‘Units the required Si units with correct symbols are given atthe end 5 eh used system of units - fps and cgs. a sen Forty htTuments Verrier calipers and micr-metre screw gauge forlength, ___ Measurement of length using, Vernier calipers and micro-metre be Screw gauge. Decreasing least-count {ead t0.an increase in accuracy: least-count (LC) of Verner calipers and screw gauge), zero ere (base ‘ea, (no numerical problems on callipers and screw gauge), simple pendulum: time period, frequency, raph of length |vs 2 only: slope of the graph. Formula T = 2:x | J, [no derivation}. Only simple numerical | problems. J THE PURPOSE OF MEASUREMENT Physics is the science of measurement. We measure different quamitics in every day life o get exact idea about any | particular object or event. These measurable quantities like mass, length, volume of any objector the speed of a moving | ear of trains are called physical quantities. © __ Any physical quantity has two components, magnitude (n) of the physical quantity and its unit (u). For example, “when we say light travels in air at speed 300000 kmisec, we mean that magnitude of the physical quantity "speed of fight” is 300000 and the unit is km/sec. ‘Thus, Physical Quantity = magnitude = unit. on, Scanned with CamScanner‘A basic physical quantity (like mass, length or time) is the simplest form ‘of physical quantities and you will be surprised to know that all tis similar to thousands of chemical compounds made aes ‘ , length, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensit “and are also known as base or fundamental quantities. - om Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannersas 1a PCS = / ane erence . aan 1.4 DEFINITIONS OF SI UNITS =n The seven SI Unit of mass, length, time, current. emperstre, luminous intensity and amount of substance » standard and well etined units. The definitions ofthese units use some new scimtific terms that you will learn adhe level physics. 1. Metre The velocity of light in vacuum is 299793458 metre per second. The SI Unit of length mete is obtained fen ty ; ' value. sys" mete isa neh of path ved y Ligh in vacuum during ime itera ft — ofa secony Fig. 1.6 One foot When the distances are large we use the bigger unit of kilometre (km), 1 km = 1000 m, ‘When distances are small we use smaller units like ‘centimetre'(cm) and ‘millimetre'(mm). Tem= j5gm and mm = 599 ™ Large astronomical distances are measured in light year and in astronomical unit (A.), ‘One Light year is defined as the distance moved by the light in one year. (One light year = speed of light » one year = 3 10% mvs! «3.1536 «107s = 9.46» 10!%m, One astronomical unit (A.U.) is equal to the mean distance between eath and sun. 1 A.U. = 1.496 « 10! m. ‘The small subatomic distance are measured in Angstrom (4°) and Fermi (/), ‘One Angstrom is the size of hydrogen atom - | TAe= 10m One micron, 1h 10m One fermi or femto is the distance between nuclear particles | . Yr 10m Now-a-days nanometre (nm) is also in use. Tam = 10% m, Scanned with CamScannerfimo aim, Scanned with CamScannerne hour = 60 min = 60 = 60 = 3600 s, ne day = 24h = 24» 60 * 605 = 864005 ‘on an average 30 days constitute a month. ~ It is time taken by the revolt a. bby the moon in one revolution round the ‘Commonly known as a year. It is time taken by the earth in round the sun. “One year = 365 days = 365 * 86400 5 = 3.1536 = 10° , Ampere ‘Two straight and parallel current carrying wires attract cach other, The of current is defined as follows: One ampere is that constant current if maintained in two straight long parallel conductors one metre ‘would produce between them a force of 2 « 107 newton per metre “of length. (Figure 1.9) Kelvin. ‘The three phases of water (ice, liquid water and the water vapour) can oes in equilibrium at O°C (or 273 K). The SI unit of temperature is kelvin “Wad is defined as follows: The kelvin is mn == of the thermodynamic 16 ale triple point of water, (Figure 1.10) Mole ‘Alomic weight of carbon is 12. Twelve gram (oF 0.012 kilogram) of carbon {6.0 « 10° atoms. Mole the SI unit of amount of substance is derived \here, A mole is the amount of substance which contains as many elementary as there are in 0,012 kilogram of carbon-|2 Candela Candela the $1 unit of luminous intensity measures the brightness of light {s the luminous intensity in a given direction of a source that ermits | ic radiation of frequency 540 * 10! hertz that has radiant intensity 1 faa W2tt per steradian. Scanned with CamScanner11. What is SI unit of electric current? 12. Is kilo prefix for unit of mass gram? 13. u ‘3. What isthe need of measurement ? Explain. 1s. 4. What isthe onder of magnitude of « physical quantity? S What ix a fundamental quantity? Name seven 16. quantities n. Scanned with CamScannerif this point isnot exactly coinciding recorded as 3.2 em. Any approximations such as 3.1 Fig. 1.14 Scanned with CamScannerVERNIER CALIPERS i ha cee ee ge ee eed went unrecorded. Therefore, to record the les cartes tee mt Scanned with CamScanner{the callipers are closed the zeros of the main scale and of vernier scale coincide, A} _ eptanbarrlaptastates ecinides ‘with ninth division of the main scale. It means that value of one division is slightly smaller than the value of one main scale division. ‘Numerically, one vernier division = z main scale division. (Figure 1.17) ° ‘The difference between the two values is called vernier constant of the Fig. 1.17 10 Vernies divisions are ‘calipers. to 9 main scale divisions: ‘Thus, vernier constant = value of one main scale division ~ value of one vernier scale division. 9 = 1 mn — 55 mm = 1mm 0.9 mm = 0.1mm, ‘To read the diameter of any object from Vernier callipers, we grip the object between the two jaws of the c “The eating of sin scale just before the 2eo of verieri recorded us main ele reading The left over portion ale reading is recorded by the vernier. For this we have to sce carefully which vernicr division coincides with’ ‘Part ofthe reading is expressed as = coinciding vernier division * vernier constant. ‘complete reading from Vernier callipers Scanned with CamScanneris coinciding with a main scale division the positive zero 0.013 = 0.03 cm. ‘Pero error has to be subtracted from the final reading. -zer0 of the vernier is shifted left to the zero of main scale the error is called ye ZETO error. [As second vernier division is coinciding with a main scale division the negative pero exror {Figure 1.19 (c)} =0.01*2 = 0.02 cm. “The negative zero error has to be added in the final reading. 19 USING SCREW GAUGE nn TA.screw gauge is used to measure even smaller lengths like diameter of a thin wire. On centimetre scale, it can, measure correctly up to the third place of decimal, ‘Similar to the Vernier callipers a screw gauge also has two scales, a linear scale (called the main scale) and a cireular scale. The main scale is fixed while the circular scale, marked on a bevel edge ofa thimble, rotates on main scale, te {ab complete rotation the thimble shifts on main scale by one millimetre, This distance moved by the thimble is ealied thepiich ofthe screw gauge. The circular scale onthe thimble has 100 equally spaced divisions. I means when circular Jedle moves by one division the thimble shifts by one hundredth part of « millimeter om the main scale. This is what we call the least count of the screw of the gauge (Fig. 1.20.) == Fig. 1.20 A screw gauge Therefore, the least count of the screw gauge is defined as the distance moved by the thimble on | the circular scale is made to move through one division. Thus, Se Value of one main scale di | = Number of circular scale di | mm | = LM = 6,01 mm or 0.001 em i 5 cachet is twisted uni the corect Compression main scale when “To measure the diameter of any wire, itis placed in between the spindle and the anvil. The is fixed between the rwo, Remember the use of ratchet isto fix the wire as ratchet provides i ine: Dow't apply cara force to tighten the objet inbetween the anvil andthe pnd, Ts for recording the diameter ofthe wire. Record the numberof millimeter divisions on #i# Scanned with CamScannerae - spindle as main scale reading. Carefully, watch the number of circular division that coincides with the straight line o ‘min scale. Record this as coinciding circular division. Diameter of the wire = main scale reading + least count coinciding circular division. Let us take an example. The main scale in the figure given below reads 0.3 cm. The 54 circular division coincides with the main scale. Hence, (Figure 1.21) ‘Screw gauge reading ~ main scale reading + least count coinciding circular division. 0.3 .cm+0.001 x 54 = 03 em + 0.054 =0.354em, ‘Zero error of screw gauge: Normally when anvil and the spindle of the screw gauge are in contact the main scale and circular scale zeros coincide and the instrument has no zero error in it. [Fig 1.22 (a)] ‘When zero of circular scale remains before the main scale line it is called positive zero error. The adjacent figure “shows the positive zero error of 0.002 cm. This error is subtracted from the final reading [Fig !.22(b)]. Fig. 1.21 Main scale = 0.3 om coinedding circular dice = 54 diy ‘When zero of the circular scale moves above the main scale line itis called negative zero error. The adjacent figure ‘shows the negative zero error of 0.012 em. This error is added inthe final reading. [Fig 1.22(c)] Backlash error: It is observed that sometimes due to wear and tear of threads of screw gauge on reversing the direction of rotation of thimble the tip of the screw does not stat moving in opposite direction immediately It remain stationary for part of back rotation. This causes error in observation and is called backlash error. To avoid backlash error sew should be moved in one direction only of do not change the direetion of rotation st ‘once. Move the screw little further stop for a while and then rotate in reverse direction, as Before we proceed further and study measurement of second’s hand (iif) A watch with 12 divisions and ‘volume, please anvwer the following questions : ‘second's hand (iv) An electronic stop watch Yat isa derived unit? Name any four derived unit in (0.1 em, 1458.09 2. White derived units of the following physical quantities. " (@2Sem (ii) 108 cr (0) Foree “(i) Pressure (il) 007 em (iv) 2.84 see {iii Potential (iv) Work, 10.1 cm, .01 cm, 001 em, .OF 9} | A.tudent writes the length of any object measured from 3. Write following derived units in terms of fundamental units Newton, Joule, Watt, Pressure 4. Obtain derived units ofthe following physical quantities. ( Volume, (W) Acceleration (iif) Pressure (iv) Force S. Define least count of « measuring instrument 6 Write least count of following measuring (0 Meter scale (ii) A-watch with 60,diy.sional and 4 metve ruler as 4.20 cm. Is he justified in writing this value? Explain No, Correct reading 4.2 em.) . State whether following quantities are measured ‘comect or not? () 1.$06en from ordinary rales. Isl (W@) 2.14 cam from vermier calipers. [vest (itd) 0.20 cm from screw gauge. Ne} (UW) 46.20 second from stop watch. {vest Scanned with CamScannerren Fig 124 16.5 =0.3 om, Cireabar = 64, Pinal = 0.364 cm) 125. Draw figures to show the (0) positive and (1) negative ero errors of ernie 26. Draw figures to show the () positive and (ii) negative ‘ero eeor of a sew gauge he Cakeulate ‘error in the Vernier callipers in = Saeiscen blow. Whether this eror is added oF subsracted inthe foal reading? (Figure 1.25) ine: . ¥ Fig. 1.25 1%, What ispaalax? How tt emovee ST 7 1 - 0.09 cm, added} 14. While moving in a train we observe the nearby ob ‘Calculate the zero erro i the serew gauge in the figure moving i oppnte econ bu dart cre meng seven below. Whether this error is added o subtracted in same direction. Why” in the final reading? (Figure !.26)| 0.03 em, added 15. How much isthe vernier constant of Vernier callipery? "What isthe use of ears in Vernier callipers? e(/4 +, What is the use of jaws in Vernier callipers? us o 1° Draw a teat ddigram of verier calipers and explain the function of jaws, ears and tail in it. | Inatravelling microscope | cm on main scale is divided | ino ern unl iis end arene 30 dvi | be Fig. 1.26 vernier ‘count of microscope Record the following lengths as measured 10.001 em) Mimetre ruler. (Figure 1.27) “ eacew 20, Read the main and the vernier scale of the Vernier —7 callipers shown inthe figure given below. What isthe roe length recorded by this calliper? (Figure 1.23 (¢)) , ! 3 Fig. 1.23 (€) | t IMS = 16; Length = 1.64 em) | ig. 127 21. Draw a neat diagram of screw gauge and experience the a function of ratched init 30 tn length measuring istronene eee 22, What is least count of «screw gauge? ODHOLCL YN, scale ht 20 equal divisions The $0 vere dvitens 28. What is pitch of a screw gauge? “got te at rath of 49 main sale divisions. What is 24. Read the main and the circular scale ofthe screw gauge | 4, ° SON Count of this instrument? chown inthe figure given below. What ithe fina reading oenrmcter screw pitch ofthe screw i | ram and of the screw gauge? (Figure 1.24) ene circular divisions is $0. What isthe least count “ae 10.02 mej Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner" watch watch is used to record time in the science laboratory. It is called stop be stopped at will. As shown in the figure a typical stop watch is small enough in the palm. It has s long second’s hand that moves over a circalar scale __ At the finish of the interval to be measured the button is pressed again to stop ‘the watch. The interval of time recorded by reading both minutes and seconds hand together. On pressing the head third time the watch is ready to use again. (Fig 1.28) __ However, this watch isnot suitable for measuring very short time intervals as there is always a reaction time lapse of 0.2 seconds. uw USING A SIMPLE PENDULUM =>=>rmnnnnnnsnnnnnna a ‘You must have seen the old pendulum clocks. These clocks work on the Principle of simple pendulum. The Cer nage an Mangement consisting of a heavy solid spherical metallic bob suspended form « ned ‘withthe help of weightless string and is free to oscilate about its mean Position (Fig 1.29 (a), (b)] = Scanned with CamScannerThe ume period ofthe pendulum is given by the formula, Te 2x, It is clear from the formula that time period of a simple pendulum, wo Independent of the mass of the pendulum. w Independent from the amplitude of the pendulum. wi Dependent ofthe length of the pendulum Te V7 7 iv) Dependent of the gravity at that place ref "3, A pendulum clock goes slow in summer. The reason is that in summer due to rise in temperature length of the pendulum gets elongated and the time period is increased. But in winter duc to fallin temperature length ofthe pendulum {gets shortened and time period is decreased. ‘The value of acceleration due to gravity on the earth surface is 9.8 ms. The value of g decreases either we move above or below the earth surface. Thus, a pendulum clock set in Delhi is taken either inside a mine or on the Mt. Everest its time period is increased. The clock becomes slow. LIZ USING A GRAPH semeesecesneersnntmammnmenns A graph is a drawing wo determine the manner in which one quantity (dependent variable) varies im a given physical ‘process when certain values are given to the other quantity (independem variable). The graph gives the visual presentation of variation of one variable with respect to another. To understand graph let us take an example. You are told above that time period of a simple pendulum is proportional to square root of its effective length. Mathematically, Pal, “ Pek where A is constant. Scanned with CamScanner2. Selection of arigin and axes: Draw two mutually perpendicular thick lines OX and oy At the left hand bottom comer of the graph paper. Normal! some Obam ‘mentioned clearly at O. QUESTIONS: Please answer the following questions yourvelf : Least count of « siop watch is 0.02 s. Which of the {following observations of time recorded from this watch is wrong? 2645,3.37 5, 4.20sand 0468, [B37 s wrong! 2. What is a stop watch? What is its least count? State the drawback of a stop watch. 6 Define a simple pendulum. What is the time period of ‘pendulum? How doei'yt vary with the length of the pendulum? 4. Plot graph betwee length of «pel and ts (Otime period (Ui) squace of time period {from the valves given below: tinem 2 0 100 Tin sec 09 a 20 5S. The figure shows a graph plotied length vs square of time (period ofa pendulum. What is slopes ofthis graph? What is physical significance of the slope ? Using formcla g~ 4n/S, calculate the value of acceleration due to Brvvity. What is a second's pendulum? Find length of ‘rach pendulum from the graph. [P= 26; 100 em) 6 Can time period of & pendulum of infinite length be infinity ” What is maximum posible time period of « 7. Two simple pendulums of same lengths have mass ration 2:1, What is the ratio of their time periods? {1:11 8. Two oscillating simple pendulums of same lengths have ‘amplitude ratios 1:2. What is the ratio of their time Deriods? my 9 Amonicy is swinging through a hanging rope. He cline bp 2m on the rope How does the time' be afocted? owing ‘with point O (origin) ‘therwise it should be [Time pertod decreasehy 10, The bob of a simple pendulum is hollow sphere ‘completely filled with mercury. The mereury gradually drains out from the bob through a small hole at its bottom. How does the time period of this pendulum change? [First increases then decreases] 11. A pendulum clock gives correct time at Delhi. Will ft become slow or fst if moved to a hill sion, say Nawal” 1Sen 12. What would be the change ie the time period of # pendulum Jock if taken into space (no gravity 2006)? _ {Nb Oscillation in Pendulum 13, Effective length of «simple pendulum! ** “i length of the thread of pendulum an i In one experiment / = 94.0 cm and diane 2 = 123m, What elie len [946 cm significant figures 14. Can we replace the bob of « Hele football? Explain. 15. Is there any haroo if amplinde of pendulum i rained? ation of the Scanned with CamScanner teExplan: +L Selection of $1 unit (i) The unit should be of convenient size’ It means we should select such unit which is not very big. for eg: unit of mass is tonne, quintal, kilogram, gram, milligram. Here, tonne and quintal are very big where as gram and mg. are smaller units. So the S.1 unit chosen is kilogram (kg) (ii) The unit should be well-defined without any ambiguity means there should not be any confusion. ii) The unit should be reproducible ~ S11 unit of length is metre. The formula for the Area = length x breadth here, both length and breadth are measured in metres (1m). +: Unit of Area = metre x metre =mxm =nt —+ unit of Area is reproduced from unit of length. iv) The value of unit should not change = The unit should remain same everywhere. ¢ 2. THE LEAST COUNT OF A MEASURING INSTRUMENT:- The least count of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be taken accurately with it. For eg.- the least count of a metre rule is the value of its one division which is one-tenth of a centimetre (or 1mm). The least count of stop watch is 0.5 second if there are 10 divisions between 0 and 5 secs. mark. —+ value of 10 divisions = 5 sec value of one division =5 sec 10 0.5 sec * 3. A pendulum clock goes slow in summer because in summer due to rise in temperature ‘expansion takes place and the length of the pendulum gets elongated as a result the time-period increases, but in winter due to fall in temperature contraction takes place and length of pendulum decreases which reduces the time period. Simple Pendulum ‘A simple pendulum is a heavy point mass (known as bob) suspended from a rigid support by a massless and inextensible string. ‘The pendulum used in a clock is not a simple pendulum but itis a compound pendulum. ‘A pendulum with a time — period of oscillation equal to two seconds is known as a seconds pendulum, ne terms related to simple pendulum. OSCILLATION: One complete to and fro motion of the pendulum is called one oscillation. In fig.1.29. The motion of the bob from A to C and then back from C to A is referred as one oscillation, Period of Pendulum or Time Period This is the time taken to complete one oscillation. It is denoted by the symbol “T”. Its unit is second. Frequency of Oscillation tis the number of oscillations made in one second. It is denoted by the letter ‘f* or “n’. It's unit is per second or hertz (Hz) Relationship between time period and frequency If” isthe time period of a simple pendulum, then In time T second, the number of osillaion is 1 «in time | second, the number of oscillations will be 1 which is equal to the frequency *f. T Scanned with CamScannerie. Amplitude The maximum displacement of the bob from its mean position ‘O” on either side *A’ or *C” is called amplitude. It is denoted by letter ‘a’ or ‘A’ and is measured in metre (m). Please do the following questions from the exercises given in the lesson in your physics note book. Question No. 1, 2. 6,7, 8,9, 10, 11, 16, 19, 21 and 22 from the 1" Exercise. Question No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 13, 15, 16, 17, 22 and 23 from the 2 Exercise. Question No. 2, 3, and 7 from the 3 Exercise. Important: Numericals on Simple Pendulum (solved) Qu. Find the length of simple pendulum where time ~ period of oscillation is 1.8 seconds at a place, Where g= 9.8 m/sec? Scanned with CamScanner‘ co NG fees. ot’ fem oe 9.8 mf eu 420 ir know T= 27 gat . otk seolee, we get 7 1p £ apt a geil a = amb ry eT yt 2()'9) 8 78 4 (3°14) Vg nS x98 x 18h Kip = ay RAY KPO E’ = x9 xh FIX! 9 KI KE 3 14x 314, _ Bbry90 _ 39670 > 03m Bynis7 49298 __. Scanned with CamScannerG2 Lind Me time pruicd a Lermgole Joem at a | Lae pom Fake, Te3'Ih, Cob" — Given b= 900m = tome ogm \ ~S <= r Scanned with CamScanneryres/enew , TS re a> & * => |\Tih? A? T,: T= O° eli! Scanned with CamScanner