOD removal in
PAC and NON PAC reactors with significance
value of less than 0.05 rejects the null hypothesis
that the group variances are equal (Wong, et al.,
2006, Zinatizadeh, et al., 2006).
Continuous Flow
SCOD
TCOD
13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Days
99
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 96-103, Spring 2007

60
Batch Continuous Flow

50

40 SCOD

TCOD
Removal %

30

20

10

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Days
Fig. 4. COD removal efficiency in PAC reactor

80

70

60
Removal %

50
PAC Reactor
40
NON-PAC Reactor
30

20

10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Days
Fig. 5. NH4-N Removal in PAC and NON-PAC reactors

80

70

60
Removal %

50

40 NON-PAC Reactor
30 PAC Reactor

20

10

0
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Days
Fig. 6. TKN Removal in NON-PAC and PAC reactors

100
 Aghamohammadi N., et al.

350

300
Concentration (mg/L)

250

200

150 Effluent NON-PAC

Effluemt PAC
100
Influent PAC & NON-PAC
50

0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Days

Fig. 7. Concentration of Nitrate in PAC and NON-PAC reactors

70

60

50
Removal %

40
NON-PAC Reactor
30
PAC Reactor
20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Days
Fig. 8. Color removal in NON-PAC and PAC reactors

Table 3. Levene statistics of the studied parameters

Parameter Levene Statistics Significance
(TCOD removal in PAC AS)-(TCOD removal in NON-
41.945 <0.0001
PAC AS)
(NH4-N removal in PAC AS)-(NH4-N removal in NON-
0.716 0.403
PAC AS)
(TKN removal in PAC AS)-(TKN removal in NON-
1.901 0.176
PAC AS)

The Levene statistic for comparison of the The difference in the process performance
trends of NH4-N removal and TKN removal in between batch and continuous conditions could
the two reactors is greater than 0.05 which be justified by the following explanation. Due to
indicated that the group variances of the responses the once-a-day feeding pattern in the ABR reactor,
were equal and PAC reactor showed almost similar PAC was initially exposed to high substrate levels
effect on the removal of NH4-N and TKN. The and probably became saturated with biodegradable
results are corroborated with the findings as shown COD, thereby decreasing its effectiveness. In the
in Figs. 3, 5 and 6. ABR reactors, micro-organisms were exposed to

101
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 96-103, Spring 2007

higher concentrations of toxic and inhibitory NOMENCLATURE

organics after each once-a-day feeding. However,
DOE: design of expert
in a CF condition they were exposed to lower toxic RSM: response surface methodology
and inhibitory concentrations owing to the more CCD: central composite design
CCFD: central composite face entered design
gradual feed and therefore a better COD removal X1: initial PHE concentration (mg/l)
was observed. X2: reaction time (h)
Y1: removal of PHE (mg/mg)
The most striking effect of PAC was the Y2: extent of biodegradation relative to
initial PHE concentration and biomass
achievement of high levels of nitrification. Hence, (mg/mg/mg)
an additional factor in nitrification inhibition seemed Y3: specific growth rate (1/h)
to be also the presence of inhibitory organics in R2 coefficient of determination
ANOVA: analysis of variance
leachate. Colour removal was more than 54% in β 0: intercept coefficient of Eq. 1
the PAC reactor but in NON-PAC reactor very βi, βj: linear coefficient of Eq. 1
βij : interaction coefficient of Eq. 1
little colour removal was demonstrated (Fig. 8). βii, βjj: quadratic coefficient of Eq. 1
The near 100% BOD5 removal in both reactors K: the number of factors studied
e: random error Eq. 1
shows biological treatment has high efficiency and µ: specific growth rate (h-1)
demonstrates microbial activity as is evident in high
removal of TKN, and ammoniacal nitrogen.
REFERENCES
CONCLUSION Zinatizadeh, A. L. , Mohamed, A. R., Abdullah, A. Z.,
The study brought a novel approach in Mashitah, M. D., (2006). Effect of temperature on the
leachate treatment by showing how and under performance of an up-flowanaerobic sludge fixed film
which circumstances the negative impact of (UASFF) bioreactor treating palm oil mill effluent
leachate could be relieved by PAC addition in (POME), Proceeding of the International Conference
semi-continuous and continuous-flow operations. on Environment, Pinang, Malaysia. 12-17.
Generally, PAC addition had a more pronounced American Public Health Association (APHA). (1999)
effect on organic carbon removal (BOD) than Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
nitrification. The study also emphasized on the Wastewater. 20th. Ed., Washington, DC. 630.
differences between CF operations with PAC and
Aktas, Ö and Çeçen, F., (200). Activated carbon
NON-PAC reactors. The positive effect of PAC addition to batch activated sludge reactors in the
on COD reduction and significantly on colour treatment of landfill leachate. J. Chem. Technol.
removal was more striking in CF operation with Biotechnol. (in press)
PAC than in NON-PAC operation. Besides,
Cecen, F. and Aktas, O., (2001). Effect of PAC addition
ammoniacal nitrogen removal was high in CF
in combined treatment of landfill leachate and domestic
reactors. For practical purposes, the results in wastewater in semi-continuously fed batch and
ABR operation implied that under intermittent continuous-flow reactors. Avaiable at: http://
substrate loadings the effect of PAC would be less www.wrc.org.za
compared to steady CF operation.
Cecen, F., Erdincler, A., Kilic, E., (2003). Effect of
powdered activated carbon addition on sludge
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT dewaterability and substrate removal in landfill leachate
The authors acknowledge the Ministry of treatment. Advances Environ. Res., 7, 707-713.
Science, Technology and Environment Malaysia
for the National Scientific Fellowship to the first Kang, S. J., Englert, C. J., Astfalk, T. I. and Young, M.,
(1990). Treatment of leachate from a hazardous waste
author and IRPA research grant provided by
landfill. In: 44 th. PurdueInd. Waste Conf. Proc., Purdue
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment. Univ. Lewish Publishers, Michigan. 573-579.
The authors also wish to acknowledge cooperation
provided by the Majlis Perbandaran Seberang Kurg, M. and Ham, R., (1997). Analyses of long-term
Perai, Penang and the contractor Idaman Bersih leachate characteristics. Proc. of the 6th. Int. Landfill
Symp., Sardinia. 117-131.
Sdn. Bhd., Penang during the study.

102
 Performance of a Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)

Metcalf and Eddy, (2004). Wastewater Engineering U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), (1995).
Treatment and Reuse. Publishing Mc Graw Hill Ground water and leachate treatment systems. EPA/
625/R-94/005, Ohio.
Orhansky, F. and Narkis, N., (1997). Characteristics of
organics removal by PACT simultaneous adsorption Wong, S. S., Teng, T. T., Ahmad, A. L., Zuhairi, A. and
and biodegradation. Water Res., 31, 391-398. Najafpour, G., (2006). Treatment of pulp and paper mill
wastewater by polyacrylamide (PAM) in polymer
Sublette, K. L., Snider, E. H. and Sylvester, N., (1982).
induced flocculation. J. Hazard. Mater., 135, 378-388.
A review of the mechanism of powdered activated
carbon enhancement of activated sludge treatment.
Water Res., 16, 1075-1082.

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Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 104-113, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Pretreatment of Municipal Wastewater by Enhanced

Chemical Coagulation

Sarparastzadeh, H.1*, Saeedi, M.1, Naeimpoor, F.2 and Aminzadeh, B.3

Department of Hydraulics and Environment, College of Civil Engineering,

1

Iran University of Science and Technology (IUST), Tehran, Iran

2
College of Chemical Engineering, Iranian University of Science and Technology (IUST),
Tehran, Iran
3
Graduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Received 15 Aug 2006; Revised 25 Nov 2006; Accepted 15 Dec 2006

ABSTRACT: The efficiency of existing municipal wastewater treatment plants has been affected
by the increase of incoming organic load caused by the expansions in developing countries. In the
present investigation, the effect of Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment (CEPT) process was
studied on the enhancement efficiency of a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Tehran, Iran.
Jar test results showed an increase in COD, phosphorus, turbidity and TSS removal by the increase
in dosage of aluminum sulfate and ferric chloride as coagulants. Results revealed COD, phosphorus,
turbidity and TSS removals of 38, 66, 68 and 69 %, for alum at 80 mg/L and 60, 73, 49 and 48 % for
ferric chloride at 70 mg/L as the optimum doses, respectively. Ferric chloride revealed more efficient
results compared with alum. The result of tests to find the optimum pH of two coagulants revealed
that pH of 8.2 for both chemicals is the optimum performance condition. Therefore, CEPT can be
used as an efficient method in conventional municipal wastewater treatment plants to reduce the
organic load of biological treatment and enhance the removal of nutrients.

Key words: Coagulant, COD, Jar test, Municipal wastewater, Phosphorus, Primary treatment
*Corresponding author: Email-msaeedi@ iust.ac.ir

INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the treatment and disposal of
pollutants, as one of the most important issues in
environmental engineering, becomes even more
complex given in place limit in terms of disposal
options. From historical point of view in previous
centuries (by the end of 1900) sufficient attention
was not paid to the issue of wastewater treatment
due to readiness in releasing untreated wastewater
into recipient sources. But in the early of 20th.
century, failure to provide wide and sufficient
areas for disposal of untreated wastewater,
particularly in mega cities, culminated into applying
more effective methods in wastewater treatment
(Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). Former experiences
especially in 1980s revealed that wastewater
treatment projects in developing countries not just
requires technological facilities but these facilities
could be established exploiting human and financial
resources. Therefore, these projects are often
constructed in big urban areas enjoying great
human and financial sources and this fact limits
their development into poor areas (Sonune and
Ghate, 2004). To solve the above mentioned
problems, Chemically Enhanced Primary
Treatment (CEPT) is tenable as an appropriate,
executive and effective method (Kurniawan, et
al., 2005). This technology not only brings proper
and comparable results in terms of reducing the
COD, turbidity and TSS in comparison with current
systems, but also implies a very cost effective and
productive method to upgrade the capacity of
conventional plants (Olive, 2002). CEPT is a
process in which the chemicals (generally metal
salts or polymers) are added for pretreatment
purpose. These chemicals conglomerate the
suspending solid particles via coagulation and

104
 Sarparastzadeh H., et al.
flocculation processes (Zhou, et al., 2004). The
accumulated particles or flocs have high
sedimentation velocity and consequently the
treatment performance of parameters such as
COD, Phosphorus, turbidity and TSS will be
improved. This process can be performed in
sedimentation tanks of conventional treatment
plants and is cheaper, simpler with higher
performance comparing with conventional
systems (Harleman and Morr isey, 1992;
Harleman and Murcott, 1992, 2001a, 2001b).
Among other advantages over conventional
practices, it requires half of the necessary volume
of sedimentation ponds in comparison to
conventional methods, shows more discharge rate
instead of smaller needed space required for
installation of necessary facilities, has appropriate
elimination function for wide range of wastewaters
with various specifications, appropriately complies
if being added to the various treatment facilities
(Olive, 2002) and also bears numerous economic
advantages in terms of production and exploitation
(Harleman, et al., 1997).
Chemical Enhanced Primary Treatment
includes coagulation followed by sedimentation and
removal of flocs in a sedimentation unit. Dispersed
solids inside wastewaters include non sedimentary
suspending materials or particles with very
negligible sedimentation velocity, in which the
colloids are as constituents of major part of non
sedimentary particles. Since most of natural
colloids have negative charges that expel the
similar charges, these particles grant stability to a
suspension. When a coagulant is added to
wastewater, disintegrates and via hydrolyzing the
metal ion, metal hydroxide ionic complexes with
high positive charge will be formed. Since these
complexes have high positive charges, they absorb
to the surface of colloids and by reduction of
negative charge, they are being made to be
neutralized and condensed via Vandervalce forces.
This absorption is strengthened by water
turbulence (flocculation) and particles with proper
sedimentation capability will be formed (Reynolds
and Richards, 2000). Regarding the modality of
phosphorus removal by coagulants it can be said
that adding these chemicals to wastewater causes
the cations of these salts to combine with anionic
insoluble phosphates inside the suspension and
creates insoluble metal phosphate. Given the light
105
weight, this particle has not enjoyed sedimentary
virtue yet and will be precipitated using flocculation
(Daniels and Parker, 2003). In fact, upon adding
coagulation salts, although wastewater receives
Fe2+, Fe3+ and AL3+, phosphorus removal in pH
lower than 6.5 will be accompanied with formation
of insoluble substances of AlPO4, FePO4 and in
pH higher than 6.5 with aluminum and Iron oxide
and hydroxide (Irdemez, et al., 2006; Jiang and
Lioyd, 2000).
Numerous researches have already been
conducted in various countries particularly in
developing countries. In coastal resort city of
Rivera in Brazil which is facing with four times
increase in basic population in summer time the
wastewater treatment plant always experienced
problems. In 2000, Yu and Bourke implemented
CEPT system using 50 mg/L of ferric chloride
with 0.5 mg/L of anionic polymer as coagulant
aid, which was able in 60 and 85% reduction of
BOD and TSS contents, respectively. In another
instance, in 2001, conducted study by Harleman
and Morcutt on economic assessment of
implementing CEPT system in Rio de janeiro
treatment facilities revealed that this system not
only dose not require ,major capital investments
but also can increase the capacity of existing
treatment facilities without any requirement to
change the current plan of working systems (Olive,
2002). The objective of the implemented study in
UK by Song, et al. in 2003 was to develop a
treatment system that can effectively reduce the
concentration of pollutants in tannery wastewater
to environmentally acceptable levels and that can
greatly reduce the cost of discharging the effluent.
During coagulation process, in optimum pH 7.5,
30-37 % of COD and 38-46 % of TSS were
removed by and ferric chloride as coagulants,
respectively. Also, ferric chloride produced better
results comparing with (Song, et al., 2003). In
2003, Delgado, et al., conducted an experimental
laboratory scale study using aluminum sulfate,
Ferric chloride, and Poly aluminum chloride to
obtain the required water quality (3-5 NTU) in
turbidity in the discharges of the secondary
treatment from a conventional wastewater
treatment plant in Spain. The Poly aluminum
chloride showed the best performance in
wastewater natural pH and 50 mg/L of coagulant
dosage (Delgado, et al., 2003). In 2005 another
research was conducted by Mahvi et al. in Iran to
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 104-113, Spring 2007

study the CEPT system performance on the waste
of largest Iranian industrial complex into the
municipal wastewater treatment plant. Applying
of lime and FeO3 as chemical coagulants, reduced
the BOD, COD and TSS levels 27-53, 25-59, 46-
94 percent, respectively and showed that the
pretreated wastewater can be discharged into
municipal wastewater treatment plant in terms of
quality (Mahvi, et al., 2005). In 2005, Amuda et
al. studied the performance of CEPT pretreatment
process on the wastewater of an beverage industry
in Nigeria, using Fe2(SO4)3.3H2O as coagulant and
also in conjunction with neutral Poly Acrilamide
Polyelectrolyte. The results revealed that using
coagulant at 500 mg/L dosage removes 78, 75 and
74% of COD, Phosphorus and TSS contents,
respectively, and applying coagulant aid at about
25 mg/L dosage enhances the removal of said
parameters 93, 96 and 94% ,respectively. The
results of this experiment were reported as
completely appropriate for biological refining stage
(Amuda, et al., 2005).
On the basis of the above discussion, the main
objective of this research was to investigate the
feasibility of treating municipal wastewater by
CEPT process. This was achieved by conducting
laboratory settleability studies and jar tests using
alum and ferric chloride. Furthermore, the optimum
conditions under which the wastewater would be
treated were investigated.
done through one minute rotation in 120 rpm
immediately followed by 15 minutes rotation at 40
rpm and then left them for 30 minutes for full
sedimentation in the jars. In the next stage, the
samples were taken from depth of 5 cm of
supernatant to measure the COD, Phosphorus,
turbidity and TSS parameters. Then, the samples
were transferred into the environmental laboratory,
University of science and Technology in order to
measure specified par ameters. COD
measurement was made by Spectrophotometer
HACH, DR-4000 using Reactor Digestion HACH
method No. 8000. The samples digestion took place
for 2 hours in accordance with manufacture
method by COD reactor. Turbidity was measured
by turbidimeter HACH model 2100N and reported
in NTU. TSS was measured using paper filter
S&S 589, Black Ribbon, according to the TSS
measuring Method (Nazeri and Ekhtiarzadeh,
1995). In the present research ferric chloride and
aluminum sulfate or alum made by Merck, were
applied as coagulants. Stock solutions of these two
chemicals at 10000 mg/L were produced by mixing
10 grams of every chemical in distilled water and
then adjusting the volume in to one liter.
Consequently, all of these solutions were kept in
dark and air tight containers away from light. For
adjusting the pH the lime solution and one normal
Sulfuric acid prepared from Merck made acid 95%
were used in the series of tests intended for
determining optimum pH of every coagulant.

MATERIALS & METHODS Table 1. Raw wastewater characteristics in

The samples were taken from discharge of first stage
primary sedimentation ponds in a municipal Temp COD Phosphorus Turbidity TSS
pH
wastewater treatment plant (with the system of (°C) (mg/L) (mg/L) (NTU) (mg/L)
active sludge for treatment) in Tehran, Iran.
8.26 24.8 173.4 15.80 15.70 77.50
Sampling was done at 8.00 AM and the samples
were put under CEPT process using Jar test. The
Table 2. Results of final pH by Alum and Ferric
consumed raw samples for two coagulants were
chloride in first stage
taken concurrently in all series of the tests and
were completely similar. FeCl3 FeCl3
Dosage
pH Dosage pH Dosage pH
The Jar tests were conducted using 6 jar (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
system made by HACH Company, USA. whose 0 8.26 0 8.26 50 7.80
blades rotates by an electrical engine. Before 8 8.25 4 8.20 70 7069
star ting the work, the raw wastewater
temperature and PH were measured using digital 25 8.14 6 8.16 100 7.54
PH meter EUTECH 30. In every test, one liter of 70 7.90 9 8.13 140 7.39
completely mixed sample was sprinkled inside 120 7.71 14 8.06 180 7.24
followed by addition of specified concentration of
given coagulant to each jar. The coagulation was 200 7.50 30 7.92 220 7.09

106
 Pretreatment of Municipal Wastewater

70
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
COD Removal Efficiency (%)

60 In the present study, 2 stages of tests were

50 considered in order to determine the optimum
40 conditions for every coagulant. First stage included
determining optimum dosage of every coagulant
30
in natural pH of wastewater and in second stage
20 the optimum pH of performance for every
10 coagulant in resultant dosage from last stage was
0 specified. Therefore, a series of Jar test in which
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 alum dosage ranging from 0 to 200 mg/L and two
Alum Dosage (mg/L) series of Jar tests by ferric chloride dosage ranging
Fig.1. COD removal efficiency by Alum 0 to 220 mg/L were tested for implementing the
first stage of the tests. In Table 1 the specifications
Phosphorus Removal Efficiency (%)

100
90 of raw wastewater, used in Jar tests at the first
80 stage are shown and the resultant final pH by and
70 ferric chloride are observable in Table 2.The results
60 due to the removal efficiency of COD, phosphorus,
50
40 turbidity and TSS by and ferric chloride are shown
30 in Figs. 1-8, respectively.
20
10
As shown in Fig 1, increase in alum
0 concentration increases removal efficiency of
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 COD. The slope of curve in low alum dosages
Alum Dosage (mg/L) was higher in which a reduction in case of raise in
Fig.2. Phosphorus removal efficiency by Alum concentration could be observed. In this way, by
considering COD as removal objective, 80 mg/L
Turbidity Removal Efficiency (%)

90 is selected to apply to the process. In term of

80 phosphorus removal in Fig 2, it can be observed
70
that the slope of curve in low dosages of coagulant
60
50
is higher than in case of increase in alum
40
concentration. By selecting phosphorus removal
30 as treatment goal, 100 mg/L could be applied to
20 achieve the best results. In term of turbidity in fig
10 3, the process of increase in turbidity removal can
0 be observed by incr ement of coagulant
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 concentration, although the removal efficiency is
Alum Dosage (mg/L) almost steady due to alum dosage increment in
Fig. 3. Turbidity removal efficiency by Alum high concentration of coagulant. In this case,
dosage of 100 mg/L for alum reveals the best
40 results for turbidity removal. Regarding TSS, as it
TSS Removal Efficiency (%)

35 could be seen in Fig .4, removal efficiency

30 increases by alum concentration until 80 mg/L,
25 although decreases gradually in higher
20 concentrations. T his feature could affect
15 determining the optimum dosage of this coagulant
10 which could be observed 80 mg/L from Fig .4. pH
5 alteration process in Table 2 reveals reduction
0 accompanied with increase of coagulant
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 concentration. As the natural limit in treated
Alum Dosage (mg/L) wastewater pH is advised and the need to
Fig. 4. TSS removal efficiency by Alum neutralize pH in case of defying from natural
range, the final pH of pretreated wastewater will
107
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 104-113, Spring 2007
be effective in determining the optimum dosage
of alum as coagulant. The results observed in
removal efficiency of blanks (samples in which
the coagulant’s concentration is zero), particularly
for two parameters of COD and turbidity are
considerable. As it can be observed in Fig. 1 for
blank, 17 % of COD reduction is being observed
just by mixing and sedimentation, although in the
same sample the parameter of turbidity showed
removal of 20%. The removal in phosphorus and
TSS are 1 and 3 % in blank, respectively. It looks
that the performance of primary sedimentation
system in the studied treatment plant is not
effective properly and more organic matter
removal could be obtained by enhancement of
primary sedimentation system performance.
Another important point is the high removal
of phosphorus obtained upon applying alum, which
reached to 72 and 89% at 120 and 200 mg/L,
respectively. To explain this, it can be said that
although the chemistry basis of phosphorus
removal by alum is not completely known, but it
reduces possibly via occurring the complex
reactions and absorption by flocs. In this way, the
phosphorus will be removed by formation of
insoluble sediment of AlPO4 .In fact; it is assumed
that AlPO4 will be trapped inside the floc and then
will be precipitated. But another important point
is that the phosphorus removal is dependent to
pH and the optimum pH for this removal by , as
Reynolds and Richards explained is 5.5 to 6.5
(Reynolds and Richards, 2000). Given the final
pH results in Table 2, it could be said that
increasing of alum dosage, coincided with pH
reduction and this in turn increased the phosphorus
removal by alum dosage increment. This result is
justified by Song et al. in England by using alum
and ferric chloride as coagulant for an industrial
wastewater treatment in 2003. Results of their
Experiments as shown in fig. 5 revealed pH
reduction by increase of coagulant dosage (Song,
et al., 2003).
In results of tests by ferric chloride as
coagulant, according to Fig. 6, the rate of COD
removal increases in lower dosages of coagulant
and fells down by increasing in concentration. The
important point in this curve is high removal
efficiency of ferric chloride in low concentrations.
Hence, by adding just 9 mg/L of chemical
coagulant, 40% of COD removal is tenable. In
108
this case, by considering COD as removal
objective, 50 mg/L is selected to apply to the
process. From Fig.7 in phosphorus removal, it could
be observed that the curve is steeper in high
concentrations of ferric chloride than low dosages,
although at higher concentrations is going to reach
to a relatively steady state. The mechanism goes
for turbidity removal, the TSS removal reduces
with increase in concentration of coagulant, as in
220 mg/L, 64% increase in TSS comparing with
raw sample is measured. Range of 50-70 mg/L
for coagulant dose seems to be optimum for TSS
removal. Observing the pH alterations process in
Table 3, indicates that like alum, it reduces with
increase in coagulant concentration as it was
observed by the experiment results of Song, et al.
in 2003 and its impact should be considered as a
limit factor in determining the ferric chloride
optimum dosage.At the end of this stage of tests,
as the results showed, by considering COD
removal, as one of the most effective methods
for performance enhancement of aeration tanks
and phosphorus removal for reducing possibility
of eutrification, 80 and 70 mg/L were selected as
optimum dosage of alum and ferric chloride in
wastewater natural pH, respectively.
10
pH Value
8
6
4
2 Ferric Chloride Alum
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Concentration of Coagulants (mg/L)
Fig. 5. Results of Final pH amounts
by Song et al. 2003
80
COD Removal Efficiency (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Ferric Chloride Dosage (mg/L)
Fig. 6. COD removal efficiency by FeCl3
 Sarparastzadeh H., et al.

concentrations from previous stage, a series of

Phosphorus Removal Efficiency (%)

100
90
Jar tests were implemented for alum and ferric
80 chloride. Given that the best pH for alum is in the
70 range of 4.5-8 and for ferric chloride is 4-12
60
50
(Reynolds and Richards, 2000), the amounts of
40 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 for alum and 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10
30 for ferric chloride were selected as pH ranges
20 for this stage of tests. It is notable that in each
10
0 series of Jar tests, one Jar contained wastewater
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 with natural pH namely near to 8 was tested
Ferric Chloride Dosage (mg/L) without addition of any chemicals to adjust pH. In
Table 3, the specifications of raw wastewater used
Fig. 7. Phosphorus removal efficiency by FeCl3
in jar tests in second stage and in Table 4, the final
obtained pH by alum and ferric chloride are
Turbidity Removal Efficiency (%)

80
shown. Also, the COD, Phosphorus, turbidity and
60
40 TSS reduction results are shown in figures 9 to
20 12 for alum and 13 to 16 for ferric chloride,
0 respectively.
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
-40 In Fig. 10. COD removal by alum at 80 mg/L
-60 is shown, which describes that by increase in pH
-80 COD removal shows deep steep at first followed
-100 by steady steep indicating that natural pH (8.21)
Ferric Chloride Dosage (mg/L) or 9 is the optimum pH. Selection of such range
Fig. 8. Turbidity removal efficiency by FeCl3 for optimum pH is confirmed by observing figures
70
11 for phosphorus, 12 for turbidity and 13 for TSS.
60 From the Figs., it can be observed that at optimum
50
TSS Removal Efficiency (%)

40 pH (8.21), 38% of COD, 66% of phosphorus, 68%

30 of turbidity and 69% of TSS could be removed.
20
10 This logic governs the selection of 8.21 (natural
0 pH) as optimum is completely economical given
-10 0 20 40 60 80 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
-20 that there is no need to apply pH escalating facilities
-30 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
at the start of process and then pH neutralizing
-40
-50 facilities at the end of process. Although it should
-60 be noted that selecting this case as the optimum
-70
-80 situation not only dose not need pH alteration
Ferric Chloride Dosage (mg/L) facilities but also shows no great difference with
a situation deriving out of pH 9. Optimum
Fig. 9. TSS removal efficiency by FeCl3
performance of alum in the range of natural pH is
Table 3. Row wastewater characteristics in confirmed by experimental results of Song, et al.
second stage in 2003 in England as shown in Fig.14 (Song, et
pH Temp. COD Phosphorus Turbidity TSS al., 2003). In Fig. 15, the removal of COD by 70
(°C) (mg/L) (mg/L) (NTU) (mg/L) mg/L of ferric chloride indicates the deep steep
8.21 of removal curve in low pHs and steady state in
27.3 161.8 20.78 22.20 155.00 higher pHs revealing that the optimum pH ranging
from 8.21 (natural pH) to 9.98. This issue is
It should be noted that selection of optimum confirmed by observing figures 16 for phosphorus,
dosage for every coagulant depends on 17 for turbidity and 18 for TSS. The removal
parameters for treatment. But in the second efficiency obtained from the figures at optimum
stage of the tests for determining the optimum pH (8.21) for COD, phosphorus, turbidity and TSS
performance pH for each coagulant in optimum is 60, 73, 49 and 48%, respectively.

109
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 104-113, Spring 2007

Table 4. Results of final pH by alum and Ferric chloride 80

in second stage 70

TSS Removal (%)

Adjusted 60
Final Adjusted pH Final 50
pH
(Coagulant: pH pH 40
(Coagulant:FeCl3 ) 30
Alum )
3.57 3.57 4.83 3.19 20
10
4.97 4.20 6.19 6.02 0
5.95 5.36 6.90 6.95 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00

7.18 7.25 8.21 7.72 C o a gula nt Do s e =80 m g/L

pH

8.21 7.87 8.99 8.10 Fig. 13. TSS removal efficiency by Alum
9.00 8.39 9.98 9.40 in different pHs
45 At the end of this experimental research, by
40
considering some limits in removal of turbidity and
COD Removal (%)

35
30 TSS, results indicate more efficiency for COD
25 and phosphorus removal by ferric chloride rather
20
15 than alum. As shown in Fig. 20, this is confirmed
10 by the experimental results of Song et al. by alum
5 and ferric chloride as coagulants in 2003 in England
0
3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
(Song, et al., 2003).
pH Better performance of ferr ic chloride
C o a gula nt Do s e =80 m g/L
comparing with alum can be verified by economical
Fig. 10. COD removal efficiency by Alum comparison. It can be observed that with the price
in different pHs of 7500 and 5000 Rials per kilogram for alum and
80 ferric chloride respectively and selected dosage
Phosphorus Removal (%)

70 of those coagulants, total cost of pretreatment with

60 ferric chloride would be less than that for alum.
50 By this way, 70 and 80 mg/L are selected for alum
40 and ferric chloride as optimum coagulant dosages,
30
respectively and 8.21 (natural wastewater pH) is
20
known as optimum pH for performance of both
10 coagulants.
0
3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 CONCLUSION
Coagulant Dose=80 mg/L pH
The experimental studies of CEPT process by
Fig. 11. Phosphorus removal efficiency by Alum alum and ferric chloride in municipal wastewater
in different pHs indicate that ferric chloride has more efficiency
80 for COD and phosphorus removal in the same
Turbidity Removal (%)

70 concentrations rather than alum. Although it shows

60 some limits in removal of turbidity and TSS and in
50
higher dosages the final turbidity and TSS exceeds
40
even from the presented amounts in raw
30
20
wastewater. Therefore, selection of appropriate
10 coagulant and also optimum conditions of its
0 performance largely depends on elected
3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 parameters that should be removed. Given all four
C o a gula nt Do s e =80 m g/L pH parameters COD, phosphorus, turbidity and TSS
as removal purpose, the dosage of 80 mg/L for
Fig. 12. Turbidity removal efficiency by Alum
alum and 70 mg/L for ferric chloride could be
in different pHs

110
 Pretreatment of Municipal Wastewater

suggested as the optimum concentrations in pretreatment with ferric chloride would be less
natural pH of wastewater. It should be noted that than that for alum. Therefore, if the obtained
test results indicate the natural pH as the optimum removal results for given parameters in treatment
performance pH for both coagulants given the plants are sufficient; this chemical could be applied
necessity of neutrality of discharged treated in CEPT process with many economical
wastewaters. One of the other important results justifications. Therefore, Chemical Enhanced
of this research via using ferric chloride as Primary Treatment could be implemented as an
coagulant is that in lower rates (less than 10 mg/l) effective method in municipal wastewater
it can show appropriate results. With the current treatment improving the imposed load to aeration
price of alum and ferric chloride and selected ponds, reducing the nutrient concentration and
dosage of those coagulants, total cost of improving the efficiency of treatment.

35
35
30

TSS Removal (%)

TSS Removal (%)

30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 600 mg/L 1000 mg/L 5 600 mg/L 1000 mg/L
0
0
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15
pH Value
pH Value
Fig. 14. COD and TSS removal by alum in different pHs (Song et al., 2003)

90
70
Phosphorus Removal (%)

80
60
COD Removal (%)

70
50 60
40 50
30 40
20 30
10 20
10
0
0
4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
pH C o a gula nt Do s e =70 m g/L pH
Coagulant Dose=70 mg/L
Fig. 15. COD removal efficiency by FeCl3 Fig. 16. Phosphorus removal efficiency by FeCl3
in different pHs in different pHs

60
60 50
TSS Removal (%)
Turbidity Removal (%)

50 40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0 0
4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00
Coagulant Dose=70 mg/L pH Coagulant Dose=70 mg/L pH
Fig. 17. Turbidity removal efficiency by FeCl3 Fig. 18. TSS removal efficiency by FeCl3
in different pHs in different pHs

111
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 104-113, Spring 2007

40 40
35 35
COD Removal (%)

TSS removal (%)

30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 600 mg/lL 1000 mg/lL 600 mg/lL 1000 mg/lL
5
0
0
0 5 10 15
0 5 10 15
pH Value
pH Value

Fig. 19. COD and TSS removal by ferric chloride in different pHs (Song, et al., 2003)

35
50
30
COD Removal (%)

TSS Removal (%)

25 40
20 30
15
20
10
5 settled (Al) Settled (Fe) 10
0 settled (Al) Settled (Fe)
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Coagulants Dosage (mg/L)
Coagulants Dosage (mg/L)

Fig. 20. COD and TSS removal in different dosages of coagulants (Song, et al., 2003)

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ISSN: 1735-6865

Evaluation of Navab Regeneration Project in Central Tehran, Iran

Bahrainy, H.1* and Aminzadeh, B.2

1
Faculty of Urban Planning, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2
Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Received 14 May 2006; Revised 11 Aug 2006; Accepted 11 Oct 2006

ABSTRACT: Urban design has been used in the cities throughout the world to achieve certain
goals and purposes. It has been common in developing countries, including Iran, to use urban
regeneration plans in the older sections of large cities to eliminate urban blight and decay, and
eventually achieve modernization and in some cases to also overcome socio-economic and cultural
problems. Approaches have been used are modernist, technocratic, and elitist type of design/
decision-making, which, as, the present case study show, results in complete failure. This study
intends to, following a discussion on theoretical basis of the issue, through a post-construction/
post-occupancy evaluation of the Navab Regeneration Project in central Tehran, explore the reasons
behind this failure and see how the problems involved in the product may be construed to the kind
of design/decision-making process applied.

Key words: Urban design, urban regeneration, Tehran, Navab Project, evaluation
*Corresponding author: Email-bahrainy@ut.ac.ir

INTRODUCTION
The modernization movement in Iran began in
the 1870’s under Naser-ed-Din shah Qajar. He
had been to Paris and loved it. Upon his return he
had the old walls of the city pulled down and a
new set erected further out on the plain. Between
two walls a new “European” quarter was planned,
complete with French-style parks. On the western
half was a huge square, an embassy row, and a
promenade, Lalezar Street. But it was under Reza
Shah (1921-41) that the idea got the momentum.
He attempted to modernize major cities by driving
a network of long straight roads through the heart
of the urban fabric and articulating crossroads with
large round-about where he set up statues of
himself. Two intersecting main axes were cut
through Tehran, and there were similar practices
in other Iranian cities such as: Shushtar, Hamedan,
Mashhad, and Yazd. This process of modernization
introduced new and unprecedented typologies of
urban and architectural works to the traditional
fabric of the cities, some of which later became
landmarks. The result was a radical heterogeneity
in major cities of Iran. Tehran as a promoter of
the modern vision lies in the uneven heterogeneity
which represents the absurdity of modernization.
Construction of urban highways and
boulevards intensified from 1950’s during the
Second Pahlavi as a symbolic sign of
modernization. As we will see Navab
Regeneration Project has utilized both those tools-
reconstruction of old houses to medium and high-
rise buildings, and construction of a new highway.
These plus the urban redevelopment programs
make what Jacobs (1961) calls the Big Projects
which have all been in decline throughout the world
since 1970’s.
Historically, in the context of closed systems,
the decision-making and implementation of these
kinds of large-scale projects are made at the top
and is imposed on society as a goodwill gesture to
improve the quality of life of citizens, while in most
cases certain political goals are in agenda. Several
different terms have been used for these kinds of
approaches, such as: top-down, unitary, elitist,
technocratic, autocratic, etc. Mazumdar (2000),
for example, uses the term autocratic, and
describes the concept of “autocratic control” in

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 Bahrainy, H. and Aminzadeh, B.
Iran during the history and particularly during the
Pahlavi dynasty (1925-1979) and points out how
decisions, actions and interventions by a person
with near-unlimited power transforms the city’s
morphology. By control he means “forces that
affect, limit, push, pull and restrict the freedom of
action of people with respect to their activities
affecting the city. Control can be achieved from,
and be closely linked to, the political, administrative,
social and religious str ucture of society”
(Mazumdar, 2000).
Between the years of 1968 to 1978, the City
of Tehran, already undergone unprecedented
growth and decay due to many factors, particularly
due to the eight-year war with Iraq and economic
sanctions, got herself a new strong mayor,
comparable to Haussmann under Napoleon III in
Paris, France. What Haussmann did was a
massive surgery, whose grands travaus (public
works) redrew the plan of Paris between 1850
and 1870, providing a model for old cities
everywhere anxious to meet the needs of modern
traffic. These incisions were referred to, neutrally,
as peercees or cuts, the word eventrement, on
the other hand, literally “disemboweling” or
“eviscerating,” suggested a surgical metaphor in
line with seeing the city as subject to pathological
disorders (Kostof, 1992). Haussmann’s rebuilding
of Paris, writes Clark, “was spectacular in the most
oppressive sense of the word (Clark, 1986). “Once
the city is imaged by capital solely as spectacle, it
can then be consumed passively, rather than
actively created by the populace at large through
political participation (Low and Smith, 2006). Frey
(1999), evaluating several cases of urban
regeneration in Europe calls this type of
intervention radical surgery which according to
him will eventually lead to failure. He instead
recommends a rather more realistic approach
called conservative surgery.
The mayor of Tehran, during the decade of
1968-1978 was given the absolute authority and
power to do exactly what New York’s Robert
Moses did in New York: The Haussmann of urban
expressways suggested: “When you operate in on
overbuilt metropolis, you have to hack your way
with a meat axe” (Kostof, 1992). Kostof, in the
City Shaped, describes these kinds of projects as
Grand Manner. Avenues are usually only a matter
of a public front, behind which lay fragments of
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older buildings dismembered by the inflexible, wide
straight line of the cut.
During the last fifty years, Iran has had
numerous experiences in various scales and
subjects of urban design, ranging from new town
design, to urban renewal, and reconstruction of
the-war-and-earthquake damaged areas, none of
which have been actually successful, and
unfortunately no lessons has been learned from
those failures. Contrary to the reconstruction of
the war-and-earthquake-damaged areas, urban
regeneration is a planned demolition for the
purposes of reducing physical blight, social
disorders, poverty eradication, and improving the
overall quality of life in cities. It, therefore, does
not have the urgency of reconstructions due to
natural disasters, which means that the design
solutions in the case of urban regeneration could
be more thoughtful, elaborate and with careful
analysis of all variables, various courses of actions,
possible impacts, and eventually with less
mistakes.
The Institute of Civil Engineers Infrastructure
Policy Group (1988) maintains that the objective
of urban regeneration is to return the area as soon
as possible to a self-supporting physical, social and
economic base. The main characteristics of
successful urban regeneration, according to this
Institute, are defined as:
• Strong motivation
• Local participation and support
• Flexibility in approach
• Partnership between public and private
sector
• Initial public sector investment
It should be emphasized that while
involvement and support of the local community
are essential to the success, and will prepare the
context for strong motivations, support and
partnership, compulsory purchase procedures,
which are commonly used in urban regeneration
plans everywhere, are cumbersome and time
consuming and will eventually make the complete
success of the project far fetched. In developing
countries, however, the compulsory purchase order
(CPO) is the core tool of urban regeneration plans.
Legal discourse, practices and institutions of
CPOs’ are powerful factors in perpetuating
relations of social authority, power, exclusion and
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 114-127, Spring 2007
oppression. The exclusion of certain interests from
legal processes in urban renewal is realized
through compulsory purchase which excludes the
poor, the socially and politically marginal (Imrie
and Thomas, 1994).
Over the past 20 years or so, the more
protracted conflicts over urban renewal schemes
have occurred where state authorities have
attempted to acquire land and property through
the use of compulsory purchase orders (CPOs).
While the use of CPOs has become less prominent
over this period, a number of high-profile
redevelopments, for example, London’s Docklands
scheme and Sheffield’s Lower Don Valley have
been critically dependent upon them. Given the
adversarial nature of CPOs, in which the state
seeks to acquire someone’s property without their
consent, it is hardly surprising that the experiences
of them have been characterized by opposition,
dissent and general hostility from those affected
by compulsory purchase. In these kinds of cases
the ideology of public interest completely
overshadows the ideology of private property (see
Imrie and Thomas, 1994).
There is a sizable literature discussing the way
in which urban policy has promoted multi-sectoral
partnerships. It is now common place for many
individuals and organizations, including business,
community groups, the voluntary sector and other
public sector bodies, to cooperate with local
authorities in a wide range of activities. This
process of collaboration, usually described as”
local governance”, has become a major theme in
urban studies (Davies, 2001). In developing
countries, however, the concept is still unknown
and unpracticed, which is due to this fact that the
civil society is not playing its critical role in the
development of self-supporting urban
communities. Civil society is one in which citizens
collaborate with government to develop their
communities with goal of eliminating poverty,
improving living conditions, embracing human
dignity, protecting the environment and
strengthening cultural and social cohesion. In fact
urban regeneration provides a golden opportunity
toward civil society, through participation,
empowerment, and capacity building. Aside from
legal and administrative issues, urban regeneration
requires special skills and knowledge in the part
of planner/designer which provide him/her with
116
the competency to deal with the complex problems
of urban regeneration. This knowledge is far over
what architects normally possess.
Christopher Alexander suggests seven rules
for a successful urban regeneration project to
create wholeness in the city, the first and the most
important of which is the piecemeal growth. He
also suggests a single, overriding rule which
governs all others: every increments of
construction must be made in such a way to heal
the city. This statement has great implications for
urban regeneration plans (Alexander, 1987).
But how are we going to know a project will
heal the city and help toward its wholeness. Can
we actually predict the outcome of a project, with
all positive and negative impacts, both within the
project itself and also in the surroundings? Thiel
maintains that the essence of a true design process
is the element of prediction: that is, for an activity
to be called design, one should be reasonably
confident that the proposal will in fact meet the
previously established performance specifications.
If there are no performance specifications, and if
there is no evaluation of the performance of the
built project, there is then no evidence of design
(Thiel, 1997).
The usual process of urban development/
regeneration treats buildings as isolated objects
sited in the landscape, not as part of the larger
fabric of streets, squares, and viable open space.
In this context decisions are usually made on the
basis of economic interests (profit taking), political
interests (gaining support of the lower income
groups, and prestige) or engineering interests
(solving traffic problems). In this all common
process, urban space is seldom even thought of
an exterior volume with properties of shape and
scale and with connections to other spaces.
Therefore, what emerges in most environmental
settings is unshaped anti-space, which makes no
positive contribution to the surroundings or the users
(Trancik, 1986). Automobile dependency (fast,
transit access), modern and postmodern
movements attitudes toward space, ill-defined
urban renewal policies and strategies, no defined
role for urban design and no respect for public
space and the context are some of the main
characteristics of this kind of urban design/
regeneration.
 Evaluation of Navab Regeneration Project
There are many these days who believe that
sustainable community development should be
characterized by “eco-innovation”, or innovative
economic development that respects the ecology
of the community and include dense, mixed-use
neighborhoods, reduced material consumption,
recycling, local retailers, walking, cycling and
public transport, low car ownership, a mix of
people and cars and a link between jobs, and
workers’ residence (Carley, et al., 2001) Urban
regeneration provides a golden opportunity to turn
the existing trend of neighborhoods into more
sustainable situation and to reestablish the public
realm, fragmented by private interest and hostile
forces, in a built form which liberates rather than
represses the life of the city (Gosling and Maitland,
1984).
Navab Street, an old north-South Street in
Central Tehran, has had a vital role in linking
different local districts and neighborhoods of
Tehran in the last 70 years. Total project area was
800 hectares and included some twenty
neighborhoods, with a population of 259,828 in
1996. The buildings were mostly 50 to 60 years
old, representing the typical second Pahlavi’s
architecture, built of masonry with 1 or 2 stories.
The area was a cohesive social, physical, and
cultural entity, consisting of several well-defined
neighborhoods with strong family and social
relations, sense of belonging and unity. As we will
see, this well-defined social, physical, and
functional organization of the neighborhoods has
been destroyed by the Navab Regeneration
Project. Included in the first comprehensive plan
of Tehran (1968) was a new and only main North-
South motorway to provide fast and easy access
to and from central and northern parts of the city.
The extension of the existing North-South
Chamran motorway further to the south, as a
strategic plan to improve the transportation
network in the City of Tehran, has been part of
the general planning activities of the Municipality
of Tehran for a long time. The plan would have
significant role in solving part of the extensive
problems of the transportation network in the
Greater City of Tehran. In the 1992 Revised
Comprehensive Plan of Tehran, the motorway was
reconfirmed as one of the four main highways
which complete the ring around the central core
of the city. The scale of the project, the magnitude
117
of demolition, and the financial resources needed
to implement the project were so high that no
authority and/or organization dared to embark on
the project.
It was late in 1992 that the Municipality of
Tehran finally adopted the plan and began its
implementation. In addition to the motorway, the
city decided to develop the corridor into a new
urban complex by providing high-density
residential, commercial and office uses. The
reason behind this decision was twofold: a) to
provide space for relocated or demolished
activities, and b) to provide the vast financial
resources needed for the project (Tehran
Municipality, 1992a). The total area of demolished
residential units was 479,600 square meters and
the length of the strip 5,529 m. To save time,
provide diversity and involve several design groups
in the project, the area was broken down into five
phases, each of which was contracted to a
consulting firm to prepare the detailed plan (Fig.1).
Actual implementation of the project started
in 1994 (Fig. 2), and expected to be completed in
four years. The width of the constructed highway
is between 50-60 m, and a depth of 10-30 m is
considered for buildings on both sides of the
highway (Fig. 3). The project introduced more than
8500 new residential units to the area, most of
which were below 75 square meters. The buildings,
with a high density of up to 19 stories provide some
750,000 square meters of residential and 160,000
square meters of commercial and office spaces
(Tehran Municipality, 1992b & 1996). These
numbers show the extent of the intervention in
the existing fabric of the city and the impact it has
had, and will continue to have, on surroundings,
the residents, and even the whole city.
The implementation of the project would have
required substantial financial resources to cover
the costs of purchasing, demolition, and
construction. This heavy financial burden was one
of the reasons why the project prolonged for so
many years. The exact amount of the total cost
of the project is not known, but what is important
in this regard is that the city has decided to issue
public bonds with comparatively high rates of
interest in four phases to secure financial resources
needed. The project also benefited from private
investments by selling the units at a price below
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 114-127, Spring 2007

the market value prior to their construction. The

main financial resources for the project were,
therefore, the investment profit (75% net), the
municipality of Tehran, bonds, and the central
government. The properties were bought from
owners, but on a compulsory basis, and with much
lower value than their market prices. According
to a report dated October 1996, (Tehran
Municipality, 1997) there have been some 256
unresolved legal cases of property ownership in
the area. Financial risks associated with over
optimism and false insights regarding the project
culminated in its abandoning for a period of two
years. Financial pressures later forced the City to
eliminate the uneconomic uses of cultural and
educational land uses together with the proposed
park system and green spaces initially foreseen in
the plan. As the project did not utilize effective
implementation instruments, so far only the first
and second phases have been built, and the third
phase is now under construction. Insufficient
government funding and lack of private interest in
the project have resulted in its slow and
problematic implementation. To designers, the
project has been a typical large-scale architecture
in the modernism movement. The approach used
has been pragmatic and without a futuristic view;
social and cultural issues, therefore, have not been
taken into consideration. Considering the extent
of the intervention and size of the investment, this Fig. 1. Schematic plan Navab Highway and its
project is unprecedented in urban regeneration intersections with local streets
projects of Iran (Fig. 4).

Fig. 2. A view of the demolition site in the Navab Project

118
 Bahrainy, H. and Aminzadeh, B.

Fig. 3. Navab Project under construction

Fig. 4. A view of the built-up corridor of the Navab Project

MATERIALS & METHODS

The research method is a post-occupancy
evaluation. The purpose was to evaluate the end-
product of the Navab Project, through a case
study. To do this, the project’s performance was
evaluated against certain agreed upon criteria. On
the basis of extensive review of almost all possible
urban design criteria, as well as the goals of the
project, certain criteria were chosen for evaluation.
The criteria are as follow: Accessibility, place
identity, vitality, security and urban facilities. These
criteria, mostly qualitative in nature, were then
divided into several sub-criteria, based on the area,
the city, and the social and cultural context. Since
scale plays a significant role in the performance
of any urban project, analysis was focused on two
different scales: city (macro), and district (micro).
The method of gathering information is based on
a direct observation which was carried out by two
faculty members and four graduate students of
environmental design to assess the actual quality
of the project and its performance while in use.
The following is a brief description of the selected
criteria:

119
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 114-127, Spring 2007
Accessibility: This criterion should answer the
question of how easy it is to reach to other people,
activities, and resources. The development of
various means of transportation places an
emphasis on its functional aspects and constitutes
the root of functionalism as the planning ideology.
People withdraw altogether from heavy street. It
causes danger and accident, creates nuisance and
air pollution, invades territories and privacy, will
have adverse impacts on the street life, home life,
social interaction and crime (Appleyard, 1981).
There are many who suggest that an appropriate
urban design can transform the use of car from
obligatory into a selective state by maximizing
usage of urban public transportation and providing
motives for walking and bicycling (Girardet, 1999;
Deelstra, 2000).
Table 1. Traffic volume in the old Navab street
and the new highway
No. of Vehicles Navab
Navab Highway
per hour Street (1)
Locations (1990)
(2) (2003)
Azadi St. to 830 2350
Dampezeshki St.
Dampezeshki to Imam 140 2580
Khomeini
Imam Khomeini to 330 2870
Ghazvin
Ghazvin to Helale Ahmar 545 3020
Peak traffic hours 8-9 am 9-10 am
Dominant direction North to South North to South
Source (1): Tehran Municipality (1992a)
Source (2): Fieldwork Studies
Place Identity: Many believe that in a global city
formation, the more distinctive, unique and special
a city is the more chances it has to succeed (Knight,
1989; Kearns and Phil, 1993; Oktay, 2002). This
emphasizes the issue of place identity. Identity is
the extent to which a person can recognize or recall
a place as being distinct from the other places
(Lynch, 1981). Relph (1976), in his pioneering
book, Place and Placelessness relates it to a deep
human need, which exists for associations with
significant places. Urban identity leads to
appreciation of the role culture, history and heritage
can play especially in urban development and
reconstruction schemes.The spatial structure, type
of the activities, and a set of building styles and
facade decorations are means of preserving the
cultural continuity and shaping the physical identity.
Vitality: The statement “planning can induce city
vitality” (Jacobs, 1961) was one of the design
120
challenges in last decades. Jacobs argues that a
bustling street life is essential to a good city, and
vital streets need a most intricate and close grained
density of uses that mutually support each other.
Gosling (1992) also relates lack of vitality to
ignoring the mixed-use pattern. Urban texturing
generates vibrant activity, with maximum duration
of coming and goings that bring a place to life. To
evaluate urban vitality, concepts of mixed use and
fine grain texture have come to be recognized as
important factors (Duany and Plater-Zyberk, 1991;
Rowley, 1996). For further vitality of a street, it
should be permeable with buildings oriented to
sidewalks, and adaptable urban spaces in which
people can halt and generate activities.
Security: The “defensible space” concept
considers creating an appropriate territory, a feeling
of belonging and dedication to space, eye control
over the outside space and rehabilitation of physical
conditions as solutions for insecure spaces
(Newman, 1972). Studies of crime situation
patterns and antisocial activities such as drug
abuse, smuggling, and vandalism in the last two
decades have shown that they occur in a limited
number of locations with specific features (hot
spots). These studies show that an increase in the
number of hot spots leads to an increase in the
number of crimes (Sherman, 1995; Loukaitou-
Sideris, 1999). Hot spots are well known for
criminals in both local scale and the whole city.
Public Services: A balanced, integr ated
development of urban and local services such as
educational and cultural institutions, fire stations,
health centers, parks, recreational and tourism
facilities, etc. will increase people’s overall
satisfaction of place. Where services and facilities
are selected carefully and located in an organizing
system and subsystem, they will provide safe and
easy accessibility as well as social interactions.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Accessibility
As stated earlier, the main reason for
embarking on the Navab Project was provision of
a major North-South access. Table 1 shows the
traffic flow before and after construction of
Navab Highway. These data suggest that there is
a significant difference in the number of vehicles
traveling in the highway per hour, before
 Evaluation of Navab Regeneration Project
construction of the highway (Nov. 1990), and after
(Oct. 2003). This shows the changing role of old
Navab Street as a local collector to a new urban
transit road. No estimate, however, is given in the
project for the expected number of trips in the
new highway. Many other factors influence the
efficiency of the highway, such as the increase in
the number of accidents due to high number of
nodes, absence of taxi stations in local lanes which
forces people to use fast lanes to get on and off,
and insufficient pedestrian passes, which causes
passersby to cut through the highway to get to the
other side.
Pedestrian access is provided by 12 over and
underpasses. The overpasses of 6.80 m height are
unsuitable for children and the elderly. The
sidewalks along the highway do not ease
movements due to factors including limited width
(2 meters maximum), slopes and stairs, being cut
by parking ramps, and closed views in places
lower than the highway level. Slopes and stairs
have not allowed provision of bicycle and
handicapped access.
Many local streets which used to serve the
area are now turned into cul de sacs or been cut
by the highway and its local lanes. Since the
majority of streets cutting through Navab highway
are one way and some crossroads like the
intersection of Mortazavi with Navab are not
accessible due to uneven height of the two streets;
therefore, local trips have become longer and an
overburden is placed upon the local network.
Although a special 7.80 m wide bus route has been
proposed in the initial plan of Navab, widening of
the open space in front of the blocks later lead to
its elimination. The high population density and low
capacity of public transportation in the area have
caused difficulties for the residents of Navab and
surrounding areas.
Place Identity
The sense of neighborhoodness is one of the
decisive factors in creating identity. The project
has not benefited from an identifiable spatial
structure, as it lacks a physical or functional center.
The architecture of Navab accentuates its
individualism. It depicts an urge to be apart from
its context rather than a part of it, and thus it has
no relation with the districts around. In original
Iranian architecture, arts, elements, shapes and
121
forms, are distinct features evolving through time,
containing spiritual and symbolic meanings and
expressing historical and cultural values. The
architecture of Navab lacks almost all the
mentioned features. The façades are too simple
and uniform. Its important decorative feature is a
combination of gray, red, and yellow that is in
contrast with the colorless urban context.
The meaningful landmarks could also be
regarded as influential elements of identity. Navab
due to the contrast between its physical
characteristics and its context is a prominent
landmark in the city. However, the legibility of this
landmark decreases considerably with the observer
located inside. Although different phases are
designed in different colors, the buildings convey
no information to the observer for they carry a
uniform spirit. Intersections, normally acting as a
node, are now either destroyed or transformed
into concrete bridges.
Vitality
A mixed-use pattern attracts group(s) of people
and provides a setting for social interactions. Old
Navab has served as a center with a variety of
activities, which can be traced in the number of
wholesalers and retailers, urban office buildings,
local firms, banks, clinics, cultural spaces,
restaurants and hotels, schools, industrial small
workshops, stores, and other local and urban
facilities. At present, the area is dominated by
residential buildings and shops.
The pattern of land division allows the possibility
to design various forms and functions, and could
thus be regarded as a means of creating vitality.
Despite the huge blocks that constitute the Navab
landscape, the local shops on the ground floor
dominate the space here and provide a fine grain.
The orientation of building entrances could be
important in creating vitality. All the main building
entrances in Navab are oriented towards the
highway and open to the sidewalks. This may result
in lively pedestrian movement and a means of
increasing vitality of place. In the back, however,
the situation is quite different, there is no entrance
to the buildings but a dead space between old and
new. Although, the existence of adaptable urban
spaces is a key factor in creating vitality, focusing
on financial benefits of land uses, has led to limited
open space in the site. Urban spaces in Navab
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 114-127, Spring 2007

Table 2. Navab Project evaluation matrix; Metropolitan level

Evaluation
Criteria Accessibility
Place Identity Vitality Security Public Services

Performance
Criteria

€
€

area.
spaces

streets
context

Iranian

rel. with
facilities

building
centrality

mixed use
functional

Project

landmarks
meaningful

focal points
back streets

recreational
underpasses

relation with

architectural

traffic volume
main religious
enclosed areas
office buildings

buildings of the
features in pub.
Components

adaptable urban
cultural facilities

pedestrian access
demolished areas

surrounding main
areas of poor light
commercial centers

north-south
z c c z z c c c c c c c c z z c c
transit
underpasses z c z c c c c c c c c
overpasses z c z c c c c c c
nodes c c c z c c c c c c c z c c z c c c
residential
c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c z
buildings
commercial
c c c c c c c c z c c c c c z c
buildings
religious
c c z c c c c c c c c c c c z c
buildings
office buildings c c c c c c c c c c c z c
open spaces c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
activity pattern c c c c c c z z z c c c c c c z c c c
linear design
z c z z c c z z c c c c c c c c c
pattern
architectural style c c c c c c c c c

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 Bahrainy, H. and Aminzadeh, B.

Table 3. Navab Project evaluation matrix; Local level

Evaluation
Criteria
Accessibility Place Identity Vitality Security Public Services

Performance
Criteria

act.
park

public
spaces

streets
context
features

quality of
centrality

walkways
mixed use
functional

landmarks
local shops
local shops

Project
Lighting €

back streets

to sidewalks

underpasses

surrounding
relation with
relation with
architectural
by the project

transportation
mosque & other
adaptable urban
Components

relation with sur.

building oriented

pedestrian passes
relation bet. local
fine grain pattern

sense of neighbor.
pedest. underpass

cul de sucs created

quality of over and

functional distance

local lanes c c c c z c z z z c c c c c z
pedestrian c
c c c c c c c z z c z c
underpass
pedestrian c
c c c c c c c c c c c c
overpasses
nodes z c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
parking (on street) c c c z z c c c z z c
stairs &ramps c c c c c c c c c c c c
back streets z z c z c c c c z c c c c z c c
building (arch.) c c c c c c c z c c
color c c z c z c z c z c
linear design c
c c c z c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c
pattern
residential blocks c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c z c c c c
religious buildings c c c c c c c z c c z z c c c c
local shops c z c c z c z c z z z c c c z c c
park c c c c c z c z z z z c c
z positive impact no impact
c negative impact € reversible impacts

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 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 114-127, Spring 2007
Project do not allow activities, sittings and social
interaction. Apart from Boostan, a small one
hectare park on the intersection of a local street
and the highway, no other public park is available
in the area.
Security
Based on the observations and analyses that
looked for people’s use of open spaces, it was
identified that less antisocial behaviors take place
in Boostan park which is mainly used by children.
Areas with closed views including under bridges,
the pedestrian underpasses in phase 1, in front of
inactive places such as vacant shops and offices
are susceptible and easily occupied by the special
groups such as drug addicts and dealers. The
residences of the surrounding areas believe that
the unsecured attitude of the Navab extends to
their areas, as cul de sacs are also becoming a
hangout for offenders. As mentioned before, the
narr ow alleys that separate Navab from
surrounding areas set the conditions for special
groups which attract offenders.
Lighting could also be regarded as a key factor
for security. In two completed phases, adequate
lighting has been provided in the motorway, but
Table 4. Summary evaluation of Navab Project, based on five selected criteria
ACCESSIBILITY
o Increased accidents
o The problem of highway crossing
o Insufficient number of pedestrian passes
o Unsuitable overpasses for children and elderly
o Overcrowding
o Increased North-South transit access
o Inappropriate sidewalks
o No handicap and biking access
o Blocking local streets by the highway
• Increased North-South transit access
PLACE IDENTITY
o Lack of identifiable spatial structure
o Lack of spatial and physical identity of
mosques
o Physical disintegration
o Meaningless buildings and spaces
o No historical and cultural continuity
o Imposed uniformity of buildings
o Strong contrast with surrounding
• Colorful facades
• Prominent metropolitan landmark
z positive impact
c negative impact
124
the poor lighting in the overpasses has created
undesirable and unsafe places in these areas. The
minimal lighting has caused pedestrians to use
them much less after the sunset. The areas with
low social interactions increase the likelihood of
attracting special groups; semi-dark routes are
among the preferred spaces for such groups. Poor
lighting results in increasing the fear of crime, less
use by pedestrians and more by offenders.
Public Services
With the estimated population of 350,000 by
the time of implementation and the demolishing of
all of the existing urban and local services in the
area, no school, hospital, playground or park
(except for the small park in phase 1), cultural
spaces or sport facilities will be available to the
residents. Even the shops are very limited in type
and do not provide the everyday needs of the
residents.
Commercial activities are placed along the
edges in a far distance, therefore, they are not
localized which leads to an inefficient circulation.
Moreover, the poor maintenance of paths and lack
of safety for pedestrians passing through the
highway increase the functional distance.
VITALITY
o Single-use (residential) dominancy
o Unoccupied shops
o Dead spaces between the old and new
structures
o Inadequate open/urban spaces
o Lack of neighborhoodness
o Least relation with the other side of the
highway
o Lack of adequate maintenances
o Noise, vibration, and air pollution
o Adverse impacts on street life due to heavy
traffic
• Lively pedestrian movement in each sidewalk
SECURITY
o Too many indefensible spaces
o Poor lighting in the overpasses
o Dangers from traffic and crime
PUBLIC SERVICES
o Inadequate public services
o Overcrowding
o Uneven distribution of commercial uses
o Poor maintenance
 Evaluation of Navab Regeneration Project

Those living in Navab use facilities outside their made the area to appear as less desirable compared
own area and largely in the surrounding to surrounding older areas; thus the most deprived
neighborhoods, which also suffer from lack of occupy the buildings. Although design solutions
sufficient local facilities. This has resulted in over- can help, but without public control it is difficult to
crowding and an overburden on neighborhood improve the security of a place. Gentrification has
facilities. resulted in the loss of belonging to the place, and
lack of market interest intensifies the problem. The
Functional centrality could be regarded as a
project has had some positive effects on the
key factor in the arrangement of activities. The
surrounding area as it has encouraged private
absence of a center, the linear form of the project
sector to begin reconstructing the area.
together with random placing of shops have made
access to urban and local services difficult. The result of the evaluation (Table 4) shows
that, in contrast to the claims made by the city
Tables 2 and 3 show the impacts of the project,
authorities, and projects’ architects that the high
on the metropolitan and local levels. Constructing
quality of the project would make it as a model,
urban highways in old and congested urban fabrics
and the principles developed here could be
results in a blending of traffic, at different scales.
applicable everywhere else, the project has failed,
The study shows that due to the weak relationship
as it inflicted deep breakdown in the organic
with surrounding and setting design priority to
structure of the social and physical fabric of the
vehicles over pedestrians, Navab Highway has
area. The new mega structures that replaced the
caused a serious fragmentation in the previously
small, single, traditional houses and other structures
integrated fabric of this part of the city. Not only
have created overwhelming inhuman walls on two
does this physical discontinuity has led to a cut-
sides of this machine tunnel. Interaction between
off in the existing sidewalks and streets, but has
east and west neighborhoods has been severely
also resulted in a dissociation of neighborhoods
damaged. This has made the civil life in the area
and social interactions, between different
practically cut.
neighborhoods as well as in neighborhoods
themselves. The hasty decision made by the municipality
together with ill-defined strategies and deficiencies
A general comparison of the physical character
in the design process has led to a reduction in the
of the project with the existing fabric of the area
role of local authorities, private partnership, and
indicates that the project will ultimately develop
public participation. The result of such process is
its own identity ‫ ــ‬an identity different to that of its
a weak and problematic physical restructuring,
residents. No congruence can be detected between
with slow speed implementation, high financial risk
the architectural meanings, the pattern of building
associated with such massive investments,
composition, size, proportions, colors, shapes,
dissatisfied users, and physical and social adverse
activities, and landmarks, and local cultural context.
impacts on the surrounding neighborhoods.
Although Navab lacks distinct buildings, landscape
features and elements that can, as landmarks,
CONCLUSION
create identity and make its modular, standard, and
This paper explained how and why the
uniform structure legible, the whole project
planning and design of Navab Project has
provides a landmark in urban scale, which is mostly
essentially failed. The evaluation of Navab Project
due to its sharp contrast with the surrounding area.
has revealed many significant points that offer
The single land use‫ ـــ‬residential‫ ـــ‬, linear pattern
important lessons for urban reconstruction
of activities, a design dictating people’s lifestyle
activities in Iran, as well as similar contexts of
and thus ignoring the flexibility and adaptability of
other countries. Main reasons for the Project’s
urban spaces has resulted in creation of passive
failure can be summarized as follows:
places.
• Lack of urban design as a framework for
Housing is mainly intended for low and architectural activities
medium-income buyers, but displacement and • Lack of a systematic, explicit and open
gentrification has reduced social conditions, and decision-making process;

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 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 114-127, Spring 2007
• Lack of evaluation, particularly cost-benefit
analysis (economic as well as social and
environmental) in developing and selecting
alternatives;
• Lack of effectuation and monitoring to
correct the mistakes.
• Lack of a feasibility study to justify the
project’s goals;
• Lack of legal justification for property
ownerships;
• Compulsory evacuation/relocation of
residents/businesses in the early stages of
• redevelopment;
• Lack of a defined authority for the project
management;
• Lack of adequate and effective mechanism
for people’s participation in the process;
• Interest groups have not been involved in the
design process.
• The traditional structure of neighborhoods has
been destroyed.
• Environmental issues and the dynamic nature
of city development in central city have not
been taken into consideration.
• No attention has been made to the changes
of land values on the strip edges.
• Accessibility, place identity, vitality, security,
and public facilities are the main substantive
elements to be considered as essential
weaknesses of the project.
The evaluation and analysis of the Navab
project once again reconfirms that a government-
controlled planning and design, which lacks the
process of public/private collaboration often leads
to problems in the design/ decision-making process
and the eventual failure of the product. As the
project was heavily dependent on the conventional
theme of government does it all, it failed to respond
to the desires, expectations, lifestyles, and tastes
of the users, directly, and residents of the whole
city, indirectly. So wrong process could lead to
wrong product, or a wrong product is the result of
a wrong process.
It is quite disappointing that in a time when the
dominant theoretical views in urban design, such
as sustainability, ecological design, new urbanism,
collaborativism, and process-oriented design are
emphasizing on the key issues mentioned above,
126
Navab Project is being designed and implemented
without any slightest attention to these concerns.
We may, therefore, conclude that a wrong process
has led to a wrong product. The authors hope that
the lessons learned from this kind of failure can
be used to improve the design process for large-
scale urban projects, and prevent future failures.
To prevent some of these problems in the
future, more partnership between private and
public interests need to be encouraged. A
participatory place making, supports and enhances
the compatibility between built form and the needs
of a community. This can be done by a conductive
organization through which public and private
investments can be canalized, through which
stakeholders all can participate in the
reconstruction process. The government, urban
planners and architects should act as facilitators
and catalysts in the planning and design process
to create an apparatus for people-centered
planning to promote the feeling of locality and
foster a more place-focused public reconstruction
policy. It may be also concluded that in an activity
as complex as urban design, particularly in a
traditional context such as old textures of Iranian
cities, application of a thorough process may in
fact serve a significant goal by itself in capacity
building, empowerment, education, and public
awareness.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is based on the findings of a
research project carried out at the Graduate
Faculty of Environment, with the financial support
of the Vice Chancellor for Research of the
University of Tehran.
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ISSN: 1735-6865

Economic Valuation of Premature Mortality and Morbidity

Karimzadegan, H.1* , Rahmatian, M.2, Farhood, D.3 and Yunesian, M.3
1
Lahijan Campus, IAU, Lahijan, Iran
2
California State University, Fullerton, USA
3
Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health and Institute
of Health Researches, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Received 5 Sep 2006; Revised 25 Nov 2006; Accepted 12 Dec 2006

ABSTRACT: The air in Tehran is one of the most polluted airs in the entire world. Because of the air
pollution in the Great Tehran area, morbidity, mortality and symptoms emerge. This study has been
conducted for the first time in Iran. According to this study the total annual direct medical costs of
morbidity estimated at US$ 3258255.48.Our work also led to the estimation of an income elasticity of
WTP for reduction in the probability of premature mortality ,that is, an income elasticity of the value
of a statistical life. The total annual mortality damage cost estimated at US$ 232538684.38. Contingent
valuation (CV) was utilized in order to place monetary values on symptoms. By using CV, the economic
value of each symptoms was estimated per person per day. The use of CV in this study required that
a questionnaire be prepared and the Willingness to Pay of Tehran citizens be estimated by a random
sampling. Finally the total health damage costs of air pollution in Tehran or benefits of reducing air
pollution estimated at US$ 663776276 annually.

Key words: Symptom, contingent valuation method, Willingness to pay, value of statistical life,
Cost of illnesses
*Corresponding author: Email-hakarimzadegan@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
A number of economic studies have been
published in the developed countries to value the
health effects of air pollution, but relatively few
studies have taken place in countries with
significantly lower incomes. In a Bangkok,
Thailand study, Chestnut, et al. (1997) found that
the WTP for avoiding a respiratory-illness day
actually exceeds what would be predicted
following a simple national income adjustment,
suggesting that health may be viewed as a basic
necessity and “that those with lower incomes may
be willing to pay a higher share of that income to
protect their health.” Alberini and Krupnick
(1998) reached a similar conclusion in a
comprehensive health valuation study of three
urban areas in Taiwan. More recently, Bowland
and Begin (2001) derived a prediction function
for developing countries. For the first time this
study has been done in Tehran. Tehran, the
capital of Iran, has a population of about 7 million
people which is about 10 percent of the total
population of the country. The area of Tehran is
2500 km2 which constitutes about 15 percent of
the total area of the country. In general, 20
percent of the total energy of the country is
consumed in Tehran. The air in Tehran is one of
the most polluted airs in the entire world.
Pollutants such as SO2, NO2, HC, PM10 and CO
are the major air pollutants in Tehran, about 80-
85 percent of which is produced by mobile
sources of pollution (Sci, 2002).
At the moment, the concentration of these
pollutants is higher than the standard level most
of the time which means that they have numerous
effects on the health of Tehran citizens. These
effects can be divided into categorizes from
headaches to premature mortality (Osto,1987).
In this paper, we have tried to distinguish the
health effect of air pollutants in Tehran, and then
estimate the monetary value of these effects by
using different methods.

128
 Karimzadegan H. et al.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Unfortunately, there are few estimates of the
V.S.L. for developing nations in the economics
literature. With this in mind, Bowland and Beghin
(2001) conducted a Meta -Analysis of value of
statistical life (V.S.L) studies from the
industrialized Nations to derive a V.S.L. prediction
equation that could be used for developing
countries. This equation accounts for difference
in risk, human capital levels, and perhaps more
importantly, income between more and less
developed nations. At the beginning of this study,
the V.S.L. of Iran was calculated. The V.S.L. is
the Willingness to Pay of the people of a society
to reduce one case of fatality among those who
die. The meaning of V.S.L. is quite different from
the Value of Life which estimates the value of life
of a specific person. Therefore, in this study, we
use the concept of V.S.L. which is different from
the concept of the value of life of a specific person.
The concept of V.S.L. is used for policy-making
and social and governmental decision makings
around the world. Based on the existing studies,
V.S.L. generally has a wide extent, which is quite
natural considering the different methods that are
used in estimating the V.S.L.
There is no doubt that these monetary
estimates can be quite different based on the
differences in cultural norms and the income levels
of different countries. Therefore, as the V.S.L. is
estimated in Iran for the first time, the most
necessary effort was made in this study so that
by using the current scientific methods in the
world, the estimation of V.S.L. would be
accomplished with maximum care and precision
In recent years, environmental economists and
policy makers have taken a lot of effort to estimate
the value of change in the quality of the
environment, and especially in reducing air
pollution and its effect on the reduction of mortality
in developing countries. One of these efforts is
estimating V.S.L. through income elasticity
method. This elasticity, which Bowled and Beghin
estimate to range from 1.52 to 2.269, can be
expressed as part of the following formula:
WTPA=WTPB (INCA/INC-B)a
Where A and B subscripts denote two different
countries, WTP represent the willingness to pay
129
for a particular health effect (here, the value of
avoiding premature death), and INC denotes the
per capital income in each nation. The a term is
the income elasticity of WTP.
To provide a check on the validity of our
previous V.S.L. estimates, we use this Bowland-
Beghin along with our Iranian V.S.L. numbers, to
infer the value of a for Iran. Assuming a US value
of statistical life of $5 million, PPP-adjusted per
capital incomes to estimate the V.S.L. through this
method, the simple concept of income elasticity in
microeconomics is used. Using this method, it is
possible to use the V.S.L. of other countries to
determine the V.S.L. for Iran. When the V.S.L.
of another country is used to estimate the V.S.L.
of Iran, the effect of income should be considered
in the estimation and the V.S.L. should be adjusted
on that basis. In order to achieve more precision
and care, in this study the researchers used three
income elasticity of 1, 1.5, and 2. If WTPA is kept
constant, the elasticity of 1 will show a higher
elasticity compared to 1.5. Similarly, the income
elasticity of 1.5 demonstrates a higher elasticity
compared to income elasticity of 2 for Iran.
Therefore, the income elasticity of 1 is Upper
Limit, the income elasticity of 2 is Lower Limit
and the income elasticity of 1.5 is mid Limit.
In order to estimate the direct medical costs,
at first, the list of all the hospitals of Tehran were
obtained from the Ministry of Health, Treatment
and Medical Education. Then, regarding the nature
and type of the illnesses caused by the air pollution
in Tehran, it was clear that the patients would
mainly be found in General hospitals. Therefore,
the list of all the general hospitals in Tehran was
prepared in order to cost effectiveness.
After the list of the general hospitals in Great
Tehran area was prepared, these hospitals were
divided into the following 5 main groups based on
the type of the managing organization.
Group 1 – Medical Science Hospitals
Group 2 – Private Hospitals
Group 3 – Social Security Hospitals
Group 4 – Charity Hospitals
Group 5 – Hospitals that were dependent on other
organizations (Others).
In order to estimate the direct medical costs,
sufficient number of general hospitals were
selected from each of the above groups based on
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 128-135, Spring 2007
the rating of the hospitals (ratings were 1, 2, and
3) from among the hospitals that had codification
systems (at least one hospital from each group).
Then, all the files pertaining to the illnesses caused
by Tehran air pollution in 2002 were extracted.
After that, 10 percent of these files were selected,
the required information were extracted from the
files and registered in the prepared forms. This
information included the number of the patient’s
file, age, sex, the costs of hoteling, cost of drugs,
cost of physician, cost of surgery, cost of
physiotherapy, cost of consumed materials,
duration of hospitalization, type of insurance, job
and the total expenditure. In the end, the mean of
the total direct costs of each illness in each and
every group of hospitals was estimated.
The Contingent valuation (CV) was utilized
in order to place monetary values on symptoms
avoidance. CVM plays a major role in research
aimed at estimating the value of non- market
goods. Basic to the survey technique for valuing
non- market goods is establishing a hypothetical
market in which a commodity/service can be
traded. A survey instrument was developed to
obtain Willingness to pay (WTP) estimates for
preventing future symptoms. A pilot survey was
conducted to assess the effectiveness of the
preliminary survey instrument and to identify any
difficulties respondents might encounter in
answering the questions posed. We also assessed
whether the questions captured the range of
circumstances of the selected subjects. And were
flexible enough to cover most respondent’s status.
The results of the pilot surveys were used an
assess whether changes were needed before full
survey implementation was undertaken.
Standard contingent valuation techniques were
employed in this study where the total societal WTP
to prevent 10 different symptoms were estimated.
We also utilized the survey to obtain a monetary
value on the individual WTP to prevent a set of
symptoms. Finally, we estimated average societal
WTP for each symptom independently. Ten
symptoms were identified for valuation: Cough,
shortness of breath, chest pain, irregular heartbeat,
vomiting headache, sore throat, eye irritation and
impatience. Three thousand random surveys were
completed from the population of the Greater
Tehran Area. To collect the desired information
130
through the survey technique the following steps
were taken. First, the interviewers introduced
themselves and presented the purpose of the study.
After the introduction, a detailed description of good
health and how it is negatively impacted by
symptoms was given. This section was designed
to give all respondents homogenous information
regarding good health and its values. Once the
objective of the survey was fully understood a series
of questions were asked to determine respondents’
overall health and lifestyle. For instance, rating their
health status, whether they suffer from any air
pollution health related symptoms, smoking habit,
and overall health status were among the questions
asked in this section. Finally, the respondents were
specifically asked about whether they had
experienced any of the 10 symptoms during the
last month. The next section of the survey was
designed to determine the individual’s concern for
better health and being cured from any of the
symptoms. Although one does not typically place a
dollar value on improved health, such items do
possess market value. Since deterioration in health
negatively impacts individuals, utility. We are
interested in finding out how much improved health
is being valued. In this section, the individual
respondents were placed in a marked- like situation
and were asked about their willingness to pay for
improved health. Respondents were divided into two
groups; those who had experienced one or more
symptoms during the last month and those who did
not experience any symptoms during the same time.
This separation aimed to determine whether the
recent experience with any of these symptoms
would have any impact on bids offered.
Furthermore, before bid elicitation the individual
monthly income and total expenditures were asked
and recorded. This question was asked to force
the respondent to consider their budget constrain
during their valuation. Following this instruction,
respondent were then asked to state their
willingness to pay to avoid having any of these
symptoms. Respondent were asked to place a dollar
value on all symptoms independently and asked to
be as accurate as possible. We must note that this
procedure constitute a direct attempt to determine
how much improve health is valued. The willingness
to pay a question was designed as follow: “if you
were placed in a hypothetical market and are to
purchase avoidance of any of the listed symptoms,
 Economic Valuation of Premature Mortality
giving your budget constraint, please identify your
willingness to pay for avoiding one day of these
symptoms”.Finally, in the last part of the survey
the respondent were asked a set of socioeconomic
question in the following order: sex, age, marital
status, education level, whether the respondent is
the primary income earner, number of people in
the household, employment status and how many
hours per day spend outdoors. These questions
were asked because the knowledge of key
parameters, such as age and income, was
expected to be useful in accounting adequately
for the difference in behavior across individual.
The variations in socioeconomic characteristics
are assumed to explain the observed difference
among individuals. The collection of socioeconomic
data also helps the researcher to obtain a sample,
which encompasses different types of people in
such a way as to be more representative of the
total population. In summer 2002, nearly 3000
survey were completed from the residents of
Tehran, Iran, regarding their preference related
to preventing future symptom episodes. The
symptom episodes were defined to be those that
have been associated with air pollution, but air
pollution was not presented to survey as a factor
in their chance of having a future symptom
episode. After the data were collected and
organized, the analysis of the data was conducted.
This section presents results obtained from
information collected in the survey described in
the previous section. All values are given as”
means” with “standard deviations” in parentheses.
Table 10 summarizes the socio-economic variables
of the sample; all values are means with their
standard deviation in parentheses. After the
questionnaire was prepared and pilot studies were
conducted, as the incidence of the minimum index
of the symptoms in the study was P = 0.02, with a
confidence level of 0.95 and at d=0.005 level of
significance, the sample volume was estimated to
be 3000. In order that the questionnaires be filled
in, all the citizens of Tehran, Eslamshahr and Shahre-
Rey were divided into clusters, with each cluster
including 450 people. The 450-people clusters were
chosen so that there would be enough chance for
the selection of people at the age of 18 and above.
In the first stage, from among all the 450-people
clusters, 60 clusters were randomly selected. These
clusters were selected from among the complete
list and framework of the blocks that were provided
131
by Iran Statistics Center. The procedure was
conducted in such a way that the probability of the
selection of the clusters in each block would
correspond to the volume of the clusters in each
block of proportion probability sampling (P.P.S). In
the next stage, those who were 18 and above were
enlisted. From among them, and by using simple
random selection method, 50 people were selected
and interviewed.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
In this section, we use income elasticity
methods to derive an estimate of the value of a
statistical life (V.S.L.) for Iran (Table 1). The
following formula is used for converting Exchange
rate to ppp, purchasing power parity, (World Bank,
2003)
Gross National Income per capita of (GNI) of Iran 2002
ppp = 6230 = 3.56
Gross National Income (GNI) per capita of Iran 1750
Among the illnesses under study, Angina,
Arrhythmia, CVA and COPD demonstrated
relationships with air pollution in Tehran (Table 4).
Regarding the item of number of deaths, the
calculations have been conducted in two different
ways: one based on different age groups (under 1,
1-35, 35-65, over 65) and the other without regarding
the age. Only one of them should be used when
adding up.We remind the reader here again that if
we are to obtain the number of incidences pertaining
to the air pollution (or the preventable number, in
case of the reduction in air pollution) we should first
define an obtainable level, and then obtain the results
using the presented coefficients and a simple
calculation. It is obvious that defining an obtainable
level of reduction in air pollution is the responsibility
of organizations that are involved in evaluation,
planning and administration; and that what is
presented in this paper as the number of incidences
pertaining to air pollution is an estimation of the
number of acute and preventable health problems
pertaining to air pollution in three air pollution
reduction scenarios. Table 6 demonstrates mariginal
(per each unit increase in pollutants pre day)health
damage costs of premature mortality caused by air
pollution in tehran. After 3000 questionnaires which
belonged to 60 blocks in Great Tehran Area were
filled in, the gathered data were analyzed by SPSS
computer software. The results of these analyses
are presented in the Tables 10-14.
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 128-135, Spring 2007

Table 1. The results obtained from the Income Table 2. The Mean of the Direct Medical Costs
Elasticity Method for the estimation of V.S.L. based on the type of the Illness in the Hospitals of
in Iran 2002 Tehran (US$ 2002)
V.S.L.(US$) V.S.L. (US$) Type of Illness Cost
Number Elasticity
ppp* Exchange rate Unstable angina. Angina Pectoris.
1 1 893318 250932 Coronary artery disease (CAD). 421.83
2 1.5 200122 56214 Ischemic heart disease (IHD)
3 2 44831 12593 Arrhythmia, dysrhythmias 1399.86
* Purchasing Power Parity CVA 1611.66
Chronic obstructive pulmonary
Table 3. Marginal (Per each unit increase in obstruction (asthma chronic 598.99
pollutant per day) number of mortality in different bronchitis, emphysema, …
age groups and the confidence level of %95
(Yunesian, 2002) Table 4 . Marginal (per each unit increase in
Number of Increased pollutants per day) number of hospitalizations in
items Tehran with the confidence level of %95
Age Group Pollutant (Yunesian, 2002)
Upper Lower Me
Limit Limit an
Number of increased
Mortality in all PM 10 0.049 0.007 0.028
item
ages SO2 0.076 0.016 0.046 Illness Pollutant
Upper Lower
Mortality among CO 0.204 0.023 0.113 Mean
Limit Limit
people aged 30-65 SO2 0.029 0.003 0.016
Angina CO 1.09 0.258 0.68
Mortality among
Arrhythmia PM 10 0.046 0.0086 0.027
people aged over PM 10 0.028 0.004 0.016
CVA NO 2 0.03 0.0023 0.017
65
COPD CO 0.52 0.06 0.29

Table 5. Estimation upon Maximum 10 percent of Days Over standard Level of Japan, 2002 (Yunesian, 2002)
Maximum
Effect Mean daily Mean Annual Minimum
Group Pollutant Annual
Group effect/unit Effect Annual Effect
Effect
All Death PM10 0.028 786.8378 196.70945 1376.96615
All Death SO2 0.046 228.6798 79.5408 377.8188
Death 30-65 CO 0.113 397.6018 80.9278 717.7944
30-65 SO2 0.016 79.5408 14.9139 144.1677
Over 65 PM10 0.016 449.6216 112.4054 786.8378
Angina CO 0.68 2392.648 900.7616 3835.274
Arrhythmia PM10 0.027 758.73645 241.67161 1292.6621
Hospitalization
CVA NO2 0.017 356.97365 48.296435 629.9535
COPD CO 0.29 1020.394 211.116 1829.672
Efficacy PM10 2580 72501483 34283647 111281346
Nausea SO2 575 2858497.5 939575.7 4782390.6
Eye SO2 915 4548739.5 1004202.6 8103219
Telephone Eye PM10 1940 54516619 16411188.4 92734455
survey Headache SO2 1430 7108959 2351424.9 11881407
Headache PM10 4040 113529454 52830538 174509383.5
Sputum NO2 961 20179510.45 6488521.05 33807504.5
Cough NO2 946 19864533.7 4094697.75 35697365

The results show that the highest average of
WTP for moodiness was 14993.72 Rials. WTP
for headache was 12085.66 Rials, WTP for
efficacy was 11953.33 Rials, WTP for eye
irritation was 9124.38 Rials, WTP for cough was
8999.87 Rials, WTP for nausea was 7236.17 Rials,
WTP for sputum was 6956.33 Rials and WTP for
sore throat was 6743.83 Rials. Regarding the
symptoms, it was found that there were
meaningful relationships between the following
pairs: particles which were smaller than 10
micrometer with decrease in efficacy, eye
132
irritation and headache; SO2 with nausea, eye
irritation and headache; and NO2 with sore throat,
cough and sputum. In order to estimate the total
number of symptoms, we should first see how
much it is possible to reduce the air pollution, and
then, we can calculate the number of occurrences
that are avoidable based on this reduction in air
pollution. In this report, in order to obtain an
estimate of the magnitude of avoidable (and
measurable) consequences of air pollution, the
Japanese standards were used as the allowable
limits for the pollutants.
 Karimzadegan H. et al.

Table 6. Mariginal (per each unit increase in pollutants per day) health damage costs of premature
mortality caused by air pollution in Tehran (US$ 2002)
Pollutant Age Upper Limit Lower Limit Mean
Under 1 year
1-30
SO2 microgram/m3 30-65 7277.03 752.80 4014.91
Over 65
All ages 19070.83 4014.91 11542.87
Under 1 year
1-30
CO2 miligram/m3 30-65 51190.13 5771.44 28355.32
Over 65
All ages
Under 1 year
1-30
PM10 microgram/m3 30-65
Over 65 7026.09 1003.73 4014.91
All ages 12295.67 1756.52 7026.10

Table 7. Annual health damage costs of premature mortality caused by air pollution in tehran based on
maximum %1 of days in which the level of pollutants has been higher than the standard level (US$ 2002)
Pollutant Age Upper Limit Lower Limit Mean
Under 1 year
1-30
SO2 30-65 36184394.4 378886.8 19949094
Over 65
All ages
Under 1 year
1-30
CO 30-65 180093896.38 20300398.8 99770563.2
Over 65
All ages
Under 1 year
1-30
PM10 30-65
Over 65
All ages 18947433297.63 2820481.8 112819027.2

Table 8. Marginal(per each unit increase in pollutants per day) health damage costs of hospitalizations caused
by air pollution in Tehran (US$ 2002)
Type of Illness Pollutant Lower Limit Upper Limit Mean
Unstable angina. Angina Pectoris. Coronary artery
CO 108.83 459.79 286.84
disease (CAD). Ischemic heart disease (IHD)
Arrhythmia, dysrhythmias PM10 12.04 1.25 37.80
CVA NO2 3.71 48.35 27.40
Chronic obstructive pulmonary obstruction (asthma
CO 35.94 311.47 173.71
chronic bronchitis, emphysema, …

Table 9.Total direct costs of illnesses caused by air pollution in Tehran based on maximum %1 of days in
which the level of pollutants has been higher than the Japan standard level (Rial, 2002)*
Type of Illness Pollutant Lower Limit Upper Limit Mean
Unstable angina. Angina Pectoris. Coronary artery 380065.3
CO 1617703.19 1009429.92
disease (CAD). Ischemic heart disease (IHD) 4
Arrhythmia, dysrhythmias 338766.7
PM10 1810022.21 1062495.64
3
CVA NO2 77359.46 1015341.84 575361.01
Chronic obstructive pulmonary obstruction (asthma, 126386.7
CO 1096150.10 610968.91
chronic bronchitis, emphysema, … 1
Total 3258255.48
*1 US$= 9200 Rials

133
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 128-135, Spring 2007

Table 10. Socio-economic characteristics Table 11. WTP descriptive indices for each symptom
Income/ (Rial 2002)*
Household
AGE Education Month No. Illness Quantity Average S.D. Median
Size
(US$2002) 1. Cough 3000 8999.87 18483.28 4000
38.8 9.9 4.5 254 2. Sputum 3000 6956.33 15956.31 3000
(15.5) (4.68) (1.7) (215) 3. Nausea 3000 7236.17 12962.88 4000
The Standard Deviation is mentioned in the parentheses 4. Headache 3000 12085.66 20648.35 5000
5. Sore throat 3000 6743.83 11590.32 3000
6. Eye Irritation 3000 9124.38 15089.25 5000
7. Moodiness 3000 14993.72 25592.54 7000
8. Efficacy 3000 11953.33 20753.14 5000
*1 US$= 9200 Rials

Table 12. Increase number of symptoms for each level of pollutants with average daily symptoms and a
confidence level of %95 (Yunesian, 2002)
Number Of Increased Occurrence
Symptom Pollutant
Upper limit Lower limit Mean
Efficacy PM10 3.96E+03 1.22E+03 2.58E+03
Nausea SO2 9.62E+02 1.89E+02 5.75E+02
Eye irritation SO2 1.63E+03 2.02E+02 9.15E+02
PM10 3.30E+03 5.84E+02 1.94E+03
Sore throat NO2 2.39E+03 4.73E+02 1.43E+03
Headache SO2 2.39E+03 4.73E+02 1.43E+03
PM10 6.21E+03 1.88E+03 4.04E+03
Sputum NO2 1.61E+03 3.09E+02 9.61E+02
Cough NO2 1.70E+03 1.95E+03 9.46E+02

Table13. Marginal (per each unit increase in pollutants per day) health damages cost of the symptoms
(Rial 2002)*
Symptom Pollutant Upper Limit Lower Limit Mean
Efficacy PM10 47335186.8 14583062.6 30839591.4
Nausea SO2 6961195.54 1367636.13 4160797.75
SO2 17610053.4 1843124.76 8348807.7
Eye Irritation
PM10 30110454 5328637.92 17701297.2
SO2 28884727.4 5716517.18 17282493.8
Headache
PM10 75051948.6 22721040.8 48826066.4
Sputum NO 2 11199691.3 2149505.97 6685033.13
Cough NO2 15299779 1754974.65 8513877.02
*1 US$= 9200 Rials

Table14. Total annual health damages cost of the symptoms in Tehran based on Maximum %1 of days when the
level of pollutants has exceeded the standard level of Japan (Rial 2002)*
Symptom Pollutant Upper Limit Lower Limit Mean
Efficacy PM10 1330182625000 409803746200 866634151800
Nausea SO2 34606194280 6798931664 20684577470
SO2 73936849380 9162729769 41504423160
Eye Irritation
PM10 846144406500 149741915600 497430348100
SO2 143594645300 28418523070 85916461430
Headache
PM10 2109061070000 638491919900 1372078381000
Sputum NO2 235176161300 45136293290 140375337800
Cough NO2 321271644300 36849949720 178778223600
Total 3203401904000
*1 US$= 9200 Rials

The number of the symptoms was estimated
in such a way that in maximum 1 percent of days
the level of pollutants would exceed the Standard
Level of Japan. In order to calculate the above
points, the corresponding Z for each of the above
probabilities was extracted from the related
standard tables, and was then multiplied by the
standard deviation. The result of the multiplication
was deducted from the mean of the pollutants in
the year 2002, and the resulting figure was adopted

134
 Economic Valuation of Premature Mortality

as the feasible limit of the air pollution reduction.
The number of the avoidable symptoms was
calculated by multipying the “feasible limit of the
air pollution reduction” by the related coefficients
for each consequence (Yunesian 2002).
In this study except V.S.L we used Impact
pathway approach for assessment of health
damage cost in Tehran. For V.S.L an alternative
approach, transfer economic values from other
countries was used. Transferring economic values
to other countries typically relies on a simple scaling
based on national per capita output (or income)
rations between the country of intrest and the
developed counteries. Such a procedure contains
many drawbacks; the most obvious is the implicit
assumption that preferences for averted morbidity
and mortality are similar between the countries.
That they are also determined largely by income.
Use of such a simple transfer procedure also
assumes that the income elasticity of willingness-
to- pay ( α - WTP) for improved health (or death
avoided) is equal to 1.0 ( or that treating it as 1.0
captures all Other factors that may influence the
WTP). This, of course, ignores the potential
importance of other factors. At the current time,
we have very little data on how these difference
might affect preferences and how these relate to
willingness-to- pay. Some recent valuation studies
have begun to address the issue of income and
preferences in a developing country.
CONCLUSIONS
Considering the estimation of the health
damage costs caused by Tehran air pollution in
three categories of symptoms, mortality, and
morbidity. The total daily health damage costs of
the air pollution in Great Tehran area per each
unit increase of each pollutant has been estimated
in Table 15.
Table 15. Marginal health damage costs caused by
air pollution in Tehran (US$ 2002)
Pollutant US$
SO2 7739
NO2 1927
PM10 16224
CO 28816
Table 16. Total annual health damages cost caused
by air pollution in Tehran (US$ 2002)
Pollutant US$
SO2 38462277
NO2 40469556
PM10 483453481
CO 101390962
Total 663776276
higher than the standard level of Japan in maximum
%1 of the days in a year has been estimated to be
US$ 663776376. It goes without saying that this
figure in this study is the Lower Limit or the
minimum estimation of the health effects caused
by the air pollution in Tehran. If the indirect effects
and chronic effects are added to the above figure,
the total costs will become significantly higher.
REFERENCES
Alberini, A. and Krupnick, A., (1998). Air quality and
episodes of acute respiratory illness in Taiwan Cities:
Evidence from survey data. J. Urban Econom., 23, (4),
68-92.
Bowland, B. J. and Begin, J. C., (2001). Robust estimates
of value of a statistical life for developing economic. J.
Policy Model., 11 (2), 385-396.
Chestnut, L. G., Ostro B. D. and Vicht-Vadakan, N.
(1997). Transferability of air pollution control health
benefits estimates from the United States to developing
countries: Evidence from the Bangkok study. American
J. Agri. Econom., (3) 1630-1635.
Mitcheil, R. C. and Cavson, R. T., (1989). Using survey
to value public goods (C.V.M), John Hopkins pre air
pollutants.(Boltimor MD)
Osto, B., (1987). Air pollution and morbidity revisited:
a specification test. J. Environ. Econom. Manag., 12,
(4), 23-35.
Yunesian, M., (2002). Estimate health damages effects
by Air Pollution in great Tehran Area., under grant of
ieeo. University of Tehran .
World Bank, (2003). Sustainable Development in a
Dynamic World. (World Bank and Oxford University
Press).

In Table 16, The total annual health damage

costs, considering the reduction of pollutants in
such a way that the level of pollutants would be

135
Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 136-142, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Development of Water Quality Test Kit Based on Substrate

Utilization and Toxicity Resistance in River Microbial
Communities
Monavari, S.* and Guieysse, B.

Department of Biotechnology, Center for Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lund

University, P.O.Box 124,S-22100 Lund, Sweden
Received 24 Aug 2006; Revised 21 Dec 2006; Accepted 15 Jan 2007

ABSTRACT:Methods for measuring toxicity or respiratory activity of microbial cultures can be

used as tools for assessing the presence of chemicals and their impact on the streams. The proposed
toxicity test is based on the respirometric characteristics of the bacteria according to the principals
of Biolog’s microplate system. As the microorganism are utilizing the carbon source (peptone), the
reduction of the tetrazolium dye as the redox indicator is taking place, leading to a developing
change in the well’s color The tests provided us with information in regard to the toxicity range of
the chemicals with activated sludge and Alcaligenes.

Key words: Toxicity, Bioindicators, Monitoring, Microorganisms, Biodegradation, Substrate

*Corresponding Author E-mail: sanam.monavari@chemeng.lth.se

INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, toxicant levels in water effluents
and other sources have been estimated by bioassays
employing the micro and macro vertebrates. Lately,
there has been an increased tendency to use
microbial systems for screening toxicants as an
alternative to tests with animals. Bacterial
communities represent sensitive yet informative
indicators of the presence of toxic substances in the
environment. As prime mediators of biogeochemical
cycling, bacteria are ubiquitous, diverse, and adapted
to exist on dissolved substances that are often present
in the environment at very low concentrations.
Because of the versatility of bacterial populations,
some strains are capable of tolerating or even
thriving in the presence of high concentrations of a
potentially inhibitory substance, whereas others are
eliminated. The consumption of different
contaminants present in various industrial and
agricultural sectors through biodegradation, or
toxicity resistance to these pollutants by the
microbial communities can provide information
about pollutant exposure, metabolic diversity and
the potential source of contamination and the
potential for the ecosystem natural attenuation, thus
be a practical indicator of the water quality.
Microorganism-based assays have been developed
as practical and cost-effective methods for water
toxicity testing. Studies have shown that each
microbial species and test procedure has its own
sensitivity pattern to toxicant (Dukta and Kwan 1982)
and no single species is able to respond to all
chemicals (Toussaint, et al. 1995). Emerging the
microplate technology by the Biolog in late 1980
has provided the chance to apply a moderately
practical method to monitor the pollutants and their
toxicity levels in the environment. The 96-well
microplate was designed to test the ability of
inoculated microorganism suspensions to consume
(oxidize) a panel of different carbon sources. Each
well contains a redox dye, a specific carbon source,
and a buffered nutrient medium that has been
developed and optimized for a wide variety of
bacteria. (Stumm and Morgan 1996). Development
of redox sensitive dyes, such as tetrazolium, and
incorporation of these dyes into microtiter plates,
has allowed for rapid profiling of sole carbon source
consumption by bacterial isolates. Practically, when
redox dyes are used as the indicator, the response is
indicated by the change in color that is visual and
sometimes quit dramatic. The color change can be
quantified using common methods such as
spectrophotometry or even with naked eyes, and the

136
 Monavari, S. and Guieysse, B.
resulting data can be used to characterize the
environmental system conditions.
Basically, different organic compounds with
various concentrations will lead to different growth
and hence different biodegradation rates. On the other
hand, various strains may have wide range of lag
phase before they actually start the growth and
degradation process, which is leading to a shorter /
longer time of color formation. A lag phase may result
from a lack of acclimation of the microbial inoculum
to the wastewater. Usually, the more toxic the water
is, the longer the lag phase will be. The rate of
increase in the color development represents the rate
of substrate removal. More over, one should always
keep in mind that the inoculum density has a
considerable effect on the rate of color development.
Normally at higher concentration of the inoculum,
the color appears faster (Konopka, et al.1998).
Moreover, it is due to the different physiochemical
properties of various chemicals that they may have
different impacts on separate compounds of the
biological system. Theoretically, low toxicant
concentration may produce no observable effect
(NOEC), but as the concentration increase beyond a
critical level, an increasing adverse effect can be
observed, finally reaching death (Connel, et al. 1999).
To assess the toxicity of a compound on a biological
system, an observable and well defined effect
(endpoint) must be defined (Layton, et al. 1999). For
example, Bacterial toxicity tests measure a wide variety
of endpoints including population growth (Nenzda and
Seydel 1988), CO2 production (Jardin, et al. 1990),
mutagenicity (Ames, et al. 1973), enzyme biosynthesis
(Dutton, et al.1990) and glucose mineralization
(Reteuna, et al.1989).
Effet surles organismes en %
Concentration pollutant
Fig. 1. Terms related to the toxicity tests; Effective
concentrations on 20, 50 to 100 % of the population
(EC20, EC50, and EC100) and none observed
effective concentration (NOEC)
137
Majority of toxicity tests bring an estimate of the
amount which affects 50% of the population. It can
be for example the average lethal concentration
which kills 50% of the population. It is also possible
to consider the maximum concentration which does
not cause any effect. If the tests are carried out on
“end points” other than mortality then one defines
an EC pollutant affecting 50% of the population (Fig.
1). From this point of view, we proposed to develop
a rapid analytical water quality test kit to evaluate
the microbial utilization of substrates generated by
different industrial, domestic and agricultural sectors
and also a toxicity resistance test of the microbial
communities as potential bioindicators of water
quality on these substrates. Thus, being able to find
out more about the contaminated sites as well as
proposing the possible remediation.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Activated sludge as the main inoculum was
taken from Malmö waste water treatment plant and
kept in the fridge in closed bottles, it was aerated
before inoculation for two to three days by using a
normal pump in order to reactivate the existing
bacteria and remove the remaining biodegradable
organic matter present in the sample air to the
system. An Alcaligenes strain was taken from the
agar plates that contain a selective medium of these
bacteria containing nutrient agar, mineral salt
medium and 120 mg/L phenol. Then some colonies
were taken and introduced to a new medium,
cultivated in the flasks of 30 ml, in a shaker, at
room temperature in the dark place. The growth
medium was further supplied with 0.5 g/L phenol
and 0.5 g/L peptone, in order to reduce the phenol
content and at the same time help with the growth
rate. Following the cultivation period of three to
four days, bacterial growth was observed in the
flasks. Before the inoculation of the Alcaligenes
to the system, 15 to 20 mL (depending on the
number of the tests) of the cell suspension was
introduced to the sterile tubes and washed three
times. Each washing steps, started with the
centrifugation of the medium at 10000 rpm for 15
minutes, the discarding the supernatant and then,
the mixing of the cell pellets with a 15 to 20 ml
fresh mineral salts medium, without any addition
of phenol or peptone.
The toxicity tests were first conducted in glass
tubes with plastic caps (5 mL). In each set of the
experiment for every single contaminant, the tests
are done at least duplicate. The order of introducing
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 136-142, Spring 2007

different component to tubes was always been the tubes for the time of comparison, were always taken
same. Starting from the mineral salt medium, it was into consideration.
prepared according to the OECD 301D
Control tubes, were prepared and incubated
(Organization for Economic Co-operation and
under same conditions as the test tubes except the
Development) guidelines for testing of chemicals.
fact that they did not contain any pollutant. Toxicity
The volume of the MSM was dependent on the other
tests were also done in 96-wells microplates using
component in the test and was defined mainly based
the same protocol as described above but all the
on the variable concentrations of the substrates- total
volumes were adjusted to reach a final volume of
volume of the test (5 mL) minus the sum of the
250µL in each well.
volume of all the other components. Following the
addition of 500 µl of carbon source (peptone /
glucose) is added. The peptone used was the Table 2. The concentrations range of the toxicants
bacteriological peptone (total nitrogen 14.0; amino in the test
nitrogen 2.6; sodium chloride 1.6 % w/w and pH of Initial Concentration
6.3 at 25 ºC). The initial concentration of peptone Chemical concentration range, tested in
was 12 g/l (The concentration of peptone inside the (g/L) as stock the experiment
solution (mg/L)
medium was 1.2 g/L). The glucose solution was Cadmium Nitrate
made at concentration of 10 g/L, both carbon sources 20 0-200
trihydrate
were prepared under sterile condition in sterile Copper Nitrate 2 0-100
bottles and kept in the fridge. Then 50 µl of the redox Potassium Ferro
10 0-500
Cyanide
dye (Table1) was pipetted to the tubes. Then toxic Toluene 0,78 0-300
chemicals, the substrate (Table 2), in various range 2,4-Dichlorophenol
3,9 0-200
of concentrations was added to the tubes. Finally (DCP)
the last step was the inoculation of the 300 µl 4-Nitrophenol
16 0-1000
(PNP)
inoculum to tubes. Inoculation of activated sludge Pentachlorophenol
0,5 0-200
was done under normal conditions while with the (PCP)
Alcaligenes; inoculation of the bacteria was under Phenol 10 0-1800
Naphthalene 0.03 0-20
sterile condition. Then tubes were closed and shaken
to let all the components to be mixed. They were
incubated in room temperature in the dark. Although RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
the appropriate incubation time was between 24 to The results reveal that when peptone was used
48 hours to allow the color to form, the tubes were as the carbon source, the change in the color
checked every 12 hours for any color transformation happened faster rather than with glucose. Besides,
during the first 2 days and then every 24 hours up to when peptone is used, the color formation (resazurin
one week. The exact test was run in microplate, under as indicator) is much closer to the expected results
the same conditions and concentrations, parallel to (transparent and light pink). As a result peptone was
the test tubes. Any considerable change was recorded chosen as the carbon source to the medium. For the
as pictures, providing the chance for comparison. redox selection, the first sets of tests (peptone,
Besides, the necessity of the presence of control activated sludge, mineral medium and dye but no
inoculum) show that TTC, resazurin, methylen blue,
aniline blue, fast green and rhodamine 6G respectively
Table 1. Concentration of the stock solution of the
provided noticeable changes. In the three latter ones,
colors tested as indicators in the toxicity tests
the changes were around 50% of the initial color
Tested
Dye concentration
which may not be satisfactory when it comes to
range (g/L) application of the method in small volumes. Moreover
Aniline blue 1 – 0.1 -0.01 in the case of aniline blue the change in color may
Coomassine brilliant blue 0.1-0.01 come from the fact that it is a more easily
Rhoda mine 6G 0,1 biodegradable dye compared to others. So TTC (1 g/
Fast green FCF 0.1-0.01 L), resazurin and methylen blue (0.1 g/L) were tested
Phenol phethaleine 0.05 again (actual toxicity test) Methylen blue, hardly
Methylen blue 0.1 changed color in 72 hours and was not considered
Resazurin 0.1- 0.01 faster. With resazurin not only the experiments took
Triphenyl Tetrazolium chloride (TTC) 1-0.1 longer (at least three days), but also the color

138
 Development of Water Quality Test Kit
formation was not clear enough in some of the tests.
Accordingly, as the change in the color occurred were
fast (in average 48 h.) and clear, TTC was selected
as the redox indicator in the toxicity tests.Following
the choice of the indicator (TTC) and the carbon
source (peptone) the toxicity tests were run on
different toxicants chosen among the priority
pollutants list (EPA 2000) and after some
optimization, toxicity of each substance considering
the formed color, which represents the effective
concentration (EC), is discussed. In the discussion
part, Tables 3, 4 and the related graphs (Figs. 2 and
3) are two examples of the evaluation of the test
results for PCP and DCP as representatives of the
tests with other substrates on activate sludge and
Alcaligenes.
Figure 2 shows the toxicity of DCP at different
concentration on the activated sludge in relation to
the formed color. Both the tables and the graph
show that the EC100 was somewhere between 50
and 80 mg/L. Besides, NOEC (no observed
effective concentration) for DCP is up to the 20
mg/L and LOEC (lowest observed effective
concentration) is between 20 and 30 mg/L. For
PCP, EC100 (the concentration which has 100%
effect on the test organisms) was located at the
concentration of 50 mg/L where no change in color
and possibly no growth were reported, however,
LOEC was below 10 mg/L. Based on the same
practice, for naphthalene and toluene it is impossible
to come up with the values of EC100 or even LOEC
since. At all the concentrations which have been
tested, even after optimization, still the color
formation is more or less 100% (pink). This means
that none of the tested concentrations inhibited the
microorganisms. According to the tests, EC100 for
the PNP was around 20 mg/L. Besides, as growth
only recorded in the control, the NOEC and LOEC
were below 10 mg/L. For cyanide and phenol, the
case was almost like the toluene and naphthalene,
because although the optimization is done, still the
extreme change in color and growth was clearly
observable. The case of phenol and cyanide, as the
results were very far beyond the estimated range,
new stock solutions wer e made for them.
Consequently, the toxicity range of phenol has
changed and it is narrowed down to 1000 mg/L
which is absolutely normal but no change is observed
with cyanide meaning that the toxicity range is still
above 1000 mg/L, further investigation and
optimization are needed. Cadmium’s EC100 was in
a range of 80 to 100 mg/L, at the same time NOEC
and LOEC were respectively around 50 and 55 mg/L
139
Finally for Copper the EC100 laid between 20 and
50 mg/L and LOEC and NOEC were below 5 mg/L.
Knowing that the Alcaligenes are phenol-resistant,
provide us with the necessity of a cell-washing step
in advance to the inoculation. However if the intervals
between the cultivation of the bacteria and inoculation
is long, around a week, there is no need to do the
washing as probably the majority of phenol is
consumed by the bacteria. Test results show that
for PNP, DCP and PCP, the values for EC100 were
respectively between 10-20, 50 - 80 and 50- 80 mg/
L, while the LOEC was below 5 mg/l for PNP,
between 30-50 mg/l for DCP and below 10 mg/L for
PCP. At the same time with PNP and PCP, NOEC
were respectively below 5 and below 10 mg/L while
for DCP it is up to the 30 mg/L. The EC100, LOEC
and NOEC values are correspondingly; between 50-
100 mg/L, below 10 mg/L for cadmium and between
20-50 mg/L, in range of 5 and 10 mg/L, and below 5
mg/L for copper. The outcome of the toxicity test
with acclimated strain (Alcaligenes) on phenol,
toluene and cyanide was similar to the very same
case with the activated sludge. At all of tested
concentrations, the microbial growth was observed.
Therefore it was very difficult to vary the different
EC values. Still EC100 of cyanide on Alcaligenes
was recorded between 700 and 1000 mg/L, which
were lower than the activated sludge test.
According to the outcome of the experiments,
DCP (dichlor ophenol) had toxic effects on
thegrowth of bacteria above the concentration of 50
mg/L for both Alcaligenes and activated sludge.
WithPCP and PNP also, no differences in the intensity
have been observed, though in the case of PNP it is
not easy to limit the range due to the strong yellow
color of the own medium. Although it seems to be
strange to have the same range of toxicity for both
inoculums, it indicates that probably the dominant
consortium of bacteria in sludge functioning the same
as what Alcaligenes are doing in regard to toxicity.
Table 3.Toxicity test results on different concentrations
of DCP and PCP with Activated sludge
DCP,
Concentration 0 10 20 30 50 80* 100* 200*
(mg/L)
Color Intensity xxx xxx xxx xx - - - -
PCP,
Concentration 0 10 20 30 50* 80* 100* 200*
(mg/L)
color Intensity xxx x x x - - - -
((X), (XX), (XXX) and (-) are respectively representing; light
pink, medium dark pink, dark pink and transparent colors observed
when TTC is used as indicator).
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 136-142, Spring 2007

Table 4.Toxicity test for different concentrations of resistance to these toxicants. The case of heavy
DCP and PCP with Alcaligenes metals seems a little bit higher than our expectations,
DCP, specially the cadmium, the EC100 is above 80 mg/L
Concentration 0 10 20 30 50 80* 100* and it’s far too high (12 mg/L in databases). As the
(mg/L)
tests are done in glass tubes, that might cause an
Color Intensity xxx xxx xxx xxx xx - -
accumulation of the metals on the glass walls. So
PCP, following the low concentration of the compound
Concentration 0 10 20 30 50 80* 100*
soluble inside the medium, the bacteria could tolerate
(mg/L)
Color Intensity xx
higher levels of the metals; this might expand the
x x x x - - toxicity range and create error in the test. In order
x

((X), (XX), (XXX) and (-) are respectively representing; light

to avoid this problem we can use specific plastic
pink, medium dark pink, dark pink and transparent colors observed tubes or microplates made of plastic material. But
when TTC is used as indicator). then it is necessary to rinse the plastic tubes with
the nitric acid solution before starting the
experiment. Furthermore, activated sludge has the
ability to adsorb the heavy metals, which will
Activated

4
Sludge decrease the availability of the metals for the
bacteria, thus leading to higher resistance to the toxic
metals. Phenol’s toxicity was also higher than what
intensity

3
was expected. Since the toxicity range of phenol
Colorintensity

normally is around 1 g/L. Both experiments

2
presented concentration even above of 1.8 to 2 g/L,
Color

which seems almost impossible. Of course, one

1
possible explanation with Alcaligenes is that they
are acclimatized to the phenol at high concentrations,
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210
so they are able to resist elevated levels of it
concentration(mg/l)
Concentration (mg/L)
Concentration (mg/l) compared to activated sludge. The other explanation
might be some inaccuracy with the initial
concentrations or with the stock solution. The same
case is more or less with cyanide, as it is also very
A .S . toxic but within the tests the toxicity boundaries
4

which are achieved shows higher values than normal.

Moreover, the toxicity of cyanide to aquatic
intensity

organisms is highly variable depending on

Colorintensity

2 environmental conditions and physicochemical and

microbial influences. Activated sludge was chosen
Color

1
not only for its high cell density, but also as it is a
0
representative of acclimatized stains. Hence it is
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 0 110 12 0

c o ncent ar t i o n ( mg / l )
Concentration
Concentration (mg/l)
Figs. 2 and 3. The toxicity range of the DCP and PCP
on activated sludge regarding to the intensity of the
formed color.
The values at the Y axis, 3, 2, 1 and 0 are respectively representatives of the
(-), (x), (xx) and(xxx) in relation to the color intensity
It can also be explained as that the medium in
total may contain the chemicals that favor the growth
of Alcaligenes on the substrate. With toluene and
naphthalene, the toxicity resistance level will go
beyond the test limit, 800 mg/L and 20 mg/L
respectively. Although according to databases they
are toxic materials, it seems the bacteria had high
13 0 14 0 15 0 16 0 17 0 18 0 19 0 200 2 10
normal to have higher EC100 values with activated
(mg/L)
sludge than those achieved with more sensitive test
organism like Alcaligenes. The acclimated stains are
adapted to specific types of pollutants. Hence their
implementation in toxicity test with the other types
of toxicants, may not be working the way it is
expected. Acclimated microorganisms, are adapted
to survive high levels of the pollutant, therefore if
they had grown in the medium containing the
pollutant, there is a due need to have cell-washing
steps before inoculation, to remove the dominant
oriented pollutant from the medium and provide the
bacteria with a fresh medium. This reduces the risk
of taking phenol through the cell suspension to the
test. If phenol goes into the system, it can cause some
140
 Monavari, S. and Guieysse, B.
errors in the process. It is because when phenol enters
the cultivation medium, then the toxicity of the
substrate towards the bacteria may change, as both
phenol and the substrate are toxic to bacteria.
Following the assessment of the toxicity test for
harmful compounds, the results were compared with
values with the values available in toxicity databases.
Although this comparison appears to be the most
reasonable approach to assess our results, the
concentration ranges and accordingly the EC values
are not necessarily the same for a specific compound
in different databases. Usually toxicity testing in the
laboratories follows a stepwise related approach,
progressing from simple short-term tests to more
complex and sophisticated long-term test based on
Table 5. Comparison of the achieved EC100 values with values taken from the databases on bacteria
EC100 achieved in experiment
The toxic compound
(mg/L)
DCP
50 < EC100 < 80
PCP 80
PNP 20
Toluene EC100 > 800
Phenol 1000
Naphthalene EC100 > 20
Copper 50
Cadmium
100
Cyanide 700 < EC100 < 1000
the results of previous tests. While the criteria of
each particular test plan are not exactly similar,
therefore the details of the protocol for each test
may differ but the general test design is similar. Below,
the EC values for different compound are compared
in Table 5 and the results are discussed. Table 5
indicates that even though the figures seem to be
very different, the results of our experiment are more
or less in the range and it is hopefully according to
our expectations. Deviations, seems to be quit
normal and hopefully it seems that the test procedure
has fulfilled the criteria of a standard toxicity test.
CONCLUSION
The pivotal role of microorganisms in
coordinating ecosystem services, such as the cycling
of nutrients, means that microbial communities reflect
fundamental environmental processes. The rapid
growth rate of many microorganisms means that
microbial communities respond rapidly to a wide
range of environmental disturbance. Thus, microbial
141
indicators could provide early warning of potential
problems. In this study the microplates have been
used for toxicity testing and the results obtained are
encouraging. The main advantages are that the
process is simple to carry out (the experimental
equipment can easily be provided with the ordinary
lab equipment). Besides that, according to the
comparisons that are done among the achievements
of our toxicity test with the other toxicity test
methods, the test results are reliable. On the other
hand this technique is very inexpensive, not only the
method is based on the visual observation which
eliminate the need for costly automatic readers , but
also it is labor saving. While measurement time is
quite short, normally within couple of days, the method
EC100 achieved from databases(mg/l)
1.83 (Biolog)
1 (Toxalert)
100 (Manistö et al,1999)
53.3 (Manistö et al,1999)
10 (Manistö et al,1999)
2.08
276.5 (Evans, et al., 1991)
1000 (Biorem LTH)
------
6.5 (Madoni et al, 1992)
6 (Madoni et al, 1992)
12 (Madoni et al, 1996)
-------
is specific since the toxicity effects are evaluated
directly on the system. However, the visual method
for analyzing the toxicity of the water samples are
dependent upon somewhat subjective judgment and
this may lead to not very satisfactory results according
to the reproducibility between different analyses.
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Layton, C., Gregory, B., Schultz, T. W. and Sayler, G. S.,
Stumm, W. and Morgan, J., (1996) J. Aquatic chemistry,
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142
Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 143-149, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

The Relationship among Infection Intensity of Viscum album with some

Ecological Parameters of Host Trees
Kartoolinejad, D.1*, Hosseini, S. M.1, Mirnia, S. K.2, Akbarinia, M.1 and Shayanmehr, F.1
1
Natural Resources Faculty, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
2
Agriculture Faculty, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran

Received 20 March 2006; Revised 12 Dec 2006; Accepted 10 Jan 2007

ABSTRACT: We investigated the relations among infection intensity of European mistletoe (Viscum
album L.) with host tree features in Nour Forest Park, located in Caspian Forests in North of Iran.
The number of 30 circular plots with an area of 0.1 ha were sampled in all places have an aggregation
of infested trees. Parameters including DBH, height, distance to stand edge, distance to conspecific
tree, bark diameter and the number of adult mistletoe per tree for all infected individuals were
recorded. Results showed that the mistletoe abundance and infection intensity in Parrotia persica
was more than the other host species and also, have positive significant relation with DBH, distance
to conspecific and locating in the stand edge, but no significant relation observed about height of
host trees. Results of this study suggest that individual differences among host trees (specially
DBH) play an important role in explaining local abundance and distribution of mistletoe plants.

Key words: Infection intensity, European mistletoe, Host trees, Caspian forests, Conspecific tree
*Corresponding author: Email-kartooli58@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
Mistletoes are a polyphyletic and diverse
group of flowering plants comprising over 1306
species from a broad range of habitats across all
continents except Antarctica. The group contains
members of five families within the Santalales
order that are mostly parasitic plants (Watson,
2001; Zuber, 2004). Viscum album L. (European
or White Berry mistletoe) from family Viscaceae
is an ever green, per ennial, epiphytic,
hemiparasitic shrub that lives on a wide range of
woody plant species. The berries of female plant
are small, sticky and whitish and are very
attractive to birds. In Europe the main vectors
are the mistle trush (Turdus viscivorous), a
defecating vector, and blackcap (Sylvia
atricapilla), a beak-wiping vector (Briggs, 2003;
Watson, 2001; Zuber, 2004; Zuber and Widmer,
2000). Evergreen clumps of mistletoe are readily
observed on deciduous trees in winter when
leaves are off the trees (Fig. 1). Viscaceae family
are predominantly arboreal xylem parasites
dependent on their host for water and nutrients
but producing their own sugars (LÓpez de Buen
and Ornelas, 2002). European mistletoe have no
143
real root, parasitize the stems of dicotyledonous
trees and shrubs by means of parenchyma organs
named haustoria, developing from the radicle of
the seed (LÓpez de Buen, et al., 2002; Tsopelas,
et al., 2004; Watson, 2001; Zuber, 2004).
The birds usually feed on and digest the pulp
of the berries, excreting the living seeds that stick
tightly to any branch on which they land. In most
cases, the initial infestation occurs on larger or
older trees because birds prefer to perch in tops
of taller trees (Briggs, 2003; LÓpez de Buen and
Ornelas, 2002; Watson, 2001; Zuber, 2004). In
addition to, birds deposit more mistletoe seeds onto
branches of some host individuals than other
species. Preference of mistletoe-fruit eating birds
for perching and consuming mistletoe fruits on
some host tree species directly affects mistletoe
seed dispersal (LÓpez de Buen and Ornelas, 2002).
Whereas distribution process of V. album as other
mistletoes, is a consequence of bird foraging
behavior, this study was conducted to distinguish
whether V. album infection intensity have any
relations with host characteristic features as DBH,
 Kartoolinejad, D., et al.
height, distance to conspecific, locating in the stand
edge, bark diameter and host species or not?
MATERIALS & METHODS
Caspian forests with an area of about 1/9
million ha located in north of Iran in southern coast
of Caspian Sea. It is exclusive site of some alive
fossil species such as Populus caspica, Gleditsia
caspica, Parrotia persica and Pterocaria
fraxinifolia and is dominant with Fagus
orientalis, Quercus castanifolia, Alnus
glotinosa, etc. The Caspian zone forests which
also called the Hyrcanian forests are the most
valuable forests in Iran, cover the northern slopes
and foothills of Alborz mountain. Location of Alborz
mountains between the Caspian Sea and Iran
plateau results in mild climate and distinct
vegetation cover. Forests of these zone stretch
out from sea level up to an altitude of 2800 m and
encompass different forest type thanks to 80
woody species i.e. trees and shrubs (Sagheb-
Talebi, et al., 2005; Hosseini, 2003).
This project, carried out (November and
December of 2004) in Nour Forest Park located
between 5 Km east of Nour city and 25 Km west
of Mahmoud-Abad in Mazandaran province (36°
34´ N, 51° 41´ E; at -10 m a.s.l.) The mean annual
precipitation of the region is 1040 mm and mean
annual temperature is 17 °C. The mean maximum
Fig. 1. Clumps of mistletoe on Parrotia persica trees in Nour forest park
(Photoe by Kartoolinejad, Winter 2004)
144
and minimum monthly air temperature are 26 °C
(in Jun.) and 7.5 °C (in Jan.) and the mean
maximum and minimum monthly rainfall are 212
mm (in Dec.) and 19 mm (in Jun.) respectively.
We selected thirty circular plots with an area of
0/1 in places have an aggregation of infested trees
inattentive host species, through the study region.
For each plot, we recorded and identified features
as diameter at breast height (DBH) of >10 cm
(because trees <10 cm DBH, were not infected
to V. album), height, distance to nearest
conspecific (Co specific tree is the nearest infected
tree of the same species), distance to stand edge,
number of mistletoe adult plants per tree, bark
diameter and species name for all the trees. Finally
all collected data were analyzed using SPSS 12.0
for windows software.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
As mentioned above, all thirty 1000 m2 plots
were sampled in places have some infected trees
in a manner that surround maximum infected
species. Table 1, shows the number of each
species sampled in plots. In this study, only three
species of Parrotia persica (Ironwood tree),
Carpinus betulus and Populus caspica were
infected and occurred in sample plots. Because,
other species, either have fewer infected individual
or were very scattered through the study region.
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 143-149, Spring 2007

Thus, the most statistical analysis, applied only for
P. persica host species.
Abundance of the infected species was
compared with Chi-Square test. Results, revealed
significant difference in 99% confidence level (Fig.
2) (X 2 = 517.614 ; d.f.= 2 ; P = 0.000).Number of
mistletoe per tree (infection intensity), have bean
examined among host species, by Mann-Whitney
U test. Results showed, the infection intensity of
P. persica in comparison with Populus caspica
have significant difference in 99 % (U = 555.5; Z
= -2.519; P = 0.008) and with C. betulus, in 95%
confidence level (U =1781.5; Z = -2.519 ; P =
0.012). Figure 3 shows the number of infected
Ironwood trees per each 5 cm diameter classes.
As considered, there are maximum number of
infected individuals into classes 30 and 35; but 80
and 85 have no individual member. Figure 4 also,
shows the number of infected individuals of
Ironwood trees per each 2 m height classes. The
maximum number of infected individuals in this
graph, belong respectively to four middle height
classes of 21, 17, 15 and 19.
Relationship among individual characteristics
(Diameter of Breast height, height and bark
diameter at breast height) of P. persica and C.
betulus with infection intensity (adult mistletoe
shrubs per each tree), was tested by correlation
analysis. Tables 2 and 3, show their results for
these species respectively. The relation of DBH-
height for infected and healthy trees of P. persica
also, shown in Fig 5. In this graph, height of infected
host as a same diameter is lower than the healthy
trees.
Fig. 6 compares the correlation of DBH-
Viscum number (per each tree), for host species
of P. persica and C. betulus. In this graph, the
number of Viscum per each individuals of P.
persica (with specific diameter) is more than the
amount of C. betulus. We recorded infected trees
in which their nearest tree was another infected
individual. This parameter examined by Chi-Square
test. The result showed, infected P. persica which
had another infected tree near itself, was more
frequent than the others. (X 2 = 81.582 ; d.f.= 1; P
= 0.000).

Table 1. The number of infected and healthy individual species in all plots
Species Individuals Infected individuals % of occurrence in plots
Parrotia persica 403 306 66/5 %
Carpinus betulus 65 18 10/7 %
Populus caspica 14 8 2/3 %
Alnus glutinosa 43 0 7/1 %
Acer velutinum 35 0 5/8 %
Ulmus carpinifulia 20 0 3/3 %
other species 26 0 4/.3 %
Total 606 332 100

2% Parrotia persica
5%
b Carpinus betulus 60
b
number of infected tree

Populus caspica 50
40

30
20

10
a
93% 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
DBH classes (5 cm)

Fig. 2. Comparison of host abundance of V. album in Fig. 3. Number of infected individuals of P. persica
study region with Chi-Square test per 5 cm diameter classes

145
 Infection Intensity of Viscum album

Table 2. The relationship among mistletoe infection Table 3. The relationship among mistletoe infection
intensity with bark diameter at breast height, intensity with bark diameter at breast height,
DBH and height of P. persica (n=306) DBH and height of C. betulus (n=18)
Measured Measured
P- value r P- value r
parameters parameters
Bark diameter 0.156 0.349 ns
Spearman Pearson
Bark diameter 0.011 0.146 * DBH 0.013 0.575 *
correlation correlation
DBH 0.000 0.356 ** Height 0.312 0.253 ns
Pearson
correlation Height 0.264 - 0.064 ns
The symbols ** and * state respectively the significant differences in 99%
and 95% confidence level and also ns sign, shows no significant differences
between groups.

50 30
y = 6.2509x0.292
y = 6.5435Ln(x) - 2.696 R2 = 0.1547

Height of trees (m))

40 25 R2 = 0.2875
Nos. of trees

30
20
20 Power (infected P. persica)
15 Log. (healthy P. persica)
10

0 10
7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 0 50 100 150
DBH (cm)
height classes (2 m)
Fig. 4. Number of infected individuals of P. persica Fig. 5. Relation of DBH-height for infected and
per 2 m height classes healthy trees of P. persica

Mistletoe infection intensity, examined for tree
location (at two situations of edge and interior) in
P. persica species by Mann-Whitney U test.
Results showed that, the Ironwood trees located
at the edge of forest or near roads and borders
were more infected to V. album (U = 1780.5; Z =
-2.534; P = 0.011).
Moreover, we analyzed the relationship
between intensity of infection in trees located on
forest (or road) edges or interiors, and the
individual tree features (height, DBH, distance to
conspecific and bark diameter at breast height)
using ANCOVA. Because tree height, DBH,
distance to conspecific and bark diameter factors
might obscure the importance on the infection
intensity of tree location in the fragment, it was
necessary to control these factors in the analyses.
Tree features were used as covariate to control
for this variability. In this model, tree location was
fix factor and the number of mistletoes per tree
was the dependent variable.
European mistletoe is an evergreen epiphytic
phanerophyte, respectively an epiphytic
hemiparasitic shoot parasite. The maximum age
of a shrub is about 27-30 years. The patchy
146
distribution of this plant depends on available hosts,
birds and humans (Zuber, 2004). It parasitizes
several host tree species in northern forest of Iran
such as Carpinus betulus, Ulmus glabra and
carpinifolia, Tilia begonifolia, Populus spp.,
Acer velutinum, Prunus divaricata, Alnus
glutinosa, Quercus castanifolia and even Fagus
orientalis, etc.
In this study, the number of infected Ironwood
individuals per diameter and height classes, the
maximum number of infected individuals are
approximately related to middle classes of the tree
species. This is as a result of preference of
mistletoe-fruit eating birds for perching and eating
mistletoe fr uits on such host trees and
consequently through endozoochory process,
deposit more mistletoe seeds onto branches of the
host individuals than the others (Brigs, 2003; LÓpez
de Buen et al., 2002; LÓpez de Buen and Ornelas,
2002). The relation of DBH-height for infected
and healthy P. persica showed, in a same diameter,
infested trees has lower height than the healthy
ones (with no mistletoe) (Fig. 5). This may be
because of the decreasing in host growth as a
consequence of mistletoe damages. Because, they
take water and dissolved inorganic compounds
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 143-149, Spring 2007

directly form the xylem of their host (Zuber, 2004; continuum of host specificity that range from
Tennakoon and Pate, 1996). Also, based on Fig. specialized to generalized.
6, the number of Viscum per each individuals of Specialist mistletoes are typically restricted to
P. persica (with specific diameter) was more than single host species (although they can infest other
the amount of C. betulus, indicating that P. host), whereas generalist mistletoes use various
persica comprises suitable and compatible host host species with no apparent preference for any
species for the mistletoe in the study region of them. Although, most parasitic mistletoe have
(LÓpez de Buen and Ornelas, 2002). From the bean described to behave as host generalist, they
different nutritional modes displayed by flowering can show host specialization at a regional scale
plants, parasitism represents one of the most (Norton and Carpenter, 1998; LÓpez de Buen and
successful (Nickrent, 2001; LÓpez de Buen and Ornelas, 2002). Thus, Viscum album L. may be
Ornelas, 2002). Mistletoe parasitism constitutes a considered as host specialist in the study area.

Table 4. Results for P. persica tree features (a) DBH, (b) bark diameter and (c) distance to conspecific in
relation to tree location at forest edge or interior. *
Source of variation d.f. S.S. M.S. F - value P - value
(a) DBH
Tree location 20995.722 2 10497.861 11.697 .000
DBH 8030.523 1 8030.523 8.948 .003
Tree location×DBH 41.421 1 41.421 .046 .830
Residual 271046.779 302 897.506
Tree location 25656.510 2 12828.255 14.338 .000
DBH 38824.949 1 38824.949 43.395 .000
Residual 271088.199 303 894.681
(b) Bark diameter
Tree location 66942.497 2 33471.248 32.725 .000
Bark diameter 932.538 1 932.538 .912 .340
Tree location×Bark diameter 838.444 1 838.444 .820 .366
Residual 308882.924 302 1022.791
Tree location 66964.887 2 33482.444 32.756 .000
Bark diameter 191.781 1 191.781 .188 .665
Residual 309721.367 303 1022.183
(c) Distance to conspecific
Tree location 5035.065 2 2517.533 2.473 .086
Distance to conspecific 334.676 1 334.676 .329 .567
Tree location×Distance to conspecific 71.204 1 71.204 .070 .792
Residual 307427.446 302 1017.972
Tree location 9375.727 2 4687.864 4.619 .011
Distance to conspecific 2414.498 1 2414.498 2.379 .124
Residual 307498.650 303 1014.847
*In the model, tree location was a fixed factor, tree DBH, bark diameter and distance to conspecific were covariates, and intensity of infection (number of
mistletoe per tree) the dependent variable. Non-significant interaction were removed from the ANOVA models.

100
Nos. of mistletoe per tree

80

60 y = 33.961Ln(x) - 91.011
y = 51.808Ln(x) - 182.19
R2 = 0.1339
40 R2 = 0.4306

20 Log. (P. persica)

Log. (C. betulus)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
DBH of infected trees
Fig. 6. Correlation of DBH- Viscum number per tree, for P. persica and C. betulus host species

147
 Kartoolinejad, D., et al.
Because, its special host i.e. P. persica have
exhibited the most infection intensity and also,
prevalence in Nour Forest Park (Fig. 2 and Table
1). However, this pattern may change over the
geographical range of the interaction among seed
dispersing bird, mistletoe and host tree, like
incidence of Carpinus betulus as another special
host of the mistletoe in higher altitude of Hyrcanian
Forests.
Frugivorous birds show preference for
perching and foraging in some infested host species
during winter (Zuber, 2004). They go to infested
trees to eat, and visit the nearest trees (infested
or not), to rest. This behavioral pattern is expected
to promote a higher probability of infection and
re-infection of trees near infested trees, because
the birds defecate or regurgitate the viable
mistletoe seeds that adhere to the tree branches
(LÓpez de Buen et al., 2002). In this case, results
of Chi-Square test showed the significant
difference among infested P. persica individuals
(X 2 = 81.582 ; P = 0.000).
One of the important factor in the post-
dispersal establishment of heliophyte mistletoes is
light incidence, which are opportunistic plants in
disturbance-dependent high light environments,
such as human-modified tree communities and
incremented edges of forest (LÓpez de Buen et
al., 2002). Our relevant results, will be confirmed
by this declarations. Since, locating in the edge of
forest, open area or near roads had an impressive
effect on both infection intensity and prevalence
of V. album on host (P. persica) in the study
area.
Explaining local abundance and distribution
(prevalence and intensity of infection) of mistletoe
plants, individual differences among host trees play
an important role (LÓpez de Buen et al., 2002).
The ANCOVA showed that the intensity of V.
album infection in the study area, was affected
by some individual tree characteristics as DBH
(but not distance to Conspecific and height; table
4). In ANCOVA analyses, since interaction
between distance to nonspecific and tree location,
interaction between DBH and location and either
interaction between bark diameter and location
were not significant, they were removed from the
model. After removing such effects, the ANOVA
148
values for tree location were significant in all three
cases (Table 4). The significant value of these
tree features (P < 0.05) indicated that these
variables served a purpose in the analyses by
controlling for differences among trees. Then
significant differences in intensity of mistletoe
infection among the trees located at stand edge
or interior, are due to differences in tree diameter
at breast height and not distance to conspecific or
bark diameter at breast height. Since height of
infected trees have no significant effect on
infection (by correlation coefficient), was not
applied in ANCOVA test. Bark diameter at breast
height, although have shown significant correlation
with infection intensity about P. persica (Table
2), these variables were only weakly correlated
(rs = 0.146) and either is not a good parameter for
intensity recognition of Viscum.
CONCLUSION
The interaction among mistletoes and their
dispersal birds and hosts may play an important
role for some of the host tree species. Mistletoe
species can be serious pests in natural forests and
plantations or they can be threatened species
themselves in their limited natural areas of
distribution. Host compatibility and habit quality
are important regulators of mistletoe abundance
and distribution as we see about P. persica in Nour
Forest park. However, forest fragmentation and
logging may increase light, nutrient and water
available for remaining trees. These factors may
change the dynamics and condition the outcomes
of mutualistic interaction between mistletoe and
their pollinators and seed dispersers, and as a
consequence, the number and spread of mistletoe
species living on these trees. In general, we can
briefly state, the most infected trees in Nour Forest
park were P. persica species located at the edge
of stand, roads and open area places. On the other
hand, human impact strongly affects the dynamics
of Viscum populations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are indebted to Peiman Ghobadifar for
his helpful field works and good opinions. We
like to thank Alireza Aliarab, Hormoz Sohrabi,
Hadi Daroodi and Akbar Rashidi for their
cooperations.
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 143-149, Spring 2007
REFERENCES
Briggs, J., (2003). Christmas curiosity or medical marvel?
A seasonal review of mistletoe. Biologist, 50, 249-254.
Hosseini, S. M., (2003). Incomparable roles of Caspian
forests: heritage of humankind. Forest Sci., 3, 31-40.
LÓpez de Buen, L. and Ornelas, J. F., (2002). Host
compatibility of the cloud forest mistletoe
Psittacanthus schiedeanus (Loranthaceae) in Central
Veracruz, Mexico. Am. J. Botany, 89 (1) 95-102.
LÓpez de Buen, L., Ornelas, J. F. and García-Franco, J.
G., (2002). Mistletoe infection of trees located at
fragmented forest edges in the cloud forests of Central
Veracruz, Mexico. Forest Eco. Manag. 164, 293-302.
Nickrent, D. L., (2001). Santalales (Mistletoe).
Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, Macmillan Reference
Ltd, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA, 1-5.
Norton, D. A. and Carpenter, M. A., (1998). Mistletoe
as parasites: host specificity and specification. J.
Ethnopharma., 88, 99-106.
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Sagheb-Talebi, Kh., Sajedi, T. and Yazdian, F., (2005).
Forests of Iran. Research Institute of Forests and
Rangelands Publications, 2nd. Ed., 1-28.
Tennakoon, K. U. and Pate, J. S., (1996). Effect of
parasitism by a mistletoe on the structure and
functioning of branches of its host. Plant, Cell
Environ., 19, 517-528.
Tsopelas, P., Angelopoulos, A., Economou, A. and
Soulioti, N. (2004). Mistletoe (Viscum album) in the fir
forest of Mount Parnis, Greece. Forest Eco. Manag.,
202, 59-65.
Watson, D. M., (2001). Mistletoe-a keystone resource
in forests and woodlands worldwide. Annu. Rev. Ecol.
Syst., 32, 219-49.
Zuber, D., (2004). Biological flora of central Europe:
Viscum album L. Flora, 199, 188-203.
Zuber, D. and Widmer, A., (2000). Genetic evidence for
host specificity in hemi-parasitic Viscum album L.
(Viscaceae). Molecul. Eco., 9, 1069-1073.
Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 150-162, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

An Environmental & Economic Analysis for Reducing

Energy Subsidies

Shafie-Pour Motlagh, M.1* and Farsiabi, M. M.2

1
Garduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2
Tehran Air Pollution Reduction Master Plan Office, Department of the Environment,
Tehran, Iran,

Received 30 Nov 2006; Revised 15 Jan 2007; Accepted 30 Jan 2007

ABSTRACT: This paper estimates the trend of total energy subsidies from year 2003 (that is 16.68
% of GDP) and running a model, predicts that energy subsidies will reach to 20% of GDP by 2019 if
subsidies continue. Also environmental damage costs of energy consumption have been entered
the model (Environmental Cost-Benefit Analysis Model: ECBA Model) in addition to the vast amounts
of subsidies. So damages caused by energy consumption as air pollution and Green House Gases
have been considered as an attempt to internalize energy cycle externalities. Using an ECBA Model
which considers changes in level of social welfare and environmental quality as probable benefits,
the Benefit/Cost ratio for running price reform policy under two scenarios has been analyzed and
calculated. The analysis shows that reducing energy subsidies for each energy form is considerably
beneficial. Apart from the environmental benefits, the increase in prices can be a base for a re-
distribution of income within the poor deciles of economy and this policy would increase the
government revenue and economic growth in long-term.

Key words: Energy, Subsidies, Price Reform, Environmental Quality

*Corresponding author: Email-M_Shafiepour@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
Energy in Iran domestic market is heavily
subsidised; this paper estimates the total subsidy
by running a model for year 2019. Also for the
first time in Iran, environmental damage costs
caused by air pollution -which were transferred
from Western European practice adopted by the
conditions of the country by scaling according to
GDP per capita measured in PPP terms- has been
assessed and entered the Cost-Benefit Analysis
(CBA) in addition to the vast amount of subsidies.
So the amount of pollution (which was derived
from an end use model) has been used to estimate
the future situation of environment and economy
in different scenarios.
Subsidies in the Iran energy sector are very
widespread. According to an estimate, the total
subsidies to the energy sector in Iran amounted to
126,441 billion Rials in the year 2003 equivalent
15.794 US$/ Billion (Ex. Rate of 1 US$= 8000
Rials), which is 16.68 % of GDP in 2003 (IEA,
2003) (Table 1). Given that Iran is a large energy
exporter, the ample earnings from crude oil have
perhaps contributed to the liberal largeness from
the government.
However, subsidies work against efficiency of
resource allocation and by placing a huge financial
burden on the government; they cause inadequate
investments in the social and infrastructure sectors.
But at the same time, subsidies are a political issue
and it is hard to eliminate them. A thorough cost-
benefit analysis of subsidies can go a long way in
reducing the political resistance to reducing
subsidies.
Figure 1 gives the trend in prices of gasoline,
gas oil, kerosene and fuel oil in Iran along with the
international crude oil prices (BP and IRI, 2003)
since 1974. This graph shows the wide disparity
that exists between the domestic prices in Iran
and the international prices. To the extent that the
graph compares the international prices of crude

150
 Shafie-Pour Motlagh, M.and Farsiabi, M. M.

oil with the Iranian domestic prices of the petroleum purpose of this analysis, it would be useful to
products, it understates the extent of subsidy examine how the subsidies are distributed across
somewhat. Yet, the wide gap separating the different income segments. It has been considered
international and domestic prices underscores the wise to deploy Lorenz Curve analysis and Gini
potential need for rationalizing domestic coefficients in a somewhat modified form to
prices.Ideally, the subsidies should be targeted and address this issue.
limited to the more deserving segments of the
In the traditional approach, the Gini co-
population.
efficient of zero means perfect equality in the
However, the subsidies in Iran are not sense that each decile of population gets equal
specifically targeted but are more like blanket share of income in the economy. However, the
subsidies since the general price level in the objective of subsidies is not to make uniform
economy is held below the international parity. In impact on every income class but to pay more to
such a case, each consumer gets the same amount the deserving classes. Thus, the Gini coefficient
of per unit subsidy and the total quantity of subsidy for subsidies should ideally be as close to minus 1
paid to the consumer depends on the quantity of as possible. Figures 2 and 3 show the differences
fuel consumed. Such an approach to subsidization in approach. Figure 2 shows the curve for the Gini
is necessarily regressive as the larger consumers, coefficient as calculated for the subsidies given
who are typically least deserving of the subsidy, for gas oil consumption in Iran, while Figure 3
receive the larger amount of subsidy. For the shows the desirable curve for subsidies.
Table 1. Level of subsidies in Iran (Billion Rials)
Product/ House- Indu- Agri- Trans- Comm-
General Total
Sector hold strial culture port ercial
Gasoline - 52 15 22,003 3 129 22,202
White Kerosene 10,855 40 117 - 167 301 11,480
Gas Oil 2,018 2,809 5219 21,569 904 1,724 34,243
Furnace Oil 8,208 0 788 1903 31 10,930
Liquid Gas 3,222 263 - 529 290 - 4,304
Electricity 17,416 5,943 4,621 - 1370 4,127 33,477
Natural Gas 6,408 2,560 - 2 701 48 9,719
Billion Rials 40,006 19,874 9973 44,891 5337 126,355 126,441
Total
Billion US$ * 5.001 2.484 1.247 5.611 0.667 0.795 15.794
Source: Iran Energy Balance, 2003
* 1 US$= 8000 Rials (2003)

International Price of Crud Oil

55 Gasoline
50 Fuel Oil
45 Kerosen
Price (US$/bbl)

40 Gasoil
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
74

76

78

80

82

84

86

88

90

92

94

96

98

00

02

04
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

20

Year

Source: International prices from BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2003; Domestic prices from Ministry of Energy, Iran

Fig. 1. Trend in domestic and international prices ($/bbl)

151
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2):150-162, Spring 2007

1.00 1.00

Cumulative Subsidy Deciles

0.90
Cumulative Subsidy Deciles

0.80 0.80
0.70
0.60 0.60
0.50
0.40 0.40
0.30
0.20 0.20
0.10
0.00 0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Cumulative Income Deciles Cumulative Income Deciles

Fig. 2. Lorenz curve for gas oil subsidies
Fig. 3 shows a pattern of Lorenz Curve for an
ideal subsidy distribution scheme. The poorest
deciles of the population are getting the maximum
percentage of subsidies (60%). The next two
deciles, which can also be classified as poor, are
also getting 20% of total subsidies each. The rest
of the income deciles are not eligible for any
subsidy. Such a curve would make the Gini
coefficient negative. In fact, the most desirable
Gini coefficient for a subsidy scheme would be as
close to –1 as possible. While the percentage of
population falling under each income deciles is not
available, it is expected that such a scheme will
benefit a large percentage of the population.
The following Table shows the Gini coefficient
for subsidy given out by the government for each
decile of population.
Table 2. Gini coefficient of subsidy
Fuel Urban
Gasoil 0.548
Gasoline 0.433
Electricity 0.315
Natural Gas 0.255
Kerosene 0.069
Viewed in this light, distribution of subsidies in Iran
is quite uneven.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Using a Comprehensive Cost Benefit Analysis
Model which considers changes in level of social
welfare and environmental quality as probable
benefits (or costs), the B/C ratio for implementing
price reform policy under two scenarios has been
analyzed and calculated considering $25/bbl as the
Source: Authors estimates
Fig. 3. Ideal distribution of subsidies
reference value for domestic prices of energy
forms. Distributional effects of freed resources
and inflation caused by price reform are the main
concerns of policy makers for the case of
eliminating (or reducing) subsidies. The model used
to calculate society deadweight lost and also
environmental improvement (which is run by
MARKAL Software) shows that social benefit -
at the end of policy time frame- can efficiently
cover any distributional negative effects of running
the policy when necessary social institutions are
carefully ar ranged before. T he following
assumptions/scenarios are considered in the
present investigation:
1. The opportunity cost of liquid and gaseous fuels
is taken as ½ of the price that the producer will
realize by exporting the fuel.
2. International prices of crude oil are assumed
to average around $50/bbl ex-AG for the time
frame under study.
Rural 3. The opportunity cost of electricity is taken as
0.432 the cost of delivering electricity at the consumer
0.352 premises.
4. Two scenarios are built for reducing subsidies:
0.035
Scenario 1 takes the domestic prices to target
- prices (50% of International prices) by 2010/11
0.188 and scenario 2 achieves the same objective by
2015/16.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Subsidies are a political issue. Hence, it will
be very difficult to eliminate the subsidies at once.
Therefore feasible policy options on reduction of
subsidies would involve gradual increase in prices,
to reach international prices over time.
There are two critical variables that this policy
option involves:
152
 Environment, Economic & Energy Subsidies
• Deciding on the opportunity cost of various
fuels over the policy time frame.
• Deciding on the time frame of the policy.
The opportunity cost of any good or service is the
benefit foregone by not putting that good or service
to the best available alternative. Thus, the
opportunity cost of capital is the price that it could
command if used in next best alternative.
Similarly, the opportunity cost of various fuels
considered in this paper, except electricity, is the
price that the country would realize if these fuels
were sold in the international market. But the
international prices of petroleum products are
themselves volatile. Thus, targeting to take
domestic prices to international parity would mean
aiming at a base which it is itself shifting, apart
from the uncertainty regarding the future prices
of these fuels.
Many international organizations regularly
forecast crude oil prices for various purposes.
OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries) had set a target band of US$22 -
US$28/bbl for prices of crude oil before recent
increase in oil prices. The International Energy
Agency (IEA) regularly forecasts the crude oil
prices in order to understand the demand and
supply of petroleum in the market. The agency
[ExternE, 2000] has assumed a crude oil price of
US$21/bbl by the year 2010, which rises to US$25/
bbl by the year 2020. However, for the pursuance
of the current objective of reducing subsidy, the
year on year volatility in the international prices
should not pose a constraint since the policy options
being reviewed take a long-term view. Although
the oil market has shown different signs during
last decade, recent increase in the level of crude
oil prices (2004 & 2006); causes any attempt to
set international prices of crude oil as a reasonable
target for domestic prices in the long-term be
politically impossible. Hence, for the purpose of
this study reaching to %50 of the predicted
international crude oil price has set as the target
(US$25/bbl Persian Gulf (Ex-AG)).
Table 3. Target prices of petroleum products
(US$/bbl)
Product Price
Gasoline 28.02
Gasoil 27.92
Kerosene 27.99
Fuel Oil 22.38
153
The associated target prices of petroleum
products are given below (Table 3). So the
opportunity cost of each fuel (Gas oil, Gasoline,
Kerosene and Fuel Oil) has been calculated as
difference between target price and internal price.
The opportunity cost of natural gas deserves
special attention. There are no global prices of
natural gas. Each region has its specific
methodology for price discovery that has evolved
over time as per the needs of the stakeholders in
the region and the competitive scenario. In the
USA, for example, in Asia-Pacific, the prices are
linked to crude oil, primarily due to the easy
substitutability of gas and crude oil in Japanese
power plants. Given the existing formula for the
LNG pricing in Asia-Pacific, the net target price
of LNG is estimated at as US$2.7/MMBtu
(Assuming that subtracting the liquefaction costs
of US$1/MMBtu). This is taken as the part of
long-term opportunity cost of natural gas in Iran,
which should be covered.
In the case of electricity because exports do
not constitute a major market for Iran, the aim of
reducing subsidies is to recover the full cost of
delivering electricity at the consumer’s premises.
Thus, it should include cost of generation, including
variable cost and fixed costs of generating power,
and the cost of transmission and distribution of
electricity.
It is a policy decision in Iran that all increments
in electricity generating capacity will be based on
natural gas. Thus, the fuel cost of generating
power will be derived from the opportunity cost
of natural gas. The critical variable is the efficiency
of natural gas turbines. Given the long time frame
under consideration, the turbine efficiency of 56%
is assumed, which is now normally achieved in
many countries. Thus, the natural gas requirement
translates into 0.18 m3 /kWh and the associated
fuel cost comes at Rials 131.63/kWh, valuing
natural gas at its opportunity cost.
The next major cost of power generation is
the capital costs and the operation and
maintenance costs. The capital costs of a typical
CCGT averages at Rials 5120 Million per MW.
Assuming a PLF of 75%, auxiliary consumption
of 3%, life of the plant as 20 years, and a discount
rate of 8% gives the annualized capital cost as
Rials 91.2/kWh.
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 150-162, Spring 2007
Adding the operation and maintenance expenditure
of 2.5% of capital cost gives the Total Fixed +
O&M cost per unit of power sent out as Rials
111.63/Kwh.
No figures are available on the transmission
and distribution costs in Iran. It is assumed that
high voltage and low voltage transmission
investments of US$15/kW would be required. This
capital cost is annualized using the assumptions
given above. The capital cost per unit of such
network comes at 2.16 Rials/kWh. The level of
Transmission and Distribution (T&D) losses in the
economy is also an important factor in determining
opportunity cost of electricity. The current T&D
losses are about 20% while the desirable level is
8%, which the policy should aim at. Reducing T&D
losses to this level is not expected to occur
overnight. Hence it is assumed that the average
T&D losses over the time period of this policy
will be 12%.
Thus, the total opportunity cost of electricity
in Iran comes at 278.6 Rials/kWh. One important
constraint on the time frame for this policy option
is the social and political effects which do not
permit the prices of goods and services sold by
any public enterprise to be raised at once.
However, given the existing difference between
domestic prices prevalent in Iran and international
prices, taking domestic prices to international parity
at least at 10% per year would take a long time.
For example, in the case of Gas oil, it would take
more than 40 years if prices are allowed to rise
only by 10% per year to reach international parity
price of Gas oil corresponding to the crude oil price
of $50/bbl. Policy options with this long a time
frame are not feasible as the costs and benefits
will be very uncertain and so will be the net
benefits expected from the policy. Yet there would
be obvious difficulties in amending these social
Table 4. Compounded Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)
for prices under two scenarios (%)
Product Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Gasoline 16 9
Gasoil 39 21
Kerosene 39 21
Fuel Oil 52 28
Natural Gas 45 24
Electricity 18 10
154
and political limitations. Thus, a middle path has
to be found out that meets the social as well as
economic objectives.
Ideally, the corrections in prices should be
completed at least by the end of the Fourth Plan
(year 2010-11). However, given the large gap
between the domestic and international prices and
the constraint on the rate of price increase, this
may not be possible as the annual price increases
during the Fourth Plan period becomes very high.
Therefore the end of the Fifth Plan period (2015/
16) is considered as the target horizon in that case.
In the alternative, the prices for the products may
be increased at a faster rate during the Forth Plan
by the year 2010/11.
Accordingly, two scenarios are considered for
implementing this policy option. Scenario 1
increases the price with the objective of achieving
target prices by the year 2010/11, coinciding with
the end of Fourth Plan whereas Scenario 2 has
the objective of achieving the same result by the
year 2015/16, coinciding with the end of the Fifth
Plan. The annual compounded growth rates
required under these two scenarios is as follows
(Table 4).
The traditional microeconomic theory suggests
that there are efficiency gains that accrue to the
economy when it moves to the market determined
prices. The prices determined in a competitive
market promote maximum allocative efficiency in
the sense that any movement away from that level
is accompanied by reduction in consumer welfare.
This gain in efficiency is most clearly evident in
reduction of consumption to the efficient level,
given a certain price elasticity of demand. Decline
in consumption due to increase in prices is the
primary mechanism that generates other costs and
benefits (The World Bank, June 2000).
The first benefit is the reduction in emissions,
both local and global. Burning petroleum fuels
gives rise to emissions of harmful gases like CO2,
CH4, SO2, N2O, CO and NMVOCs (MOH,
1997). Out of these, some like CO2 and CH4 are
green house gases (GHGs) and hence represent
global common “bad” (JICA, 1997). Reduction in
consumption thus generates benefit for the global
community by reducing CO2 emissions. Other
gases, like NMVOCs, SO2, N2O and CO are local
pollutants and hence reduction in consumption
 Shafie-Pour Motlagh, M.and Farsiabi, M. M.
generates benefits primarily the local economy.
The damage costs of these gases, as proposed
for the Iranian economy (JICA, 1997) are used
within the model. This approach - Benefit Transfer
- is commonly used to transfer benefit values of
reducing pollutants from the source country to
study site. All data in source country is achieved
by a long term Dose-Response study. The results
of main study would be adopted comparing ratio
of real income in source country to study country.
The income used in the transfer function is
calculated by Purchase Power Parity (PPP),
which represents different purchase powers in real
term (Pearce, 2000). Iran GDP per capita used
through analysis has been more than PPP$ 6000
in 2004 (UNDP, 2004).
The second benefit is the increased producer
surplus. Increase in prices of various fuels
generates producer’s surplus from two sources.
One is the increased indigenous expenditure on
the fuel in question since the elasticity of demand
is low. The Office of Energy Planning in the
Ministry of Energy estimated the following
elasticity of demand for various fuels under
consideration [Ministry of Energy, October 2002].
The Table also shows the percentage increase in
expenditure on the fuel in question if the prices
rise by 1%.
However, this increase in consumer
expenditure, which contributes to the producer’s
surplus is a mere re-distribution of income within
the economy and is therefore ignored for the
purpose of cost benefit analysis at the economy
wide level.
But another source of producer’s surplus,
which is not generated from within the economy
is the additional earnings from exports. If the
domestic consumption is progressively checked
due to increase in prices and if the production
capacity already exists to take care of the
Table 5. Elasticity of demand and increase
in expenditure
Fuel Elasticity % in exp.
Gasoline -0.47 0.52
Gasoil -0.51 0.78
Kerosene -0.27 0.72
Fuel Oil -0.21 0.788
Natural Gas -0.29 0.70
Electricity -0.34 0.65
155
unconstrained demand, then the producer will have
the opportunity to export the surplus product at
international prices [IRI & the World Bank, 1999].
This additional export earning will add to the
national surplus. Thus, the second benefit of
reducing subsidy is the additional producer surplus
due to extra export earnings.
Reduction in demand has a cost in terms of
reduced consumer’s welfare. However, some
percentage of the reduction in the consumer
surplus goes to the producer as producer surplus
and hence constitutes a redistribution of income.
But not all reduction in consumer surplus goes to
the producer (Fig. 4).
As shown in Figure 4, the total loss of
consumer welfare in moving from consumption
point A to consumption point B is P1ABP2.
However, the area P1CBP2 represents gain to
producer and hence just a redistribution of
resources in the economy. Thus, the “deadweight”
loss in the economy is represented by the area
ABC.
The following are taken as benefits of reduced
subsidy under the traditional cost benefit analysis
as applied to the current objective:
a. Reduction in CO2 pollution
b. Reduction in other forms of pollution
c. Additional export earnings
The deadweight loss portion of the reduction in
consumer surplus is taken as a cost of reduced
subsidy. Since the reduction in demand generates
all other costs and benefits, the first step is to
determine the base case demand against which
the reduced demand will be juxtaposed.
The CAGRs (compounded annual growth rates)
of demand for each over the period 1991-92 to
2000-01 are given in Table 6 (The Ministry of
Power, 2000 & 2001). One approach would be to
project the demand based on these historical
CAGRs.
Table 6. CAGRs of growth in demand for
various fuels (%)
Fuel CAGR
Gasoline 6.48
Gasoil 2.68
Kerosene 1.31
Fuel Oil 1.51
Natural Gas 8.45
Electricity 5.82
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 150-162, Spring 2007
Price
D
P2 B
P1 C A
O Q2
Fig. 4. Reduction in consumer welfare (
However, this approach implicitly assumes that
the major determinants of demand such as the
growth rate of GDP will also remain unchanged
for the time period under consideration. This is
not a realistic, but a rather restrictive assumption
to make. The Office of Energy Planning under
the Ministry of Energy has assumed the following
growth rates for various sectors for the period up
to 2005 and beyond [Ministry of Power, October
2002].
• Rate of growth of domestic production - 6%
on the average for the third plan and 4% annually
for 2005-2021
• Rate of growth of real value added in the
industries and the mining sector – 8% on the
average for the period 2000-2005 and for the
period 2005-2021, it would be proportional to its
share in the gross domestic product in 2004
• Rate of growth of value added for the
transportation sector – 7% on the average for the
period 2000-2004 and for the period 2004-2021, it
would be proportional to its share in gross domestic
product in 2004.
The GDP elasticity for the demand of fuels under
consideration can be gauged from the following
demand functions estimated by the Office of
Energy Planning.
• Demand function for Gasoline:
LGA = 5.51 + 0.97 LVAT – 0.47 LPGA
o Where, LGA is the logarithm of Gasoline
demand, LVAT is the logarithm of value added
for transport and storage and communications at
fixed prices of the year 1982 and LPGA is the
logarithm of real sales price of Gasoline.
• Demand function for Gas oil:
LGO = 3.11 + 0.95 LGDP – 0.51 LPGO
Quantity
Q1 E
) and deadweight loss ( )
o Where, LGO is the logarithm of demand for
Gas oil, LGDP is the real GDP and LPGO is the
logarithm of the true sales price of the Gas oil.
• Demand function for Kerosene:
LKE = 1.74 + 0.98 LGDP – 0.27 LPKE
o Where, LKE is the logarithm of demand for
kerosene, LGDP is the logarithm of the GDP to
the fixed prices of 1982 (real GDP) and LPKE is
the real logarithm of the true prices of the sales of
kerosene
• Demand function for Fuel Oil:
LFO = 7.08 + 0.49 LVIM – 0.21 LPFO
o Where, LFO is the logarithm of the demand
for furnace oil, LVIM is the logarithm of the value
added of the industries and mines sector in fixed
1982 prices and LPFO is the logarithm of the real
fuel oil prices.
• Demand function for Natural Gas:
LNG = 1.11 LGDP – 0.29 LPNG + 1.40 D68
o Where, LNG is the logarithm of the demand
for natural gas, LGDP is the real gross domestic
product, LPNG is the real sales price of natural
gas and D69 is the figurative variable that explains
the expansion of the natural gas network for 1968
onwards
• Demand function for electricity:
LEL = 1.23 GDP – 0.34 LPEL
o Wher e, LEL is the logarithm of the
consumption of the electricity, LGDP is the
logarithm of the real gross domestic product and
LPEL is the logarithm of the real price of the sales
of electricity.
Thus, in this analysis, the base case demand is
projected using the demand curves as estimated
by the Office of Energy Planning. However, this
is also broadly supported by the fact that such
156
 Environment, Economic & Energy Subsidy

projections are not very different from those based This is done using the compounded annual
on historical CAGRs. average growth rate in prices estimated under the
two scenarios and the price elasticity of demands
Using these demand functions and the
as given above. However, the price increase
assumptions regarding the growth rates of various
assumed under Scenario 1 lasts only till the year
components of GDP, as listed above, the following
2010/11 but the time frame of the policy option is
Base Case demand for the various fuels is
till 2015/16 since the time price increase under
estimated (Table 7).
Scenario 2 goes up to that year. Thus, for the period
Price increase for the years 2003 and 2004 is 2011/12 to 2015/16 under Scenario 1, the price
assumed to be at 10% annually, based on the Third increase is nil, which effectively raises the demand
Plan law constraint (IRI, 2001). at the normal growth rate linked to GDP (or its
The next step is to factor in the two scenarios sub-sector as the case may be). The Modified
of price increase in this base case demand to Demand under two scenarios for all the fuels, along
arrive at Modified Demand under the two with the difference with Base Case demand is
scenarios. given in the following Tables.
Table 7. Base case demand for various fuels
Natural
Fuel Gasoline (bn Gasoil (bn Kerosene (bn Fuel Oil (bn Electricity
Gas
Year Bbls) Bbls) Bbls) Bbls) (BBOE)
(BBOE)
2003/04 0.117 0.166 0.061 0.095 0.281 0.067
2004/05 0.125 0.175 0.065 0.099 0.300 0.072
2005/06 0.130 0.182 0.067 0.101 0.313 0.075
2006/07 0.135 0.189 0.070 0.103 0.327 0.079
2007/08 0.141 0.196 0.073 0.105 0.342 0.083
2008/09 0.146 0.203 0.075 0.107 0.357 0.087
2009/10 0.152 0.211 0.078 0.109 0.373 0.091
2010/11 0.158 0.219 0.082 0.111 0.389 0.096
2011/12 0.164 0.227 0.085 0.113 0.407 0.010
2012/13 0.170 0.236 0.088 0.115 0.425 0.010
2013/14 0.177 0.245 0.091 0.118 0.443 0.011
2014/15 0.183 0.254 0.095 0.120 0.463 0.011
2015/16 0.191 0.264 0.099 0.122 0.484 0.012

Table 8. Modified demand for gasoline (billion barrels)

Year\Scenarios Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Base Difference 1 Difference 2
2003/04 0.117 0.117 0.117 0.000 0.000
2007/08 0.102 0.117 0.141 0.038 0.024
2011/12 0.094 0.115 0.164 0.070 0.049
2015/16 0.110 0.112 0.191 0.080 0.078

Table 9. Modified demand for gas oil (billion barrels)

Year Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Base Difference 1 Difference 2
2003/04 0.166 0.166 0.166 0.000 0.000
2007/08 0.081 0.137 0.196 0.115 0.059
2011/12 0.048 0.095 0.227 0.179 0.132
2015/16 0.056 0.066 0.264 0.208 0.198

157
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 150-162, Spring 2007

Table 10. Modified demand for kerosene (billion barrels)

Year Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Base Difference 1 Difference 2
2003/04 0.061 0.061 0.061 0.000 0.000
2007/08 0.047 0.060 0.073 0.026 0.012
2011/12 0.039 0.054 0.085 0.046 0.031
2015/16 0.046 0.048 0.099 0.053 0.050

Table 11. Modified demand for fuel oil (billion barrels)

Year Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Base Difference 1 Difference 2
2003/04 0.095 0.095 0.095 0.000 0.000
2007/08 0.066 0.088 0.105 0.039 0.017
2011/12 0.051 0.072 0.113 0.063 0.041
2015/16 0.055 0.059 0.122 0.067 0.063

Table 12. Modified demand for natural gas (million barrels of oil equivalent)
Year Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Base Difference Sc1 Difference Sc2
2003/04 281 281 281 0 0
2007/08 196 282 342 145 59
2011/12 154 258 407 252 149
2015/16 185 235 484 299 248

Table 13. Modified demand for electricity (million barrels of oil equivalent)
Year Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Base Difference Sc1 Difference Sc2
2003/04 67 67 67 0.00 0.00
2007/08 78 80 83 5.02 2.83
2011/12 95 97 101 5.91 3.43
2015/16 116 118 122 6.27 4.16

The approach towards valuing the various The future benefits and costs are discounted
benefits and costs is detailed in Table 14. at an 8% rate to arrive at the Net Present Value
Difference between base case Scenario and (NPV) of each policy option. The Benefit-Cost
Modified demands includes export; deadweight ratio (BCR) is also estimated to facilitate decision-
losses and reduction in environmental damage making. The NPV and BCR of each scenario for
costs are calculated by running MARKAL each fuel are given below.
software using transferred values of pollutants.
Table 14. Present Values (billion Rials) and Benefit-Cost Ratios under Scenario 1
Fuel BC Components Gasoline Gas oil SKO FO Natural gas Electricity
Export earnings 126,626 401,626 97,674 111,676 143,590 11,711
CO2 benefits 2,907 7,741 1,889 2,629 10,163 829
Local pollution 27,765 74,016 18,056 43,812 13,389 1,067
Deadweight loss 20,748 70,914 17,872 19,776 52,445 7,031
Total Benefits 157,298 483,383 117,619 158,117 167,141 13,607
Total Costs 20,748 70,914 17,872 19,776 52,445 7,031
Net Benefit 136,550 412,469 99,747 138,341 114,697 6,577
B/C 7.58 6.82 6.58 8.00 3.19 1.94

158
 Shafie-Pour Motlagh, M.and Farsiabi, M. M.

Table 15. Present Values (billion Rials) and Benefit-Cost Ratios (BCRs) under Scenario 2
Natural
Fuel BC Components Gasoline Gas oil SKO FO Electricity
gas
Export earnings 92,022 269,121 62,354 67,405 80,327 8,483
CO2 benefits 2,111 5,188 1,205 1,593 5,685 600
Local pollution 20,158 49,605 11,518 26,534 7,490 773
Deadweight loss 9,559 31,466 7,606 7,587 19,166 3,688
Total Benefits 114,291 323,914 75,077 95,532 93,502 9,857
Total Costs 9,559 31,466 7,606 7,587 19,166 3,688
Net Benefit 104,732 292,448 67,471 87,945 74,336 6,169
B/C 11.96 10.29 9.87 12.59 4.88 2.67

As is evident, under Scenario 2, the Benefit-
Cost ratios have increased, when compared with
Scenario 1, due to the fact that costs are now
spread over a longer time horizon and hence have
lower present weight-age. At the same time,
however, the net benefit from the policy option
has reduced when compared with Scenario 1.
Figure 5 combines these two measures into one
to facilitate the comparison among the policy
options.
While the benefits of undertaking all the policies
simultaneously will be huge, it is not likely that the
government will increase the prices for all products
at one go. Thus, decision has to be made regarding
which fuel should be targeted first. Table 16 shows
the ranking of the policies for price reforms in
subsidies as per the BCR.
As is evident, the BCR’s are higher under
Scenario 2 than under Scenario 1. At the same
time, the NPV is higher under Scenario 1 than
under Scenario 2. This is because of the fact that
though the benefits under Scenario 2 are on an
average around 65% of those under Scenario 1,
the costs are about 42%.

Table 16. Ranking the benefits for different fuels under two scenarios as per BCR
NPV
Policy BCR
(Billion Rials)
Reducing subsidy on Fuel Oil Scenario 2 87,945 12.59
Reducing subsidy on Gasoline Scenario 2 104,732 11.96
Reducing subsidy on Gas oil Scenario 2 292,448 10.29
Reducing subsidy on Kerosene Scenario 2 67,471 9.87
Reducing subsidy on Fuel Oil Scenario 1 138,341 8.00
Reducing subsidy on Gasoline Scenario 1 136,550 7.58
Reducing subsidy on Gas oil Scenario 1 412,469 6.82
Reducing subsidy on Kerosene Scenario 1 99,747 6.58
Reducing subsidy on Natural gas Scenario 2 74,336 4.88
Reducing subsidy on Natural gas Scenario 1 114,697 3.19
Reducing subsidy on Electricity Scenario 2 6,169 2.67
Reducing subsidy on Electricity Scenario 1 6,577 1.94

As a result, the BCR has risen. And as far as
the fall in net benefits under Scenario 2 is
concerned, this is because of the discounting
applied to arrive at the present value of such
benefits. Under Scenario 1, the benefits rise at a
faster rate because the reduction in demand is
faster. As a result, the benefits achieved under
Scenario 2 till the year 2011/12 are lower than
what is achieved under Scenario 1. Thus, though
the total benefits over the time period remain the
same, discounting them means that benefits
accruing in the earlier period are given more weight
and hence the benefits under Scenario 1 are higher.
Coming to the choice of the fuel on which the
subsidy should be reduced first, Fuel Oil presents
a clear option. Not only is the BCR higher than

159
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 150-162, Spring 2007

the rest, the fact that it is not consumed by the these has to be decided by the executing agency,
households directly means that its direct social cost keeping in mind the above costs and benefits.
will be low. Though the net benefit under the option
Electricity gives surprisingly low benefits but
is low, it definitely represents a good choice to
this is due to the relatively less increase in prices
start with. Along with the FO, subsidies on Gas oil
required for the fuel to match the unit production
should also be reduced, which confirms results of
cost.
other researches (APT,2002).
Table 17 ranks the subsidy schemes as per
The choice between Scenario 1 and Scenario
the NPV. The ranking of fuels in this case has
2 not withstanding, reducing subsidies on Gas oil
changed. The absolute benefits are highest in the
give high net benefit and yield high BCRs. This is
case of Gas oil followed by Fuel Oil and then
also linked to the fact that price increase required
Gasoline, Natural Gas, Kerosene and Electricity
in these two fuels to match half of the opportunity
in that order. As far as choice between scenario 1
cost is also the highest. Gasoline, Kerosene and
and scenario 2 is concerned, scenario 1 gives
Natural Gas are next candidates and the period
higher benefit in case of all the fuels.
over which price increase will be undertaken for
Table 17. Ranking the benefits for different fuels under two scenarios as per NPV
Policy NPV (bn Rials) BCR
Reducing subsidy on Gas oil Scenario 1 412,469 6.82
Reducing subsidy on Gas oil Scenario 2 292,448 10.29
Reducing subsidy on Fuel Oil Scenario 1 138,341 8.00
Reducing subsidy on Gasoline Scenario 1 136,550 7.58
Reducing subsidy on Natural gas Scenario 1 114,697 3.19
Reducing subsidy on Gasoline Scenario 2 104,732 11.96
Reducing subsidy on Kerosene Scenario 1 99,747 6.58
Reducing subsidy on Fuel Oil Scenario 2 87,945 12.59
Reducing subsidy on Natural gas Scenario 2 74,336 4.88
Reducing subsidy on Kerosene Scenario 2 67,471 9.87
Reducing subsidy on Electricity Scenario 1 6,577 1.94
Reducing subsidy on Electricity Scenario 2 6,169 2.67

FO Scenario 2
12.0
Gasoline Scenario 2

11.0
Gasoil Scenario 2
10.0
Kerosene Scenario 2
9.0
Benefit / Cost Ratio

8.0 FO Scenario 1
BCR

Gasoline Scenario 1
Kerosene Scenario 1
7.0 Gasoil Scenario 1

6.0

5.0 Natural Gas Scenario 2

4.0
Natural Gas Scenario 1
3.0 Electricity Scenario 2

2.0 Electricity Scenario 1

1.0

0.0
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000

Net Present Value (Bn Rials)

Fig. 5. Comparing the two scenarios

160
 Environment, Economic & Energy Subsidy
Apart from the benefits evaluated above, the
increase in prices will also lead to extra income
for the government. However, these represent a
re-distribution of income within the economy and
they will definitely contribute to the government
revenue.
It is not possible with the data available to
design a compensation scheme that would give
some idea about the net flow of revenue to the
government. But the above figures do suggest the
range of revenues released for the compensation
scheme.
CONCLUSION
This paper estimates the total subsidy to the
energy sector in Iran amounted to 126,441 billion
Rials in the year 2003, which is 16.68 % of GDP
(Table 1) [Statistical Center ofIran,2002]. Based
on results extracted from running a model, if the
subsidies continue to year 2019, then the subsidy
to the energy sector will rise to 20% of GDP. So
for the first time in Iran, environmental damage
costs caused by air pollution have been assessed
and entered the Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) in
addition to the vast amount of subsidies.
Using a CBA Model which considers changes
in level of social welfare and environmental quality
as probable benefits (or costs), the B/C ratio for
running price reform policy under two scenarios
has been analyzed and calculated. The analysis
shows that reducing energy subsidies for each
energy form is considerably beneficial (Table 17).
It is concluded that total present value of energy
subsidy avoided under scenario 1 (reducing
subsidies by year 2010) would be more than
US$112 billion and under scenario 2 (reducing
subsidies by year 2015) is US$74 billion (if the oil
price of $ 25/bbl is considered). Apart from the
Table 18. Present value of avoided subsidy
(billion Rials)
Fuel Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Gasoline 119,785 85,878
Gas oil 246,611 173,657
Kerosene 83,597 54,370
Fuel Oil 93,245 56,876
Natural 218,584 137,245
Electricity 141,288 90,711
161
environmental benefits -which has been shown in
previous researches [TERP, 1997]- the increase
in prices which leads to reduction in subsidies paid
out by the government, can be a base for a re-
distribution of income within the poor deciles of
economy and this policy would increase the
government revenue and economic growth in long-
term.
However, the CBA model developed adopted
in this paper has provided the authors with a
powerful tool to incorporate any further presumed
assumptions or alternatively, take care of possible
oil prices fluctuations so that pertinent and reliable
appropriate responses may be achieved.
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APT. (2002). Action Plan for Transportation Air
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BP & IRI.(2003). Statistical Review of World Energy,
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DOE. (2004). Environmental Energy Review in Iran
(EER-Iran). Iranian Department of the Environmnet .
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externalities of energy sector. European Commission:
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IEA. (2003). International Energy Agency World Energy
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IRI & the World Bank. (1999). Economic Aspects of
Increasing Energy Prices to Border Price Levels in the
Islamic Republic of Iran. 46.
IRI. (2001) Third Socio-Economic and Cultural
Development Plan of the Islamic Republic of Iran 2000-
2004. Management and Planning Organization. Tehran.
JICA. (1997). The Study on an Integrated Master-Plan
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Republic of Iran. 3 Volumes: Final Report, Supporting
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Planning. Executive Summary of the Long-Term Energy
Demand Planning Project. Tehran.
Ministry of Power. (October 2002). Office of Energy
Planning, Executive Summary of the Long-Term Energy
Demand Planning Project. Tehran.
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MOH. (1997). Health effects of air pollution in Tehran TERP. (1997). Tehran Transport Emission Reduction
(acute respiratory and cardiovascular attacks). Iranian Project. SWECO. MTC. SMHI Joint Venture. AQCC.
Ministry of Health and Medical Education. Tehran. Two Volumes: Main Report and Appendices.
Tuberculosis and Pulmonary Diseases Research
The Ministry of Power. (2000 & 2001). Energy Balance.
Center. Department of Environmental and Vocational
I.R. Iran, Tehran. 12-55.
Health. Tehran. Pp. 61 (unpublished Report, in Farsi).
The World Bank. (June 2000). Environment Strategy
Pearce, D. (2000). Valuing Risks to Life and Health.
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UNDP. (2004). Human Development Report, United
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162
Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 163-169, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Fate of intermediate biodegradation products of triethyl amine in

a compost-based biofiltration system
Torkian, A.1*, Keshavarzi Shirazi, H2. and Mehrdadi, N2 .
1
Institute of Water and Energy, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
2
Graduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

Received 15 Dec 2005; Revised 12 Aug 2006; Accepted 20 Dec 2006

ABSTRACT: Biofiltration of Triethylamine (TEA) vapor used as a catalyst in casting operations
was evaluated in this study. The unit consisted of a 6-L three-stage biofilter containing a mixture of
compost and wood chips (40:60 v/v) as the filter medium. Seed microbial population from municipal
activated sludge was acclimated for a period of three weeks prior to the actual experimental runs. In
the startup period, high pH values up to 10 was observed due to alkaline nature of TEA and
inadequate formation of biofilm and low overall biodegradation. Steady increase of organic-N
concentration along with gradual upward trend of pressure drop indicated sound establishment of
microbial population. Operational parameters studied included loading rate (6-116 g/m3/h), hydraulic
detention times (40-60 s), temperature ( 30±1°C), and humidity (50-55%). Results indicated effluent
ammonia concentrations meeting standards of 25 ppm can be obtained after 2.5 months of operation.
Optimal organic loading rates (OLRs) of 90±14 g/m3/h for Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) value of
48 s were suggested. Under these conditions, elimination capacity of 71±3 g/m3/h and removal
efficiency 81±14 % were achieved. Mass balance was performed on different forms of nitrogen
products for a constant inlet concentration of 180 ppm TEA with a relatively stable removal efficiency
of about 90 % maintained for over a month. Both liquid (leachate) and gas (different sections, inlet,
and outlet) phase measurements were made for the purpose of performing calculations. Ammonium-
N and Nitrate-N were dominant in the first and third sections of the reactor, respectively. Cumulative
TEA-N mass balance over a 2-month period indicated an equal proportion breakdown into ammonia-
N, nitrate-N, and ammonium & organic-N. The fact that up to 30 % of TEA-N could not be accounted
for in the leachate and gas measurements can be attributed to incorporation into the cellular
constituents.

Key words: Biofiltration, Triethyl amine, Biodegradation, Air pollution, Casting

*Corresponding author: Email-torkian@sharif.edu

INTRODUCTION
Gas-phase biotreatment has emerged as an
effective and inexpensive alternative to
conventional physicochemical treatment systems
for treating large air streams with low
concentrations (Kim, et al., 2000). Adoption of
stricter emission policies in recent years and
increasing costs of chemicals and disposal of
hazardous wastes generated from chemical
treatment technologies have been the main driving
force behind the development and optimization of
biological treatment systems. The technology is
still under development in terms of economics,
equipment, process kinetics, and operational skills
and different layouts and flow trains are being
163
proposed including biofiltration, biotrickling filter,
and bioscrubber (Burgess, et al., 2001). In
biofiltration, contaminated air to be treated is
passed through a packed bed where biodegradable
gases or volatile compounds are absorbed into the
biofilm in which diffusion and aer obic
biodegradation occur simultaneously in a complex
set of physical, chemical and biological interactions
(Baquerizo, et al., 2005).
Amines are widely used as catalysts in casting
operations. They are also the major pollutants in
the gaseous emissions of chemical manufacturing
factories. During the production of casting cores
with the so called cold-box-process, polyurethane
 Torkian A., et al.
is used as a binder in the sand core. Considerable
amount of amine vapor is used in this process and
is partly liberated to the ambient air. Tertiary
amines, such as triethyl amine (TEA) are the main
gaseous catalysts for polymerization reactions
comprising the majority of nitrogenous emissions
(Borger, et al., 1997; Strikauska, et al., 1999;
Busca and Pistarino, 2003). TEA has a very low
odor threshold and exposure to it may cause
adverse health effects such as asthma and visual
disturbances (Belin, et al., 1983; A kesson, et al.,
1985). Metabolic pathways of TEA in humans
have been studied (A kesson, et al., 1988) but
information on microbial degradation of TEA is
limited. In contrast to poor results obtained under
anaerobic conditions (Kawahara, et al.,1999),
Tang and Hwang (1996) reported that 100%
removal efficiency of TEA at loads up to 140 gm-
3 -1
h in a laboratory-scale reactor. Other studies
have suggested suitable biodegradation potential
of amines (Tang and Hwang, 1996; Chou and
Shiu, 1997). As such, biofiltration seems to be an
appropriate method to treat waste gases containing
these pollutants. This study was conducted to
investigate the performance of biofiltration system
in treating triethyl amine-laden flue gas from
casting operations under various conditions of inlet
concentration, moisture content, and loading
(organic and hydraulic). Specifically, the fate of
intermediate products of TEA in a pilot plant
system is evaluated.
(1-compressor, 2-carbon filter, 3-humidifier, 4- pollutant vessel, 5-
rotameter, 6-nutrient, 7-gas sampling port, 8-biofilter bed, 9-bed
sampling port, 10-leachate)
Fig. 1. Schematic of biofilter system
164
MATERIALS & METHODS
Experiments were conducted in a laboratory scale
reactor shown in Fig. 1. The column had an inner
diameter of 5 and an effective height of 100 cm.
Perforated Plexiglas plates (pore diameter=3 mm)
placed between sections acted as a support for
the packing material as well as for flow
redistribution. A 5 cm space in between the
sections allowed for representative gas sampling.
Provision of two sampling ports at midpoint within
each section allowed temperature measurements
as well as bed media access.
The main air stream was prepared by sending
compressed air through an activated carbon
absorber for residual oil capture. A side stream of
purified air was sent through a 1 L bottle containing
pure liquid TEA. The rest was humidified and
mixed with the exiting side stream containing
pollutant vapor. Air flow rates were appropriately
controlled using pressure regulators and flow
meters to generate feed air with the needed
concentration. Variation of humidity in the influent
gas stream and biofilter material was controlled
by changing water temperature in the humidifier.
Temperature control of the bed material was
achieved by circulating water around the exterior
of reactor wall. Heated element was used for
temperature control in the water tank.
During the steady state operational period of
the study, bed temperature and humidity were
maintained at 30±1 °C and 50-55%, respectively.
Filter media was prepared by blending of sieved
compost and wood chips. Municipal compost
(equivalent diameter 2-5 mm) with a C:N:P ratio
of 100:7:2, 37.8% organic matter and a pH value
of 6.8 was obtained from a local composting
facility. Wood chips (2-5mm) were added as
bulking material to produce a 60:40 v/v ratio of
compost-wood chip. The inoculum consisted of
municipal activated sludge from the local regional
wastewater treatment plant. The following nutrient
and buffering solution was also added to the
activated sludge (g/dm3): KH2PO4, 5; K2HPO4 ,
2.5; Potassium, 0.2; sodium, 0.64; Calcium, 5;
Magnesium, 2; Chloride, 3.7; phosphorus, 1.15
(Auria, et al.,2000).
The critical parameters include Empty-Bed
Residence Time (EBRT), Mass Loading Rates
(MLR), Removal Efficiency (RE) and Elimination
Capacity (EC). EBRT is the time a parcel of air
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 163-169, Spring 2007

will remain in an empty biofilter and overestimates 1°C. Gas flow rate was measured using flow meter
the actual treatment time. MLR define the amount (Omega Fl-2016) with units of L/min. A water-filled
of contaminant entering the biofilter per unit area manometer with a minimum division length reading
or volume of filter material per unit time. Both of 1 mm water column was used to measure
terms are normalized, allowing for comparison pressure drop across the column.
between reactors of different sizes.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
RE and EC are used to describe the
At the startup of biofilter, influent TEA
performance of a biofilter. RE is the fraction of
concentration was adjusted to 20 ppm at an organic
contaminant removed by biofilter and EC is the
loading rate of 6 g/m3/h and relative humidity of
mass of the contaminant degraded per unit volume
50-55%. Also, water temperature in humidifier was
of filter material per unit time. Removal efficiency
adjusted to 28±2 °C. Superficial gas velocity was
is an incomplete descriptor of biofilter performance
57.3 m/h, corresponding to a residence time of 48
because it varies with contaminant concentration,
s. The observed acclimation period was 3 weeks
air flow, and biofilter size and reflects only the
because microorganisms in municipal activated
specific conditions under which it is measured. The
sludge had not been acclimated to the target
EC is normalized with respect to volume by
pollutant. Decreasing of removal efficiency was
definition and allows for direct comparison of the
observed with a lag period after increasing the inlet
results of two different biofilter systems. Gas
concentration with subsequent increase in the
samples were collected at the inlet, outlet, and in
removal efficiency after gradual acclimation of
the 5cm plenum between the sections The amount
microbes to the pollutant. Excess biomass
of TEA was measured by UV spectrophotometer
development was initially observed leading to high
(UV/VIS-911, GBC CO, Australia) at a wavelength
pressure drops. Input loading was adjusted to
of 215 nm. For measuring pH, 1 g of biofilter bed
prevent accumulation of biomass in the filter bed,
material and 20 ml distilled water were blended and
even though different biomass concentrations were
agitated for 10 min and measured by a pH meter
present along the bed height. Further details are
(691-Metrohm, Switzerland). Moisture of biofilter
provided elsewhere (Keshavarzi, et al., 2005). Inlet
bed material was measured by weight loss of 2 g
TEA concentration was increased up to 385 ppm
solid sample after being dried at 106°C for 24 h.
(1.5 g/m3) stepwise at the HRT of 48 s, so mass
Heated water was circulated around the bed
loading changed proportionally. As shown in Fig. 2,
exterior and connected to a precision thermostat
at the beginning of each step change in feed
(Atbin Co.) to control temperature within 1 °C.
concentration, there was a decreasing in RE with
Temperature was maintained at 30 °C and
gradual recovery with time. For low concentrations
measured using alcohol in a glass thermometer with
RE was higher than 90% (below 90 ppm, 95-100%,
a range from -10 to 110 and a scale division of
below 180 ppm, 90-95%).
120 100
90
100
Elimination capacity (g /m /h )

80
3 1

Removal efficiency (%)

70
80
Loading rate and

60
60 50
40
40
30
LR 20
20 EC
Eff. 10
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250

Time (day)
Fig. 2. Removal efficiency and elimination capacity of biofilter at different inlet TEA concentrations

165
 Fate of intermediate biodegradation products
When the inlet concentration is increased, initially,
the biofilm may be affected by a pseudo shock
load with consequent increase TEA in effluent air
from the column. At lower concentrations, the
degree of drop in RE as a result of increased
concentration is lower than at higher
concentrations, due to lower microbial population
demand. The time to recover from the drop is
increasing with increased inlet TEA, due to an
apparent increased inhibitory effect at higher
concentration. This is more pronounced in regions
where the concentration is approaching saturation
EC.
Elimination Capacity shows what portion of the
incoming organic loading is being biodegraded. As
the loading rate is increased, a point of saturation
or maximum EC corresponding to maximum
microbial substrate utilization rate is observed. This
limitation is due to the effect of high concentrations
on the Monod kinetics of biodegradation (Nevin &
Barford, 2000). In some cases, it is known that very
high concentration of substrate can become
inhibitory (Devinney, et al., 1999).
In order to evaluate EC, OLR can be
increased through increased influent concentration
or flow rate (reduced HRT). By increasing inlet
TEA concentrations while maintaining constant
flow rate (HRT= 48 s), OLR was increased. As
shown in Fig. 3, there is a linear relationship
between EC and OLR up to an OLR value of
72.3 g/m3/h. (inlet TEA concentration of 250 ppm).
Beyond this value, a flattening of the curve is
observed with eventual decreasing trend for OLR
values greater than 120 g/m3/h. This is a bit lower
than the results reported before (Tang and Hwan,
1996) on the onset of inhibitory effects at loading
rate of 140 g/m3/h. for the compost/chaff biofilter.
The difference may be attributable to the higher
column length of 100 cm and HRT value of 60 vs.
48 s for this study. As expected, there was an
indication of an increasing trend for the elimination
capacity with time and a sharper decrease in the
ammonia concentration observed in the last
section indicating a higher concentration of
nitrifying biomass had in the section closest to the
outlet of the biofilter. Organic nitr ogen
measurements presented in Fig. 4 showed a four
fold increase by day 70 indicating a consistent trend
for biomass development. While large biomass
concentration is essential for optimized
166
performance, operational constraints of pressure
drop warrant a balanced growth and decay for
microbial population. At inlet TEA concentration
of 180 ppm, there was no excessive pressure drop
and/or biomass accumulation with subsequent
balanced performance.
Presence of ammonia in the effluent is a
function of the degree of nitrification in different
sections of the reactor. An equilibrium relationship
between fractions of ammonia gas-ammonium ion
determines the availability of ammonium ion for
onset of nitrification by nitrifiers. In actual
operational conditions, the degree of approach to
equilibrium is difficult to ascertain but the ratio of
ammonia-ammonium is a function of many factors
including temperature and pH. The higher the
population of nitrifiers, the higher the rate of
disappearance of ammonium ion and subsequent
rate of dissolution of ammonia gas into the solution.
As seen in Fig. 6, minimal nitrate levels are
observed in the first section and the highest
concentrations are in the third section implying low
microbial population at the inlet section. The rate
of increase in nitrate concentration is not uniform
in the reactor indicating a gradual adaptation of
nitrifiers with optimal conditions finally reached in
the third section. A potential ramification of the
trend of nitrate increase is that sufficient contact
time should be allowed in the reactor so as to avoid
high outlet ammonia concentrations and better
utilization of available reactor length for
establishment of nitrifiers. Periodic reversal of flow
direction may aid in increasing the overall nitrifier
biomass but the dynamics of microbial population
under different conditions warrants further
research. A summary of mass balance calculations
for inlet concentration of 180 ppm are presented
in Table 1. All the values are normalized on the
basis of mg N/d and the column on TEA-N
indicates observed removals. As shown in the
table, a third of the total nitrogen is associated
with ammonia gas, a third with ammonium ion,
and the rest for organic and nitrate nitrogen.
Cumulative results shown in Fig. 7 indicates
increasing trend for TEA removal but incomplete
ammonia conversion to nitrate. This could be the
result of various factors including insufficient
microbial population, interface diffusion resistance,
and temperature effects on ammonia-ammonium
equilibrium conditions.
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2):163-169, Spring 2007

80

70
Elimination capacity (g/m3 /h)
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Loading Rate (g/m/h)
Fig. 3. Elimination capacity of biofilter at different TEA loading rates
200 25

160 20
Inlet concentration (ppm)

Organic-N (g/kg)
120 15

80 10

inlet
40 5
Organic-N

0 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Time (day)
Fig. 4. Variation of organic nitrogen in the biofilter bed at constant inlet TEA
concentration of 180 ppm
200 300

180
250
160
Concentration of TEA (ppm)

Concentration of NH3 (ppm)

140
in 200
120 out
NH3 (1)
100 NH3 (2) 150
NH3 (3)
80
100
60

40
50
20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (day)
Fig. 5. Variation of ammonia nitrogen concentration throughout different sections

167
 Torkian A., et al.

Table 1. Summary of mass balance calculations for different nitrogen forms for inlet TEA concentration of 180
ppm (all values in mg/d)
Org-N leachate Reactor bed
Day TEA-N NH3-N
(mg/day) NO3-N NH4-N NO3-N NH4-N
13 1145 709.7 ? 0.03 0.15 110.3 114.6
23 1173 573 284.6 0.07 0.22 62.2 134.6
38 1173 419.6 546.4 0.03 0.20 -5.4 183.9
44 1136 373.3 -220.3 0.45 10 224.3 678.3
58 1111 342.5 376.4 0.23 14.7 72.9 234.9
69 1074 284.2 -15.5 0.29 16.2 306 306
84 1074 200.9 253.1 0.20 11.2 95 275.1

2.5

2.0
NO3-N (g/kg)

1.5

1.0
31 day
44 day
0.5 69 day
85 day

0.0

0 25 50 75
Packing height (cm)
Fig. 6. Variation of nitrate concentration in different sections of the biofilter

100

90 TEA-N
NH3-N
80
NH4-N
70
Accumulative –N (g)

NO3-N
Org.-N
60

50

40

30

20

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time (day)
Fig. 7. Mass balance of different nitrogen forms (inlet TEA concentration=180 ppm)

168
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 163-169, Spring 2007
CONCLUSION
Biofiltration of triethylamine (TEA) vapor
from waste gas evaluated under different
operational conditions in this study. Several
conclusions can be surmised from the results as
follows:
• Maximum EC value for TEA removal was
observed to be 72 g/m3/h at an OLR of 114 g/m3/
h.
• Up to 75% of TEA removals were observed
in the initial section of the biofilter.
• Oper ation conditions for optimum
bioconversion of TEA in biofilter are recommended
as follows: moisture content, 50-55%; HRT, 48 s,
and a maximum loading rate for 100% and 81±14%
RE, are 53±1 and 71±3 g/m3/h , respectively.
• During the initial operation period, there was
an increased pH due to the alkaline nature of TEA.
It took about a month for microbial population to
establish to reduce effluent ammonia concentration
to fall below the 25 ppm level
• Nitrate levels were lowest in the first section
and highest at the last indicating a gradual
adaptation of nitrifiers in the reactor. Optimum
HRT should be seen in light of the dynamics of
microbial population to ensure compliance with
effluent ammonia concentration.
REFERENCES
Auria, R., Frere, G., Acuna, M. E. and Revah, S., (2000),
Influence of mixing and water addition of the removal
rate of toluene vapors in a biofilter, Biotechnol. Bioeng.,
68, 448-445.
A kesson, B., Skerfving, S.and Mattiasson, L., (1988),
Experimental study on the metabolism of triethylamine
in man. Br. J. Ind. Med., 45 (4), 262-268.
Baquerizo ,G., Juan, P.,M., Sakumab, T., Marc A.
Deshusses, B., Gamisans, X., Gabriel, D., Lafuente, J.,
(2005), A detailed model of a biofilter for ammonia
removal: Model parameters analysis and model
validation, Chem. Eng. J., 113, 205-214.
Belin, L., Wass, U., Audunsson, G., Mathiasson, I.,
(1983), Amines possible causative agents in the
development of bronchial hyperreactivity in workers
manufacturing polyurethanes from isocyanates. Br. J.
Ind. Med., 40, 251-257.
Borger, T., Salden, A. and Eigenberger, G., (1997). A
combined vacuum and temperature swing adsorption
process for the recovery of amine from foundry air.
Chem. Eng. Procces., 36, 231-241.
169
Burgess, J. E., Parsons, S. A. and Stuets, R. M. (2001).
Development in odors control and waste gas treatment
biotechnology: a review. Biotechnol. Adv., 19, 35-63.
Busca, G. and Pistarino, C., (2003), Abatement of
ammonia and amines from waste gases: a summary. J.
Loss Prevent. Proces. Indust., 16, 157-163.
Chou, M. S. and Shiu, W. Z., (1997). Bioconversion of
methyl amine in biofilters. J. Air Waste Manag.
Associat., 47, 58-65.
Ergas, S. J., Kinney, K., Fuller, M. E. and Scow, M. E.,
(1994). Characterization of a compost biofiltration
system degrading dichloromethane, Biotechnol.
Bioengrg., 47, 1048-1054.
van Groenestijn, J. W. and Hesselink, P. G. M., (1993).
Biotechniques for air pollution control. Biodegradation,
4, 283-301.
Devinny, J. S., Deshusses, M. A. and Webster, T. S.,
(1999). Biofiltration for air pollution control. CRC
presses, 67-68.
Kawahara, K., Yakabe, Y., Ohide, T., Kida, K., (1999).
Evaluation of laboratory-made sludge for an anaerobic
biodegradability test and its use for assessment of 13
chemicals. Chemosphere, 39 (12), 2007- 2018.
Keshavarzi, H. S., Torkian, A. and Azimi, A., (2005).
Biodegradation of triethyl amine-laden emissions in a
compost-based biofilter, J.Appl. Sci., 5 (8), 1385-1390.
Kim, N. J., Sugano, Y., Hirai, M., Shoda, M., (2000).
Removal of a high load of ammonia gas by a marine
bacterium, Vibrio alginolyticus, J. Biosci. Bioeng. 90,
410-415.
Nevin, D. M. and Barford, J., (2000). Biofiltration as an
odor abatement strategy, Biochem. Eng. J., 5, 231-242.
Palica, M. and Walus, J. (1998). Application of selected
natural beds in deodorization of triethylamine. Part II.
Biodegradation rate and deodorization effectiveness.
Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 12 (1), 37-43.
Sheridan, B. A., Curran, T. P., and Dodd, V. A., (2002).
Assessment of the influence of media particle size on
the biofiltration of odorous exhaust ventilation air from
a piggery facility. Biores. Technol., 84, 129-143.
Strikauska, S., Zarina, D., Berzins, A. and Viesturs, U.
(1999). Biodegradation of ammonia by two stage
biofiltration system, Environ. Eng. and Policy, 1, 175-
179.
Tang, H. M. and Hwang, S. J., (1996). Waste gas
treatment in biofilters. J. Air Waste Manag. Associat.,
46, 349-354.
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 163-169, Spring 2007
CONCLUSION
Biofiltration of triethylamine (TEA) vapor
from waste gas evaluated under different
operational conditions in this study. Several
conclusions can be surmised from the results as
follows:
• Maximum EC value for TEA removal was
observed to be 72 g/m3/h at an OLR of 114 g/m3/
h.
• Up to 75% of TEA removals were observed
in the initial section of the biofilter.
• Oper ation conditions for optimum
bioconversion of TEA in biofilter are recommended
as follows: moisture content, 50-55%; HRT, 48 s,
and a maximum loading rate for 100% and 81±14%
RE, are 53±1 and 71±3 g/m3/h , respectively.
• During the initial operation period, there was
an increased pH due to the alkaline nature of TEA.
It took about a month for microbial population to
establish to reduce effluent ammonia concentration
to fall below the 25 ppm level
• Nitrate levels were lowest in the first section
and highest at the last indicating a gradual
adaptation of nitrifiers in the reactor. Optimum
HRT should be seen in light of the dynamics of
microbial population to ensure compliance with
effluent ammonia concentration.
REFERENCES
Auria, R., Frere, G., Acuna, M. E. and Revah, S., (2000),
Influence of mixing and water addition of the removal
rate of toluene vapors in a biofilter, Biotechnol. Bioeng.,
68, 448-445.
A kesson, B., Skerfving, S.and Mattiasson, L., (1988),
Experimental study on the metabolism of triethylamine
in man. Br. J. Ind. Med., 45 (4), 262-268.
Baquerizo ,G., Juan, P.,M., Sakumab, T., Marc A.
Deshusses, B., Gamisans, X., Gabriel, D., Lafuente, J.,
(2005), A detailed model of a biofilter for ammonia
removal: Model parameters analysis and model
validation, Chem. Eng. J., 113, 205-214.
Belin, L., Wass, U., Audunsson, G., Mathiasson, I.,
(1983), Amines possible causative agents in the
development of bronchial hyperreactivity in workers
manufacturing polyurethanes from isocyanates. Br. J.
Ind. Med., 40, 251-257.
Borger, T., Salden, A. and Eigenberger, G., (1997). A
combined vacuum and temperature swing adsorption
process for the recovery of amine from foundry air.
Chem. Eng. Procces., 36, 231-241.
169
Burgess, J. E., Parsons, S. A. and Stuets, R. M. (2001).
Development in odors control and waste gas treatment
biotechnology: a review. Biotechnol. Adv., 19, 35-63.
Busca, G. and Pistarino, C., (2003), Abatement of
ammonia and amines from waste gases: a summary. J.
Loss Prevent. Proces. Indust., 16, 157-163.
Chou, M. S. and Shiu, W. Z., (1997). Bioconversion of
methyl amine in biofilters. J. Air Waste Manag.
Associat., 47, 58-65.
Ergas, S. J., Kinney, K., Fuller, M. E. and Scow, M. E.,
(1994). Characterization of a compost biofiltration
system degrading dichloromethane, Biotechnol.
Bioengrg., 47, 1048-1054.
van Groenestijn, J. W. and Hesselink, P. G. M., (1993).
Biotechniques for air pollution control. Biodegradation,
4, 283-301.
Devinny, J. S., Deshusses, M. A. and Webster, T. S.,
(1999). Biofiltration for air pollution control. CRC
presses, 67-68.
Kawahara, K., Yakabe, Y., Ohide, T., Kida, K., (1999).
Evaluation of laboratory-made sludge for an anaerobic
biodegradability test and its use for assessment of 13
chemicals. Chemosphere, 39 (12), 2007- 2018.
Keshavarzi, H. S., Torkian, A. and Azimi, A., (2005).
Biodegradation of triethyl amine-laden emissions in a
compost-based biofilter, J.Appl. Sci., 5 (8), 1385-1390.
Kim, N. J., Sugano, Y., Hirai, M., Shoda, M., (2000).
Removal of a high load of ammonia gas by a marine
bacterium, Vibrio alginolyticus, J. Biosci. Bioeng. 90,
410-415.
Nevin, D. M. and Barford, J., (2000). Biofiltration as an
odor abatement strategy, Biochem. Eng. J., 5, 231-242.
Palica, M. and Walus, J. (1998). Application of selected
natural beds in deodorization of triethylamine. Part II.
Biodegradation rate and deodorization effectiveness.
Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q., 12 (1), 37-43.
Sheridan, B. A., Curran, T. P., and Dodd, V. A., (2002).
Assessment of the influence of media particle size on
the biofiltration of odorous exhaust ventilation air from
a piggery facility. Biores. Technol., 84, 129-143.
Strikauska, S., Zarina, D., Berzins, A. and Viesturs, U.
(1999). Biodegradation of ammonia by two stage
biofiltration system, Environ. Eng. and Policy, 1, 175-
179.
Tang, H. M. and Hwang, S. J., (1996). Waste gas
treatment in biofilters. J. Air Waste Manag. Associat.,
46, 349-354.
Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 170-178, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Natural and human-induced impacts on coastal groundwater

Mehrdadi, N.1 Daryabeigi Zand, A.1* and Matloubi, A. A.2
1
Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2
Mazandaran Regional Water Company, Mazandaran, Iran
Received 12 June 2006; Revised 10 Oct 2006; Accepted 27 Nov 2006
ABSTRACT: Groundwater is the main source of potable water in most areas of Mazandaran province,
like Sari and Babol city. Thus the safety of groundwater supplies is very important in these regions.
Unfortunately attention to groundwater quality has remained limited in Iran. In recent years, the
growth of industry, technology, population, and water use has increased the stress upon both land
and water resources of Mazandaran province. The main pollutants of groundwater in Mazandaran
province are domestic, industrial and agricultural wastewater discharges. In addition, contribution
of municipal and rural solid wastes in deterioration of groundwater quality of the Mazandaran
province is considerable. The quality of several water wells in Mazandaran province was investigated
in this research. In tested water wells, the concentrations of Cu, Cr, Zn and NO3 are within WHO
standard limits, but Pb, Se and Cd concentrations are often exceeding the WHO maximum permissible
standard values. Results show that the current quality of groundwater in Mazandaran province
does not present immediate health related concerns. However, the quality of water wells in Mazandaran
province is not reliable because of relatively high rate of various pollutants discharges into
groundwater resources. Consequently, establishment of both monitoring programs and appropriate
regulations to minimize uncontrolled discharges into groundwater resources is necessary for
conservation of this valuable source of water supply in Mazandaran province.

Key words: Groundwater quality, Contaminant discharge, Heavy metals, Monitoring, Pollution
*Corresponding author: Email-adzand@ut.ac.ir

INTRODUCTION
The Caspian Sea, as the largest land-locked
water body on earth, with an area of 425,000 km2
and a water volume of 78,700 km3, is of high global
environmental significance. The Caspian Sea is
bordered by Russia (Dagestan, Kalmykia,
Astrakhan Oblast), Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
Turkmenistan (Balkan Province), and Iran (Guilan,
Mazandaran and Golestan provincesKajiwara, et
al., 2003). The ecosystems in the Caspian Sea
and basin are closely linked to the coastal
groundwater and depend on the aquifer functions
for ecological and social services. Large deltas
provide critical habitats for biodiversity and
fisheries resources, and are also critical sinks and
buffers for chemical contaminants in river and
groundwater inflows accumulated in sediments
and wetlands. The important groundwater
dependent ecological functions that include the
support of lagoons and pools along the entire
coastline, relate closely to the dynamics of the
coastal aquifers. Of the total Caspian Sea inflow
(about 300 km3/yr), with contained contamination
transport, into the Caspian Sea, about 25-40
percent (75-120 km3/yr) consists of groundwater.
While the contribution of groundwater to the water
balance of the Caspian Sea is unknown,
groundwater represents a significant share of the
Caspian Sea inflows, and contributes to the water
balance and the sea fluctuations through river
runoff and as direct seepage into the Sea.
The province of Mazandaran is 23,701 km2 in
the north of Iran, bordering the Caspian Sea is to
the north, the provinces of Tehran and Semnan lie
to the south. To the west it has common borders
with Gilan province, and to the east stands the
province of Golestan. The province covers an area
of 23,833 km2 . Mazandaran pr ovince is
geographically divided into two parts: the coastal

170
 Mehrdadi, N., et al.

plains, and the mountainous areas. The Alborz however the attention to groundwater has
Mountain Range surrounds the coastal strip and plains remained limited and there are gaps in groundwater
of the Caspian Sea like a huge barrier (Fig. 1). There information and management elements in the
is often snowfall during most of the seasons in the national water resources and environmental action
Alborz regions, which run parallel to the Caspian water plans, with inadequate regulatory
Sea’s southern coast, dividing the province into frameworks and institutional resources for
many isolated valleys. It has a population of groundwater management and monitoring in Iran.
2818831(Ministry of Energy, 1990; Pars Ab Tadbir, In this research we investigate the natural and
2004; Mazandaran Regional Water Company, human-induced impacts on coastal groundwater
2003). in Mazandaran province. The quality of many wells
was studied to achieve the careful awareness
Both surface and ground water resources are
about the current status of groundwater quality in
used as a source for potable, industrial, and
Mazandaran province.
irrigation water in Mazandran province. Sari is the
provincial capital with about 220,000 inhabitants.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Most of the population is connected to the water
After conducting comprehensive investigation
supply network. The total water demand of the
on situation of water supplies in Mazandaran
city is 51,800 m3/d and is supplied from 19 wells,
province and determination of main sources of
which are scattered inside and around the city,
groundwater pollution in this area, several water
tapping the Tajan river aquifer and Tajan alluvial
wells were tested to reveal the real quality of
cone. The total water production of these wells is
groundwater supplies in the project area. Water
1,060 L/s (91,584 m3/d). The second important
samples were collected from different wells in
city of Mazandaran provine is Babol. The current
Sari and Babol cities. Water samples were
population of Babol is estimated at 180,000
processed for physical and chemical quality. Also
inhabitants. The total water demand of Babol city
in this investigation, data on groundwater quality
is 41,796 m3/d and is supplied from a well field
from Mazandaran Regional Water Company and
located 38 km toward south west of Babol, near
Department of Environment was collected and
Amol town. The well field, called Amol well field,
used in the present study. In addition, some
taps the aquifer of the Haraz River basin, wherein
preliminary statistical operations were conducted
12 wells provide a total water supply capacity of
on measured parameters to facilitate interpretation
1,080 L/s (93,000 m3/d) (Mehrdadi and Baghvand,
of them.
2006; Mehrdadi and Baghvand, 2005).
The safety of groundwater supplies is very
important in north of Iran close to Caspian Sea,

Fig. 1. The map of lower, middle and upper lands of Mazandaran province

171
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 170-178, Spring 2007
Table 1. The condition of water resources in Mazandaran province (million m3)
The exploitation of water
The potential of water resources
Surface sub-surface total surface
4900 1700 6600 1550
47% 26% 100% 58%
Ref: Pars Ab Tadbir, 2004; Mazandaran Regional Water Company, 2003
The experimental analysis was made
according to standard method. The water quality
results from different wells were compared with
WHO standards as well as local standards.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Groundwater is a principal drinking water
supply in the coastal zone in all the Caspian
countries as well as for Mazandaran province. The
groundwater dependent coastal areas include the
principal cities and intermediate villages in north
of Iran, especially in Mazandaran province.
However, with groundwater pollution and
salinization, poor drinking water is a general social
and health problem in Mazandaran province. In
the middle and lower lands areas of Mazandaran
province 63.1% of the total water consumed is
provided from groundwater resources (springs and
wells), and 36.9% from surface sources. The
groundwater is used in different sectors as
following: agriculture 87.8%, drinking 11.4% and
industry 0.9%. The groundwater is the main source
for drinking in lower and middle lands of
Mazandaran province (Pars Ab Tadbir, 2004). The
condition of water resources in Mazandaran
province is presented in Table 1.
In 2003, there were 27 water wells in Sari,
however only 19 wells are currently in operation.
The groundwater level is ranging from -8 to -15
meters. The average depth of these wells is 120
meters. Total amount of water obtained from these
wells is 820 liters/sec (0.82 m3 /sec). Due to
decrease in groundwater level and penetration of
salty water toward southern area, total dissolved
solids (TDS) of some of the wells have
considerably increased. Some of wells have been
closed on account of this deterioration and even
some due to increase in nitrate concentration.
Groundwater quality in the lower lands has
degraded heavily in recent years due to slope
influence of saline water and high evaporation.
Therefore in lower lands of Mazandaran province,
the groundwater abstraction must be restricted and
The potential of water resources
resources development
sub-surface total surface sub-surface total
1100 2650 2900 350 3250
42% 100% 89% 11% 100%
action must be taken to push back the saline
intrusion line with increased groundwater recharge
(Pars Ab Tadbir, 2004; Mazandaran Regional
Water Company, 2003).
Iran’s groundwater resources have been over-
exploited, often at the expense of deteriorating
water and land quality (Ghadiri, et al., 2006).
However, not all groundwater problems are caused
by over-extraction. Pollutants released to the
ground can work their way down into groundwater.
In recent years, the growth of industry,
technology, population, and water use has
increased the stress upon both land and water
resources of Mazandaran province.
The main pollutants of water in Mazandaran
province are domestic, industrial and agricultural
wastewater discharges. Moreover, municipal and
rural solid wastes pollute the water sources in this
area (Pars Ab Tadbir, 2004; Mazandaran Regional
Water Company, 2003; Caspian Environment
Program, 2006; NCAP, 2002). The majority of
wastewater in north of Iran discharges in to
surface waters with the reminder discharging into
the groundwater or absorption wells. At present,
there are not any wastewater collection and
treatment facilities in Mazandaran province and
in most of the cities and villages in this province;
wastewater is discharged into absorbing wells.
However, recently the wastewater collection and
wastewater treatment plan project has been
started for implementation in this area. In some
areas, wastewater is directly discharged into the
rivers According to Mazandaran and Golestan
Regional Water Authority (MGRWA) and the
earlier studies for preparation of the irrigation and
drainage network, the amount of water returned
from agricultural areas into the Amol-Babol valley
to surface and groundwater is about 470 million
and 80 m3, respectively.
The dominant crop is rice. Water from the
fields is commonly released between mid-august
to early September. Before this, when paddy fields
172
 Impacts on Coastal Groundwater

are water logged, the effluent seeps through to
the shallow groundwater. Agricultural wastewater
contains high levels of phosphate, nitrogen, potash
and pesticides. Since the sub-surface waters in
the area have not been surveyed completely, the
exact amounts of fertilizer and pesticide infiltrated
are not known. However the amount of pollution
would be quite significant because of the short
distance between effluent and groundwater Table.
Agrochemicals are subsidized by the government
of Iran (GOI) to facilitate increased production.
While fertilizer subsidies remain high, the subsidies
for chemicals for pests, weeds and disease control
have declined in recent years as a result of a policy
to reduce the negative environmental impacts from
use of these chemicals.

Table 2. Average annual fertilizer application per ha in Mazandaran province

Fertilizer Paddy (kg/ha) Dry land farming (kg/ha) Citrus (kg/ha)
Nitrate 207 122 200
Phosphate 180 139 405
Potash 77 187 304
Total 464 448 909
Ref: Pars Ab Tadbir, 2004; Mazandaran Regional Water Company, 2003; Caspian Environment Program, 2006

Table 3. Total Pesticides Used in North of Iran

Mazandaran &
Guilan (Amount) Golestan Total (Amount) Total
No. Pesticides
(Amount)
Lit Kg Lit Kg Lit Percent Lit Percent
1 Herbicides 577026 14156 683558 39672 1260584 42.9 53828 2.07
2 Insecticides 152433 526325 775541 1369393 927974 31.6 1895718 73.1
3 Fungicides 28642 89755 114468 503313 143110 4.8 593068 22.8
4 Tickicides 155842 1990 447147 - 602989 20.5 1990 0.07
5 Rodenticides - - 70 1022 70 0 1022 0.03
6 Snailicides - - - 14976 - - 14976 0.5
7 Miticides 999 6200 - 24290 999 0.03 30490 1.1
Fumigates
8 352638 500000 852638 -
(No)
Ref: Pars Ab Tadbir, 2004; Mazandaran Regional Water Company, 2003; Caspian Environment Program, 2006

Table 4. Quantity of pesticides used based on Cropping Type in Mazandaran province

Type of pesticide Paddy (kg/ha) Dry farming (kg/ha) Gardening (kg/ha)
Pesticide 5.1 1.7 8.5
Fungicide 1.7 3.2 2
Tickcide - 1.5 3
Herbicide 15 5.5 8
Total 21.8 11.9 21.5
Ref: Pars Ab Tadbir, 2004; Mazandaran Regional Water Company, 2003

Average amounts of fertilizer applied in paddies,
dry land farming and citrus production is shown in
Table 2. Theamounts of pesticides being used in
north of Iran (Mazandaran, Gilan and Golestan
provinces) are listed in Table 3. Mazandaran
province uses 35% of the total amount of
pesticides used in Iran. The amount of various
pesticides used for the main cropping patterns in
Mazandaran province is presented in Table 4.
Pollution from pesticides increases the levels of
metals (for example Cu, Zn, Cr) and poisonous
substances in water and soil. In addition, the
handling of pesticides poses a health hazard for
farmers.Some of rivers have been converted to
dumping sites for all types of wastes arising from
industrial, agricultural and municipal activities,
which will end to surface and groundwater
pollution (Abduli, 1994 and 1997).

173
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 170-178, Spring 2007

Table 5. Heavy metals concentrations in Sari water wells

Well Number Pb (µg/L) Cu (µg/L) Cr (µg/L) Zn (µg/L) Se (µg/L) Cd (µg/L)
EA 8.2 2.0 0.8 17 12.7 2.3
8 13.1 8.0 2.9 134 11.6 2.4
5(2) 18.5 3.0 0.6 13 11.3 2.8
11 11.2 1.0 0.2 12 11.7 2.4
12 11.3 3.0 0.5 28 18.3 2.7
9 13.1 2.0 3.6 26 17 2.1
6 22.6 9.0 4.5 24 15.9 3.7
1 19.4 5.0 3.9 54 17 2.7
4 7.4 3.0 3 10 18 3.2
7 18.9 4.0 4 14 23.8 3.5
10 15.1 8.0 3.8 25 22.4 3.2
KP 12.5 2.0 31 9 21.4 3
MM 16.3 5.0 5.9 12 18.7 3.3
Maximum 22.6 9.0 31 134 23.8 3.7
Minimum 7.4 1.0 0.2 9 11.3 2.1
Mean 14.4 4.2 4.9 29 16.9 2.8
Std. Deviation 4.543 2.619 8.017 33.745 4.180 0.494
Iran Standard 50 - 50 - 10 5
WHO Standard 10 2000 50 3000 10 3
Table 6. Range of qualitative parameters in Sari water wells

Parameter pH Total Hardness (mg/L CaCO3) EC (µmohs) NO3-N (mg/L)

Range 7.03-7.36 135-508 754-1924 9.24-32.4

Std. Deviation 8.634E-2 90.690 294.960 6.815
8
7

5
pH

4
3

1
0
1 2 3 4 5(1) 5(2) 6 7 8 9 9(1) 10 11 12 13 14 15

Well No.
600 Fig. 3. pH Value of Sari water wells
Total Hardness (mg/L CaCO3)

500

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5(1) 5(2) 6 7 8 9 9(1) 10 11 12 13 14 15
Well No.

Fig. 4. Total Hardness of Sari water wells

174
 Mehrdadi, N., et al.

2500

2000
EC (micromohs)

1500

1000

500

0
1 2 3 4 5(1) 5(2) 6 7 8 9 9(1) 10 11 12 13 14 15
Well No.

Fig. 5. EC of Sari water wells

60

50

40
NO3 -N (mg/L)

30

20

10

0
1 3
Fig. 6. Nitrate-N Concentration at Sari water wells
At present, disposal of rural solid waste is
not carried out in a proper planned manner, and
waste is mainly disposed in lands adjacent to the
villages, into the rivers and sometimes trenches
surrounding the villages.
The quality of water wells in some important
cities of Mazandaran province close to Caspian
Sea was investigated in this study. The results of
groundwater sampling and analysis on these water
wells are presented in Tables 5 and 6. Table 5
represents the concentrations of heavy metals in
13 water wells in Sari area. The acceptable limits
for these elements are also mentioned. The range
of some qualitative parameters in tested Sari water
wells are given in Table 6.
Values of pH, total hardness, electrical
conductivity and nitrate concentration were
5(1) 6 8 9(1) 11 13 15 ds
d ar
Well No. an
St
O
W
H
measured for collected samples from 17 water wells
of Sari area. The detailed results on well water
sampling in Sari area are illustrated in Figs. 3 to 6.
The results on heavy metals and other parameter
on Sari water wells when compared with the WHO
standards show that Cu, Cr, Zn and NO3 are within
limits but values for Pb, Se and Cd are often
touching the WHO maximum permissible standard
values. However Pb and Cd are within national
standard limits of Iran. Test results on some
qualitative parameters and range of heavy metals
concentrations on tested Babol water wells are
given in Tables 7 and 8, respectively (tested wells
in experiments related to Table 7 were different
from that of Table 8). The detailed results of well
water sampling for Pb, Cr, Se, and Cd in Babol
area are illustrated in Figs. 7 to 10. Concentrations
175
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 170-178, Spring 2007

of Zn and Cu in Babol area wells are almost
negligible comparing to WHO standards.
Table 9 shows the wastewater generated by
different sections in lower lands of Mazandaran
province. The results on heavy metals and other
parameter on Babol water wells in compare with
the WHO standards indicate that Cu, Cr, Zn and
NO3 are within acceptable limits but values for
Pb, Se and Cd are often exceeding the WHO
maximum permissible standard values.
measurements recorded in Sari and Babol area.
Therefore there is no imminent health risk from
using these wells in regard with Selenium
contamination. The available and collected data
in this study indicates that groundwater quality in
the upper watershed and middle lands of the
Mazandaran province close to the Caspian Sea is
reasonably good. Total dissolved solids and major
ion content are all within acceptable thresholds
for both agricultural and drinking water supply.

The results also show that all concentrations The quality of groundwater in the lower lands
are within Iranian standards limits for determined of Mazandaran province is progressively poor, with
heavy metals except for Selenium. Thus the high levels of all contaminants measured. Most of
obtained results indicate that the quality of the wells in this area are shallow and are used for
groundwater in Sari area is almost similar to that both agricultural and drinking purposes. As a result
of Babol area. It is noticeable that US EPA they suffer from pollution due to a range of factors,
drinking water quality standard for Selenium is 50 including; leaching of pesticides and fertilizers,
µg/L which is greater than all the Selenium leaching from solid waste dumps and landfills,
Table 7. Water quality of Babol water wells
Total Hardness Turbidity
Well Number pH EC (µmohs) NO3-N (mg/L)
(mg/L CaCO3) (NTU)
A1 7.68 375 1 850 13.4
A2 7.66 380 1 860 16
A3 7.67 390 1 910 18.1
A4 7.60 405 0 910 12.7
A5 7.58 405 1 912 16.9
A6 7.62 385 1 870 14.9
A7 7.61 410 0 925 12.6
A8 7.70 390 1 850 14.7
A9 7.68 390 2 851 13.7
A10 7.61 390 1 866 10.9
A11 7.95 390 0 900 13.7
A12 7.57 425 0 938 14.6
Maximum 7.95 425 2 938 18.1
Minimum 7.57 375 0 850 10.9
Average 7.66 394.6 0.75 886.8 14.35
Std. Deviation 0.1006 14.054 0.621 32.178 1.982
WHO Standards - - 5 - 50

Table 8. Heavy metals concentrations in Babol water wells

Concentration Concentration
Chemical Std. Deviation Chemical Std. Deviation
range (µg/L) range (µg/L)
Pb 15-38 5.962 Zn 0-51 14.649
Cu 0-26 7.479 Se 13-19 1.597
Cr 0.6-5.1 1.302 Cd 2.7-3.8 0.316

Table 9. Different sources of effluent discharges into surface and groundwater resources in
Mazandaran province
Agricultural effluent Household effluent Industrial effluent
Discharge Discharge into Discharge Discharge Discharge Discharge
Area name into surface groundwater into surface into into surface into
water (%) (%) water (%) groundwater water (%) groundwater
(%) (%)
Amol-Babol-Babolsar 83.3 16.7 49.4 50.6 73.8 26.2
Ghaemshahr-Joybar 40 60 53 47 71.8 28.2

176
 Impacts on Coastal Groundwater

45
40
Pb Concentration (µg/L)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
s
2T 3T 5D 6D 7D 7A 5A rd
da
Well No. an
St
Fig. 7. Pb Concentrations in Babol water wells H
O
W
60

50
Cr Concentration (µg/L)

40

30

20

10

0
2T 3T 5D 6D 7D 7A 5A s
a rd
Well No. a nd
St
25 Fig. 8. Cr Concentrations in Babol water wells O
H
W
Se Concentration (µg/L)

20

15

10

0
s
2T 3T 5D 6D 7D 7A 5A a rd
a nd
Well No. St
4
Fig. 9. Se Concentrations in Babol water wells H
O
W
3.5
Cd Concentration (µg/L)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
s
2T 3T 5D 6D 7D 7A 5A a rd
Well No. a nd
St
Fig. 10. Cd Concentrations in Babol water wells O
H
W

177
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 170-178, Spring 2007
wastewater discharge into absorption wells as
mentioned in former sections in detail.
A major limitation of the available data is the
general lack of information about microbiological
contamination. Moreover, since drinking water in
the area is frequently disinfected with chlorine,
more data are required concerning residual
chlorine levels in groundwater contaminated by
domestic wastewater.
CONCLUSION
Groundwater is the main source of drinking
water in some areas of Mazandaran province.
Main sources of groundwater pollution in
Mazandaran province include municipal and rural
wastewater, agricultural wastewater, industrial
wastewater and municipal/rural solid waste.
The obtained results show that the quality of
groundwater in Sari area is almost similar to the
quality of groundwater in Babol area. The
concentrations of Cu, Cr, Zn and NO3 of both Sari
and Babol area wells are within WHO standard
limits, but the concentrations of Pb, Se and Cd
are often exceeding the WHO maximum
permissible standard values for both Sari and
Babol water wells. The current quality of
groundwater in Mazandaran province does not
present immediate health related concerns.
However, the quality of water wells in Mazandaran
province is not reliable, in general. Therefore,
continuous monitoring will be required to prevent
contamination of groundwater resources by serious
sources that mentioned in this text. As a practical
step, GOI has reduced subsidies and restricted
the availability of pesticides, which cause many
environmental problems, based on a policy to
reduce negative environmental impacts and
promote biological pest control. These practical
actions should be developed and continued to
insure the protection of valuable resources of
groundwater as well as surface water. Collected
information shows that limited data are available
regarding to biological quality of ground water
resources. In general, the quality of groundwater
resources was slightly studied in Iran. Further
studies on quality of groundwater resources and
establishment of strict monitoring programs to
protect this valuable groundwater resources in Iran
(specially north of Iran) is Strongly recommended.
178
REFERENCES
Abduli, M. A., (1994). Comprehensive plan for solid
waste management in Mazandaran Province. Technical
Report. Tehran Uni.
Abduli, M. A., (1997). Solid waste management in Guilan
province, Iran. J. Environ. Health. 59, 19-24.
Ghadiri, H., Dordipour, I., Bybordi, M., Malakouti, M.
J., (2006). Potential use of caspian sea water for
supplementary irrigation in Northern Iran. Agric. Water
Manage., 79, 209-224.
Caspian Environment Program, (2006). Introduction to
Caspian Sea. Available from http://
www.caspianenvironment.org.
Kajiwara, N., Ueno, D., Monirith, I., Tanabe, S.,
Pourkazemi, M., Aubrey, D., (2003). Contamination by
otganochlorine compounds in sturgeons from Caspian
Sea. Pollut. Bull., 46, 741-747.
Mehrdadi, N. and Baghvand, A., (2006). An
investigation of water quality of Tajan River and its
impact on Caspian Sea. Asian J. Chem. 18, 2009-2015.
Mehrdadi, N. and Baghvand, A., (2005). Utilization of
mathematical modeling for self-purification of Tajan
River. (Proceedings of the 19th. International Conference
of Informatics for Environmental Protection)
Nasrolahi, A., (2004). An investigation of self
purification of Babolrood. Dissertation, University of
Mazandaran.
NCAP, 1st Ed. (2002). National Caspian Action Plan.
Caspian Environment Program, Iran.
Pars Ab Tadbir, (2004). Report on Environmental
Assessment on Sari and Babol wastewater collection.
Internal report of Pars Ab Tadbir, Iran.
Mazandaran Regional Water Company, (2003). Report
on water quality monitoring. Report of Mazandaran
Regional Water Company, Sari, Iran.
Ministry of Energy, (1990). Water resources atlas of
Iran, Hydrology. Report of Ministry of Energy, Iran.
Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 179-187, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Technical and Economical Selection of Optimum Transfer-Transport

Method in Solid Waste Management in Metropolitan Cities

Ghiasinejad, H.1* and Abduli, S.2

1
Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2
Faculty of Engineering, IAU, Tehran, Iran
Received 12 March 2006; Revised 26 Oct 2006; Accepted 15 Nov 2006

ABSTRACT: Transfer-transport of the waste is one of key functional elements in solid waste
management from technical and financial viewpoint. Unfortunately very few reach activities has
been conducted in this field regarding local characteristic of phenomenon which urges undertaking
local surveys and research projects. Tehran Organization of Waste Recycling and Composting has
decided to investigate different transfer-transport options for new Tehran landfill in Houshang Site
which is located in far distance from Current landfill in Kahrizak. The study surveyed 3 main options
comprising of 8 alternatives. This alternatives covered so many aspects of transfer-transport like
road or rail transport, compaction of waste, size of containers and system of loading/unloading, The
surveyed showed that the two alternative of heavy compaction in 65m3 semi-trailers will be the most
economical system that enjoys so many environmental-ecological advantages over current practice.

Key words: Solid waste, Transport, Transfer, Management, Optimization, Tehran

*Corresponding author: Email-hoseingh@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
Transport and transfer of solid waste is a
critical part of any solid waste management
program. The management of solid waste transfer
and transport is most difficult and complex in an
urban environment. It is partly due to generation
of residential & commercial-industrial solid waste
and recyclables takes place in every home, every
apartment building and every commercial and
industrial facility; as well as in the streets and parks
as the patterns of waste generation become more
diffuse and the total quantity of waste increase,
the logistics of collection and transfer become
more complex. Managers must recognize and deal
with the concerns of a population paying bills for
services that reflect the high cost of fuel and labour.
This is also very important from financial point of
view. Because a large fraction of the total cost is
associated with the transport operation. Thus a
small percentage improvement in the transfer-
transport operation can affect a significant savings
in the overall system cost. (Handbook of Solid
Waste Management, 2002). Recently, Tehran
Organization of Waste Recycling and Composting
has decided to investigate the options of
transporting waste to a new landfill site (Houshang
site) which is 50 km from south-western boundary
of city (BC Berlin, 2003). So a study concerning
optimization of waste transport and transfer in the
Iran’s capital, Tehran, which is a metropolitan area
has been done.
MATERIALS & METHODS
All transfer stations in Tehran were analyzed
with respect to their potential for optimization.
There are 12 active transfer stations in the Tehran
metropolitan area that handle the most part of the
household waste generated in the city. A negligible
amount of waste is carried directly to the landfill
which is currently located in Kahrizak. In table 1
the coding of transfer stations and their distance
to the current Tehran landfill is mentioned (OWRC,
2001). As it can be deduced from Table 1 the
transfer stations are scattered all over the city and
so the distances between transfer stations and the
landfill vary a lot (OWRC, 2003).

179
 Ghiasinejad, H. and Abduli, S.

Table 1. Distance of Each Transfer Station to Table 2. Turnover of Each Transfer Station
the New Landfill (OWRC, 2003) (OWRC 2003)
Station Distance Turnover Turnover
Name Station
No. (km) Station (2004) (2019)
TS.1 Dar Abad 85.5 No.
ton/year ton/year
TS.2 BaniHashem 76.0
TS.3 Chitgar 80.0 Darabad TS.1 145,978.75 225,975.11
TS.4 Beihaghi 76.5 Bani Hashem TS.2 47,510.41 73,546.12
TS.5 Golbarg 75.0 Chitgar TS.3 231,166.52 357,845.78
TS.6 Hakimiyeh 78.0 Beihaghi TS.4 214,080.38 331,396.43
TS.7 Zanjan 69.5 Golbarg TS.5 128,100.00 198,298.80
TS.8 Harandi 61.7
TS.9 Aazadegan 61.0 Hakimieh TS.6 194,920.82 301,737.44
TS.10 Miveh-va-Tarebar 59.0 Zanjan TS.7 191,786.87 296,886.07
TS.11 Jade Saveh 62.5 Harandi TS.8 146,686.19 227,070.22
TS.12 Shahr-e-Rei 53.4 Azadegan TS.9 230,914.85 357,456.18
Mive-Tarebar TS.10 146,317.36 226,499.27
All transfer stations in Tehran except one are
Jade Saveh TS.11 164,675.42 254,917.56
classified as large transfer stations according to Shahr-e-Rei TS.12 92,964.78 143,909.48
the amount of waste transferred from each one Total 1,935,102.36 2,995,538.45
(EPA, 2000). Current waste turnover of each
active transfer station is shown in Table 2. All makes the compaction more favorable. In addition
transfer station in Tehran has a considerable the amount of waste is increasing due to increasing
amount of spare capacity. The main point that in population and public welfare. Because of lack
limits the capacity of current transfer station is of yearly and continuous data on waste density, it
the number of semi-trailers available and the is assumed that with the increasing percentage of
absence of waste storage system which increase non-degradable materials in waste the density of
the waiting time of collection vehicles. The method waste in the horizon of study would be 250 Kg/m3
used in transfer stations is the direct haul method that would mean a middle range, reported for a
which is based on usage of more semi-trailer than middle income country (Rudolf, 2000). Transfer
tractors as the storage capacity. No classical station alternatives include an extensive range of
compaction is implemented in transfer stations but facilities from a simple soil platform to a multi-
some manual compaction or using shovels and story building with sophisticated instruments.
pushing blade to compact the waste has been Consequently, the potential technologies used for
observed during site visits. At the landfill the these transfer stations vary considerably.
pushing blade method is used by semi-trailers to
unload the waste.Management of waste transport In Table 3 the advantages/ disadvantages and
is done by private sector contractors and is the common usage of transfer containers are
supervised by the Motor Pool Department. The discussed (EPA, 2002). One of the main points
semi-trailers are owned by the Motor Pool that should be considered in waste storage is the
Department and are lent to the contractor under leachate generation. In tipping floor and surge pits
conditions of contract. The circle time varies from systems because of significant amount of waste
each transfer station to another and is highly moisture, there would be considerable amount of
dependent on the timing of the transportation, leachate to collect and treat. This will create
technology of tractors and containers and the substantial cost of leachate treatment in order to
technology used in transfer stations. release it to the surface water runoff drainage
system (Ehrig, 1989).
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS The process of loading transport vehicles is
The scenario underlying the transportation the main issue of waste transfer which has a great
study is based on the main assumed scenario for effect on the whole transportation system. In Table
landfill design. In recent years the density of waste 4 the advantages, disadvantages and the common
in semi-trailers fell to 325 kg/m3, thus proving that usage of various alternatives are discussed (EPA,
the waste density is decreasing in Tehran. This 2002).

180
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 179-187, Spring 2007
Table 3. Transfer container and vehicle loading alternatives
Technology Advantages
Simple arrangement; little potential for
equipment breakdown.
Generally less expensive and provides
more operational flexibility than pits.
Storage provides "disconnect' between
waste receipts and waste loading.
Tipping floor (Shortage of empty trailers does not
waste storage shut down facility.)
Allows for easy screening and removal
of unacceptable wastes.
Allows for the breaking up of bulky
items and the compacting of waste to
increase density for more economical
shipping.
Storage provides 'disconnect" between
waste receipts and waste loading.
(Shortage of empty trailers does not
shut down facility).
Allows for the breaking up of bulky
items and the compacting of waste to
increase density for more economical
Surge pit
shipping.
No roll-out space required for
unloading vehicles; waste falls from
back of truck into pit.
Eliminates potential for collision
between transfer station equipment and
customers.
(1 )
Figs. 1 & 2: Preload waste compaction into conical containers with container shift system
181
Disadvantages Application
Garbage on tipping floor can be
messy and slippery (fall hazard).
Potential for accident between
customers and transfer station
mobile equipment (e.g., wheel
loader) that moves/stacks waste
Suitable for small
(safety issue).
and large transfer
station; can manage
Requires roll-out space for trucks to
nearly all waste
pull forward when discharging their
types.
loads.
Equipment is needed to reload the
waste into the transfer trailer.
Requires additional fire control
equipment (e.g., fire hoes, water
cannon) to control fires in waste
piles on tipping floor.
Expensive to construct.
Fall hazard for people and vehicles.
Hazards to equipment operator
working in pit when waste is being
unloaded by customers.
Can be difficult to remove
unacceptable waste founding the pit.
Most suitable for
large transfer
Extra building level (three stories
stations with high
instead of two might increase
peak flows.
building above grade, increasing
building profile.
Equipment is needed to reload the
waste into transfer trailer.
Requires additional fire control
equipment (e.g., fire hoses, water
cannon) to control fires in waste
piles in surge pit.
(2 )
 Technical and Economical Selection of Optimum Transfer
Table 4. Transfer container and vehicle loading alternatives
Technology Advantages
Top-loading Simple, gravity-loading method.
trailers and
containers Might be supplemented with
compaction
Suitable for a wide range of waste
types.
Compaction into A trailer or container can be
trailer and completely closed to prevent
container rainwater entry and odor and
liquid from escaping.
Preload Allows use of lightweight trailer
compaction into or container to increase effective
rear-loading trailer payload.
or container
Trailer or container can be
completely closed to prevent
rainwater entry and liquid from
escaping.
Payload can be measured as it is
compacted.
Baling Allows for efficient transportation
due to density of waste and ability
to use light-weight trailers.
Trailer can be completely closed
to prevent rainwater entry, and
odor and liquid from escaping.
Compatible with bale fills, which
allow filling a large amount of
waste in a small space.
Baler can also be used to prepare
recyclables for transport and sale.
Top loading into semi-trailers is the method
which is currently in practice and the introduction
of any alternative will need significant amounts of
capital investment. With a longer distance to the
new landfill than to the Kahrizak landfill, the option
of minimization of volume of waste has to be
Disadvantages Application
Generally involves imperfect, Suitable for small
permeable closure on top of trailer. and large transfer
Odors and litter can escape. stations.
Trailers can be damaged when dense
or sharp materials fall into an empty
trailer.
Sound of waste falling into trailers
can be noisy.
A heavy trailer or container Not commonly used
decreases effective payload. for new transfer
stations.
Capital cost of trailer fleet is greater.
Tail end of trailer or container (near
compactor) tends to become
overloaded. Front end of trailer
tends to be light.
Hydraulic power equipment for
compactor can be noisy.
High capital costs. Most suitable for
high-volume transfer
stations.
Relatively complex equipment.
Less suitable for certain types of
waste (oversize materials, concrete,
wire, cable).
Container alternative
Hydraulic power equipment for ideally suited for
compactor can be noisy. intermodal transfer to
rail system.
A heavy electrical power
consumption system.
High capital cost. Suitable for large
transfer stations,
Relatively complex equipment; particularly those that
when it breaks down. need to haul waste
over long distances.
Hydraulic power equipment for
baler can be noisy.
Special equipment needed at
landfill.
evaluated. Baling will not be considered further,
because of unstable bales due to large amounts
of high density and moist organic waste, high
capital and operational costs for balers in transfer
stations and the need of a totally new technical
and operational system to unload bales.
182
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 179-187, Spring 2007

Each bale of approximately 1 ton of weight
should be unloaded and stapled in the landfill. This
would result in 8000 bales a day to be stapled in
the landfill which is not feasible. Compaction
directly into containers is a rarely applied practice
for transfer stations and is not recommended for
Tehran. Press water will remain in the containers
and the container is especially enforced to absorb
the direct pressing power. The only alternative to
the currently successfully applied system is the
pre-load compaction into containers. This study
will, in addition to the current system, describe
different container types and sizes for both rail
and road transport. The unloading procedure is
highly dependent on the technology in use and the
type of container to be used. There are four options
to unload vehicles.
30 m³) by a hook-lift system, or the push-out blade
for larger containers (up to 65 m³). Both options
will be compared and described in the text. In order
to select the best Transfer-Transport method for
the city, technical and economical characteristics
of the systems must be taken into consideration.
Option 1: Open semi trailer and sample of
methodology used
In the case of current way of transportation
to the landfill with some minor changes (Top
closing, cleaner transfer…), the available transfer
stations will be used further on, without building a
new one. The same trailers and tractors as
currently used will transport the waste and
therefore no compaction is possible, at least not to
an efficient level.

In Table 5 the advantages, disadvantages and The only system which could be considered
the common usage of varoius alternatives are for open trailers in this respect is the power roller.
discussed. Among all alternatives the trailer tippers The investment costs for this system is around
is used in current situation and will have less US$ 20,000 and the compaction rate is only
needed capital cost to modify present system. significant for light densities such as packaging
It is also compatible for container-type railway and paper. So with no recycling it is not
transfer. If there would be operation problems due recommended to use this approach. Because of
to short tipping front to cause some delays for the longer distance to the new landfill the cycle
transport trailers open top railcar tippers would times will increase and additional vehicles will be
be considered. necessary. Accordingly more drivers will be
needed. The vehicles will also have a higher rate
From the Table 5, two possible options derivs: of wear and will not last as long as the currently
either the trailer tipper, for smaller containers (e.g. used vehicles.
Table 5. Transfer Container and Vehicle Unloading Alternatives
Technology Advantages Disadvantages Application
Push-out blade transfer Allows for unloading Some trailer capacity used for the Most suitable for short-
trailer anywhere (not just at a landfill push-out blade, which reduce distance, low-volume
with a trailer tipper). effective waste payload. hauling.
Material can became stuck
behind push-out blade.
Blade can bind during extension
or retraction.
Walking floor transfer Allows for unloading More prone to leak liquids from Suitable for a range of
trailer anywhere (not just at a landfill the bottom of the trailer. volumes and distances.
with a trailer tipper).
More prone to damage from
dense or sharp objects.
Trailer tipper for Allows use of light-weight High reliability or redundancy Most suitable for long-
transfers trailers and trailer to maximize payloads. required. No way to unload trailer distance, high-volume
trailer mounted at the landfill if the tipper fails. hauls. Most suitable for
containers Ideal for rail-based container hauls to large landfill
intermodal system Tippers can be unstable if placed (small to medium-sized
over waste at landfill. landfills most likely to
have a tipper).
Open-top railcar tippers Extremely rapid, large-volume Fixed unloading point requires Most suitable for a
unloading. reloading and some other form of fixed disposal method
transport from unloading point to such as at a solid waste
final destination. incinerator.

183
 Ghiasinejad, H. and Abduli, S.
In Table 6 a sample methodology used to
calculate investment costs and required fleet for
transport of waste is mentioned. In other
alternatives the same methodology is used.
Option 2: Container with compaction on road
In this option, the waste is compacted before
loading into containers. The objective is to reduce
the size of the transportation fleet, which in turn
means reduction of the number of trips and overall
investment. The option works with using sticks to
the present way of waste delivery to the landfill
using the road. The preload compaction system
can compress the waste in range of 400-500 kg
per cubic meter. If compared to the 300 kg/m3
average current waste density increase the
capacity of containers to about 30-40%.
Option 2a: 50 m³ containers on semi-trailers
The containers of 50 m³ volume are put on
semi-trailers, the loading is via the compaction unit
(Chapter 5), the unloading via push-out blade.
Compaction of waste is performed by installation
of compactors at the existing transfer stations.
Option 2b: Two 30 m³ flexible containers
This option is increasing the transported
amount of waste by using two 30 m³ containers:
Table 6. Circle time and investment
Assumed average speed of vehicles:
Circle time:
Loading:
Driving to landfill:
Unloading:
Driving back to transfer station:
Total circle time:
Resulting circles per vehicle and day:
Container volume:
Payload:
Waste transported by one vehicle per day:
Number of vehicles needed for daily transport of waste:
Safety percentage of vehicles needed (including spare vehicles):
Number of extra vehicles needed:
Vehicles in total:
Investment in US$:
Semi-trailer and Container:
Pushing-Blade:
Tractor vehicles:
Workshop:
Trailer cleansing facility:
Sum
184
one each on the chassis and the trailer. Loading
and un-loading will be done with the help of a
hook-lift. The hook lift will also be used to lift the
container from the trailer and to empty it too.
Option 2c: 65m³ containers on semi-trailers
This option is the continuation of option 1 after
addition of compaction facilities at the existing
transfer stations. Also, it utilizes 65 m³ fully closed
containers fixed on semi-trailers which are filled
with compacted waste at the transfer stations and
pulled to the landfill by tractors. The process of
unloading waste at the landfill is made through
installation of push-out blades at each container.
At the new transfer station (with railway
connection) compactors will be installed. The
delivered waste is tipped into the compaction
hopper and pressed into enclosed 30-ft container.
The delivery from nearer districts is directly done
by collection vehicles, from far-away districts the
existing transport vehicles transport from the
existing transfer station to the new one. In this
mode a part of the existing transfer stations can
be closed to save space and personnel. The full
container is removed from the compactor and an
empty one is linked by an automatic container
change system.
30 km/h
30 min
140 min
30 min
140 min
5.7 h
4 circles
65 m³
16.4 tons
66 tons
130 vehicles
35 %
46 vehicles
176 vehicles
7,661,176
8,800,000
20,705,882
153,158
19,439
37,339,656
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 179-187, Spring 2007

For continuous work of the compactors a
container stock is necessary to have empty
containers available in time when no train is at the
station. The containers are loaded on the train by
movable cranes or stationary cranes with
automatically moving locomotives to tug the train
and position the wagons under the crane. The train
transports the container to the landfill station,
where other cranes lift the container onto semi-
trailers. Semi-trailers are tugged to the deposit site
by tractor units with installed hydraulic equipment
to unload the container by pressing the front shield
through it. The empty container is brought back
to the station and loaded on the train again by
crane. This variant is similar to the transfer station
in Berlin-Gradestraße which is one of several
transfer stations in the world which transport the
waste via rail.
Option 3a: 50 m³ containers on semi-trailers
This option builds on the characteristics of
option 2a for deliveries to the rail transfer station.
The rail transport cannot take place from each
transfer station, and the waste needs to be
transported to and from the two rail-container
terminals.
Option 3b: 30 m³ flexible containers
This option builds on characteristics of option
2b for deliveries to the rail transfer station. In this
Table 7. The Operation cost of different transport alternatives (US$) in the year 2019
Option#2
Cost Items Option#1
A B
case, the containers are transported by heavy-duty
lifters instead of cranes.
Option 3c: 65 m³ containers fixed on semi-trailers
This option builds on characteristics of option
2c for deliveries to and from the rail transfer
station.
Option 4: Open semi-trailer on rail
In this option the waste transport vehicles drive
on the railway wagons (railway- owned wagons)
via a ramp. When the whole train is loaded it is
driven to the landfill. At the landfill other drivers
take over the vehicles and drive from the station
to the deposit site, unload the vehicles and bring
back the empty vehicles to the railway wagons
which are driven back to the loading station where
the regular drivers take back the vehicles.
In this option the working times of the drivers
for the transportation period are saved and only
loading and unloading stations without further
equipment are needed. The benefit of railroad
transport is generally the less environmental
impact by reducing noise and pollution and the
saving of traffic movements.But the numbers of
vehicles increases as well as the number of drivers
and the transportation of vehicles cause a loss of
payload on the railway wagons.
The comparison of costs will consider not only
the investment costs but also the operating costs
and other preferences such as ecological reasons.
Option#3
Option#4
C A B C

Total investment sum: 37.339.656 36.465.951 29.737.867 31.463.156 42.527.728 34.644.122 41.722.188 33.891.071

Depreciation 3.726.308 3.639.824 2.968.780 3.141.485 3.366.684 3.016.509 3.628.126 3.230.646

Capital Costs 1.306.888 1.276.308 1.040.825 1.101.210 1.488.470 1.212.544 1.460.277 1.186.187

Staff Costs 5.937.750 5.659.875 7.171.125 5.196.750 5.859.750 5.416.125 5.713.500 6.127.875

Repair&Maintenance 2.233.475 2.182.541 1.779.758 1.883.435 2.190.315 1.717.752 2.142.690 1.421.931

Insurance 568.377 727.423 593.178 627.739 585.665 529.551 569.801 494.861

Fuel 123.653 97.020 67.375 77.996 42.732 30.475 34.626 34.752

Tires 3.257.647 2.556.000 1.770.000 2.054.824 1.122.000 800.471 909.176 892.941

Tax 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Rail Transportation 0 0 0 0 24.447.124 40.745.206 24.447.124 42.782.466

Total operation sum: 17.154.098 16.138.991 15.391.041 14.083.439 39.102.740 53.468.634 38.905.319 56.171.660

Annual cost per Ton: 5,74 5,40 5,15 4,71 13,08 17,88 13,01 18,79

185
 Technical and Economical Selection of Optimum Transfer

Therefore an enormous amount of information It has also been shown that the railway option
is required to cover the local situation as exactly is not recommendable. Firstly, expensive new
as possible and to proof the conditions for each tracks towards the landfill should be planned.
individual transportation system. Secondly the transport is several times broken,
since waste is to be transported from the transfer
If options No. 1 or No. 2 is considered to be
stations to a rail terminal by truck and also from
implemented, a bypass of approximately 3 km will
the final terminal at the landfill towards the dumping
be needed to avoid crossing small towns in the
site. Two additional transfer stations with container
road. The investment cost of this bypass is
movement facilities are needed and the need of
estimated at US$ 1,100,000.
more containers as buffer or while in the train.
Table 7, shows the comparison of costs in 2019 This requirement increases the price for the rail
in US$ for different variants. The implementation option significantly. Finally, the rent for the rail
of a successful waste reduction strategy by 25% wagons adds up to the higher price of the railroad
would result in option.
• 20% less investment costs and a 10% increase The transportation by road has as described
of the costs per Mg for the transportation system above has several environmental and social
with compaction; impacts. Those impacts can be reduced by
• 25% less investment costs and a 5% increase reducing the number of daily trips for the
of the costs per Mg for the road transportation transportation of the waste to the landfill.This will
system without compaction, and be achieved by compacting the waste prior to
• 10% less investment costs and a 5% increase loading. The direct compaction into the containers
of the costs per Mg for the transportation system is not recommended since the amount of liquid as
by rail a result from the pressing can not be collected
externally and has to remain in the container. From
The differences can easily be explained by the three researched options, two 30 m³container
the different impact of the reduction on the on a truck and a trailer are considered as less
investments and the related operation. favourable: Firstly, the system is less efficient due
to higher investment costs and longer loading and
CONCLUSION unloading procedures. Secondly, this system is
As a result of the comparative transfer different to the existing equipment.
analysis the current option should be phased out.
The current system does create pollution on the As Fig. 3 and the related tables demonstrate,
way due to the open semi-trailers, and causes the due to the greater distance from the new landfill
highest number of vehicle movements through the to the transfer stations the compaction system is
city. more effective in both terms of capital and
operation costs.
20
18
16
Annual costs/ton in US$

14 50 cbm
12
2x30 cbm
10
8 65 cbm
6
4
2
0
O pen Semi Trailers Compactio n into Compaction in to Op en Semi-trailers on
Co ntain ers on Ro ad Con tainers on Rail Rail

Fig. 3. Annual costs per ton of transferred waste

186
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 179-187, Spring 2007
The lower numbers of vehicles for the
compaction alter native and especially the
container system result in even less capital costs.
Consequently, the most preferred option is the
65 m³ closed container system attached to semi-
trailers with push out blade and pre-load
compaction.
In the same way, the 50 m³ container system
might be considered as neither the operation nor
the cost does not differ significantly. The final price
can be determined by the tendering procedure. If
the compactors are all of the same made all type
of containers should be compatible to the
compaction unit. This will, however, depend on
the supplier of the material.
The costs for pre-load compaction are
estimated at 10 to 15 % of the total investment
sum, while the resulting reduction in transportation
equipment will be more than 20 to 40 %.
The study in Tehran shows that in the larg
cities as the landfills are located in remote areas,
optimization of the transport/transfer system can
make a great change in the investment and
operation costs of the system and it is feasible to
introduce innovative technologies for transporting
the waste. On the other hand it has been shown
that if the transfer stations are so spatially
dispersed and there is limited number of railway
stations in dense urban areas, it will not be feasible
to use railway transport even for very distant
landfills. The study shows that implementation of
a compaction system would be potentially
beneficial to decrease the costs and environmental
impacts in such situation.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is necessary to specially thank Tehran
Organization of Waste Recycling and Composting
(OWRC) for her great deal of cooperation &
allowing us to use its wide range of information &
publications. Also we thank BC-Berlin for her
great conduction of this research which hopefully
be used in further national studies.
187
REFERENCES
B.C. Berlin Consultant. (2003). Landfill Preparation
Study Report No. 72, 214.
Ehrig, H. J., (1989). Leachate quality. Academic Press.
London, 333.
Environmental Protection Agency of Ireland, (2000).
Landfill Maneuls and Landfill Site Design. irish EPA/
Serial reports.
Farshbaf Maherian, J., (2002). State Management and
Planning Organization (SMPO) in Tehran Province.
Press briefing IRNA, Tehran,
Madanie Shahroudi, H. R., (2000-2002). Optimization
of the Current Tehran Solid Waste Transfer Stations
and Allocation of the New Ones. Organization of Waste
Material Recycling and Composting (OWRC). Tehran,
72.
Organization of Waste Material Recycling and
Composting (OWRC), (2000-2001). Optimization of
Current Tehran Solid Waste Transfer Stations and
Allocation of the New Ones, First Report-Study of
Sound and Air Pollution in Tehran Transfer Stations,
152.
Organization of Waste Material Recycling and
Composting (OWRC), (2000-2001). Optimization of
Current Tehran Solid Waste Transfer Stations and
Allocation of the New Ones, Second Report-Number
of Needed Platforms and Semi Trailers in each Station,
212.
Organization of Waste Material Recycling and
Composting (OWRC), (2003). Tehran Solid Waste-
Seasonal Statistical report. 1.
Organization of Waste Material Recycling and
Composting (OWRC), (2003). Tehran Solid Waste-
Seasonal Statistical report. 2, 321.
Organization of Waste Material Recycling and
Composting (OWRC), (2003). Tehran Solid Waste-
Seasonal Statistical report. 3, 270.
Organization of Waste Material Recycling and
Composting (OWRC), (2001). Environmentally
responsible approach to final waste disposal- The
Fukuoka Method. Dubai Municipality., report No.1,
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Rudolf, S., (2000). Examination about the utilization and
treatment of municipal Solid Waste in Develophng
Countries.Thesis, Heidleberg unir, 173.
Tchobanoglous, G. and Kreith, F., (2002). Handbook of
Solid Waste Management. McGraw-Hill.
Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 188-197, Spring 2007
ISSN: 1735-6865

Measuring Urban Sustainability: Developing a Conceptual Framework

for Bridging the Gap Between theoretical Levels and the Operational Levels
Masnavi, M. R. *

Department of Environmental Design Engineering, Graduate Faculty of Environment,

University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Received 12 Nov 2006; Revised 10 Jan 2007; Accepted 27 Jan 2007

ABSTRACT: The issue of sustainable development has been widely acknowledged and spread
rapidly after United Nations conference on environment and development in Rio in 1992. Considerable
attention is given to urban settlement areas. Thus, role of urban development is seen as a challenging
issue under circumstances. Outcomes of the current patterns of world population growth and
industrial development are agreed and reported as major causes of un-sustainability in long term.
Whereas by turn of century almost half of the world’s population is lived in urban areas; it is
expected that this figure will reach to 8.1 billion -60.5% of world population- by year 2030. This is
twofold; on the one hand cities are the places of the excessive use of energy and resources, of
production of waste and pollution, of crimes and deprivations and socio-cultural un-stability, and
so forth. However, some question will arise: is there a simple and universal model of sustainable
urban form? How would decision makers be able to assess the rightness of their programs and
actions in terms of sustainability of urban forms? And to what extent the concept of urban
sustainability can be translated to some measurable elements? This paper therefore, aims to develop
a conceptual framework within which the notion of urban sustainability-as a broad conceptual term
- can be translated into some quantities which can be measured and evaluated with more assertion.
Through this model, characteristics of sustainable urban form, systematically are defined and
translated into some indicators. It is hoped that this model can provide easement and clarification
for researchers and decision-makers in their assessment of cities’ form and function towards achieving
sustainability.

Key words: Urban sustainability, Conceptual model, Development, Sustainability measurement,

Sustainability indicators

*Corresponding author: Email-masnavim@ut.ac.ir

INTRODUCTION
There are critical questions that need to be
clar ified in our path towar ds achieving
sustainability. The issue of sustainable development
has been widely acknowledged and spread rapidly
after United Nations conference on environment
and development in Rio 1992 (UNCED, 1992).
Sustainable development was defined as
“development that meets the needs of present
generation without compromising the ability of
future generation to meet their own needs”
(WCED, 1987). Although, there has been many
definition of sustainable development and un-
sustainability thereafter, outcomes of the current
patterns of world population growth and industrial
development are agreed and reported to be the
major causes of un-sustainability in long term (ibid).
It has been agreed that the current patterns of
urban development and human activity have led
to environmental degradation, and have created
serious problems for natural resources and the
quality of life particularly in urban areas.
These issues were supported by the Rio
conference in 1992; which concluded that such
patterns of development are not sustainable in the
long term without some significant changes.
Consequently, it is suggested that cities should act
as a locus for solving global environment problems

188
 Masnavi M. R.
in the direction of sustainable urban development.
There are some arguments that the issue of urban
sustainability is closely linked with the question of
sustainable city/urban form (Jenks, et al.,1997).
The idea has been supported strongly by the two
later conferences: HABITAT International (1997),
and Rio+10 in Johannesburg (2002). Under
circumstances some questions have been raised:
What are the characteristics of sustainability?
How do they relate to the urban form? And how
can they be scaled and tested? These, leads to a
need for devising methods or formulating
techniques for the measurement of urban form in
terms of sustainability.
This paper therefore, aims to create a tool to
operationalise the idea in definite measurements;
and to develop a framework within which the notion
of urban sustainability - as a broad conceptual term
- can be translated into some workable quantities
which can be measured and evaluated with more
assertion. Throughout this model, characteristics
of sustainable urban form, systematically are
defined and translated into some measurable
indicators. It is hoped that this model can provide
some tangible features to the general public and
can be manageable to decision-makers, and also
provide researchers with easement in their
assessment of cities role towards achieving
sustainability.
It is discussed that sustainable development
idea is based on a comprehensive view of systems
which are open, dynamic and integrated. This view
aims to make goals of sustainability simple and
flexible so that, multiple interpretations and
applications can be afforded in variety of situations
(Trraga and Ngel 2006). Contemporary approach
in sustainability is tacking into account interactions
and feedbacks between social, economics and
environmental dimensions. However, the way in
which these dimensions should be evaluated
whether solely, or in combination, has not been
well defined yet. At the same time, there has been
many definitions given for of sustainable
development after Brundtland report (1987), each
reflect levels of values and assumptions (Beratan,
et al.,2004). These create a challenging situation.
There is no consensus over a single precise term
with which to facilitate measuring progress
towards sustainability (Dahl, 1997, in Trraga and
Ngel 2006). To some researchers, it has been seen
189
as something that cannot be easily scaled or
measured (Trraga and Ngel, 2006). Therefore, it
is suggested to begin from an articulated vision of
sustainable development and clear goals which
represent that vision (Hardi and Zdan, 1997).
Therefore, the development of an instrument for
sustainability indicators within a wider framework
of analysis is necessary. Agenda 21 defined the
importance of sustainability indicators (in Chapter
40) where, it urges for the development of methods
and techniques at multiple levels for measuring
sustainability (RDED, 1997).
Within the context of sustainability
considerable attention has given to the role of
urban form. Many organizations such as UN, EU
and even World Bank have now sustainable cities
programmes (Newman 1999). This shows the
curr ent importance of urban areas. This
importance led to the discussion about necessity
of a simple and universal model of sustainable
urban form which could be sought and identified;
and its features can be generalized across the
world (Guy and Marvin, 2000:9). However, there
is a risk of overestimating about alternative urban
form and its universal legitimacy without thorough
investigation of local conditions and geographical
situation. The argument appeared to be in
contradiction with the earth summit motto: Think
globally, Act locally urging the recognition of local
socio-cultural and environmental aspects as vital
elements in sustainability domain. Therefore, it is
argued that the continued search for a simple and
universal model of sustainable urban form can blind
researchers and policy makers to the multiplicity
of the innovations that may contribute towards
building a more sustainable urban future (ibid). It
is agreed that Rio Declaration or Agenda 21 has
provided a broad framework for global sustainable
development (CAG, 1992). This may suggest to
develop or invent models based on locality and
availability of resour ces (materials, data,
technology, etc…) that are put together to
contribute into the framework of Rio Declaration
or Agenda 21.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Given the fact that measuring sustainability is
coupled with sustainability indicators, there is a
need for urban sustainability indicator systems that
reflect the integration of relevant dimensions in
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 188-197, Spring 2007
terms of social, economic and environmental
factors. According to De Kruijf and Van Vuuren
(1998) The integration process for measurement
of sustainability could be done through at least five
tools namely: 1) Integrating conceptual framework;
2) Integration by selection of specific indicators;
3) Integral presentation methods; 4) Aggregation
of indicators; and 5) Mathematical models.
To develop sustainability indicators through
first tool (integrating conceptual framework) six
frameworks has been addressed. Domain – based
frameworks; Issue – based frameworks; Goal –
based framework; Sectoral framework ; Causal
framework ; Comparative framework; Ecologic
frameworks, and finally Combination frameworks
(McLaren, 1996). Fur ther details of each
framework have been given by McLaren. There
are strengths and weaknesses with each of
frameworks. He suggested that before choosing
an appropriate indicator framework to assess
urban sustainability, it is necessary to define the
pros and cons of each (ibid). Since, they can be
used in accordance with the case study
requirements in different situations. Combination
frameworks thus, can be used to overcome
disadvantages of above-mentioned individual
frameworks.
While it is used as an integrated framework,
Combination framework brings together two or
more of described above frameworks. In this study,
Domain–based framework and Goal–based
framework are combined together to overcome
disadvantages of above-mentioned individual
frameworks; and to present a new framework
which aimed to be appropriate for measuring urban
sustainability. These frameworks are described in
brief in the next section.
Domain–based framework is defined by the
key dimensions of sustainability which are
including: environment, society, and economy. It
identifies indicators for each, and ensures for the
coverage of the dimensions of sustainability.
However, it suffers from the fact that it does not
take into account links between indicators and
sustainability goals. Thus, a Goal-based
framework is used in conjunction with the former
framework to provide appropriate link between
goals (which are qualitative terms) and indicators
(as the quantitative terms) of sustainability. The
190
ultimate goal here is to translate an idea or theory
into indices and indicators that enable us to
measure or assess urban sustainability. Thus, the
proposed conceptual framework is divided into two
major levels; each of which associated with a
multiple stage process as follow:
1-THEORY LEVEL: this is involved theoretical
aspects of the concepts through literature review,
to define concepts in terms of study goals and
measurement techniques. It includes three stages
comprising of
a) conceptual level;
b) conceptual components; and
c) conceptual definitions.
2-RESEARCH LEVEL: having defined the levels,
components and definitions of concepts, in the
Research level we are to define components for
empirical research which are indicators. Two
stages are to include:
c) operational definitions; and
d) observational level;
the process and methodology for transition from
conceptual level to observational level and
identification of indicators is discussed through the
rest of paper.
The major concepts in the context of this study
are to include: urban form, sustainability,
environmental sustainability, and social
sustainability. They were systematically derived
from the theories of town planning, urban design
and development in the framework of sustainable
development. Before going further on with these
concepts, one point should be made. Although
concepts or constructs are of central importance
in theory building, there is a certain limitation with
their nature. Because they are abstractions (e.g.
in this study- social sustainability, social class,
environmental sustainability, household, urban form
and so forth) they cannot be seen because they
are not things which are observable (O.U. Block
1:83). Therefore, as a symbol of the phenomena,
they are not measurable; but a concept can be
defined in such a way that the rules for
observations can be laid down. It is argued that
concepts should be indicated by something that
can be observable. Therefore they have to be linked
to indicators, which by definition are observable
(O.U. Block 3:15), where by the linking rules are
called operationalization (O.U. Block 1:83).
 Measuring Urban Sustainability

In a similar position, Nachmias pointed out that
any scientific discipline is necessarily concerned
with its unique set of concepts or vocabulary to
constitute its language. He argued that the
scientific research comprises of two levels and
five stages. The first level is called the Theory
level, which consists of three stages, a) conceptual
level, b) conceptual components, and c) conceptual
definitions. The second level is called the Research
level, this includes the two stages, a) operational
definitions, and, b) observational level. For
example see the Fig. 1.
Therefore the importance of definitions becomes
apparent. To have proper functions, concepts
should be clear and precise; Although in the
process, many concepts were invented, used,
refined, and discarded; many concepts remain
ambiguous and inconsistent (Nachmias,1992).
Clarity and precision in using concepts are
achieved by definitions. Two types of definitions
are important in social science research: conceptual
definition, and operational definition. Conceptual
Definitions are definitions that describe concepts
by using other concepts.

Conceptual
level Urban Form
LEVEL

Coneptual
components Other
Building Types Street Patterns Land use
Components
THEORY

Conceptual Compact Dispersed Mixed-use Single-use

definitions

Rectilinear
)Grid-Iron pattern
,(Curvilinear.

Density measure of Density measure of

LEVEL

Housing, Housing, Diversity of

Operational
activities in retails , Mostly residential
definitions population per population
residentials ,etc
hectare per hectare
RESEARCH

Higher density , Higher density , Low density Low density

Observational mixed-use single-use mixed-use single-use
level COMPACT COMPACT DISPERSED DISPERSED

Case study area 1 Case study area 2 Case study area 3 Case study area 4

Fig. 1. Transition from the conceptual to observational level, the case of urban form

191
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 188-197, Spring 2007
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
If concepts such as urban form,
environmental sustainability, and social
sustainability, that are the very broad major
concepts of this study, need to be measurable and
observable, they have to be explained or be defined
by several conceptual definitions.
Thus as a result of the literature survey, a wide
range of conceptual definitions were used to
describe each of those concepts. Although there
were many conceptual definitions, it has to be
recognized that investigation of all those indicators
is not possible in research at this scale. To be
realistic and considering the time factor, budget
and the limitation of the study, the research needs
to focus amongst the most influential indicators
that are suggested by the theoretical framework
of the study (Fig. 3). These are to be selected
systematically for a deeper investigation.
Accordingly the conceptual definitions of the study
were as follows:
Urban form firstly was defined by conceptual
components such as Building types, Street
patterns, and Land use, although it is not restricted
to these, and some other component). Then each
of these concepts was described by the conceptual
definitions.
Building Types, referred to the urban buildings
and their physical forms, heights, and the number
of storey which represented the Compact, and
Dispersed building forms. The compact forms, is
referred to as “three or four-storey urban blocks”;
(Elkin, et al., 1991).
Environmental sustainability was indicated by
concepts such as global warming, greenhouse
effect, depletion of the Ozone layer,
Biodegradation, change in the Ecosystem and life
cycles, depletion of energy and resources, and so
forth (Talbot, 1993. Cooper, 1993) (Fig. 2). These
are mostly due to energy consumption, and
pollution and waste production. However
recognizing the impact of all those factors in the
case of this research, there has been an effort to
detect the major factors. Thus, environmental
sustainability here is referred to the impacts of:
“Transportation energy consumption”, that
is including energy used by different modes of
transport, private car, public transport, and walking/
cycling, and also
192
“Air pollution” resulted from the “harmful
emissions of automobiles”, particularly the “use
of private car”, on the urban environment.
These conceptual definitions then would lead to
operational definitions which will be discussed in
the later section.
Social Sustainability refers to a series of
concepts (Fig. 3) which include:
“Social Interaction”, according to
Lang(1987) and Rapoport(1977) meaning the
amount of “Social contact” between the people
in the neighborhood’s open spaces, streets , local
park, and recreational space.
“Neighborhood satisfaction”, referred to
the level of satisfaction of quality of living in the
neighborhood, relation with neighbors, and
neighborhood facilities.
“Safety and security”, referred to a series
of questions about walking trips and traffic
accidents, and crime and attack during the walking
trips.
It might ar gued that there were other
indicators for the three concepts urban form,
environmental sustainability, and social
sustainability as well as those above mentioned,
or one might not totally agree with the above
conceptual definitions. But it has to be realized
that these conceptual definitions were firstly,
derived from the literature search, and - as
mentioned earlier- were the major concern of this
study. Secondly as discussed in previous section,
one major function of definitions, is for
Communication. Therefore there is no point in
disputing a conceptual definition; as is pointed out
by Nachmias (1993).
“Conceptual definitions are neither true nor
false. Concepts are symbols that permit
communication. Conceptual definitions are either
useful for communication and research, or they
are not. Indeed one may criticize the intelligibility
of a definition or question whether it is being used
consistently. But there is no point in criticizing a
conceptual definition for not being true; the
definition is what the definer says it is” (emphasis
is the author’s).
However in order to move from the conceptual
level to the observational level, and having these
 Masnavi M. R.
conceptual definitions, in the next stage they have
to be expressed in terms of operational definitions
which will enable them to be measurable and
observable (Fig.1).
It has been established that, is most often the
case that the empirical attributes or events that
are represented by the concepts cannot be
observed directly, for example the concepts such
as, buildings forms “neighborhood satisfaction”,
or “safety and security” or particular “contact
between people”. What has to be done in such
cases? The solution lies in conceptualization of
aspects of any personal or group behavior in a
precise manner and in such a way that they can
be measured (O.U. Block 1:83). Sometime the
empirical existence of a concept has to be
inferred, and inferences of this kind are made with
operational definitions (Nachimas, 1992).
In the context of this study, operationalization
is made through the following operational
definitions. In the next section some operational
definition are presented. Note that these are not a
comprehensive list and there are many other
operational definition; however wee need to
exemplify some for our purpose of model.
Compact city, as defined by Elkin, 1991 &
Jenks et al., 1996, ‘it must be a form and scale
appropriate to walking, cycling and efficient public
transport, and with a compactness that encourages
social interaction.’ For a practicable model of
compactness it is suggested that: ‘housing
densities in towns and cities ought to be at a level
equivalent to the typical three-and-four storey
urban street’; this could be found in most of British
inner-city urban areas and is a density at ‘a level
at which it is still possible to provide each dwelling
with its own front door to a public street, and to
provide gardens for all family dwellings. Mixed-
use development: Diversity of activity, means
placing retail functions and local industry in
residential areas, and residential functions in retail
areas.
Single-use development refers to the
suburban and urban areas where most of the
buildings are residential, and commercial activity
is separately concentrated in the town/city centre
or in retail parks.
Accessibility refers to the distribution of the
city facilities and the ease of access to the most
193
destination points within the city/town (Handy,
1992). In the context of this study they were
classified under nine major groups of activities.
Overall Population Density, population
density of the whole urban area, tightly defined,
and including all other land uses- expressed as
persons per hectare (Keeble, 1969. Cited in
Breheny, 1995).
Gross Housing Density, is equal to dwelling
units per hectare, calculated over the whole of a
residential neighborhood, including roads, schools,
workplaces etc., expressed as gross dwelling units
per hectare (Breheny, 1995).
Residential buildings refer to the “three-and-
four storey residential urban building blocks” with
entry from a common staircase.
House type refers to “Block of flats”, “Tower
block”, “and Detached house”, “Ter raced
House”, and the ‘other’ types.
Density- the number of people or housing per
acre or hectare. In this study it refers to two levels,
the higher density (Compact city), and lower
density (Sprawl, dispersed).
Average Household size, refers to the
average number of persons within the dwelling.
Energy consumption, rather than
measurement of just fossil fuel consumption. by
vehicles, particularly by private cars. It refers to
their outcome, which is explained by the frequency
of use of private car, the length of journey.
Therefore the more the frequency of use of a
private car, and the distanced traveled, the more
energy used, and the more air pollution produced.
Social contact refers to a series of question about
contact with neighbors, and visiting friends and
family.
Neighborhood satisfaction, is described by
a series of question on the level of satisfaction
about the privacy, and communal space, and quality
of outdoor spaces in the neighborhood.
Safety and security, refers to a) being safe
during the walking and strolling in the
neighborhood, from crime and attack and b) being
secured from traffic accidents in doing so.
Shopping trips, were refers to trips to high
street, shopping centers/mall, city/town centers,
local shops, and food stores.
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 188-197, Spring 2007

Environmental
Sustainability
Conceptual
level
LEVEL

Global
THEORY LEVEL

Energy and Pollution Warming, Other

Conceptual Resource Production Ozon Layer Factors
Components Depletion
THEORY

Depletion ,
The
Greenhous e
e
Effect ,etc.

Transportation Other
Harmful Energy
Conceptual Energy
Emissions from Consumptitios
Definitions Consumption
Automobile
LEVEL

A series of A series of
RESEARCH LEVEL

Operational
questions questions
Definition
RESEARCH

Responses to Responses to
Observational the the
level questionnaire questionnaire

Fig. 2.Transition from the conceptual to observational level, the case of

environmental sustainability
Non-work trips, are explained by all journeys
by public transport, private cars, and walking, for
the purposes of other than work. They are
classified in this study, under nine major categories.
In order to achieve consistency between
respondents, the activities have been classified as
in the National Travel Survey Census.
The statement of the research problems utilizes
a set of concepts. As discussed earlier in the
chapter, concepts are abstractions or
interpretations of the real world, and do not actually
exist as empirical phenomena. Thus, in order to
move to an empirical level from the conceptual
level, it is necessary that concepts be converted
into something that is measurable and observable;
into the variables. Variables eventually become
the means of testing the hypotheses. According
to Nachmias (1992), a variable is an empirical
property that takes two or more values. There
are three major variables that should be
distinguished in the research. The dependent
variable, independent variable, and control variable.
The independent variable is explanatory, and
explains the changes in the dependent variable. It
is suggested that in the real world, variables are
neither dependent nor independent; the researcher
decides how to view them, and the decision is
based on the research objective. An independent
variable in one investigation may be a dependent
variable in another (ibid). One point should be
made here, that in most urban research, the
independent variable cannot be manipulated by the
investigator to observe the effects on the
dependent variables.

194
 Measuring Urban Sustainability

However at this stage the two major
independent variables are: a) The Density, and b)
The Land use. It was propositioned that these two
variables would have an effect on the variables
such as “transportation energy consumption”, “use
of private car and distance traveled”, “the social
contact”, “the patterns of activities”,
“neighborhood satisfaction”, and “accessibility to
the city facilities”. Consequently the second groups
of variables are called dependent variables of the
study. They are outcomes of the Density and the
Land use variables. It has to be mentioned that
having the two independent variables and several
dependent variables in a study makes it much
complex and needs much effort to investigate the
individual relations and interaction between the
variables relationships. The author was aware of
this potential problem, and deliberately aimed to
examine the impact of single variable as well as
multiple variables and their interaction on the
dependent variables). The major reason was that
of the complexity of the urban form, and existing
the multi-dimensional factors in the urban-social
research. The importance of this issue was
explained well by Nachmias (1992), where he
points out that most of the phenomena investigated
by the social scientists call for the assessment of
the effects of several independent variables on
one or more dependent variables Both the
independent, and the dependent variables were
referred to a series of observable questions . The
control of compound variables of the study will be
discussed in detail in the next section. The aim is
to measure both the quantitative and qualitative
aspects of the urban forms. The two scales that
are employed to measure the variables of the study
in our conceptual model are: quantitative and semi-
qualitative. Most of the variables of the study of
urban sustainability could be measured in the
quantitative scale. Considering the different levels
of in a quantitative measurement, some variables
might be measured in the Categorical (Nominal)
level; some might be in ranked order (ordinal),
while there are many in the forms of Continuous
(ratio) level of measurement.

Social
Sustainability

Conceptual
level
Theory Level

Social Neighbourhood
Conceptual
Interaction Other Factors satisfaction
Components

Social contact Visiting Walking Safety and Privacy and

Conceptual Aaccessibility
in the friends activities/ security communal
Definitions to the facilities
neighbrhd. and family stroling aspects

Operational A series of A series of A series of A series of A series of A series of

Definition questions questions questions questions questions questions
Research Level

Responses to
Observational Responses to Responses to Responses to Responses to Responses to
the
level the the the the the
questionnaire
questionnaire questionnaire questionnaire questionnaire questionnaire

Fig. 3. Transition from the conceptual to observational level, the case of social sustainability

195
 Int. J. Environ. Res., 1(2): 188-197, Spring 2007
CONCLUSION
The influence of particular urban form on the
environmental and social sustainability is the main
debate and of central importance to this study.
The review of the literature led to the two central
propositions that have to be examined. The major
propositions suggested that the compact city form-
with an overall higher density and the mixed use
of land, is more environmentally, and socially
sustainable, compared with the low density, single-
use city form. Therefore, it can contribute towards
achieving sustainability. However, a framework
is needed in order to assess urban sustainability.
To achieve an appropriate method for measuring
sustainability, several conceptual frameworks were
discussed with their advantages and
disadvantages. A multiple stage conceptual
framework was formed by combination of
Domain-based frameworks and Goal-based
frameworks. In order to assess urban sustainability,
the major indicators for Environmental
sustainability, and the Social sustainability, have
to be identified in the first instance. According to
the literature review, the transportation energy
consumption is regarded as a potentially important
factor for the former, while social interaction was
considered as the potentially important factor for
the latter. To determine the effect the variables
such as density, and land use on the transportation
energy consumption, and the social interaction,
some other variables were discussed. Finally the
appr opriate measurement scales and data
collection method for the provision of primary
data and secondary data were specified for those
variables of the study.
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superscript numbers in the text.

Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements of people, grants, funds, etc. should be placed in a separate section before the References.

References
All publication cited in the text should be presented in the list of references following the text of the manuscript. In
the text refer to the authors' name (without initials) and year of publication (e. g. Williams, 2004). For three or more
autours use the first autour followed by "et al.," in the last. The list of references at the end of the manuscript should
be arranged alphabetically authors' names and chronologically per author: The list of references should be given in
the following style:
 1. Journal article:
Karbassi, A. R. & Amirnezhad, R. (2004). Geochemistry of heavy metals and sedimentation rate in a bay adjacent to the Caspian
Sea. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech., v.1, No.3, pp. 199-206.
2. Book chapter:
Cutrona, C. E. & Russell, D. (1990). Type of social support and specific stress: Towards a theory of optimum matching. (In I.G.
Sarason, B. R. Sarason, & G. Pierce (Eds.), Social support: An interactional view (pp. 341-366). New York: Wiley.)
3. Book, authored:
Capland, G. (1964). Principles of preventive psychiatry. (New York: Basic Books)
4. Book, edited:
Felner, R. D., Jason, L. A., Moritsugu, J. N. & Farber, S. S. (Eds.) (1983). Preventive psychology: Theory, research and practice.
(New York: Pergamon Press)
5. Paper presented at a conference:
Phelan, J. C., Link, B. G., Stueve, A. & Pescosolido, B. A. (1996, November). Have public conceptions of mental health changed
in the past half century? Does it matter? (Paper presented at the 124th. Annual Meeting of the American Public Health
Association, New York)
6. Dissertation:
Trent, J.W. (1975) Experimental acute renal failure. Dissertation, University of California
7. Internet publication/Online document
7.1. Internet articles based on a print source
VandenBos, G., Knapp, S. & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection of resources by psychology
undergraduates [Electronic version]. J. Bibliog. Res., 5, 117-123.
VandenBos, G., Knapp, S., & Doe, J. (2001). Role of reference elements in the selection of resources by psychology
undergraduates. J. Bibliog. Res., 5, 117-123. Retrieved October 13, 2001, from http://jbr.org/articles.html
7.2. Article in an Internet-only journal
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3,
Article 0001a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/prevent/vol3/pre03.html.

Figures
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Multipart figures ought to be labeled with lower case letters (a, b, etc.). Please insert keys and scale bars directly in the figures.
Provide a detailed legend (without abbreviations) to each figure, refer to the figure in the text and note its approximate location in
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prepared by excel should be send along with their source of data.

Tables
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should be placed immediately below the table. Please provide a caption (without abbreviations) to each table, refer
to the table in the text and note its approximate location in the margin. The same data should not be presented
simultaneously in tables and figures.

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Additional Information
Additional information can be obtained from:
International Journal of Environmental Research
P.O. Box: 14155-6135
University of Tehran
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