© BarCharts, Inc. nove WORLD'S J ACADEM Aen ey eS INTRODUCTION TO AC AND DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS {© ELECTRICAL CHARGE has four characterises: is magnitude is measured in coufomby (). Th ‘huge cared by anelcirow sq, 7.603 10-7 C 4 Gharges re conserved: They canbe either et sted nor des CURRENT. In an cect Ihove slong specified closed pat Carrent is measured amperes (coufombsee) That {sone ampere isthe current that flows when one ‘Sbulom of charge ows per sevond. Or curent 0) p= amp = 40 amperes whore (the charge in coulombs, oll i the time seconds Conventions: Anepative quantity of charge tal fag from B to alongs conductors equivalent ta Unidectionl transfer of electric charge throu sonduct es the det let um ‘de This ras Yo ae (allem whch mpi of direct Tent suchas sinuoial wave 1 VOLTAGE. Voltage difference (aso known as po {ental siflrence) between to points is defined J the work (wt?) in Joules] required te move a nit charge from one point te ater. The unit ‘tpoentl difference nthe volt(¥). Voltage (o) a) Power tis the rat of doing work or he rate of change of energy. The eletrical unit power ithe wat () be 1-20 ja v4) =? vote WER connate gy Tan = 9K st he lowing power. {tpt <0, then the ‘ee the flloring examples he element i consuming/b ver, and in Figare (0) the element Is cclvering 18W The total power deivered must equal the ‘* NODE.” A node is junetion where two oF more S'GROUND. A ground is the wolage reference point Ideal Independent Sources ‘© IDEAL INDEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE. Thisel- {| Figure? | enka aspeciod ot Ser betwoun tele Ieevof theron the eet inserted into. The voltage is ‘Completely independent of the ‘Soret through the clement ‘The symbol forthe elements Resistance « Conductance RESISTANCE. Arevstor is circuit element used tomodel the msltanceto he low of ecrcal charge Resistor Symbols te tr Shown in Figure 2 tight, Figure 3 below shows oer variations of Figure 2 "i 2 emer ee ne @ ©) Fig shows ane By whichis acorsant ok ‘Eh repects tins) ows sms ols {Shaw wischwings up and down teween th pak vas eh and “rg, produc an alamating caret Ys Figure 8 The unit ofresistane CONDUCTANCE fined a the reiproeal of res by (2) yin ede fate = Ohm's Law ‘© ONM’S LAW (ata given temperature) is given By ren volt and is based onthe following Mention: y= i applies whenever the Uivection Jor the current in the resistor ts Inthe direction ofthe volinge drop across the reststr Otherwive use v= I # IDEAL INDEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE. Tis ‘Semen maintain specified rent though tindependent tthe voltage acrost See Figure Ideal Dependent Sources DEAL DEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE. Ina ee er Noaind vonage cea, te ings ‘Scfom the source depends upom the vote or current ‘Seros some oer element tm the network. There ae forppes of cone valle source: sokage controled voltage source TEs, where n, fa volage TomewBere else inthe eat iss constant, See Figure 8 ements else in he ect and Bisa constant Soe Figure 6, IDEAL DEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE. In 4 dependent (or coaoled) current source, the cut feat through the source depends upon the voltage or Caton tnugh another lement inte network. There tretwo types of conlled current soures FigueT = altage controle current source i= ym whore, fea vollage someniere che mthe ect and ‘isa consant See Figure 7. = carrentcoatrtledcurensoure, | FA°® 4, where i cutent . somewecss inthe cet and isa constant Se Figure 8 Ohm's Law, Th Th TR Figure 10 7A infinite resistanee. The termi- SHORT CIRCUIT. The Src * IRCHHOFP'S VOLTAGE LAW (KYL): 1 Common Conve To avo pn ors rxardng Kimo sage pts icin estat foment Example Hin pe we how tat he ep {iepmtine grat vp Thus» 9 SHS COMMENT LAW (KCL): oles Law Figue 3 tering wil be negative iret leaving wil by pos five (Opposite method i ase et ie fre 1 KEL tor5 Series & Parallel Circuits ‘© RESISTORS IN SERIES: Two o more crit le ‘mens ae snd wo be comecedin sere if ey Cary he Ste cent and at marly equal curen} Fe any ‘munber fresiances in seriy athe value. Maher) tally, Ry =, for ens connected nsec, ae SRF Figure 15 In Figure 1S ¥=4R +48, +48) = 1Ry “*RESISTORSIN PARALLEL: Elements ae oxox pall they fave the same vlige sco thr ‘her words elena connected paraiso ‘hetermial fe clement are comteted 1 ose of be hc: that i they share these pai of aad.” Math ‘tically fr mesos comnated in parle FACT: Condes npr nd Figure 16 Figure 16s especial eas: For two resistor parle, = Bd y= enacts, 0% Forvelioaaparlel th eet snc peer perep sree re Lous Seana faeretaon ' shor circuit in parallel with resistors is equiva- lento short cea, = An open ict in series with w resistors is equivae leat oan open circuit. + Noltage source in setes add algebraically Curent sources in parallel add algebraically Current Divider & Voltage Divider © CURRENT DIVIDER: Curent division is wad for Finang the cures though resistors connected ral series, Ris larger than the largest Figure 17 ies 5 oe eel ae rentinone ofthe resistors Ry and G,,~G,+G,+~ +Gy Tibentuniper maces aes Figure 18 {fresno comeced nse anda vonage sare is apple cross the combination th vohage aces Analysis Methods ‘NODAL ANALYSIS. Nodal analysis ss generat procedure axed to solve any cite of any size The foals wo genratecnough equations ¥ solve fora set Sttode vliages S CONCEPT: Given » system with N_ nodes, pick fe as therelrence noe. That's, Vary Ovo Solve forthe ater N-7 node voltages. GENERAL PROCEDURE Nodes: Pick one ae reference. This leaves N— Unknown ode volages Thos we acd NT eatin’ "Comer voltage sources Ifthe citeult has L “olage sources. thea represent each voltage source In terms of ts node voltages. This will yield L uations S"(Wenow need V1 equations) Replace each ‘oa source by a short cut This wil real {iret with (V= 72) nodes (nt including the ‘renee node). Wie Kirchhofs Curent Lavin terms ‘node voltages at these (NL) nodes (refer- ng back t the original ele), ive forthe node voltages. ‘Nate: For dependent source, represen! contain ‘lable i ems of node voltages . Example: Five modes. One node i the reference node. Thus ‘we have four unknown node vokages pp" and 2 The circuit has two voltage sources. Thus we ob- tain two equations (Equation numbers ae in paren then Wenn (Beem @) Aer replacing cach voltage source ya shor ret ‘tehave nro nodes (nt nladng the terence me We then write KCL at nodes one and two: yegne ° [44-2909 4-423) In order wo represcat these currents in ters of node voles, we need o look spain a Figure 19 fom which wwecan ce tha en) “ © 0 4.Now we solve for the node voltages by plugging ‘Sqations 5,6, 7 ino oquations 3, 4 mt Sry Seg ro 25 aSr, +504 =3 ° Naw by solving equation 1,2, 8, 9 we get n= L2B6H, y= 48570, v= 68571, ve 2.2860 Source Transformations ‘¢ PRACTICALVOLTAGE SOURCE: Arai ea) ‘lige sures more arcuraey moda ane vl ‘scseuresin sis witha nt eral eee ensance ‘PRACTICAL CURRENT SOURCE: A practical {eel eurrem source i ore aceratly meled as at ‘ea! cureatsoure im pall wih 2 awe iteoal FACT: practical voliage source ean be transformed Joan cquiatent practical cutent source, o vce vcs {© MESH ANALYSIS: This i an analysis wchnique etme ae follows Loop. A loop i closed path in a circuit. esh. A mesh sa closed path that does ot com {am anyother closcd paths within ts Doundais - Loopeurrent.Aloop curren sa curent that ows round loop. S OMJECTIVE: Writes of equations in tems of theve loop ctens, soe forthe loop cents, and {tor thee loop currents in al he branch cunts ‘© GENERAL PROCEDURE "Number of meshes equals the numberof unknown Toop eurents. For example if we have L meshes, then we hve Loop currents. 2.Opemcireitcurent source if thre ae curent ‘ure, the new eet has (Lm) loops. 3 How to pick lop caren '2) Define loop currents for each lop obtained in Hep 2. fini 15) each Curent bee back in the circuit and ‘efine slop curent that flows through the curren Source. This yields m_ more loop current. ‘Each curent source will yield one equation, end ‘obtain the other Lam equations by writing KVL ‘xound Toopsobained instep > NOTE that by this method. cach current source ‘should have only ome current throngh i Exercise 1.We have three un: now loop curren: thus, we seed three 2 ‘equaions igure 3 $ rele Fue y ee eit 2.After open-cirviting the new circuit will have ‘only one loop. Figwe 22 3. We now put curentsoures back ino the, cu an Sling loop currents yd Ty Figure 23, BSA =O Mosh 6+ [f+ 110424 +1+ 4140-0, ThusSinusoidal Sources & Phasors ‘* COMPLEX NUMBERS. Real numbers such as SS Gnd 3) are oremed slong te horizontal axis dha they have an angle of ether 180° or a 0% sae ganas omitad when he ners rentond. ‘Tas oftmmginary mamber stead along the Ver Es in te complex plane Thus, imaginary ou GeeTivelan angle of eer 90 or = 90 Th angle + indicated using the opertocj=1290" = 1 Inductors & Capacitors} ‘* INDUCTOR: An inductor isa wo teins device Suncoaacned enc Wie row nd See erm ne tang th get Se fous cee vole arse cl {The mathematic! mal ot en ndocor s showa in Figure 10 Thevenin's Theorem @ FACT Ifa ciruitisliner, then is» versus cure REA nrsigt line. Any finer ect (Fig. 250) mus Ogres by is Thevens equivalent circuit inthe following form (Fig. 25) such that the two ce ines eguvaint, Le same and relationship. Note that ? = 12180" =-1, | >-1)- The set of complex numbers is he st of if poims inthe complex plane, Thus, complex num setthave both s real and an imaginary component esSfe ems, Sj, 0 j20, amd 20 470 are all examples teomplex numbers expressed in their rectangular the same numbers ave scam) 0625.2tan(8%), 42820003, 202-90, and. 200 expressed inhi polar frm, In Beamer forma complex sumber 4 Wit {erm fits real and saaginary components; ence she Jy whee xis the al component, ithe ia J=12-90" (and tha “EXERcIS Objective: Givens imear ecu, find yy and Rr of Seisaratcar using the methods below “The model i sed on the following convention: w= cre er ter ti inital hee Bieta aaa “Tofind y:The Then anna Ten eG, pe el he ty cea lage oe. HS, Seis ocsonen ceicndes Sess Shad utwan Thevenns ‘Spualen ad alu volage ting meth nda. “Two ways to find ary companetandisbydefisition =. Inga fom, ‘Temples numer writen in terms of ts magnitude and angle. Hence, A = Ae! = AZO where Ais the aan te © is the angle, he bse of th tua logaritm, and befor, J= = JPA ann rom rectangular to polar fom makes Ais ofthe geometry ofthe Fight tangle, namely Poy aae 1” Pay, ontan!E a 1) Use Rn mus fad Yo et Find the soot cout Curent fg Tha i ple a hor TReuit across the terminals and calculate the resulting ‘Ste urea the dreston ofthe open eu ease drop across the nodes you vant Thevenin's usin) icy 1 fn a seas 2.) The second way 0nd Ry i flows at sli independent (ot dependent) sources jhiteineereteut This meups independent vol She tources ore shorted and independent cuctent ‘Mrces ae opened. Place a one ampere source [iigie 27 of sone vl soure (Figure 27o)aco=s {heteoion you want Thevenin’sequvalet and find ‘Tati, with this metbod, you FACTS E you can fad Roy. As, you ms flo The palaces aera ree, 1 Tinton ac ie sh cre emt Inductors follow the same rule as resistors. That is, bag = EZ for minders connected in series ie form inductors connected in pals. rae whore tam0'= Thats Ginenacomples number A= Aa Aeoners jAsina Ane Az Aeon JAsinc isthe complex co gate ofA Toad or subract complex amber, use a oul form; wo mull, vie, and ase 18 power use the plat frm FewShaccbvious in which quadrant the ange @ le. ‘AVS deibguity con be esoved by » graphical repre Sotto af the complex umber. bia The energy stored in am inductor is given by welt ‘* CAPACITOR. The capacitor its two terminal de- ‘Sige that consists of to conducting bodies that are Nopute by an insulating material known a adele TAR Because of the dilectn, changes cannot move ‘orn one conducting body tthe oer whi the the corresponding ¥ 06 #( Rey =¥ er Ru =; omer tate gk —e) Figure 27 the diiceme mater ‘Toe maibematel model ofa capacitor i shown in Figure 3 Note: all the sources are independent then Ry us Wes parle combination of he ese nee ef ner wtenall he sures ae waned ff ‘eTHEOREMOF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER axmum power is wansered fom ssoure newer 1 a oad Fhe ond rst el 0 the Theven equivalent resis eet 8 Roy item fo 10 lie traximur power oR {© NORTON EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT: FheNorwn suvaketcacuteanbe dave one Therein ‘Tension creuitby making» source transformation. Figure 32 Figure 32 shows a complex number on the complex ‘Plime both pola and rectangular coordinates are shown «© PHASORS. A phasor iss transformation that a fie to sinmoside The definition of this tansforms m8 flows z Shean ors 09> Ae” eB, 2eoar+ Ur yes2e! stn) = Heat 90") 69 4 ‘This wansformation is very usefl booms iteplces derivatives and integrals with algebra, Ts imitations Serta is ony wef in systems where the signals {re siousoids andthe system must be ma steady sate. {Toc meadysiate iss condition in which iret values ‘maim esnefially constant, ocuring afte all itil ‘Tumsicos or latuating conditions have sted down. vm eee fm se ct eco con Fn ican ieee tare TE ee ee ee domi corpse FAT uit capacitance ithe firad denoted by (PF) 1 The eaectoractslike an open ecu constant AC ices agent iman Coming 1) 141? caper dona volge = Capacitor follow the same mle as conductances, san Stason Vo To enagaionsmtatinas FY oe Cu Considering 10) = in phasor domain FACT: For a circuit with two o¢ more independent this equation becomes ‘ares we can find the response by considering each {pendent source separately (others et 0 ze) and ‘ding the separate responses ug = lq form capacitors connote npr # Considering (4) RI().inpasoe domain tis = Theency stored inacpuctrisgivenby: = 30° equation becomes‘fective va ofthe cet would fag =‘, “@REAL POWER. The real power, P (watt), is the average valu ofthe product of instantaneous, Yoltage sd islantancous current That ts if the instantaneous power, pi) 5 aiven By pt) = ‘ H) and Ts the porod ofthe vollage, oF raveform, then the average power, 1" Pp loa Incanbe shown tha Produces to P= Vogl 08 0 att, where Figs the effective value vol te, ais te ec valae ofthe eutent, and 8 is theSngle betwen phasor Vay and phasor lg (ins Ogg) Gen ay sys femrettion cece beat ecient hem ‘forany other form (athe expense of som ss). Fuabe prone REACTIVE POWER. Given any cree hat ies ecines mn od Samson ta Er eer ha toledo any term at By be is corer vel poet 2 SCOMLAR OWER TH como (voltampere ~ VA) is a complex ‘aber whee ftpet (eo) ea vice gery the) pus QAR) Thine S(4)= PO) JOUR) ig eg™ ‘APPARENT POWER Thempart rc, Lestapaict ce Peg SrowEn FACTOR. The mune co: 6 ma {presente ent of wat that canbe comvered Inusyatem that requires so many volt-ampee; cos Gis called the power factor, iis normaly Tess than one (les than 100%) and it canbe lene (rlags¥ yor leading (1 leads V ) since os 8= ‘ox (the word leading or lagging must be ‘Speci afer the value ofthe power-factor. MEOREM OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER = Figure 35 Looking st Figure 35, fr maximum average pow ‘er tanafer tothe load impedance, must ual ‘the conjgate ofthe Thevenin impedance. That BZ, = Zt» However, 2 type of restition ‘ceuts when the magnitude of 2, can be varied buts phase angle canet. Under tis restiton, the gretet amount of power i ansfened tothe Jad when the magnitude of Zs st equal to the magnitude of Zy"; thats, when Zz = Zr * POWER TRIANGLE a bmn ‘IMPEDANCE. The rato of phasor voltage cross an element divided by the phasor curent though the elements defined as impedance, 2 Cxiprcal of mpedance: Namitances lO the Sai avs as confuctances aR FACIE itthe input to ica system js sno: Aastha the ouput in sey sate wl be sso {Ewin the same eguene, bu dierent apie fn and pe FACT: With the gneraization of Os otime “atying satan we can now apy vl and arreat division, loop and nodal analysis, and ‘Theveni and Neon equa crutsfo the de Sigman analy oincar eeu in the sind siedy ste Exercise Forthecircuitin Figure 33, find the output vole age Yad) When the in pt voltage (= 20 ens 4009. 1.Go wo phasor domain g(t) = 20€0s( 4000) o> rt) = 10,2 40— F Not: Since the input is sinusoidal, outpt wil be Sinusoidal withthe same frequen, ut diferent “mpl an phase {nthe sinusoidal stead stats, the ouput esponse) {fesse opti a sual the ae frequen but with diferent amplitude and phase Example Figure 37): Exctaton sr) Response 4) Lets = 2eor or Thus Hi yma( costo + 0409) ‘Determining the fie- uency respons of Sui ivekpsting te fect of varying the fe- Sheny ofthe sandal source. There wo pi ‘Menon or mere ne egeny rapa. ctu tht wil raat gmat some freginciesnoteeably beter than oer T= {quencies canbe ued to fiero, or climate ‘femis to an uowamtd Requncy ange: The [iy to design eteuis hat are Pequenc-se tec watimakesrado tepbone, ad ile ‘son communication possible Second ifthe frequancy response is known, thon the response ofthe ic to ay ober pu canbe pede Cle Fig othe peor doin So Figs 3. Response of First-Order RL and RC Circuits {© FIRSEORDER CIRCUITS: A first order ci Gut oceus whenever ase can be redaced to ‘Theveninor Norn equivalent connected tothe tr ‘ral of an quale indetor or caper. ‘Note hat capacitors and inducters ate pot resent ae by angle eure lee ‘Concept nese cvus, soitshes ae ofen ted hom ont oor ican hte tore Toamalyzet nce tire before and afler the Switch is pen oc lose. Use Oto denote theme just pit 10 encase te mine Tbllowing swe ‘The cet Bohai befre and after he switch ‘operated has common nk the switch 5 Su gti vag acs tap ag unequal te olage arose east toc Hrs ta simi ts indoor caren ‘cannot cage instantaneous onside crits hat only have DC sources. “Observations: 1) A capacitors an open circuit © DC only in steady sor circuit to DC only in ‘ae Definition: Transientime berween 190 steady “The scene: Aswitch is thrown att =. Salve the ic stung the eco oe apes ‘Araiz the igi tui eh Spence and soi re shore ct for DC ‘eadystaten, Wheiber its asked Yor or nt ind (0) or Hi) 2: rat cet for t> 0, and represent asi (Jo GF oe) dle” he caw 2 ee (0)=0" tanto Ie is possible to ind A for any Daler e OE ete ‘mansfer function Hw) Pacts: fee 1H (a's independent ofthe value ofthe input be- «aise you change the input (excitation) vale the ou ‘ut changes comespondingly andthe rao stays the 2Given_ HW) :which is a function ofthe system, ‘we can find the output for any speci input Generalize: In linear system the phasor voltages tnd current are incaly related, be, if (a) ithe input toa system and ¥ (a) isthe ouput then ¥ (0) {slinery related to. X(.) which leads o our det nivom of tansfer funtion: yo) X(o) curput Ma= (a) jin‘Rand RC Gein continu fom page. Find Thevenin equivalent across the capacitor forthe cola in Figure 0 Step 3: Write down the answer. [Nath lve ody sesh is vom tint TH tr Th svete )-rmreal Gat? }eo0 Tels Hl 450 : seo fis] PM 0 100 rel sample: ‘The switch inthe circuit shown in Figure 4 bas been losod orl ime ALE=0, the Sch opened. io tiey{t0-1 I] F998 10 =44[20-4] 09 = 84129-25009 4 vara go = (810 (12)(-2500)exp~ 25008 seslinnes Finding the natal response ofa palit RUC cir {it cmt of finding te volage ested cron a branchs bythe rele of ener that ts oon sored nthe nd’ orca ofboth ‘Theta sin te the flowing cet 130m in Figure 0, ia shor circuit w(t) =0, to te Figure 42 [Need to find the ‘Thevenin equivalent ‘across the cil, Figure 44 1.(o-) = 208 to ta 204 Fort Figure 4, Figure 43 || Figure 4a Voc: Figure 4S. Ryy: Kill independent Sources. Figure 46 = we a } | nawas0ae200 Figure 45 Figure 46 Assume the circuit has stored energy inthe form 1,40) = 140") and ve(0)* ¥¢(0°) Goat Nexd y(n fe>0. Fram tipo Bn ao) dot) Tn="O en= Ct and (= 1,0") + } focander ALE 0% ve(0") = ve(O) [Reval that capocitive hg hk ah > acs iden a0 fo v0). 0? Seaton: 90010 1-0) = oe Assume a sfftion ofthe frm: » = Aet, where A ‘and are unknown constants, By substation, w(se+ tis Vda wae oe tH nn Sos ples that the voltage zr all tine {phys imponubiy energy sled In ‘Tus 8+ ha + jt =O isthechancteisicqution “The two ndlG of HE characteristic equation ae: Resonance |* RESONANT FREQUENCY: The frequency at ‘hic the input impedence i prey rel. Resoran egies sna tind in rms of the Aranferfncton. Fo the parallel RLC eet, he Atomic uals put mpdence “Atresonant frequency, Z¢a) seal. Ths the phane of (0) 10 «= Atresonant frequency tbe magnitude of 2(0). 112(a, doce not have to be # maximum, although at’ many times tis a maximum, Not all circuits ave 9 Gite nonzero fesonant Frequency {© HOWTO FIND THE RESONANT FREQUENCY: "See agiay pr of 20) Ban sve 2) Sorthe phase = 0 and solve foro. Aor en as ack sees “acetsayen raminibcrnae poaecreeacaa | Iowerowoeguncy. Ferrall RLC, &W= 1 | 10 qurmenice cata fl | Denote Qo) at © = oy a8 Qs. For the parallel ra circuit, y= Note thae B= RLCereit, Qy~ «a RC, Note thar BH > Assume» (9) in Figure SI is sinusoidal Then the ‘Grout gos tthe pan domain sein Fig? ihe Definition is Veoutptis 1 td | wt vrne (re) | If thexe two solutions are denoted a and v 0- spectively. hen thir sum i also a solution. Pee ag ayer Age is a solution Find and trom the ital conditions ‘There are 3 basic forms for) 1) Overdamped Lys (ste) ze Rees pec aaesears 2) Critically damped (eld, vrs tomate Solution changes to 4f)= Aye""+ Agter# 'S) Underdamped cre. _ Gee tian ‘The soltion is w= Aye" * Aue’ ‘0 real negative distinct rot aoe eneaD TE OD a — Ie folows fom a= 1 : From BW git follows that = 60KO. frequency cy aod () 2 (@) For BW, need Hu) Ho) = Fa) eo Re jo To compe the banawit os see ¥,(a)= 1 fut Re jol rion" Find (a the Bondi 1M) verso: 0) jmance. From the eeu, 100)" wet plot 53, will be real only when = 0 mare Lei) = cos ot Then energy stored in an inde, Po) yg eo Ths mais vale Jot @ occurs when contr = 1 Eneraylosueyce computes as [a cos car Xue Thos, @=28 3 2 Mair Subsite = 2% 9 Qc Me lh ccoszader st er Generalization Fist 2(0) = Rs JX) Goosider the flloseing two cris: oR bx Fact: Qs Example: See Figure 6 Soscifiations: = 6x10 rade fo 10°e (system) = 50 ay = 60 atebel Eee ‘ThsOevelee a Figae Rose Me dove does Sé-change fo that shown tore practo mode of he : toll cause accounts for felsic in Figure 57 above ‘Nate: Manufacturer of oils ind fqn. Uihecieut spel he Qo te cl at spc Hogues. ‘The col Qa the sytem Qare not the same Tofind sol that work tf thom ahet” Assume we ind te ‘expanding L= 2004 1 scree: Find ape RLC creuitto met thse spc 2x10" radsee that C= 14x 10-8 F aa Figure 58 rsd te eso BW, (9) resonant For this example ‘Therefore, maas(t)® §; Lg? Pal = POR™ R 1? costo mer Reea tei) =.= 230 ths 2, = 2 sasraa, o, Now obtain beter model, sn Figure $8 Figure 59 reduces to the valves shown inFigure 0: Bode Plot cp te ron ty Stat fata hc cos lau + + O(a) (for steady state) Sind Aa Rn tan Aw 200g, G0), Gino HE) = 22 in HU de eet ia. 0-2 HAD= 5" 7 Tas Me2p|= 1 and 2) =—45° = 2010g2-1oog 4+) Ae nfllows Mua = ‘Take Hum= wwe ae Wedeh Ajo) inde, Let A= 1 Then it fallow that shown in Figure ‘Note: For bode plots a approximation is made: Foro oe, “(2 Lor a> oe, (2) -( Figure 81 } “This approximation canbe used to sketch he result on semilog paper Back tothe example Tora opal = 10g Fora> og, dB =—10 oy For 20104 a Fora= 100p,-2010g % Fora=1000p,~2010g “Thus the sketch is asin Fig 62 below: Generation: Boseplosot—' ketslke Fig (way. 8 y a Tt follows that the Bode plot of| (oak Also, Bode pot of constant Ai 20 08, lo ie 64 et ahownin Few r= n nt —>-| |=—>- pees row 6 Nate: Application ofthis Bode apposition For ame ‘involved BG) wecan cena quk apposite pce stato} Rompe Hjoy= 02" Gastd0si00 ene, (\-17,) ooo)? ropes) Gori raft] Gorn? ft+ ju) MGoy~ = ign ig he 20a Now ach ction sin snd form Skt ah seule shoe Fla 6. Ben wih 200 sat line 40 ddr dap wi 20 4B a 9 10.Toe 0 Abide slope aso he Be soe ing 20487 fe slope This 20 die slope aes or 208 a {0~ 1010048 st = 100. At e~ 10 he -20 dee Slope at th 20 de sop hee a 4 ‘l | Wl alae {son 157222356-1 A ll