Introduction To Petroleum Engineering Course - Part

10/08/2022
Introduction to
Petroleum Engineering
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Course Outlines:
• Geological Topics − Basics
• Drilling, Completion & Operation Topics − Basics
− Directional Measurements
− Drill Pipe Stuck
− Perforating Guns
− Types of Well Completion
− Completion Components
− Operation Equipment
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10/08/2022
Course Outlines:
• Production Topics − Basics
− Surface Connections
− Acid Stimulation Treatments
− Artificial Lift (A/L) Methods
− Oil Production Process Plant
− Crude Oil Specifications
− Crude Oil Refining & Distillation
Course Outlines:
• Reservoir Topics − Basics
− Reservoir Management
− Fluid Properties & PVT Analysis
− Reservoir Rocks Properties
− Reserves & Recovery Methods
− Types of Flow & Flow Performance Relationships
− Pressure Measurements (SGS, PBU − PTA & MDT) Analysis & Gas
Wells Deliverability Tests
− Downhole Production Problems
− Reservoir Simulation
• Economics − Basics
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Geology
Reservoir Geology
• An understanding of geology of the reservoir is essential to its
development, production & management.
• Therefore, engineers should understand the geologic data that can
improve the reservoir model & thus, their engineering decisions.
• This include both the:
• External geology of the reservoir → what created the hydrocarbon trap
with seals or flow barriers that inhibit the migration of hydrocarbons.
• Internal geology of the reservoir → the nature of the rocks in which the
hydrocarbons exist. A reservoir is composed of rock types of varying
reservoir quality that are stacked according to stratigraphic &
diagenetic principle.
• The lateral distribution of depositional rock textures is related to
depositional environments & the vertical stacking of rock textures is
described by stratigraphy.
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Sources of Geological Data

Drilling
Outcrops Seismic Well logs Core
Cuttings
Giga scale Mega scale Macro scale Meso scale Micro scale
• Direct • Indirect • Indirect • Direct • Direct
measurements measurements measurements measurements measurements
• Continuous data • Continuous data • Continuous data • Non continuous • Non continuous
data data
− Depositional facies − Structure geometry − Lithology − Depositional facies − Lithology

− Fossils − Porosity − Porosity − Fossils − Fossils
− Water saturation − Rock type − Hydrocarbon
− Net to gross ratio − Relative permeability indicator
− Capillary pressure
− Water saturation
Geological Structure Contour Map

• Geological structure contour map is a map displaying lines that include
points of equal value of elevation or depth of a formation.
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Geological Contour Map

• Contour line is a line on a map that represents a constant value of the
parameter being mapped.
• Index contour is contour line shown on a map in a distinctive manner
for ease of identification, being printed more heavily than other contour
lines & generally labeled with a value (such as figure of elevation). It
appears @ regular intervals, such as every fifth or every fourth contour
line depending on the contour interval.
• Contour interval is the value of the
separation between two adjacent
contour lines which is chosen
according to the map scale, amount
& distribution of control points.

• This is a real photo from the nature showing a mountain as if it is being
contoured.
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• When the contour lines are closer to each other on the contour map, the
slope is called Steep slope.
• But if the contour lines are further apart from each other, the slope is
called Gentle slope.
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• These are different topographies appearance on the contour maps.
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Types of Rocks
• Sandstone (siliciclastics) it was created by
accumulation of large amounts of clastic
sediments that is characterized by the matrix
porosity, which is the porosity between the
grains making up the rock structure.
• Carbonate (CaCo3) it is different than

sandstone since they was created under
marine environments & was undergo many
stages of alteration or diagenesis that often
gives them a secondary porosity.
• Dolomite (CaMg(Co3)2) is formed by the
dolomitization replacement of the calcium
(Ca) in limestone (CaCo3) by magnesium (Mg).
• Magnesium (Mg) is denser & smaller in volume than calcium (Ca),
resulting in a volume decrease which causes more porosity & even
fractures (much more permeability).
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Types of Rocks
• These are different types of rocks present in the reservoir.
Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Shale
Clay Anhydrite Gypsum Salt
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Geological Structures
Fault:
• It is a planar fracture between two
blocks of rock across which there has
been significant displacement as a
result of rock-mass movement.
• Energy release associated with rapid
movement on active faults is the cause
of most earthquakes.
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Fault:
• There are two main types of faults to know, Horst & Graben faults.
Horst fault
Graben fault
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Fold:
• It is a wave-like geologic structure that forms when rocks deformed by
bending instead of breaking under compressional stress.
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Fold:
• There are two main types of folds to known, Anticlines & Syncline folds.
• Anticline Fold is an arch-shaped folds in Anticline
which rock layers are upwardly convex.
• The oldest rock layers form the core of the
fold & outward from the core progressively
younger rocks occur.
• Syncline Fold is the opposite type of fold, Syncline

having downwardly convex layers with
younger rocks in the core.
• Folds typically occur in anticline-syncline

pairs.
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Unconformity:
• It is a discontinuity surface in rock sequence separating two layers of
different ages indicating that the sediment deposition was not
continuous due to erosion of older rocks below the break.
• In general, the older layer was exposed to erosion for an interval of time
before deposition of the younger layer.
Younger layer
Older layer
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Source Rock
• Source rocks are sedimentary rocks (usually shales, sand or limestones)
that contain sufficient organic materials to create hydrocarbons when
subjected to heat & pressure over time.
• Source rock may be located much FARAWAY from the reservoir rocks or
may be just BELOW it.
Source rock located FARAWAY from the reservoir Source rock located BELOW the reservoir
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Reservoir & Cap Rocks

• Reservoir rocks is a subsurface porous Reservoir
formation providing conditions to trap rock
hydrocarbons because it contains pores
(storativity) & throats (permeability)
that create an accumulating system &
flow path for the hydrocarbons.
• Reservoir rock such silica (sandstone) & calcite (carbonate) appears in

different forms (loose or tight sands to dense or fractured carbonates).
• Cap rocks are relatively impermeable

sealing rocks layer formed from Cap rock
shale, anhydrite, or salt that seals
top of the reservoir & cause trapping
of the hydrocarbon in place.
Reservoir
rock
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Oil Traps
• Trap is a geological deformation (fold or fault) affecting the formation
allowing the accumulation of hydrocarbons in a reservoir.
• So, trap consist of a porous reservoir formation which is bounded by a
barrier of impermeable sealing cap rock.
• This is a typical oil trap.
• Traps can be divided into Structural traps & Stratigraphic traps.
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Structural Traps
• The most common type of structural trap
is that formed by an ANTICLINE TRAP
which is a structure with an upward
concave roof caused by the local
deformation of the reservoir rock & the
impermeable cap rock.
• Another type of the structural traps

is the FAULT TRAP where a
slippage of the rock along a fault
line may bring an impermeable
layer in contact with the permeable
reservoir rock & thus forms a
barrier to petroleum migration.
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Stratigraphic Traps
• A stratigraphic or stratified trap is a rock
formation that its structure did not deform &
contains hydrocarbons which is sealed by the
surrounding formation rocks.
• It consists of several layers with quite different
properties formed by the deposition of the
sedimentary rocks.
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Reservoir Geometry Definitions

• This figure show the different geometries inside the reservoirs.
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Reservoir Thicknesses Definitions

• There are different thicknesses used in the reservoirs.
All Vsh f Sw
" " "
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Reservoir Thicknesses Definitions

• This is summarizing the different thicknesses used in the reservoirs.
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Seismic for Hydrocarbon Exploration

• Seismic is one of the most important techniques to help geologists &
engineers to find out where possible hydrocarbon exists @ thousands of
feet below the earth surface.
• Without seismic technology, many oilfields cannot be discovered.
• Seismic exploration is a complicated process involves using of the
acoustic energy uses a surface seismic source, which is commonly a
vibrator on land & an air gun in offshore marine.
• By sending out these waves of sound, it will bounce off objects & then go
back to surface.
• These seismic acoustic imaging form of wavelets picture that is used to
locate formations @ different depths away from the surface.
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• In order to know if oil & gas deposits are in a particular area, exploration
companies bring large trucks for land or ships for offshore that have big
vibrators that generates the acoustic energy or a vibration.
• They use Geophones & Hydrophones which are very sensitive seismic
receivers to detect for the reflected sounds.
• They set many geophones on the ground in a line & they are all
attached to a recorder inside another truck.
Geophones
Geophones Hydrophones
Hydrophones
receivers
receivers receivers
receivers
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• The vibrators send thousands of wavelets down into all the different
layers of the earth.
• Some of the wavelets bounce off of the boundaries between the rocks
below the surface and are reflected back to the geophones that are
waiting to record them.
• Each geophone along the cable sends the received wavelets to the
recording truck or ships, where they are recorded & stored then finally
processed with the software’s.
Geophones Hydrophones
receivers receivers
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• This image is a processed seismic interpretation for an Anticline.
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Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP)

• Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) refers
to borehole seismic measurements
made in a vertical wellbore using
geophones inside the wellbore & a
source @ the surface near the well.
• It is used for correlation with
surface seismic data to obtain
images of higher resolution than
surface seismic images.
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Drilling
&
Completion
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Rotary Drill String Components

Drill pipe
Heavy weight
drill pipes
(HWDP)
Drill String (DS)
Jar
Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA)
Drill Collar (DC)

Stabilizers
Bit
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Wells Classification
• Wells are classified based on
wellbore trajectory as:
− Vertical well
Vertical
− Slanted well Slanted
− Deviated well
− Horizontal well
− Extended reach horizontal well Deviated
− Multilateral well
Horizontal
Multilateral Extended reach Horizontal
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Kick off Point & Landing Point

• Kick off Point (KOP) is a point where directional drilling operation start to
build the wellbore to the design orientation, i.e., diverting the well
trajectory to another.
• Landing Point (LP) is a point where inclination reached 90º @ which the
horizontal section start & in many times a casing string is run @ this point.
Kick off Point

(KOP)
Landing
Point (LP)
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Sidetrack & Directional Drilling

• Sidetrack an existing well is to drill a secondary wellbore away from an
existing wellbore.
• A sidetracking operation may be done:
− Intentionally to drill a well away from a water encroachment, bypass
an unstable geological section or to drill a relief well.
− Or may occur accidentally due to drilling problems during drilling the
original hole such as an irretrievable fish or a collapsed wellbore.
Original
Original
Sidetrack Sidetrack
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Sidetrack & Directional Drilling

• The technique that is used to sidetrack an existing well or to drill a new
deviated hole is called a directional drilling.
• To sidetrack an existing well, a Whipstock is often used to sidetrack a
well out of casing.
• After drilling the well to the kickoff point,
the drilling bit is pulled out of the hole & a
whipstock is set in the hole.
• Then RIH with the drilling mill assembly
that is rotated & forced against the side of
the original hole to cut the casing metal
& open a window in the casing @ the
desired depth.
• After open the window in the casing, the
drilling mill assembly is pulled out of hole
again & the drilling assembly is run back
in hole to start directional drilling.
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Inclination & Azimuth in Directional Drilling

• The INCLINATION & AZIMUTH define
the coordinates of the wellbore along
its length, usually relative to the
location of the wellhead.
• The INCLINATION is the deviation of
the wellbore from the vertical.
− Inclination is expressed in degrees.
Inclination
• AZIMUTH is the compass direction of angle
a directional survey of the wellbore in
the horizontal plane.
Azimuth
− Azimuth is usually specified in
degrees with respect to the north
pole (typically measured clockwise
from north).
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DogLeg Severity
• DogLeg Severity (DLS) is a
measure of the change in the
inclination and/or azimuth d
q1
(direction) of a borehole over a
defined length. d
• By another words, it is an estimate d q2

of the overall curvature of a well
path between two consecutive d
q3
directional survey stations. d
• It is usually expressed in degrees q4

per 100 feet of course length.
q5
d
q6
𝛉n − 𝛉n−1
DLS = × 100
d q7
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Drilling Fluids (Mud) Circulation

• Drilling mud or drilling fluid is a heavy, viscous
fluid mixture that is used in drilling operations to:
− Carry the drilled rock cuttings to surface.
− Lubricate & cool the drill bit.
− Create a hydrostatic pressure that hold the
formation pressures & prevent the collapse
of unstable formation into the borehole .
• @ surface, mud undergoes some treatments to:
─ Remove cuttings & other contaminants.
─ Reduce temperature.
─ Re-condition the mud back to its original
specification to re-use again in drilling
operation.
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Drilling Fluids (Mud) Pressure Gradient

• Calculation of the pressure gradient (DP/Dd), psi/ft that is caused by the
drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure is given by the below equations.
• Using mud weight (ppg):

Pressure gradient (DP/Dd), psi/ft
= mud weight (ppg) x 0.052
Example: for (12 ppg) fluid.
DP/Dd = 12 ppg x 0.052 = 0.624 psi/ft
• Using mud specific gravity (SG)
Pressure gradient (DP/Dd), psi/ft
= mud SG x 0.433
Example: for (1 SG) fluid.
DP/Dd = 1 x 0.433 psi/ft = 0.433 psi/ft
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Drill Pipe Stuck

• No well is drilled without problems.
• Cuttings & caving build up during drilling in the annulus between the
drill string & the borehole wall when mud fail to keep the hole clean.
• This most likely will cause drill string to stuck against the borehole wall
that means drill string may not move up or down & mud circulation
may be restricted or absent.
• Drill pipe when stuck, it requires skills & force to free it.
• When this fails sometimes the only solution is to abandon the stuck
portion and drill a sidetrack around it, changing the drilling program
completely & potentially adding millions of dollars to the well cost.
• The three main causes of stuck pipe are:
1. Differential stuck (pressures imbalance).
2. Mechanical stuck (cuttings & caving).
3. Key seats (due to dogleg severity).
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Drill Pipe Stuck (1 − Differential Stuck)

• Differential pipe stuck occurs when there is a
differential overbalance pressure between mud
hydrostatic pressure & formation pressure against a
highly depleted permeable formation.
• This mean that mud weight in the borehole is greater
than formation pressure that create a differential
pressure pushing the drill string towards the borehole
wall & cause a strong contact between them.
• Circulation can be established which is considered
the main difference between this type of stuck & the
mechanical stuck.
• We can determine how much differential force is
generated from differential stuck using this formula:
Force = Differential Pressure * Cross Section Area
Force (lbs), differential pressure (psi) & cross-section area (square inches).
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Drill Pipe Stuck (2 − Mechanical Stuck)

• Mechanical pipe stuck is defined as prevention of the drill string
motion by any reason other than differential pressure stuck such as
accumulation of cuttings & shale layer caving in.
• These two pictures show different types of the mechanical stuck.
Accumulation of cuttings Shale layer caving in
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Drill Pipe Stuck (2 − Mechanical Stuck)

• Causes of mechanical pipe stuck are:
─ Inadequate removal of drilled
cuttings from the annulus between
drill string & borehole wall.
─ Borehole instabilities due to
unconsolidated zones, such as
hole caving, sloughing, or collapse.
─ Mobile formations such as plastic
shale or salt sections squeezing
(creeping).
─ Wellbore geometry & Key seating.
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Drill Pipe Stuck (3 − Key Seat Stuck)

• Key seat mechanical pipe stuck is a small-
diameter channel worn into the side of a
larger diameter wellbore due to the
continuous friction between the drill string
& the hole curvature @ a specific point.
• It is common when drilling highly deviated
holes with a sharp change in direction of
the wellbore (dogleg).
• The top of the drill collars, the stabilizers &
the bit are the most likely parts of the drill Cross section area
string to hang up in the key seat. like key seat
• In key seat stuck, the drill string is more likely

to have free movement downward than
upward with full mud circulation. Stuck
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Overbalance & Underbalance Drilling

• In "Overbalanced“ or “conventional”, drilling fluid is
pumped into the well @ pressure higher than in the
formation pressure.
• This keeps the oil & gas in the reservoir during drilling.
• But this high hydrostatic pressure may damage
reservoir rock around the wellbore that in many cases
requires to stimulate the well before production
(additional costs).
• Under Balanced Drilling (UBD) is used where the

hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore is kept lower than
the formation pressure to avoid any reservoir damage.
• As the well is being drilled, formation fluid flows into the
wellbore & up to the surface without stimulation (cost
saving).
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Well Blowout
• If the pressure balance between the mud hydrostatic pressure & the
bottom hole pressure is not managed properly, oil ad/or gas can
infiltrate the wellbore & a blowout can then result.
• A blowout is the uncontrolled release of crude oil and/or gas from a well
under drilling or workover after pressure control systems fail to control.
• Well blowouts cause death & dangerous injuries to the workers.
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Casing String
• In cased hole completions, the well is drilled down to the section of the
desired formation for production.
• Then, casing or liner to be run for separating the formation from the
well bore.
• These images showing the
different casing sizes ran in
the wells after reached to
the Total Depth (TD).
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Cement Operation
• Cementing around the wellbore is one of the
critical parts for the completion steps because it
should ensure an effective isolation to prevent
communication between the producing zones so
that allows a wellbore to produce from multiple
zones without any problems.
• Thus, engineers run a Cement Bond Log (CBL)
or Ultra Sonic Imager Tool (USIT) to ensure that
the cement between the casing & the borehole wall
is without defects or gaps.
• If defects or gaps exist, engineers remedy the
problem by using a cement squeeze job in which
injecting cement through holes made in the
casing @ the defect depths.
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Types of Well Completion

• Well completion refers to any operation (perforation, running tubing,
stimulation) following cementing the production casing.
• The choice of hole completion type should be closely coordinated
with the development of the reservoir management plan.
• For example, an injection well may require stronger casing than a
production well.
• These are the most known well completion types.
For horizontal
wells For sand
production
problem
Barefoot (open Perforated Gravel pack

hole) Slotted liner
casing with screen
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Types of Well Completion

• Perforated casing completion is the most
common type of completion.
• An important feature of this perforated
casing completion is the ability to
selectively produce or inject into any
reservoir.
• This is because:
─ Packers are run into a wellbore to
isolate reservoir fluids from different
layers when it flows into a wellbore.
─ Sliding Sleeve Door (SSD) on each
zone can be opened & closed to allow
selective production or injection
operation.
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Perforating Gun
• Then the final stage of the completion involve running in
perforating gun conveyed on drill pipes, tubing or
electrical wireline down to the desired depth.
• This perforating gun is a string of shaped charges carry
many dozens of explosive charges, which is fired @ the
desired depth to perforate the casing or liner in the well.
• These perforations will create channel

in the casing body between the reservoir
& the wellbore to cause reservoir fluids
to flow easily into the wellbore.
• Perforation should penetrate deeper
rather than the damaged/invaded zone
around the wellbore so reservoir fluids
can effectively flow into the wellbore.
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Perforating Charges
• Perforating gun should be centered in
the borehole so that symmetrical
perforation penetrations around the
wellbore is achieved (Fig-a).
Fig-a
Fig-a
• Otherwise, penetration in one direction

will be longer than in the other direction
(Fig-b) that may not penetrate the
damage or the cement in that direction
that may result-in lost of some well’s
potential.
Fig-b
Fig-b
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Perforating Gun
• The choice between penetration
length & entrance hole size is
made available by the size of the
charges & charge design.
• Deep Penetrating Charge (DPC)
has a different shaped liner
(sometimes a different case) from
that of the Big Hole Charge (BHC).
• Deep Penetrating Charge (DPC)
spends the bulk of its energy
creating a long tunnel inside the
formation, while the Big Hole
Charge (BHC) focuses its energy
on the casing wall & creating
bigger hole diameter.
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Perforating Gun
• DPC normally is used in natural
completions while BHC is used more
for gravel packing & hydraulic
fracturing, in which hole size offers
less restriction to flow during
fracturing or during production when
the perforation is filled with gravel.
Screen
• BHC may have some disadvantages
in both pipe & formation strength, as it
exerts maximum force impact @
the wall of the casing & can cause
damage (and weakening) to the
formation adjacent to the entry hole.
Gravel
pack
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Perforating Gun
• Gun before & after firing.
• Each firing explosive shaped charges is placed opposite to a thin weak
metal part so that it protect the firing explosive shaped charges to be
exposed to hole mud & to be easy for the firing explosive shaped
charges to penetrate it while firing.
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Perforating Gun
• There are 3 types of guns:
a) Through Casing Perforation gun (there is no completion in the well).
b) Through Tubing Perforation (TTP) gun (there is completion in the well).
c) Tubing Conveyed Perforation (TCP) gun (run on drill pipes or tubing).
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Perforating Gun Calibrating Depth

• Gun placement depth in hole
during perforation is highly Tool
sensor
important to ensure perforation of depth
the required intervals of the
reservoir.
• To have this , a depth correlation
between the top gun depth & the
open hole gamma ray or CCL logs
is done to ensure gun is on depth.
• Just to know that the recorded Top of gun
depth
depth during the perforation is the
running tool sensor depth NOT
top gun depth (usually 3 – 4 ft
length between the tool sensor &
top of the gun).
Perforated interval
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Perforating Charges
• This is a typical shape of the firing explosive shaped charges used in the
perforating gun.
Case
Explosive
Liner
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Perforating Charges
• This is a typical time-lapse shape of the
firing explosive charges. 0 msec
• Velocity of the firing explosive charge

or Jet (≈ 20000 ft/sec). 4 msec
• Pressure applied on the target casing

(≈ 5×106 psi).
9.4 msec
16.6 msec
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Perforating Charges
• The Firing Explosive charges are all connected through a Detonator
cord that is turns connected to Detonator that create the ignition required
to firing the gun.
• All these assembly are placed inside Gun housing.
Explosive charges Detonator cord Detonator
Gun housing
Detonator Detonator cord
Explosive charges
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Perforating Gun Geometry

Perforation Phasing Angle:
• It is the radial distribution of successive
perforating firing explosive charges around
the gun axis.
• By another words, it is the angle between any
two successive perforating charges in the
horizontal plane.
• Each firing explosive charges point is placed in
different direction from its neighbors.
Shoot Phasing
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Perforation Phasing Angle:
• Perforating gun assemblies are commonly
available in 0°, 180°, 120°, 90° & 60°
phasing.
• This is a carrier gun arrangement with the
charge explosives with 90° phasing.
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Perforation Shot Density (Spacing):
• This term is used to describe the configuration
& the placement of the perforating explosive
charges in the perforating gun. Shoot Per
Foot (SPF)
• It is the number of perforating explosive
charges per linear foot & it is often
abbreviated to Shots Per Foot (SPF).
Shoot Per Foot (SPF)
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Underbalance Perforation
• Perforating oil & gas wells is an important factors controlling well
productivity so it should be done properly to reduce formation damage
in the “crushed zone” around the wellbore.
• The crushed zone is a zone with reduced permeability that forms around
the perforation tunnels as a result of perforation force impact on the
rock around wellbore that cause a considerable pressure drop near
wellbore area.
Crushed zone
Perforation tunnel
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• Creating an underbalanced perforation job by keeping the wellbore
bottom hole pressure of the mud hydrostatic column is less than the
reservoir pressure is a good practice to backflow of fluids through the
perforation, thus minimizing plugging from debris & reducing crushed-
zone damage that will reduce the pressure drop near wellbore area.
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• This underbalanced perforation can be achieved by displacing some of
well fluids till reach the pre- calculated underbalance value.
• Most petroleum engineers use an underbalance of 500 psi or other fixed
value for all wells with different reservoir characteristics.
• Unfortunately this practice is NOT the optimum for production efficiency.
• A field study conducted by King, Correlation for oil wells

el Al. resulted in correlations
between reservoir permeability
& the required underbalance
pressure necessary to obtain the
best perforation performance
in oil & gas wells.
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Types of Production Completion

• After finish drilling or workover operation of a well (cased, cemented &
perforated), the next step is to make the well ready for production or
injection by running with the production tubing completion string to be
the flow path for reservoir fluids to flow to the surface.
• We use this production tubing completion string to:
− Maximizes flow efficiency & Vertical lift performance of the well:
because casing diameter is relatively bigger than the tubing, so it is not
suitable to provide the required vertical lift performance for the
produced fluids to be lifted to the surface.
− Casing corrosion protection: to avoid exposing the casing to the
production fluids as it may contain water & or H2S that may cause
casing corrosion that can’t be replaced & even well production
maybe lost for ever or need sever & costly workover.
• It is important to design the production tubing completion string size to
ensure an optimum production from the reservoir so it should be Big
enough to handle the production & NOT small that restrict the flow.
• Let's see now different types of the production tubing completion strings.
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Single Zone Completion:
• Single zone completion allows production
ONLY from one zone through a single
tubing string.
• In a single tubing string completion, typically
a PACKER is set on top of the perforated
section of the reservoir so the reservoir fluid
can flow up into the production tubing.
• Features of the single string completion are: PACKER
− Able to perform through tubing perforation.

− Downhole surveillance measurements can
be effectively conducted.
− Artificial lift methods as gas lift, ESP, etc.
can be deployed.
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Multiple Zones Completion:
• Multiple zone completion is one type of completion which allows
operators to selectively produce or commingle reservoir fluid from
different zones into one wellbore.
• A multiple zone completion is divided into:
− Single string completion.
− Multiple string completion.
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Multiple Zones Completion − Single String Completion:
• In a SINGLE STRING completion, a PACKER
will be set above each zone in order to isolate
reservoir fluids coming from each zone.
• Single string completion is preferred because:
─ Less expensive.
PACKER
─ Easier to install & workover.
─ Size of a production string in a single string is
typically bigger than a multiple string in the PACKER
same production casing size.
PACKER
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Multiple Zones Completion − Multiple String Completion:
• A MULTIPLE STRING completion configuration
consists of two or more completion strings
inside the wellbore.
• Multiple string completion is much more
expensive & complicated to install than a
single string configuration.
• However, it has some advantages such as:
− The ability to simultaneous produce & inject
into different zones in the same wellbore.
− Downhole measurements can be effectively
conducted in each string.
− It has a more accurate production allocation
than a single string type.
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• This is a summary of the different perforated casing completion types.
Triple tubing
strings
Dual tubing
strings
Single
tubing string
75
Single zones single Dual zones single Dual zones dual Multiple zones single
string completion string completion string completion string completion
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• Completion of the horizontal wells can be done by different ways that
depends on production constraints (water or gas shut-off) & the reservoir
characteristics (rock consolidation).
• There are three major types of
completion used for horizontal wells 1
which are:
1. Openhole completion.
2. Slotted liner in open hole.
2
3. Cemented & perforated liner
completion.
77
Completion Components
Flow Coupling
• Production completion string consist
Downhole Safety
of many completion components Valve (DSV)
known as Bottom Hole Assembly Flow Coupling
(BHA) of the completion string. Sliding Sleeve Door
(SSD)
• Completion components are some
special parts of the completion string Tubing
Seal Bore Assembly
where every component is designed
to provide a specific function. Packer
X-over
• As a rule of thump, when designing Pup Joint
the production completion string, to F-Nipple
place the smaller Internal Diameter Perforated Pup Joint
(ID) completion component @ the
Pup Joint
bottom of the completion string.
R-Nipple
• Moving upward, internal diameter of Wireline Entry Guide
the completion components increase (WLEG)
to ensure the accessibility of every

components in the completion string.
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1. Wireline Entry Guide (WLEG):
• It is also called mule shoe which is located @
the lowest part of the completion string
• It has a unique shape with a beveled edge
that enable the completion string while RIH to
be dragged on the casing surface without
being hanged on the casing collars.
• Casing collar is the connections between
two casing pipes.
Casing joint
Casing collar
Wireline Entry Guide
(WLEG)
Casing joint
79
2. R-Nipple (XN):
• R or XN type nipple is a bottom No-
Go sub item in which the internal
diameter of the R-Nipple is
reduced @ the No-Go section.
• The RED LINE is the internal
diameter profile across the length
of the R-Nipple.
• The bottom No-Go should provide
a mean to positively hang the
memory gauges equipped with a
bomb hanger on it’s top during
bottom hole pressure surveys. R-Nipple
• But how is the well flowing

while memory gauges are set
in hole for a pressure survey?
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3. Pup Joint:
• Normal length of the tubing joint is 30 ft but, in
some cases, when design the completion string
we need to use shorter tubing joints @ some
depths to adjust the distance between the
completion components.
• A short tubing (pup joint) is used for this
reason, and it is available in length from 2 −12 ft.
Pup joint
Pup joint
81
4. Perforated Pup Joint:
• The solution was by using a special
short tubing called perforated pup joint
directly above the R-Nipple.
• It is a short tubing joint with holes or
open slots that allow the flow to pass
through it to inside the tubing when the
gauge is set in the R-Nipple.
Perforated pup joint
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5. F-Nipple (X):
• F or X type nipple is a sub item in
which the internal diameter of the
F-Nipple is the same across its
profile (there is No-Go section).
• The RED LINE is the internal
diameter profile across the length
of the F-Nipple.
• F-Nipple allows for the installation
F-Nipple
of many bottom hole flow control
devices such as blanking plugs
or bottom hole chokes, …etc.
83
6. X-over:
• It is a very short tubing joint (almost
1 ft in length) with screw-shape
ends with different diameters.
• This item is used to connect
between two tubing joints with
different diameters or to connect
between the tubing joint & any of X-over
the completion components.
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7. Production Packer:
• It is a key component of the Bottom
Hole Assembly (BHA) in the completion
string since it is a sealing device that
isolates the produced fluids &
pressures within the tubing.
• There are two types of packers: Packer
1. Retrievable: it can be set & unset

many times & it can be retrieved
from the hole such as RTTS packer
that is used in the DST operation.
2. Permanent: it is set in the casing or
liner before the production string is
run. Once it is set, then it can not
be unset & it is required to be
milled if we need to POOH with it.
85
• Packer is set by using one of these two
methods:
1. Mechanically:
Packer is set by a rotational
movement of the completion string
such as the mechanical RTTS Packer
packer used in the DST operation.

2. Hydraulically:
Packer is set by applying
pressure in the annulus that is
required to inflate the rubber
elements in the packer to seal.
Hydraulic packer may be
Retrievable or Permanent.
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• Packer’s main components:
− Slips: wedge-shaped device with teeth
on its face, which grip & anchored with
the casing wall when the packer is set. Upper Slips Assembly
Upper Cone
− Cones: it is beveled to match the shape
of the slips & forms a ramp that drives Unloader Seal
the slip outward towards the casing

wall when setting force is applied to Packing Element System
the packer.
Lower Cone
− Rubber Packing Element System:
Lower Slips Assembly
once the slips have anchored into the
casing wall, additional applied setting
force energizes the packing-element
system to expand to create a seal
between packer body & inside casing.
87
• Main functions of the production packer
are to:
− Prevent downhole movement of the
completion string by centralizing it
in hole by setting packer slips
elements against the casing wall. Packer
− Provide a way to separate & isolate

between multiple production or
injection zones by inflating the
rubber packing elements in the
packer body.
− Protection of the production casing
(inner casing side) from corrosion
with the produced fluids & or erosion
due to high pressures.
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8. Seal Bore Assembly:
• For dual completion wells, the
bottom packer & the tail assembly
are assembled on the surface then
RIH to set in place @ the required
depth using the W/L.
• Then to RIH with the 1st completion
string until reach the packer depth
then sting in the tubing string into
the packer body.
89
8. Seal Bore Assembly:
• But the tubing string & the internal
surface of the packer are made of
steel where two steel surfaces
adjacent to each others will not
provide the required seal & Seal Bore Assembly
isolation.
• For this reason, seal bore assembly
equipped with SEAL RUBBER
ELEMENTS is used @ the bottom
part of the tubing string to sting into
the lower packer set earlier to provide
the required seal & isolation
between the internal packer & the
tubing string surfaces.
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9. Tubing:
• Production tubing is the main conduit for
transporting hydrocarbons from the
reservoir to surface or injection water or
gas into the reservoir).
Tubing
• It runs from the tubing hanger @ the top
of the wellhead down to a point generally
just above the top of the production zone.
• Production tubing joint length is around
30 ft & is available in various diameters,
typically ranging from 2" to 4.5".
• Production tubing may be manufactured
using various grades of alloys to achieve
specific hardness, corrosion resistance or
tensile strength requirements.
91
10. Sliding Sleeve Door (SSD):
• It is always combined & placed
above the production packer.
Sliding Sleeve Door
• It consists of 2 pieces of pipes (SSD)
with ports, one pipe slide inside
the other when it is subjected to
external mechanical movement.
• It connects between the outer
annulus & inside the tubing
when the two ports are opposite
to each others (open position).
• It is in closed position when the
ports are away from each others.
• Tool that is used to open & close
the SSD is called shifting tool Closed Open
which is run on a slick wire line. position position
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Flow Coupling
11. Flow Coupling:
• A relatively short & heavy-walled
completion component installed in Flow Coupling
areas where turbulence flow is

expected.
• The additional wall thickness
prevents early failures due to
erosion in the turbulent flow area.
• Flow coupling is typically installed
above & below the other completion
components such as Downhole
Safety Valve (DSV) or landing
nipples that may affect the flow.
93
12. Downhole Safety Valve (DSV): Downhole Safety
• Downhole safety valves is a Valve (DSV)
downhole device that isolates

wellbore pressure & fluids in
the event of an emergency or
catastrophic failure of the
surface equipment.
• The control system associated
with safety valves is generally
set so that the valve is normally
kept open under applied
pressure.
• Any interruption in the surface
production system will result in
relieving the applied pressure Open Closed
to close the safety valve to position position
render the well safe.
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Wellhead Components
• Wellhead is necessary to Casing
Tubing hanger
pressure
control well pressure during gauges Wireline zero point
Casing
production, serving as a point valve
to suspend casing & tubing Tubing
strings.
• Wellhead components include:
Tubing
− Casing heads head Production
casing
− Hangers
− Casing pressure gauges
Uppermost
− Valves casing head Intermediate
casing
• Without wellhead, we cannot Lowermost
utilize the X‒Tree to control casing head
well production.
Surface
casing
95
Wellhead Components
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X‒Tree Components
• X‒Tree is an assembly of valves that is used for both oil & gas producing
wells & for water & gas injection wells to control production & injection.
• There are 6 main components included

X-tree adapter
with the X‒Tree:
To production
facilities
− Upper & Lower Master valves

− Kill Wing (service) valve
− Production Wing valve
− Swab (Lubricator) valve Tubing head adapter
− Choke Tubing
97
X‒Tree Components
• Upper & Lower Master valves (main isolation valves) manually operated.
− Upper Master Valve (operational valve).
− Lower Master Valve (back-up valve). X-tree adapter
To production
facilities
Tubing head adapter
Tubing
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X‒Tree Components
• Kill Wing (service) valve enables connection of pumping equipment to kill
the well as in case of preparing for workover.
X-tree adapter
To production
facilities
Tubing head adapter
Tubing
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X‒Tree Components
• Production Wing valve is used to isolate well for most routine operations
such as change choke size or to close the well when the W/L is in hole.
X-tree adapter
To production
facilities
Tubing head adapter
Tubing
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X‒Tree Components
• Swab (Lubricator) valve is used to isolate pressure & enable well access
for intervention tools.
X-tree adapter
To production
facilities
Tubing head adapter
Tubing
101
X‒Tree Components
• Choke is used to controls rate of flow from well.
X-tree adapter
To production
facilities
Tubing head adapter
Tubing
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X‒Tree Components
• All the X-tree valves are gate valve type, the stem rotates & the gate
moves up & down.
103
X‒Tree Components
• Multiple completions X-tree is used when
more than one completion string installed in
the well to provide an independent control
of fluid flow for each string.
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Wellhead & X‒Tree Components

• This is how WELLHEAD & X-tree are installed in the field.
Tubing pressure gauge
Kill wing valve
Gauge valve
Tree adapter
Kill wing
connection Swab or crown valve
Production wing valve
Surface wellhead equipment

Surface choke
X-tree
Upper master
valve
To production facilities
Lower master
valve
Tubing
spool
Casing pressure gauges
Casing
spool
Casing
head
105
Wellhead & X‒Tree Components

• This is how WELLHEAD & X-tree are installed in the field.
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Lubricator
• Did not you ask yourself how is the W/L
with any tool is safely RIH during any Hydraulic stuffing box
rigless well intervention operation?
• Lubricator is a tool that is used specially to do
this function & providing the required space &
isolation around the W/L during RIH & POOH.
• Isolation around W/L is controlled by adjusting
the rubber seal elements in the stuffing box
@ top of the lubricator prior to the job.
W/L BOP
Flange tree
connection
107
Lubricator
• During W/L operation, Lubricator is installed on top
of the swab valve in X-tree replacing the X-tree cap.
Swab valve
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Workover
• Workover is defined as every operation, for any reason, which is done in
the well after drilling & completing the well & put on production by using
drilling or workover rigs or using rigless operation (wireline (W/L) &
coiled tubing operation).
Drilling Completion Production Workover
109
Coiled Tube Unit

• The coiled tube is a steel string that is flexible enough to be reeled on a
large reel for transportation.
• The coiled tubing unit is composed of a control console, reel with the
coiled tube string, guide gooseneck, injector head & well-control BOP.
Control console
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Coiled Tube Unit

• This is how the coiled tube is installed on the wellhead for any operation.
111
Coiled Tube Unit

• The coiled tubing is unreeled from the unit reel
during RIH into the production string in the well to
perform many well intervention operation such as:
− Bottom hole cleanout.
− Perforation.
− Stimulation.
− Hydraulic fracturing & acid fracturing.
− Cement squeeze operations.
− Wellbore fluid displacement that is required for
underbalance perforation.
− Retrieving stuck equipment.
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Wireline
• Wireline (W/L) is used to RIH with special tools required for any well
intervention operations.
• There are two types of the W/L used in the oil field.
− Mechanical Wireline (Slick Line):
o It consist of a relatively one steel
small diameter wire with smoothed
surface since it is designed to carry
small & not much heavy tools such as
RIH with memory gauges or plugs.
− Electrical Wireline (E−Line):
o It consist of bundle of steel wires
wrapped together in a configurations
that gives enough strength &
elasticity to the wire that is required
to carry heavier tool in many
operations such as MDT & logging.
113
Production
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Surface Choke (Bean) Valve

• Wellhead choke valves are used to control THP
flow rate of the well produced fluids & regulate Wellhead
the downstream pressure in the pipeline. choke valve
• There are two types of the surface chokes:

− FIXED or POSITIVE choke: FLP
o It has a fixed size for the hole in the
orifice plate.
o It is used when flow rate is expected
to remain steady for a long time.
− ADJUSTABLE or VARIABLE choke:
o Size of hole in the orifice plate can
be adjusted to any required size just
by rotating the choke arm.
o It is used when changes in the flow
rates may be required periodically
to meet market demands.
115
Surface Choke (Bean) Valve

• Upstream pressure (THP) is the pressure THP
of the flowing fluid coming from the well Wellhead
before entering the choke. choke valve
• Downstream pressure (FLP) is the

pressure of the flowing fluid after coming
FLP
out from the choke.
• Pressure difference (DP) between upstream
& downstream pressures measurements is
due to the choking effect (pressure losses
in the choke).
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Choke Manifold
• Choke manifold is a set of high-
pressure adjustable chokes valves
& associated piping arranged such that
enable to divert flow from a well or
group of wells between the production
lines without affecting the production.
• Choke manifold provides the primary
control for the well flow rate & the
downstream pressure during
production & well test operations.
117
Valves
• Valves are used to control flow in the pipeline system.
• There are two types of the surface valves:
− Ball Valve:
o It has a spherical ball with hole that
controls the flow through the valve.
o It is opened & closed by moving the
arm in the horizontal direction.
o When the hole in the ball is in line with
both ends of the valve, flow will pass.
− Gate Valve:
o It has a rectangular or circular gate
that control the flow through the valve.
o Rotating the upper disc anti
clockwise will move the stem bar
connected to the gate upward to open
the valve allowing flow to pass.
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Acid Stimulation Treatments

• Acid stimulation or matrix acidizing treatment use
a stimulation fluid containing a reactive acid to
improves the formation permeability that in
turns enhanced production of reservoir fluids.
• In sandstone formations, the acid reacts with
the soluble substances in the formation matrix
to enlarge the pore spaces.
• In carbonate formations, the acid dissolves the
entire formation matrix.
• There are three types of acid treatments
1. Acid wash (cleaning the perforation sand face without squeeze inside
the formation).
2. Matrix acidizing (stimulate near wellbore without creating fractures).
3. Fracture acidizing treatment (stimulate near wellbore with creating
fractures).
119

1. Acid wash (cleaning):
• The main objective during acid washing is
normally wellbore cleaning by removing
inorganic scale, rusts & other debris that
negatively impacts production & restricts
the flow in the well.
• It is important to know that we do not intend
formation treatment, i.e., not to squeeze
acid inside the formation.
• In this case, acid is injected @ low rate
(treatment injection pressure below the
formation pressure) & keep this acid inside
the tubing just to let the acid react with the
perforation sandface & the tubing scales.
• Then flowback the well to remove all the acid
dissolved products to avoid any damage.
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2. Matrix acidizing:
• The main objective during matrix acidizing is
formation cleaning to improve formation
permeability around near wellbore.
• In this case, acid is injected @ high rate
through the perforations (treatment injection
pressures above the formation pressure
but below formation fracture pressure.
• This enables acid to penetrate the formation
& extend the treatment depth without
creating fractures inside the formation.
• Type of acid used in matrix acidizing depend
on reservoir rock mineralogy (either HF
acid to dissolve materials that plug the
porous media in sandstone reservoir or
HCL acid to dissolve rock & create channels
called wormholes in carbonate reservoir).
121

3. Fracture acidizing treatment:
• This technique is an alternative to both
matrix acidizing & hydraulic fracturing that
is used in carbonates to maximize the
stimulated area beyond the damaged region.
• In this treatment, acid is intentionally pumped
@ high treatment injection pressure above
formation fracture pressure.
• Before releasing the pressure, we prop the
fracture with sand or proppant to keep the
fracture open & maintain its conductivity.
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Artificial Lift (A/L) Methods

• Typically, only a small fraction of the oil in place is produced before the
reservoir pressure is depleted in such way that it is not able to deliver
oil to the surface.
• In this case, one of the Artificial Lift (AL) methods is applied to lower the
producing Bottom Hole Flowing Pressure (BHFP) on the formation to:
− Deliver the oil from bottomhole to the surface.
− Obtain a higher production rate from the well.
• There are many artificial lift methods used in the oil field such as:
1. Sucker Rod (S/R) Pump.
Rod Pumps
2. Progressing Cavity Pump (PCP).
3. ESP (Electric Submersible Pump).
Rodless Pumps
4. Hydraulic Jet Pump.
5. Gas Lift. No Pump
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1. Sucker Rod Pump (S/R) or Beam pump.
• S/R pump is the most widely
applied A/L method in the oil
industry all over the world.
• Sucker rod pump system consist of
several components, some are
operated on surface & the other are
operated downhole in the well.
• The surface pumping unit is run by
a prime mover that allows the
beam to rock back & forth, moving
the downhole pump up & down
moving oil to surface.
• It is simple to run without a need for
workover.
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2. Progressing Cavity Pump (PCP).
• PCP pump is also widely applied
in the oil industry for producing
very heavy viscous oil wells.
• PCP consists mainly of:
− Surface top driving motor.
− Downhole Stator.
− Downhole Rotor.
• The entire surface system is run
by a surface top driving motor
that allows the rod & the
attached downhole rotor to
rotates inside the stator part.
• The rotation movement creates a sequential cavity that resulting-in
pushing the well fluids to surface.
125

3. Electric Submersible Pump (ESP).
• ESP is an efficient & reliable A/L Electric
method for lifting moderate to high Cable
volumes of fluids from oil wells.
• ESP consists mainly of 3 components: Pump
− Downhole pump unit (series of
centrifugal impellers).
Intake
− An electric motor that is used to
rotate the pump.
Motor seal
− Power cable that is connecting the
motor to surface control plate.
• Each ESP pump has a typical Motor
Pump Performance Curve
that helps to select the right
pump required for specific
production conditions.
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4. Hydraulic Jet Pump.
• Jet pump is manually run & inserted
downhole inside the completion without
using a workover rig.
• @ surface, high pressure triplex pump is
used to pressurize & inject the POWER
fluid (some of well production or water)
into the wellbore or into the annulus.
POWER
• The pressurized POWER fluid travels fluid
downhole through the jet pump to TOTAL
draws the WELL fluid into the pump produced
fluids
throat then raise the commingled
TOTAL produced fluids to surface. WELL
fluid
• Some of this total produced fluids mixture when reached to surface, is
re-injected again downhole as a power fluid to continue the process
while the remaining produced fluid is directed to the production line.
127

Production
5. Gas Lift. Injected gas
• The principle of gas lift is that the injected

gas into the tubing will reduces the density Casing
of the fluids in the tubing then reduces Tubing
weight of the hydrostatic column.
• Thereby reducing back pressure created
by the produced fluids inside the well, allow
reservoir pressure to push well liquids &
the injected gas mixture to the surface. Gas lift
valve
• Gas Lift well is therefore equipped with
several gas lift valves.
• When starting the well, gas is initially
injected through the shallowest valve &
injection will then switch to the next valve Packer
until it reaches the deepest valve.
Oil reservoir
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Oil Production Process Plant

• An oil production plant is a facility which processes production fluids
(mixture of oil, gas & water) from oil wells in order to separate out key
components & prepare for export.
• Configuration of the production facilities depend on the size of the field.
• For simple fields with few wells, an oil storage tank may be sufficient
which is emptied periodically & transferred by road tanker or rail tanker
to an oil refinery.
• For larger fields, a full three-phase processing facility is required to
separate the well fluids into its three constituent phases (oil, gas & water).
− Oil is transferred by pipeline to an oil refinery.
− Gas may be used on the site to run gas engines to produce electricity
or to be re-injected again in the reservoir to support its pressure or it
can be piped to local users.
− Produced water may be re-injected into the reservoir to support its
pressure or dumped to a secure place.
129
Oil Production Process Plant

• The full three-phase processing facility is basically consisting of:
1. Separator
2. Heat Exchanger
3. Desalter
4. Knockout Drum (K.O.D)
5. Storage Tanks
Separator Heat Exchanger Desalter unit Knockout Drum Storage tank
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1− Separator
• Separator is a device that is designed so that produced fluids enter a
vessel hits an inlet diverter to separate well stream fluids through different
chambers & then diverted the separated fluids to different outlets.
• It is called separator in case of oil processing or slug catcher in case of
gas processing.
Slug catcher Mist Gas out
extractor
Inlet
Gas
Oil
Oil
Water
Gravity
settling
Water out Oil out
131
1− Separator
• This picture shows main separator components.
• In oil field, there are two types of separators (production & test separators).
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1− Separator
1. Production Separator:
• Production from all wells is diverted to 2 or 3 phase production
separator to separate the different produced fluids (oil, gas &
water) then measure their volumes. It is either:
‒ Horizontal production separator: for high volume of oil stream.
‒ Vertical production separator: for handling solids or to foam the oil.
133
1− Separator
2. Test Separator:
• It is the same as the horizontal production separator, but it is smaller
in size since it is mainly used to measure & check small flow
volume usually for one or two wells together.
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2− Heat Exchanger
• Heat Exchanger is the most critical & important equipment of any plant
because in order to process crude oil, it needs to be heated & brough to
a certain temperature that ensure better separation process.
• It is used to transfer heat from hot water with temperature of 100−150 °C
to the oil comes from separator by indirect contact between them.
• Heat exchanger process is done so that a separation of water droplets
remaining in oil to be easier in the next stage of the process (Desalter).
135
3− Desalter
• Crude oil contain many types of salts traps in very small staggered
droplets of water that self-extraction & settling are not possible.
• Desalter is a process unit that removes these salts from the crude oil.
• Salts are dissolved in water in the crude oil, NOT in the crude oil itself.
• Salt content after the desalter is usually measured in PTB (Pounds of
salt per Thousand Barrels of crude oil).
Desalter unit
Separator Heat Exchanger
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3− Desalter
• If this salts are not removed from the oil, it will cause several problems in
the refining process.
• The desalting process is done in two steps:
1. Step#1:
− Crude oil is mixed with 5 −15% volume of fresh water so that the
water can dilute the dissolved dispersed water-soluble salt content.
− Then a proper mixing is done that collects all small droplets of
staggered brine into bigger drops.
2. Step#2:
− To remove & drain the diluted dispersed brine from crude oil by
generating an electrostatic field by ELECTRODES in the settling
tank, inducing polarization of the water droplets floating in the
larger volume of oil.
− This results in the water droplets clumping together & settling to
bottom of the tank that is disposed out of the tank.
137
4− Knockout Drum (K.O.D)

• Knockout drum vessel is used to slow down gasses & enables liquids to
“fall out” & separated from the gas stream before going to the flare.
• If the liquid is not separated & gets into the flare stack, it will catch fire &
the burning liquid will pour down like rain into the operating unit.
• A liquid level gauge or indicator should always be included, as these
vessels must remain drained & free of excess liquid.
• Knock out drums can be configured in either a horizontal, or vertical
arrangement.
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5− Storage Tanks
• Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids or compressed gases &
are available in various shapes & sizes as per the project requirement.
Cylindrical tanks known as low Spherical tanks known as high
pressure storage tanks which are pressure or low temperature
large tanks that is used for storing storage tanks that is used for
oil & liquids. It can be either open, storing Liquified Petroleum Gases
fixed roof or with a floating roof. (LPG) or pressurized fluids like
butane, methane, propane, … etc.
139
Flowmeter
• Difference in volume measurements between upstream & downstream
of the choke valves occurs more in gas flow because gas compressibility
is much higher than liquid compressibility.
Liquid flow
Gas flow
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Barrel Oil
• What is the capacity of the barrel oil?
• Why the barrel oil unit is (bbl) with TWO letters of (b)
while the word of barrel contain only ONE letters of (b)?
• The current famous volume vessel for chemicals & food

is called DRUM which has a volume of 55 US gallons. DRUM
• Barrel oil measurement was originated & established
since the early 1870 in Pennsylvania oil fields.
• They used the famous vessel used for wine storage @
that time with capacity of 40 gallons to be a unit of
measurements & shipment for the new oil discovery.
• Since this wine storage barrel @ that time was made of Barrel oil
wood so there was a leakage & vaporizes during the
shipment.
141
Barrel Oil
• So, standard oil companies @ that time manufactured
a blue barrels with a capacity of 42 gallons (159 Liter)
to overcome the leakage & vaporizes problem during
the shipment. BARREL OIL
• This is to confirm to the customer that the blue barrels

with a capacity of 42 gallons is that used only for oil to
overcome the leakage & vaporizes problem during the
shipment then it became as a standard unit until today.
• So, today the STANDARD BARREL of crude oil or other

petroleum product (abbreviated bbl) refers to (blue
barrel) & has a volume of 42 US-gallons (159 Liters).
• Oil actually is shipped in oil tankers not in barrels, but the

barrel (Bbl = 42 US-gallons) size is still used as a unit
for measurement, pricing, taxes & regulatory codes. STANDARD
BARREL
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Crude Oil Measuring Units
• Oil & its derivatives are liquids, so their quantities are measured by
volume or by weight.
• Volume units to measure oil production are barrel, gallon & liter.
➢ 1 barrel = 42 gallon = 159 Liter
• Mass unit to measure oil production is ton that this varies according to
oil density.
➢ 1 ton ≈ 7 barrel
143
Crude Oil Classifications

• Quality of the worldwide crude oil can be determined based on three
parameters.
1. It has a higher API degrees (low density).
2. How much the saturated hydrocarbon components known as
Paraffins (CnH2n+2) present in the crude oil.
3. It has a lower Sulphur content.
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Crude Oil Classifications – API

• Crude oil is classified based on the API gravity degrees to:
─ Light crude oil: > 31 API degree
─ Medium crude oil: 22 ─ 31 API degree
─ Heavy crude oil: 22 ─ 10 API degree
─ Very heavy crude oil: < 10 API degree
141.5
API = − 131.5
γo
145
Crude Oil Classifications – Paraffins

• Crude oil is also classified based on how much saturated hydrocarbon
components known as Paraffins (CnH2n+2) present in the crude oil.
• Based on this, crude oil could be:
1. Paraffins base: Paraffin content > 50%.
This is the most common hydrocarbons in
crude oil & it is considered the best type since
it contains much of gasoline & diesel (fuels).
2. Asphalt or Naphthene base: Paraffin content < 20%.
3. Mixed base: 20% < paraffin content < 50%
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Crude Oil Classifications – Sulphur

• Sulphur is a heavy component that increase crude oil density & its
acidity so crude oil becomes more corrosive to the equipment if not
properly processed.
• Crude oil is also categorized depend on the level of Sulphur content to:
1. Sweet crude oil: sulfur content

is (0.5%) or less by weight.
2. Sour crude oil: sulfur content
is (1%) or more by weight.
• Sulphur should be removed from crude oil during refining, because

sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere during hydrocarbon
processing is a major pollutant & toxic problem.
147
Crude Oil Refining & Distillation

• Crude oil is made up of a mixture of hydrocarbons, so the distillation
process is the method applied in the oil refineries to separate this crude oil
into its hydrocarbon components, or "fractions“.
• Crude oil is heated inside the distillation tower where different
products boil off & are recovered @ different temperatures.
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Crude Oil Refining & Distillation

• This is a simple schematic for crude
oil distillation tower.
• Lighter products (low boiling
point), such as butane & other
Liquid Petroleum Gases (LPG),
gasoline blending components, &
naphtha, are recovered @ the
lowest temperatures.
• The heaviest products (high
boiling point), such as residual fuel
oil are recovered @ temperatures
sometimes over 300 oC.
• Lubricating oil & Asphalt are the
last product from the distillation
tower @ the highest temperatures.
149
Types of Natural Gases

• Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases primarily of Methane
(CH4), it can also include Ethane (C2H6), propane, butane & pentane.
• It is colorless, shapeless & odorless in its pure form.
• For the transportation & shipment purposes, natural gases are liquified
(converted to liquid).
• There are 3 types of liquified gases:
1. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).
2. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).
3. Natural Gas Liquids (NGL).
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Types of Natural Gases

• Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) is a
traditional natural non-associated
gas mainly consist of Methane with
some little amounts of ethane, LNG
propane & butane that has been
cooled to the liquefaction point.
LPG
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a NGL
by-product derived while processing
the crude oil (associated gas).
• Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) are by-

product components of natural gas
processing & refining that are
separated from the gas state in the
form of liquids such as condensate.
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Reservoirs
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Reservoir Management
• Oil & gas are un-renewable energy source so a good reservoir
management should be applied to maximize the recovery.
• Reservoir Management is an ongoing dynamic process of collecting,
analyzing, validating & integrating reservoir description data & performance
data into an optimal reservoir development & depletion plan.
• Of course, there is a GOOD, BAD & STUPID reservoir management.
153
Main Roles & Tasks for Reservoir Engineer

• Main task & responsibility of the reservoir engineer is to answer the
following questions:
− How much oil & gas is originally in place, Original Hydrocarbon In
Place (OHIP)?
− What are the drive & the trapping mechanisms of the reservoir?
− What is the recovery factor & the optimum time scale for the
hydrocarbon recovery by the primary depletion, applying water/gas &
any of the enhanced oil recovery methods (EOR)?
− How can the recovery be increased economically?
− What will be the field development strategy & future production rate
from the reservoir?
− What cost-effective data (PVT, core & reservoir monitoring and
surveillance programs) is needed to answer these above questions?
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Reservoir Management Team

• Reservoir & Petroleum Engineers must remember that their success is
anchored to a good understanding of other disciplines concerned with
their mission.
• Successful reservoir management requires synergy & team efforts.
• Involvement of work with an integrated team of geologists,
geophysicists, petrophysicists & engineers from other disciplines.
• Teamwork divides the task & multiplies the success.
155
Reservoir Management Team

• Reservoir management is NOT ONLY a reservoir engineering or a reservoir
geology work but in order to manage & develop a reservoir in an effective
way, a multi-disciplinary integrated team is formed which consists of:
1. Management staff
10 1
9 2 2. Reservoir Engineer
8 3 3. Production Engineer
4 4. Operation Engineer
7
5. Drilling Engineer
6 5
6. G & G staff
7. Chemical Lab. Engineer
8. Economist
9. HSE
10. Contractor Representative
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Formation Evaluation
What is Formation Evaluation (FE)?
• Formation Evaluation (FE) is the process
of interpreting a combination of some
measurements recorded inside a wellbore
to detect, evaluate & quantify the
hydrocarbon reserves inside the reservoir.
• Formation Evaluation (FE) data provides
reservoir engineers with the formations
geological & physical parameters
necessary to construct a fluid flow model
for the reservoir.
• Formation Evaluation (FE) data can be
gathered with wireline logging tools (open
hole log & MDT data) after finish drilling a
well & before running the casing or by
logging while drilling tools.
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Formation Evaluation
This is a Formation Evaluation Data Integration
Openhole logs MDT
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Reservoir Life Process

• During the life of the reservoir (range from a few years to many
decades), a lot of subsequent operations is applied in order to exploit the
reservoir with a highly beneficial way.
• Reservoir life process is a long journey to have oil in hand.
• This journey can be summarized with the following reservoir life process.
159
Reservoir Life Process

Exploration Discovery Delineation
Agreement Development & Production
Primary Secondary Tertiary Abandonment

Recovery Recovery
Water Recovery
injection well
Water
Oil
Oil bank
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Production Phases
1. Production build up may exist depends on devolvement strategy.
2. Peak oil production is the theorized point in time when the maximum
production rate is reached.
3. Plateau phase where production is maintained @ the desired
production rate (duration depends on economics of project).
4. Decline phase start when reservoir is not able to deliver the desired
production rate.
5. Abandonment rate depends on size of project & operating costs.
Peak oil 2
production 3
4
1
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Production Phases
• For many fields, especially smaller ones, the plateau phase may be very
short, while large fields can stay several decades @ the plateau
production level.
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Fluid Properties
& PVT Analysis
163
Boiling & Evaporation

• In general, Boiling & Evaporation are the process of converting the
liquids to vapor which are a direct function of pressure & temperature.
• Boiling occurs on the entire mass of the liquid is heated @ a
temperature greater than the boiling point of this liquid & turns to a
vapor.
• Evaporation occurs only on the surface of the liquid when it is changed
to a vapor @ a temperature below its normal boiling point.
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Condensation
• Condensation occurs when a water vapor is cooled & turns to a liquid
when be in contact with a solid surface.
165
Phase Behavior of a Pure Component

• How isothermal pressure change affects fluid phase @ a constant
temperature?
• Note that the isothermal pressure change is a common assumption for
hydrocarbon production.
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Phase Behavior of a Pure Component

• How temperature affects fluid phase @ a constant pressure?
167
Boiling & Evaporation

• This is a simple pressure-temperature phase change diagram for a
substance that depends on pressure & temperature.
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Critical Point & Triple Point:

• Lines on the pressure-temperature (P−T) phase equilibrium diagram
that represents the conditions of (P) & (T) where @ least two phases of
ANY SUBSTANCE co-exist in equilibrium with each other.
Compressible liquid
Critical point
Triple point
169

• Vaporization curve: is the line separates between liquid & vapor phases.
• Melting curve: is the line separates between solid & liquid phases.
• Sublimation curve: is the line separates between solid & vapor phases.
Compressible liquid
Critical point
Triple point
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• Vaporization, melting & sublimation curves are all terms refer to a
certain state of a substance which are related to the presence of
equilibrium conditions between phases (solid, liquid & vapor) on the
phase equilibrium diagram @ different temperatures & pressures.
Compressible liquid
Critical point
Triple point
171

• Triple point: it is a point where the vaporization,
melting & sublimation curves are all intersect @
which solid, liquid & vapor phases all co-exist in a
stable equilibrium.
Compressible liquid
Critical point
Triple point
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• Critical point: it is a point @ which liquid do not convert
to vapor because their density being equal to each
other makes them indistinguishable from each other.
Compressible liquid
Critical point
Triple point
173
Saturated & Undersaturated Reservoir

• Saturation pressure (Ps) is the pressure of a vapor @ which it is in
equilibrium with its liquid (as steam with water).
Equilibrium Undersaturated Saturated
• Bubble point pressure (Pb) is the saturation pressure @ in case of

liquids @ which the first bubble of the gas is liberated from the oil.
• Dew point pressure (Pd) is the saturation pressure @ in case of gases
@ which the first droplet of the liquid is dropped out from the gas.
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Classification of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

• Phase Diagram or Phase Envelop is a graphical representation of
the physical states of a HYDROCARBON SYSTEM (either liquid or gas
or both together) under different conditions of temperatures & pressures.
• Phase Diagram shows the
temperatures & pressures @
which the various phases are in
equilibrium.
• A typical phase diagram has
pressure on the Y-axis &
temperature on the X-axis.
• This is a typical phase diagram
for multi components system.
• Bubble point line define liquid 100% Gas
stability (liquid to be a gas).

• Dew point line define gas
stability (gas to be a liquid).
175

• Bubble point & dew point lines meet @ the critical point.
• On the bubble point line, the fluid is 100% liquid (i.e., 0% gas) while on the
dew point line, the fluid is 0% liquid (i.e., 100% gas).
• The various lines between the

bubble point & dew point lines
are labeled with the percentage
of liquid & gas stability in
equilibrium @ these conditions
of different temperatures &
pressures. X
• @ point (X), the fluid consists of
60% liquid & 40% gas.
100% Gas
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• Based on P-T Phase Diagram (Envelop), reservoirs are classified as:
Oil Reservoir:
• Reservoir temperature < critical
point temperature (Tc) of the Black oil & Gas condensate Gas
Volatile oil & retrograde gas reservoir
reservoir fluid. It is classified as: reservoirs reservoirs
o Under-Saturated Reservoir 100% Liquid
o Saturated Reservoir
Gas Reservoir:
• Reservoir temperature > critical
point temperature (Tc) of the
reservoir fluid. It is classified as:
o Dry Gas Reservoir 100% Gas
o Wet Gas Reservoir

o Retrograde
Gas−Condensate Reservoir
177

• Under-saturated Oil Reservoir: when oil is NOT completely saturated
with the gas & occurs when the initial reservoir pressure (Pi) > bubble
point pressure (Pb).
Black oil & Gas condensate Gas
• Saturated Oil Reservoir: when Volatile oil
reservoirs
& retrograde gas
reservoirs
reservoir
oil is completely saturated with 100% Liquid

the gas & occurs the initial
reservoir pressure (Pi) ≤ bubble
point pressure (Pb).
100% Gas
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• Dry Gas Reservoir: dry gas in both conditions, in the reservoir and @ the
surface separator conditions.
Black oil & Gas condensate Gas

• Wet Gas Reservoir: it is a dry Volatile oil
reservoirs
& retrograde gas
reservoirs
reservoir
gas in the reservoir but there is 100% Liquid

a liquid condensate production
in the tubing & @ the surface
separator conditions.
100% Gas
179

• Retrograde Gas Condensate Reservoir: It is called retrograde because
some gases condenses into liquid under isothermal conditions instead of
expanding when pressure is decreased.
• Even though we pressurize Black oil & Gas condensate Gas
Volatile oil & retrograde gas reservoir
the system, liquid will vaporize reservoirs reservoirs
& vapor not condense which is 100% Liquid
opposite to the normal trend &
the expected behaviour.
• @ the initial reservoir pressure
(Pi), it is a dry gas in the
reservoir but when the reservoir
pressure go below the dew point
pressure (Pd) during production,
100% Gas
there will be a liquid condensate
drop-out in the reservoir that
remains immobile @ low
concentrations & saturations.
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PVT Analysis
• PVT is referring to Pressure-Volume-Temperature measurements for the
hydrocarbons during the production life of the reservoir.
• PVT data is the core information for many calculations in reservoir
engineering such as:
‒ Simulate reservoir fluid behavior during the production process to
predict future reservoir performance.
‒ Convert surface produced volumes to reservoir conditions.
‒ Material balance calculations to calculate the OHIP, drive indices &
the recovery.
• PVT data comes from laboratory experiments reports & many published
known PVT correlations.
• PVT tests are performed in the laboratory by changing the pressure,
volume & temperature in order to determine some properties of fluids
for a given field such as for example:
181
PVT Analysis
‒ Oil Formation Volume Factor (FVF) or (βo) measured in “res. bbl/STB”
is a ratio between the oil volume @ the reservoir conditions (Vres) to
its volume @ standard conditions (Vsc).
𝐕𝐨 @ res. cond.
𝛃𝐎 =
𝐕𝐨 @ stand.cond.
𝒓𝒆𝒔. 𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝛃𝐨 = =
𝑺𝑻𝑩
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PVT Analysis
‒ Gas Formation Volume Factor (GVF) or (βg)
measured in “ft3/scf” is a ratio between the free 𝐕𝐠 @ res. cond.
gas volume @ the reservoir conditions (Vres)
𝛃𝐠 =
𝐕𝐠 @ stand. cond.
to its volume @ the standard conditions (Vsc).
‒ BUT From the equation of state (EOS) → PV = nzRT
V nzRT/P Psc T z 𝐓𝐳 𝐓𝐳
𝛃𝐠 = = = = 0.0283 𝛃𝐠 = 0.0283
Vsc nzRT/P sc P Tsc zsc 𝐏 𝐏
Free gas
1
𝒇𝒕𝟑
3
𝛃𝐠 = =
𝒔𝒄𝒇
1
3
Solution gas
Stock tank oil
183
PVT Analysis
‒ Gas in solution (Rs) measured in “scf/STB“ is a ratio between to the
surface gas volume @ standard conditions to the standard tank barrel
oil volume.
‒ Solubility of gas in oil is a function of pressure, temperature & the
compositions of both gas & oil.
𝐕𝐠 @ stand. cond.
𝐑𝐬 =
𝐕𝐨 @ stand. cond.
𝒔𝒄𝒇
𝐑𝐬 = =
𝑺𝑻𝑩
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PVT Analysis
‒ Total (two phase) Formation Volume Factor (TFVF) or (βt) measured in
“res. bbl/STB“ is a ratio of the total volume (liquid phase + gas phase)
@ reservoir conditions divided ONLY by its resulting stock tank oil
@ standard conditions.
𝛃𝐭 = βo + βg * (R sb − R s )
Rsb → is the gas in solution @ the bubble point pressure (Pb)
+
1
1 2
3 𝒓𝒆𝒔. 𝒃𝒃𝒍
𝛃𝐭 = =
2
4
𝑺𝑻𝑩
4 Stock tank oil
185
PVT Analysis
‒ Oil Viscosity (mo) is the internal resistance
of fluid to flow, cp (higher values correspond
to low flow rates).
‒ Oil Density (r) is defined as the mass per

unit volume, lbm/ft3.
‒ Oil API gravity is another presentation of the

density, high API gravity indicate light (low-
density) crude oil while low API gravity
indicate heavy (denser) crude oil.
− APIo + APIo
‒ There is a clear REVERSE RELATIONSHIP
between oil viscosity & oil API gravity. + Viscosity − Viscosity
‒ Compressibility (Co) is a change in the unit −1 𝜕V

volume (DV) per unit change in pressure (DP) C=
@ specific temperature. V 𝜕P
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PVT Analysis
‒ Gas compressibility factor or gas deviation factor (z‐factor) is the
ratio between the real gas volume to the ideal gas volume @ specific
pressure (P) & temperature (T).
Real volume of gas @ specified P&T

𝐳=
Ideal volume of gas @ the same P&T
‒ z-factor @ standard conditions (60 °F &

14.7 psia) is equated to (1)
‒ z-factor is measured in the lab using the
Burnett apparatus.
‒ If the gas deviation factor (z) measurement
is not available, so it can be estimated
from the z-factor chart that depends on
pseudo-reduced temperature & pressure.
187
PVT Analysis
• These PVT plots showing the variation of the PVT properties as a
function of pressure @ a given temperature.
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Equation of State (E.O.S)

• Amonton observed that for a fixed mass of gas @ a 𝐏
constant volume (V), the pressure (P) varies = Const.
linearly with temperature (T). 𝐓
• Boyle observed that for a fixed mass of gas @ a
constant temperature (T) , the product of pressure 𝐏𝐕 = Const.
(P) & volume (V) was found to be a constant.
• Charles observed that for a fixed mass of gas @ 𝐕
= Const.
constant pressure (P), the volume (V) varies 𝐓
linearly with temperature (T).
𝐏𝐕
• Combining all together. = Const.
𝐓
• If (n) lb-moles of gas are involved, then the
relationships result-in the IDEAL GAS LAW. 𝐏𝐕 = nR𝐓
P: Pressure of the gas, psi V: Volume of the gas, ft3
n: Number of moles in the gas
(379.4 ft3 of any ideal gas @ 14.7 psia & 60°F is one mole).
R: Universal gas constant = 8.314 J/mol. K T: Temperature of the gas, Rankin
189

• To generalize the equation to be applied for REAL GASES, gas deviation
factor (z) or gas compressibility factor was introduced to the above
equation to have the simplest form of the equation of state (Z-factor @
standard conditions “60 °F & 14.7 psia” is equated to 1).
𝐏𝐕 = znR𝐓
• This is the Equation Of State (E.O.S) in the simplest form which is an
analytical expression relating (P) to (T) & (V) based on physical gas laws.
• In PVT analysis, we measure the properties @ different pressure steps,
but we do not know anything about the behavior of these properties @ the
points between these pressure steps or even outside the range of the
measurements.
• E.O.S is used to model the fluid systems to predict fluid properties &
phase behavior changes when subjected to different pressures &
temperatures outside the measurement range used in the laboratory.
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• There are many forms & modifications introduced to the EOS to make it
more accurate such as that for:
𝑎 𝑅𝑇 𝑎
1. Van Der Waal’s equation. 𝑃+
𝑉2
𝑉−𝑏 = 𝑅𝑇 → 𝑃= − 2
𝑉−𝑏 𝑉
𝑅𝑇 𝑎𝑇
2. Peng-Robinson equation. 𝑃= −
𝑉−𝑏 𝑉 𝑉+𝑏 +𝑏 𝑉−𝑏
• Where (a) & (b) are constants counting for the inter-molecular attraction
forces between the molecules & the volume reduction in the molecule
size, respectively.
• Each gas type has its own specific values of (a & b).
191
Tuning of The Equation of State (E.O.S)

• Equations of state is used to model fluid properties & to predict fluids
behavior, especially for mixtures containing heavy hydrocarbons.
• Unfortunately, the properties that are predicted by equations of state
might not be accurate.
• This error may be raised from experimental data inputs or parameters &
constants (a & b) of the equations of state.
• So, the procedure for tuning equation of state was developed that
results in improving prediction of the phase behavior.
• Understanding what data are appropriate for tuning purpose is a critical
step in equation of state fluid characterization.
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Tuning of The Equation of State (E.O.S)

• Generally, measured lab data were used to tune E.O.S by adjusting
their parameters.
• These figures show the comparison between the measured data in the
lab & the tuned results for the equation of state to be used in the model.
100
Experimental data
liq total), %
Tuned data
80
), %
/Vtotal\V
fraction (Vliq(V
60
Liquidfraction,
40
Liquid
20
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Pressure, psi
Pressure, psia
193
Different Sampling Methods
Surface Sample BHS MDT Sample

• Large fluid volumes can • Direct collection of the • Collects the fluid sample
be collected. desired sample. directly from the
• Can maintain full formation.
• Easy & less expensive
pressure of sample.
when surface separator is • Fluid sample from any
already on location. • Avoids use of surface desired depth intervals
separators (surface can be collected.
• No need for W/L tools in metering uncertainties).
the borehole but it requires • Avoids recombination • Not affected by fluid
surface separators. errors. segregation in the well.
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PVT Analysis Methods

• PVT analysis is classified based on the purpose of the analysis as follows:
Classical (Routine) PVT Analysis Advanced PVT Analysis
1. Composition measurements test. − Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) tests.
2. Flash Liberation test. 1. Swelling test.
3. Relative volume test or Constant 2. Slim Tube test.

Composition Expansion (CCE) test or
Constant Mass Expansion (CME) test. 3. Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) test.
4. Differential Liberation (Vaporization) 4. Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) test.
Expansion (DLE) test.
− Scale Deposition tests
5. Multi stages separator test.
1. Asphaltene formation test.
6. Oil viscosity test.
2. Waxes & paraffin’s formation test.
7. Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) test.
3. Hydrates formation test.
195
Classical (Routine) PVT Analysis

1. Composition measurements test.
2. Flash Liberation test.
3. Relative volume test or Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) test or

Constant Mass Expansion (CME) test.
4. Differential Liberation (Vaporization) Expansion (DLE) test.
5. Multi stages separator test.
6. Oil viscosity test.
7. Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) test.
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1− Composition Measurements Test

• Composition measurements is conducted to determine how much light &
heavy components are in the fluid which is important to determine:
− Market value of the hydrocarbons (light components is more expensive).
− How the hydrocarbon be refined & processed.
− Presence of any corrosive non-hydrocarbon gases (CO2, N2 & H2S)
that require special non-corrosive production/transportation equipment.
• Composition of hydrocarbon gases is done by Gas Chromatography (GC)
analysis & for oils is by True Boiling Point (TBP) fractionating distillation.
197
1− Composition Measurements Test

Composition of the stock tank gas Composition of the stock tank oil Composition of recombined s
COMPONENT Mole % Weight % Molar Density LNG Mole % Weight % Molar Density Mole % Weight % Molar
Weight g/cc bbl/MMscf Weight g/cc Weight
Nitrogen 0.147 0.114 28.02 0.804 0.058 0.013 28.02
Non-hydrocarbon gases Carbon Dioxide 1.655 2.016 44.01 0.809 0.648 0.226 44.01
Hydrogen Sulphide 2.538 2.393 34.08 0.797 0.994 0.268 34.08
Methane 40.241 17.866 16.04 0.300 0.023 0.002 16.04 0.300 15.781 2.005 16.04
Lighter hydrocarbon Ethane 16.596 13.810 30.07 0.357 0.233 0.038 30.07 0.357 6.644 1.582 30.07
components Propane 16.008 19.535 44.09 0.507 105.0 1.271 0.304 44.09 0.507 7.045 2.461 44.09
iso-Butane 3.409 5.484 58.12 0.562 26.6 0.802 0.253 58.12 0.562 1.824 0.840 58.12
n-Butane 8.361 13.449 58.12 0.583 62.8 3.123 0.985 58.12 0.583 5.176 2.383 58.12
Neopentane 0.045 0.089 72.15 0.597 0.4 0.015 0.006 72.15 0.597 0.027 0.015 72.15
iso-Pentane 2.586 5.163 72.15 0.623 22.6 2.616 1.024 72.15 0.623 2.604 1.488 72.15
n-Pentane 3.095 6.179 72.15 0.630 26.7 4.325 1.693 72.15 0.630 3.843 2.196 72.15
Hexanes, C6 total 2.546 6.019 85.4 0.664 24.7 7.720 3.581 85.5 0.665 5.693 3.854 85.5
n-Hexane 0.944 2.251 86.2 0.663 4.079 1.907 86.2 0.663 2.850 1.946 86.2
iso-Paraffins 1.481 3.533 86.2 0.661 3.313 1.549 86.2 0.661 2.595 1.771 86.2
Naphthenes 0.121 0.234 70.1 0.748 0.328 0.125 70.1 0.748 0.247 0.137 70.1
Heptanes, C7 total 1.439 3.759 94.4 0.718 14.3 9.037 4.716 96.2 0.708 6.060 4.609 96.0
n-Heptane 0.285 0.790 100.2 0.687 3.434 1.867 100.2 0.687 2.200 1.746 100.2
iso-Paraffins 0.613 1.700 100.2 0.689 3.223 1.752 100.2 0.688 2.200 1.746 100.2
Naphthenes 0.427 1.021 86.5 0.763 1.870 0.881 86.8 0.765 1.305 0.897 86.8
Aromatics 0.114 0.247 78.1 0.883 0.510 0.216 78.1 0.883 0.355 0.220 78.1
Octanes, C8 total 0.927 2.766 107.9 0.745 10.1 9.135 5.371 108.4 0.743 5.919 5.079 108.3
n-Octane 0.205 0.649 114.2 0.707 2.627 1.628 114.2 0.707 1.678 1.518 114.2
iso-Paraffins 0.296 0.939 114.6 0.707 2.665 1.657 114.6 0.707 1.737 1.576 114.6
Naphthenes 0.260 0.757 105.2 0.770 2.177 1.253 106.1 0.770 1.426 1.197 106.0
Aromatics 0.165 0.422 92.1 0.872 1.666 0.833 92.1 0.872 1.078 0.787 92.1
Nonanes, C9 total 0.403 1.342 120.3 0.767 4.8 8.147 5.341 120.8 0.766 5.113 4.893 120.8
n-Nonane 0.085 0.300 128.3 0.723 2.183 1.519 128.3 0.723 1.361 1.382 128.3
iso-Paraffins 0.138 0.490 128.3 0.722 2.456 1.709 128.3 0.723 1.548 1.572 128.3
Naphthenes 0.062 0.205 118.9 0.792 1.168 0.765 120.7 0.792 0.735 0.702 120.6
Aromatics 0.118 0.347 106.2 0.873 2.340 1.348 106.2 0.874 1.469 1.236 106.2
Heavier hydrocarbon Decanes plus, C10+ 0.004 0.016 134.0 0.782 0.1 53.553 76.686 263.9 0.877 32.572 68.088 263.9
components Sum 100.000 100.000 297.8 100.000 100.000 100.000 100.000
Mean molecular weight: 36.13 184.3 126.2
Gas gravity: 1.248
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2− Flash Liberation Test

• Flash liberation test is a SINGLE STAGE 50 Scfd
SEPARATOR test which is conducted to
simulate the separation process of a
85 FO & 2500 psia
surface production separator.
80 Bbls
• In the lab, oil sample is only subjected
to ONE SUDDEN desired pressure
drop @ certain specific temperature
that causes gas to be liberated out of
100 Res. Bbls
solution.
100 FO
• Then measure the fluids outlet 4500 psia
compositions for both oil & gas to

determine which components of the
fluid mixture feed are in the liquid
phase & which are in vapor phase.
199
3− Relative Volume Test

• Relative volume test is also called Constant Composition Expansion (CCE)
test or Constant Mass Expansion (CME) test since there is NO fluids
removed from PVT cell, therefore composition of the total hydrocarbon
mixture in the cell remains fixed @ the original composition.
• This test is conducted to simulate the initial condition of the reservoir
until reaching the saturation pressure by using many successive flash
liberation tests.
• @ the beginning of the test, PVT cell initially contain pure liquid @
unknown value of the saturation pressure.
• But we know that there is a drastically change in the total sample
volume below & above the saturation (bubble point) pressure due to
change in the compressibility of the sample fluid as a result of the
liberated gas volume comes out of solution below the saturation pressure.
• This liberated gas below the saturation pressure cause a clear change in
the Pressure − Volume (P − V) relationship trends below & above the
saturation pressure.
200
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• In the lab, a hydrocarbon fluid sample (oil or gas) is placed in a visual PVT
cell @ the reservoir temperature (constant temperature test).
• Then pressurize the sample @ a pressure more than the initial reservoir
pressure which is always above the bubble point pressure (Pb).
P1 >> Pb P2 > Pb P3 = Pb P4 < Pb P5 < P4 < Pb
• Pressure is reduced in steps by
removing mercury from the cell.
V1 = Vb
V1 V2
• Change in the total hydrocarbon V4
V5
volume (Vt) is measured for each
pressure reduction.
• @ each pressure step, calculate Hg Hg Hg
Hg
the relative volume (Vrel.) which is Hg
defined as the ratio between the
total sample volume (Vt) @ any
pressure to that @ the saturation Vt
pressure (Vsat.). Vrel. =
• Relative volume (Vrel.) @ the saturation pressure = (1).
Vsat.
201

• Plot the measured relative volumes vs. the applied pressure @ each
step to construct the pressure−volume (P−V) relationship.
• Saturation pressure (Psat.) & saturation volume (Vsat.) are estimated @
the intercept point between the two different trends directly below &
above the saturation pressure.
• Above the saturation pressure,
Relative volume − Pressure relationship
the change in volume is due to 4
liquid compressibility which is 3.5

@ Saturation Pressure:
− Change in slope of pressure
nearly constant. 3
vs. volume curve occurs.
Relative volume
2.5
• Once a gas phase forms @ the 2
− Vrel = 1
saturation pressure, there will be 1.5
an obvious change in the slope 1
due to high gas compressibility 0.5
compared to liquid. 0
2620
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Pressure, psi
202
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4− Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) Test

• Differential Liberation Expansion (DLE) or vaporization test is conducted to
simulate & study the behavior of the oil & the liberated gas comes out
from the oil in the reservoir BELOW the saturation pressure @ a
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE (almost reservoir temperature) .
• Differential liberation test is started @ the bubble point pressure
because above the bubble point pressure there is no free gas liberated
from the oil.
• Test starts by measuring the oil volume @ the bubble point pressure
then the sample is allowed to expand by reducing the pressure starting
from the bubble point pressure to any desired lower pressure.
• As the pressure reduced below bubble point pressure, two phases will
occur in the oil cell as the gas in solution will liberates from the liquid.
• The solution gas liberated from the oil sample & accumulated above the
oil in the oil cell @ each step of pressure decrease is continuously
removed from contact with the oil by means of the hydraulic pump
connected to the PVT cell.
203

• By this way @ each pressure reduction
step, gas that was still in solution &
not liberated yet from the previous
pressure step will find a chance to
liberated & come out of solution then
accumulated on top of the oil until there
is no more gas comes out of solution
@ this pressure step.
Gas Gas
P1 = Psat P2 < Psat P2 < Psat P3 < P2 P3 < P2
V1 = Vsat
• Then vent this liberated Oil Gas

Oil
Gas Oil
V3
V2
gas again & so on for

V3 < V2 < Vsat
some pressure reduction

V2 < Vsat
Oil Oil
steps until venting all the
existing gas in solution
from the oil in the cell.
Hg Hg Hg Hg Hg
204
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For each pressure step we determine the following:
► Vg (ft3): liberated gas volume @ each pressure (P) step & test temperature (T).
► Vgsc (scf): liberated gas volume after expanding to standard conditions.
► F → cumulative relative volume of the liberated gas measured @ standard conditions.
► E → Gas expansion factor = Vgsc (scf) / Vg (ft3) @ any pressure step & temperature
during the test (Bg = 1/E).
► Z → Gas deviation factor = 35.37 P/(ET) ………..….. (for equation of state, E.O.S).
► Vo (res. bbl): oil volume measured @ each pressure stage after venting the gas.
► Vorel. → relative oil volume (res. bbl/bbl @ B.P): oil volume measured @ each
pressure step after venting the gas to the original oil volume @ (Pb) pressure.
► bo → oil formation volume factor (res. bbl/STB): oil volume measured @ each pressure
step after venting the gas to oil volume @ the last pressure step (atmospheric).
► Rs → gas in solution (scf/STB): remaining gas volume in solution @ each pressure

step to oil volume in the cell @ the same pressure = (F(scf) – Vgsc(scf)) / Vo(res. bbl).
205

• Plotting reported properties (b o, b o , Rs, viscosity & density) as a
function of PRESSURE in order to ensure the observed trends are as
expected below & above bubble point pressure.
206
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5− Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST)

• Multi stages separator test is conducted to:
− Provide the essential laboratory information (volume, COR & specific
gravities of both liberated GAS & LIQUID) necessary to determine the
appropriate number & the optimum surface separation conditions
for the surface separators in the multi separation system.
− Maximize the stock-tank oil production & recovery by keeping the light
hydrocarbons in the liquid phase.
• To conduct the test, a sample of reservoir liquid is placed in the laboratory
cell & brought to reservoir temperature & bubble point pressure.
• Then it is subjected to a sequence of flash liberation separation stages
@ DIFFERENT CONDITIONS of pressure & temperature.
207
5− Multi Stages Separator Test (MSST)

• @ each stage, there will be separated liquid & separated gases as a result
of the pressure & temperature reduction @ each stage.
• LIQUID expelled from the cell @ any flash stage is then flashed either to
be the feed for the next flash separation stage @ different separation
conditions of pressure & temperature OR is directly flashed to the
stock tank conditions. V 1 V V 2 STO
• @ each separation stage Vapor Vapor STO

measure volumes, specific Gas
Liquid
L1 Gas
Liquid L2 Gas LSTO
Oil Oil
gravities & compositions Stage#1 Stage#2 Oil
of both separator GAS & Well stream
remaining LIQUID. Saturated volume

or Reservoir (Lsat)
Gas
Gas
Gas
Oil Oil Oil Oil
208
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6− Oil Viscosity Test

• Viscosity is an important physical property that controls flow of oil
through porous media & through pipes (higher viscosity values
correspond to lower flow rates).
• Oil viscosity (mo) test is conducted to measure the internal resistance of
oil to flow under certain conditions of pressures & temperatures (oil
viscosity decreases as temperature increases).
• This is the Viscometer used to measure oil viscosity
in the lab (viscosity is measured in centipoise, cp).
• There are two ways to expresses viscosity:
1. Absolute viscosity: viscosity is measured by
observing the fluid resistance to flow under
applied external controlled force.
2. Kinematic Viscosity: viscosity is measured by
observing the fluid resistance to flow under the
force of gravity.
• Absolute viscosity divided by fluid density give the kinematic viscosity.
209

• This is the typical performance of the oil viscosity (mo) with pressures
above & below the bubble point pressure (Pb).
• Minimum oil viscosity (mob) is that @ bubble point pressure (Pb) NEITHER
the initial oil viscosity (moi) NOR below the bubble point pressure (Pb), WHY?
1.1 Under-saturated
Saturated
mod
0.9
mo, cp
Pb = 4200
0.7
moi
0.5 mob
0.3
0 2000 4000 6000
Pressure, psig
210
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• In addition to that when the lab measurements are not available, there
are some correlations that are widely applied to calculate oil viscosities.
𝛍𝐨 = 𝛍𝐨𝐛 + 0.001(𝐏 − 𝐏𝐛 )(0.024μ1.6 0.56

ob + 038 μob )
𝐀
𝛍𝐨𝐝 = 3.141 ∗ 1010 ∗ 𝐓 −3.444
∗ Log 𝐀𝐏𝐈
𝐀= 10.313 ∗ Log 𝐓 − 36.447
• (mo) oil viscosity @ any given pressure (P).
• (mob) oil viscosity @ the bubble point pressure (Pb).
• (mod) dead oil viscosity @ the atmospheric pressure (Pa) when all
gases were liberated out of solution.
211
Gas Viscosity Measurements

• Unlike oil, gases viscosity increases as temperature increases.
• This is due to the increase in the frequency of the gas intermolecular

collisions @ higher temperatures.
• Experimentally, direct measurement of gas viscosity (mg) in the lab is

difficult since it requires a very sensitive sensors.
 (m )
• Instead, if gas composition & the viscosities of i =n
gas components are known, the mixing rule gi yi MWi
can be used to determine gas viscosity. mg = i =1
 (y )
i =n
• Also, there are some correlations based on i MWi
different gas properties are commonly used to i =1
estimate gas viscosity.
A
μg = A1 ∗ 10−4 exp A2 ρg 3
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7− Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) Test

• Constant Volume Depletion (CVD) test is conducted to simulate the
performance of the retrograde gas condensate reservoir depletion to
determine the compositional variation & the maximum condensates
dropped out from the gas when the reservoir pressure reaches below
the saturation pressure.
• This condensate dropped out from gas inside the reservoir would be
lost forever & may block the gas to flow.
• Generally, CVD test is a successive of volume measurements @
pressures below the dew-point pressure (Pd).
Gas
• Let’s see the steps of the test. Pd P P
• Step#1: a known reference volume (Vi) T T T

of a gas is charged into a visual PVT Gas
Vi
V2 > Vi
Vi Gas
cell @ the dew-point pressure (Pd). Gas
Condensate
Condensate
1 2 3
213
Constant Volume Depletion Test (CVD)

• The initial gas compressibility factor (Z)
is calculated from the real gas equation. 𝑍𝑑 = 𝑃𝑑 𝑉𝑖 / 𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑇
• Step#2: reduce pressure from (Pd) to a pre-determined pressure level
(P) by withdrawing mercury from the PVT cell.
• During this process, a retrograde condensate liquid phase is formed @
the bottom of the cell.
• Both gas volume (Vg) & the dropped out retrograde liquid volume (VL) are
visually measured.
• This retrograde volume (VL) is reported Gas
as a percentage of the initial gas Pd P P
volume (Vi) which basically represents T T T

the retrograde liquid saturation (SL)
Gas
during the depletion of a retrograde gas Vi
V2 > Vi
Vi Gas
Gas
reservoir. Condensate
VL
SL = Condensate
Vi
1 2 3
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• Step#3: reset the cell volume to the initial volume (Vi) by mercury re-
injection into the PVT cell @ a constant pressure (P).
• An equivalent volume of gas is simultaneously removed out from the
PVT cell until the total volume of both the separated (dropped-out)
liquid & the remaining gas in the cell equal to the initial volume (Vi).
Gas
Pd P P
T T T
Gas
Vi
V2 > Vi
Vi Gas
Gas
Condensate
Condensate
1 2 3
215

• This procedure is repeated several times with pressures reduction until
the minimum test pressure available is reached.
• Due to retrograde gas condensate behavior, some volume of the dropout
condensate will vaporize again to gas phase @ specific pressure step.
• This point is called the maximum liquid dropout or maximum yield %.
• For production operations, usually the objective is to maintain a
pressure that able to achieve maximum liquid dropout.
Gas
Gas Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas Gas
Gas Gas
Gas Gas Gas
Gas Gas
Oil
3500 700
Saturation
psia psia
pressure
4905 4600 2000
4968
psia psia psia
psia
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• The quantities & compositions of the gas & the retrograde liquid
remaining in the cell are determined @ each pressure step.
• Then calculate liquid saturation (SL = VL / Vi) @ each pressure step.
• Finally plot these calculate liquid saturations (SL = VL / Vi) vs. pressures
to determine the maximum condensate dropout or maximum yield %.
Retrograde Liquid Volume 40
Pressure, psig % of initial volume T = constant
35
SL =VL/Vi
4968
Retrograde Liquid Volume

0 30
Dew-point pressure
% of initial volume
4905 19.3 25
SL =VL/Vi
4800 25 Maximum liquid
20
4600 29.9 dropout or
4300 33.1 15 Maximum Yield %
3500
34.4
Maximum liquid dropout 10
2800 34.1
5
2000 32.5
1300 30.2 0
700 27.3 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
0 21.8 Pressure, psig
217
Advanced PVT Analysis

− Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) tests.
1. Swelling test.
2. Slim Tube test.
3. Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) test.
4. Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) test.
− Scale Deposition tests
1. Asphaltene formation test.
2. Waxes & paraffin’s formation test.
3. Hydrates formation test.
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Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP)

• Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) is the minimum pressure @ which
the injected gas & the contacted oil become miscible with each other @
constant temperature & composition.
• Graphically, it is defined as the pressure @ which the oil recovery vs.

pressure curve shows a sharp change in slope (the inflection point).
• The interfacial tension is zero & there is no interface exists between

the fluids @ the Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP).
• Miscible displacement can be achieved when the gas is injected @ a

pressure higher than the Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP).
• Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Concentration

(MMC) are essential parameters for designing the miscible EOR
projects since they determine the mode of the displacement (miscible
or immiscible) during the gas injection process.
219
Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP)

• Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) can be affected by:
− Reservoir temperature (MMP increases as the reservoir temperature).
− Compositions of the displaced oil & the injected gas.
− Oil molecular weight & API gravity.
• Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) can be obtained from:

− Slim Tube Test method.
− Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT).
− Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA).
− Models.
− Empirical correlations.
220
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1− Swelling Test
• Oil swelling effect is the expansion in oil volume that can occur when a
solvent contacts a reservoir fluid.
• The swelling is due to the complete or partial dissolution of the solvent
molecules into the reservoir fluid.
• The amount of swelling is dependent on the pressure, temperature,
composition & the physical properties of solvent & reservoir fluid.
• Reservoir oil swelling can result in improved oil recovery by mobilizing
residual oil trapped in inaccessible pore spaces.
Before swelling After swelling
221
1− Swelling Test
Steps to perform the sweeling test in the lab:
• The swelling test is used to estimate the miscibility effects of the given
injection fluid with the reservoir fluid & to determine the first contact
Minimum Miscible Pressure (MMP).
• The swelling test consists of several gas injections to create different
fluid mixtures then followed by Constant Composition Expansion (CCE)
experiments (it is typical to perform five fluid mixtures).
• In the lab, a known volume of reservoir fluid is charged to a high-
pressure PVT cell & heated to reservoir temperature.
• A Constant Composition Expansion (CCE) is performed by pressure
reduction to determine the saturation pressure, relative volume, liquid
density & liquid shrinkage data.
• The pressure is reduced until the sample volume has been expanded to @
least two times the original volume @ the saturation pressure.
222
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1− Swelling Test
Steps to perform the sweeling test in the lab:
• Then, a predetermined volume of injection gas is added to the reservoir
fluid & the sample agitated until single-phase equilibrium is achieved &
both injected gas & the reservoir fluid inside the testing cell are mixed.
• The total sample volume is measured & the increase in sample volume
due to this added volume of the injected gas is determined.
• Pressurize the new mixture to some pressure above the saturation
pressure.
• The new sample is subjected to another CCE experiment, as described
above & the saturation pressure & liquid shrinkage are re-measured.
• Record the saturation pressure & the relative injection gas moles
fraction (the fraction of injected gas with respect to the entire number of
moles in the mixture).
• Repeat the above steps by adding another volume of the injection gas to
the reservoir fluid (it is typical to perform five fluid mixtures).
223
1− Swelling Test
• Once the swell test data is found, the Minimum Miscible Pressure (MMP)
by first contact is determined by the largest value of the swell test data.
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2− Slim Tube Test

• Slim tube test has been used since early 1950’s in order to estimate the
Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Concentration
(MMC) & composition during the gas injection process.
• It is very useful tool for a fast screening of a reservoir for various types of
gas injection.
• Slim tube is typically made of Packed Coiled Tube
long stainless-steel tube (20 ft
Injection gas
or longer) with a relatively small
diameter (< 0.25 inches) which Oil
is packed with sand or marbles.
Injection pump
• Slim-tube technique requires
about 4 – 6 weeks for obtaining Sight glass
Separator
the Minimum Miscibility Pressure
(MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Back pressure
pump (regulator)
Gas
Concentration (MMC). Gas meter
Chromatograph
Collection
cylinder
225
2− Slim Tube Test

• This tube is saturated with reservoir oil & is pressured up to the
anticipated pressure level of the miscible flood scheme.
• The reservoir oil is then displaced, @ a regulated pressure, with the
fluid proposed for the miscible flood.
• Volumes of produced fluids are recorded as functions of the number of

pore volumes of fluid injected.
• Gas is injected into the tube @ some constant pressure (for example
1000 psi) and @ each amount of gas injected, measure the oil
recovered from the other side from the tube until NO oil is recovered from
the tube.
• Repeat the previous step @ different injection pressures (2000, 3000,
4000, 5000 psi …etc.) & every time continue with the same pressure till
have no oil recovered from the tube.
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2− Slim Tube Test

Recoveries @ the
• Then plot the cumulative oil recovery breakthrough
5000 psi
Recovery Factor, % Pore Volume

versus pore volume of gas injected @ 4000 psi
each pressure step as shown in the 3000 psi

2000 psi
following plot. 1000 psi
• Finally, plot the injection pressure points

@ no oil recovered (usually recovery
after injection of 1.2 pore volume of
gas) versus the oil recovered for each
Pore volume of gas injected (% of P.V.)
pressure step.
Recovery Factor, % Pore Volume

• The plotted data will give two trends of
points. The intersection point between
the two trends lines is the Minimum
Miscible Pressure (MMP) value that is
required for the injection process.
Minimum Miscible
• Above this MMP, any additional Pressure (MMP)
recovery is generally minimal.

Inj. Pres. @ no recovery point for each step
227
3− Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) Test

• Slim-tube technique requires about 4 – 6 weeks for obtaining the
(MMC), so it was necessary to find a faster way to determine this data.
• Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) is a new technique that is used to
enable rapid (about 1 – 3 days) & cost-effective determination of the
(MMC) & composition.
• The new (VIT) technique is based on the concept that the interfacial
tension between the gas & crude oil phases @ reservoir temperature
must vanish & reduce to zero as these two phases approach the point
of miscibility & become miscible with each other.
• This new (VIT) technique, consists of measuring the interfacial tension
between the injected gas & the crude oil @ the reservoir temperature
& @ varying pressures and/or enrichment levels of the injected gas.
• Then extrapolating the data to zero-interfacial tension which is
corresponding to the value of the Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP).
228
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3− Vanishing Interfacial Tension (VIT) Test

• By plotting the interfacial tension against the independent variable
(either pressure or enrichment), accurate values for the Minimum
Miscibility Pressure (MMP) & Minimum Miscibility Concentration (MMC)
are then obtained by extrapolation to zero interfacial tension.
229
4− Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) Test

• Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) is a laboratory device that is used to
indicate miscibility between reservoir oil & the injection gas.
• This is a typical Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) device.
• The major part of the Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) device is a flat
glass tube stands vertically in a high pressure sight gauge in a
temperature controlled bath.
Sight gauge
Flat glass tube
Hollow needle
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• In this lab, the first step of the test to fill the sight gauge & the flat glass
tube with distilled water.
• Then, enough oil is injected into the glass tube to displace most of the
water & only to keep a short column of water in the tube’s lower end.
• Next, a bubble of gas with the desired composition is injected into the
glass tube oil-filled visual cell @ given temperature & test pressure
through a hollow needle mounted @ the bottom of the sight gauge.
Sight gauge
Flat glass tube
Hollow needle
231

• The buoyant force on the gas bubble caused it to rise through the
column of water then through the water-oil interface.
• As the bubble rises through the oil, its shape & motion are observed &
photographed.
• The change in shape of the rising bubble indicates its miscibility with
the oil @ those conditions.
• Testing @ several pressures helps determine the Minimum Miscibility
Pressure (MMP) between gas & oil.
• After that, the bubble rises through the oil, then the used oil is replaced
with fresh oil & the test run again @ different pressure or with different
injection gas composition.
• During the rising of the bubble through the oil @ each height, it faces
fresh oil then the gas bubble enriched with intermediate components
as rise through the column.
232
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• @ pressure FAR BELOW MMP, the bubble
retains & holds its almost spherical shape
as it rises, but its size is reduced as the gas
is partially dissolved in the oil.
• As the pressure approaches MMP, a bubble
still remains nearly spherical on top, but the
bottom interface of the bubble changes from
spherical to flat or “wavy”.
• @ or SLIGHTLY ABOVE MMP, bubble
shape changes as it rises where a tail-like
features quickly developed on the bottom of
a rising bubble, which remain spherical on
top (it may disintegrate, dissolve or
disappear into the oil).
• @ pressure HIGHER than MMP, the bubble
disperses very rapidly & disappears into
the oil.
233

• This is a typical Rising Bubble Apparatus (RBA) test results.
Average bubble rising velocity (cm/s)
Line (I): V = 3.4663 – 0.1636 P (R2 = 0.964)

Line (II): V = 3.6136 – 0.5607 P (R2 = 0.999)
II
MMP = 15.5 MPa
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Scale Deposition
• Before discussing the Asphaltene formation test, Waxes & paraffin’s
formation test & Hydrates formation test let's know first what is the scale?
• Scale is the most serious problem in the oil industry refereeing to the solid
deposits that grow over time, blocking and affecting wells productivity
& hindering fluid flow through pipelines, valves, pumps etc.
• Scale can be found in reservoir, tubing & production facilities and can
coat perforations, production tubing/casing, pumps, valves and
downhole completion equipment.
• If scales are not inhibited or removed it could limit production & would
lead to well abandonment and pipeline blockage.
235
Scale Deposition
• The implemented treatments are:
− Chemical treatment: this is for soft type scale by using acid or scale
treatment chemicals.
− Mechanical treatment: this is used if the chemical treatment failed to

remove the scale or when it is beyond the capabilities of the chemical
treatment. mechanical treatment is done by milling & jetting
techniques.
− Scale inhibition: it is recommended prior to water injection if

predicted earlier otherwise scale inhibition is used after remediation
to prevent further scaling.
• Several commercial models are available for scale prediction &

prevention.
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1− Asphaltene Formation Test

• Asphaltenes are a class of crude oil
components with large molecular
weight with a complex structure.
• It is black & is usually caused by
changes in pressure & temperature.
• Once it is formed, it will cause a serious
problem for flow & even may block the
pipelines, reducing operational
efficiency & even continuity of
operations in extreme situations.
• Understanding chemistry involved in the
asphaltenes deposition & predicting
the asphaltenes deposition tendency
are critical to develop effective
asphaltenes remediation technologies
in oil & gas recovery processes.
237

• Asphaltenes Onset Pressure (AOP) is the pressure @ which the
asphaltenes will begin to separate from the crude oil & comes out of
solution @ a given temperature.
• Several methods are available to measure this Asphaltenes Onset
Pressure (AOP) such as Gravimetric method, Optical microscopy,
Density measurement, Light scattering method & Refractive index.
• Asphaltenes Formation Test (AFT) or Asphaltene Dispersant Test (ADT)
method was Introduced by M. Manek in 1995 to:
− Simulate & evaluate the tendency of Asphaltene to precipitate
during the production or no
− Evaluation of the chemical inhibitor efficiency in the static condition
using a class of chemical additives to control asphaltene deposition
by finding an optimum concentration of inhibitor with high efficiency.
• The test procedure consists of two steps, step-A (blank test) to
determine how much crude is required to use in step-B (screening test).
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• Step-A (blank test):
1. Collect 3 samples of crude oil (100, 200 & 300 μL) & add 12.5 mL of
n-heptane to each sample then place them in the centrifuge.
2. The centrifuge tubes were shaken for 2 minutes to agitate the
asphaltene stability.
3. Record the volume % of the asphaltene deposit.
• Choose the crude oil dose which gives from 4 to 10% sedimentation to
be used in step-B (screening test).
239

• After that, the asphaltene dispersant is used to determine the optimum
dosage rate.
• The optimum dosage rate should not be too low to prevent asphaltene
formation & not too high for cost wise.
• The asphaltene dispersant is done by

adding different asphaltene dispersant
dosage to the tubes with the following
concentrations (50,100, 200, 300 & 500).
• Shake well & wait 1 hr.
• The amount of asphaltene reduction
measured & the efficiency of inhibitors in
each concentration is calculated.
• The dispersed% shall not be less than 98%.
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2− Waxes & Paraffins Formation Test

• Paraffin's are composed essentially
of high molecular weight, heavy
and viscous hydrocarbon solids
(C18+) with low melting point.
• Paraffin oil can be used to produce
paraffin-based products like grease.
• Wax & paraffin deposits are primarily temperature driven & also is a
function of the pressure and the fluid composition.
• When temperature of the crude oil drops during production, transportation
or storage, paraffin in the crude oil can precipitate & cause serious
problems including pipeline blockage, oil gelling, etc.
• Thus, it is important to measure the composition (amount & type) of
paraffin's in the crude oil, and to estimate the temperature @ which the
paraffin’s will occurs & crystallize (Wax Appearance Temperature, WAT).
241
2− Waxes & Paraffins Formation Test

• Wax viscosity drastically increases 10
with lowering temperature.

8
• Study of wax requires detailed

6
composition analysis up to (nC60)
m, cp
m, cp
or higher. 4
WAT
WAT
• The Isothermal depressurization 2
technique @ different temperatures
steps is used to define the wax 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
precipitation envelope Temperature, oCo
Temperature, C
• Wax can be treated or inhibited by one of the following methods:

1. Chemical: using deposition inhibitors as solvent.
2. Thermal: insulating or active heating of the flow lines (thermal soaking).
3. Mechanical: wax deposition is commonly managed by periodic pigging.
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3− Hydrates Formation Test

• In gas wells, when the gas comes out of the well with high pressures, it
expands & its pressure decreases.
• The pressure drop causes gas expansion & cooling when gas enters
the larger pipe diameter or through chokes according to the general law
of gases (PV = nRT).
• This phenomenon is known as Joule–Thomson effect.
• This pressure drop in turns
cause forming of an ice-like
substance known as hydrates.
• If there were significant
hydrate buildup inside the pipe,
the formed hydrates would not
allow for continuous flow &
even the flow would likely stop.
243

• Hydrates are crystalline solids consist
mainly of crystal cage of water (i.e.,
modified ice crystal structure).
• Each cage contains one natural gas
molecule as a guest.
• Hydrate (crystalline solid) in natural gas system is formed by chemical

combination of water & small molecules of the natural gas under
pressure @ temperature above the freezing point of the water.
• Generally, hydrates requires the following conditions to be formed:
− Water (gas, liquid or solid).
− Hydrate guest molecules such as gas.
− Simultaneous low temperature & high pressure.
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• Hydrates occurs in the wellbore, pipelines, chokes, manifolds, low
temperature gas plants and gas storage tanks.
• Hydrate causes partial or complete plugging of the natural gas system.
245

• Condition that inhibit hydrates formation are:
− High temperature & low pressure.
− No free water present slows the hydrate formation.
− Using the inhibitors such as:
► Thermodynamic Hydrates Inhibitors:
Methanol & Ethylene glycol affect phase equilibrium of water &
lower the hydrate formation temperature @ the given pressure
& help in dispersing hydrates once formed.
► Kinetic Hydrates Inhibitors (KHI):
Polymers delay nucleation of the hydrates crystal but generally,
polymers greatly slow down but do not stop the formation of
hydrate crystals.
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• In the lab, isobaric cooling using visual observation is used to determine:
‒ The hydrate formation decomposition temperatures.
‒ The hydrates formation conditions for the sample.
• In 1944, D. Katz presented a simple
Pressure for hydrate formation, psia

gas gravity chart that can be used to
predict the pressure @ which the
hydrates could be formed.
• This Katz chart relates the hydrate
pressure & temperature with the
specific gravity of natural gases (not
including non-hydrocarbons).
• Specific gravity of natural gases equal
to gas molecular weight divided by that Specific gravity
of natural gases
of air (≈ 29).
Temperature, Fo
247

• Accurate estimation & prediction of
the natural gas water content is an
essential & important parameter
for proper designing of:
o Gas production, processing &
dehydration facilities.
o Transportation facilities design.
• McKetta & Wehe published in 1953
a widely used chart in the industry to
determine the water content of a
SWEET natural gas @ a given
pressure & temperature.
• McKetta & Wehe chart is not
applicable for SOUR “ACIDIC”
gases & can’t be used to estimate
the hydrate.
248
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Silicate − Sandstone Carbonates − Limestone
Reservoir Rocks
Properties
249
Reservoir Rock
• Reservoir rock is a subsurface rock body with:
− Pockets of voids spaces within the rock called (POROSITY) that is
enough for hydrocarbon to settle.
− As well as channels that are connecting these pockets called
(PERMEABILITY) that is allowing hydrocarbons to freely move inside
the rock & flow out of the rock.
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Reservoir Rock
• These voids spaces between grains can be formed during or after
formation of the rock mainly as a result of ground water moving through
the rock that dissolve some of the cement sediment between the grains.
• SEDIMENTARY rocks are the most prevalent reservoir rocks because
they have higher porosity than most IGNEOUS & METAMORPHIC rocks
& occur @ temperature suitable for the preservation of hydrocarbons.
• Hydrocarbon from the SOURCE ROCK must travel into the reservoir
rock to form a reservoir.
251
Reservoir Rock
• Silicates or Siliclastic reservoir rocks (Sandstone) are characterized by
matrix porosity, which is the porosity between the grains making up the
rock structure.
• Carbonates reservoir rocks (Limestone - CaCo3) are different than
sandstone since they are usually made of fossils & can undergo many
stages of alteration or diagenesis that often gives them a secondary
porosity.
Sandstone (siliciclastics) reservoir Carbonates reservoir
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Reservoir Rock
• These are some Types of Rocks present in the reservoirs.
Silicates Carbonates Dolomite Shale

(Sandstone) (Limestone)
Clay Anhydrite Gypsum Salt
253
Reservoir Rock
• To form a commercial hydrocarbon reservoir, all geological formations
must exhibit two essential properties which are:
1- Reservoir rocks must be able to accumulate & store fluid inside it.
‒ This is known as the rock POROSITY an refers to rock STORATIVITY.
Porosity is the void space
between the rock grains structure
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Reservoir Rock
2- When producing the well, the reservoir fluid must be able to pass a
relatively long distance under a small potential pressure gradient
from reservoir pressure to bottom hole flowing pressure
‒ This is known as rock permeability & refers to rock transmissibility.
Permeability is the throat

connecting between the
adjacent voids spaces (pores)
255
Reservoir Rock
• So, in general, Porosity refers to the pore space that determine rock
STORATIVITY while Permeability refers to pore throat that transmit
fluids & determine rock TRANSMISSIBILITY.
Pore space that

determine the
rock porosity
(STORATIVITY)
Pore throat that transmit fluids

Rock
& control rock permeability
grains
(TRANSMISSIBILITY)
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Porosity (f)
• Porosity (f) of a rock is a measure of its capacity to store fluids in the
pores & refers to the non-solid voids spaces portion of the rock between
the rock grains that is filled with fluids.
• It is exactly same as that are in the sponge.
Sand
grain
Pore
space
Sand grain Pore space
257
Porosity (f)
• This picture shows one rock type
with different porosity values.
• Mathematically, porosity is the
ratio of the voids space pore
volume (Vp) that contain all the
fluids inside the rock to the bulk
volume (Vb) of the entire rock.
• Pore volume (Vp) = Bulk volume (Vb) – Matrix grain volume (Vma)
Vp Vb − Vma Vma
∅= = =1−
Vb Vb Vb
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Types of Porosity (f)

Porosity is classified based on the PORES SPACE CONNECTIVITY to:
• Absolut (Total) Porosity: It is the total Total pore volume (Vp )
pore spaces in the rock regardless if it is ∅𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 =
connected & contributing to the fluid Bulk rock volum (Vb )
flow or NO.
− Total porosity = connected pore
spaces + unconnected pore spaces.
• Effective Porosity: It is only the
interconnected pore spaces in a rock Effective porosity
25%
that are contributing to the fluid flow in Isolated or
a reservoir. noneffective
porosity
− Effective porosity is typically less 5%
than total porosity. Total porosity
30%
− Only effective porosity is of interest
Interconnected pore volume
since it is that can contribute to the ∅𝒆𝒇𝒇. =
flow in a reservoir (permeability). Bulk rock volum (Vb )
259

RHOC Dt
• Neutron (CNL) & Density (RHOC) CNL
porosity logs measure the absolut (total)
porosity while sonic (Dt) porosity log
measure the effective porosity.
• In this example, total porosity measured
by Neutron (CNL) log is 25% while the
effective porosity as indicated by the
sonic (Dt) log is only 9%.
25 9
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• In fact, connections between the pores represent rock permeability.
• So, a rock may be porous but non-permeable due to Non-connected
pore spaces OR may be a porous & permeable due to these connected
pore spaces.
Non-connected pore spaces Connected pore spaces

Porous & non-permeable Porous & permeable
261

Porosity is also classified based on the NATURE OF OCCURRENCE to:
• Primary (Original) Porosity: It is also called the
Intergranular or interparticle porosity which
are the voids spaces between rock grains that
were developed & formed during the deposition
of rock materials in the original sedimentation &
precipitation process of the rock.
− In this case the rock was created without any Clastic sandstone is an example
for the Primary (Original) Porosity
changes due to any external effects.
• Secondary (Induced) Porosity: It is referring to
any later changes developed with time after
the formation of the rock (i.e., on the existing
primary porosity) by any external effects such
as fractures, recrystallization, chemical reaction
by solutions encroachment that created vugs &
cavities…. etc. Carbonate is an example for the
Secondary (Induced) Porosity
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• It is important to differentiate between the secondary porosity that was
created by the Fractures & that was created by the Vugs.
Fractures Vugs
263
Saturations (Sw)
• This is a typical formation components where:
− Most of the reservoir rock is a matrix.
− The voids spaces available for store fluids is called porosity (f).
− These voids spaces is not completely available for the hydrocarbon
due to presence of the formationTypical
water (SwFormation
). Components
Oil
feff
Water
Matrix
SW = 60%
fEff. = 30%
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Saturations (Sw)
• So, fluid saturation (Sx) is defined as the
RATIO of pores spaces volume occupied
by this specific fluid (Vx) to the connected
(effective) pores spaces (Vp) in the rock.
Vx
Sx =
Vp
• Since not all the pore space is available
only for oil due to the presence of
formation water (Sw) & sometime free Fluids saturations
gas so, the saturation of each individual
phase range from > (0%) & < (100%).
• Sum of all fluids saturations in place So + Sg + Sw = 1
must equal to (1).
265
Saturations (Sw)
• Critical saturation refers to the minimum saturation @ which a phase
becomes mobile & start flowing inside the rock. It is called the initial
water saturation (Swi) for water or residual oil saturation (Sor) for oil.
• Irreducible (Swirr.) or connate (Swc) water saturation is the amount of water
adhering to the rock grains & cannot be moved or displaced from it.
Sor ≠ Swi
Swc < Swi
This is a typical connate water This is a typical residual oil

saturation in the reservoir rock saturation in the reservoir rock
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Saturations (Sw)
• Transition zone of a reservoir is the region between
So= 100%
depth when water saturation is 100% @ the base of
the reservoir (this is called Oil Water Contact “OWC”) &
another higher depth in the reservoir when water
saturation is @ its irreducible water saturation (Swirr.)
@ which movable oil saturation is 100%.
• This figure summarize the change in OIL SATURATION
(So) with depth inside the TRANSITION ZONE.
So= 0%
267
Compressibility
• Compressibility is defined as the proportional fractional change
(enlargement or reduction) in unit thickness or unit volume of a
material due to pressure change (Tension or Compressive loading).
Dp
Dp Dp
V2
V1
Dp
Before compression After compression

• It can be measured in the lab or determined from some correlations.
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Compressibility
• From the Stress−Strain relationship for any material, the Yield Strength
(psi) is defined as the maximum strain point before the deformation.
• Compressibility (C) is the reverse of the Yield Strength (psi-1).
Stress
PLASTIC
region
ELASTIC Fracture
region or
Yield Strength failure
Deformation
Stress Rise
Young Modulus = Slope = =
Strain Run
0 Strain
269
Compressibility
• Solids & Liquids are very less compressible & not easily compressed.
• Gasses are highly compressible (easily compressed) because their
molecules are widely spaced.
Solids & Liquids Gases

Not easily compressed Highly compressed
Molecules are closely spaced Molecules are widely spaced
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Rock Compressibility (Cf)

• Reservoir rocks consist of grains solids & pores spaces.
• Grains solids itself are NOT compressible

but only the pores spaces volume between
the grains is reduced when is subjected to
pressure.
Before compression After compression
• Pore volume compressibility plays an important role in the drive

mechanisms in some reservoirs (Depletion Drainage Drive Reservoirs).
271
Total Compressibility (Ct)

• In a reservoir which consists of rock & pore space occupied by oil, water,
& gas, Total compressibility (Ct) is defined as the SUM of pore volume
compressibility (Cf) & saturation weighted fluid compressibilities.
For Saturated reservoirs (P < Pb) where there is a FREE GAS:

Ct = Cf + CoSo + CwSw + CgSg
For Under-Saturated reservoirs (P > Pb) where there is NO FREE GAS:

Ct = Cf + CoSo + CwSw
• Gas compressibility (Cg) has a significant effect on the total

compressibility (Ct) value since gas compressibility (Cg) is too much high
compared to that of the other reservoir fluids compressibilities (Co) & (Cw).
• Thus, if there is any free gas present in the reservoir, the total
compressibility (Ct) is dominated by the gas compressibility (Cg).
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Permeability (k)
• Permeability (k) is a ROCK PROPERTY of the porous medium that refers
to ability of the reservoir rock to easily pass & transmit fluids through it
(the higher the permeability, the more rapidly fluids will flow through
pores).
• So, Permeability (k) is a rock characteristic independent of the flowing
liquids (NOT fluids).
273
Permeability (k)
• Permeability is a very important rock property because it controls the
DIRECTIONAL MOVEMENT & FLOW RATE of the reservoir fluid inside
the formation.
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Permeability (k)
• Sizes & distribution of the PORE THROAT that is connecting between
the pores are the main factor controls rock permeability (k).
• For a rock to be permeable, it must contain inter-connected pores.
Sand grain Pore space PORE THROAT
275
Permeability (k)
• These are the pores throats that control fluid flow through porous media.
• They are NOT all with equal sizes
(blue is larger than orange).
• Pores throats are randomly

distributed within the rock matrix
based on the conditions of the
initial deposition.
• Pores throat sizes & distribution

are the major factors controlling
rock matrix permeability.
• In general, movement of fluids within a rock depends more upon the

size of pores throats than on the size of pores.
• So, permeability depends on grains sizes as well as grains sorting.
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Permeability (k)
• For a rock to be permeable, it must contain inter-connected pores so,
rock permeability depends on the EFFECTIVE POROSITY.
• The higher the effective porosity, the higher the permeability.
No pore space Unconnected pore space Connected pore space
Non-porous Porous Porous &

Non-permeable Non-permeable Permeable
277
Permeability (k)
• Just remember that Porosity refers to the pore space that determine rock
STORATIVITY while Permeability refers to pore throat that transmit
fluids & determine rock TRANSMISSIBILITY.
Pore space that

determine the
rock porosity
(STORATIVITY)
Pore throat that transmit fluids

Rock
& control rock permeability
grains
(TRANSMISSIBILITY)
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Permeability (k)
Darcy work to measure rock permeability:
• This is exactly the permeameter device that Darcy used in his experiment
to conclude the equation that describe the fluid flow in porous media.
• Darcy placed a sand pack of length (L) and cross-sectional area (A) in
the device.
Constant water q P1
• Darcy used a liquid with known injection rate,
(cc/sec)
m
viscosity (m) to flow through it with
a constant rate (q) under pressure
varied from the upstream inlet
pressure (P1) to the downstream L h1
outlet pressure (P2).
A P2
• Note that Darcy used liquid not
gases since type of gas affecting
flow measurements and become h2
unstable. Water collection
& measurement
279
Permeability (k)
• Darcy measured the upstream inlet pressure (P1) = fluid density * g * h1
• This upstream inlet pressure (P1) in the reservoir is the current static
reservoir pressure (Pi).
• Then Darcy measured the Constant water q P1
downstream outlet pressure (P2) injection rate,
(cc/sec)
m
= fluid density * g * h2
• This downstream outlet pressure
(P2) in the reservoir is the bottom L
hole flowing pressure (Pwf). h1
A P2
h2
Water collection
& measurement
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Permeability (k)
• Finally, fluid flow rate (q) was determined by measuring the accumulated
volume in the tank in certain time.
• For example, If a 0.5 liters was collected in 30 minutes, this mean that
the daily flow rate equal to:
Constant water q P1
0.5 liter * (60/30) hr = 1 liter/hr injection rate,
(cc/sec)
m
= 1 liter/hr * 24 hr/day = 24 liter/day
= 24 liter/day * 158.9 bbl/liter
= 3815 bbl/day. L h1
A P2
h2
Water collection
& measurement
281
Permeability (k)
• Darcy changed these parameters (A, L, m, P1) several times by using:
1. Cores with different lengths (L) with keeping
the other parameters (A, m, P1) unchanged. P1
P2
2. Cores with different cross-sectional areas
(A) with keeping the other parameters (L, m,
P1) unchanged.
3. Different flowing fluid types with different
viscosities (m) with keeping the other q
A
parameters (A, L, P1) unchanged. m
4. Different applied upstream inlet pressures L
(P1) with keeping the other parameters (A,
L, m) unchanged.
• Every time, he monitored fluid flow rate (q) accumulated in the tank & the
corresponding downstream pressures (P2).
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Permeability (k)
• Darcy observed that flow rate (q) accumulated in the tank increases if:
► Pressure difference (DP) between upstream (P1) & downstream
pressures (P2) increased.
► Core cross sectional area (A) increased.
► Core length (L) decreased.
► Flowing fluid viscosity (m) decreased.
• So, Darcy concluded that flow rate (q) & corresponding flow velocity is:
► Proportional to:
‒ Core cross sectional area (A).
‒ Pressure difference (DP) between upstream (P1) & downstream
(P2) pressures (DP = P2 – P1).
► Inversely proportional to:
‒ Core length (L).
‒ Viscosity (m) of the flowing fluid.
283
Permeability (k)
• Darcy then formulated these observations in this form:
AΔP
Qx α
μx L
• In order to convert this relationship from the proportional form to an
equation, he adjusted the units of both right-hand & left-hand sides of
the relationship.
• To do that, Darcy introduced the proportional constant (Empirical
coefficient) which is the absolute permeability (k) that has the unit of
area (L2).
𝐤AΔP
Qx =
μx L
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Permeability (k)
• Note that, Flow rate (q) in Darcy equation is called the apparent flow rate
because the entire cross section area (A) is not available for flow due to
porosity (only porous paths are available for flow but not the matrix).
• Unit of permeability (k) is Darcy & its dimension is area dimension (L2).
Force F (
ML / T 2 )
M
Q m L  L3 M 1 LT 2  P= = =
Unit area A L2
=
LT 2
kx = x x →  . .L. 2 . 
ADP  T LT L M  m=
shear stress
=
F/A
=
( )
ML / T 2 / L2
=
M
rate of shear strain V / L (L / T ) / L LT
1 Darcy = 0.987 * 10–8 cm2
• But using of Darcy as a measuring unit for the permeability is usually too
large so to be convenient in reservoirs the millidarcy (10-3 Darcy) is
therefore more commonly used.
285
Permeability (k)
• A rock has a permeability of (1 Darcy) if a liquid with (1 Cp) viscosity
flowing with rate of (1 cm3/s) through a core with (1 cm) length & (1 cm2)
cross-section area with a pressure drop of (1 atm/cm).
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Permeability (k)
Klinkenberg effect or gas slippage effect:
• Darcy used liquids in his experiment to measure rock permeability.
• But gases can be also used in order to measure rock permeability in the
lab specially for the tight rocks (low permeability) since it is easier for
gases to flow through it more than liquids.
• This is because liquids require longer time & higher pressure to flow
through a tight rock (liquid mobility is much lower than that of the gas).
• But we must know that type of gas affecting flow measurements and
become unstable.
• Gases normally used to measure permeability in the lab is Helium or
Nitrogen (use of air may cause unstable materials in the core to
oxidize).
• That is why in the core report there is what is called Helium permeability
& what is called Liquid permeability.
287
Permeability (k)
• In the lab, gas is the fluid generally used because:
− Flow rate stabilized quickly due to the low gas viscosity.
− Some liquids interact with the rock matrix.
− 100% saturation of a dry core with a gas is readily obtained.
• The resulting flow is converted to values relevant to common gas
permeability (kg).
• Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that the permeability of a core sample
measured by flowing gases is always GREATER than the permeability
obtained when a liquid is the flowing fluid.
• This is because for gases @ low pressures, there is a slippage between
the gas molecules and the grains surfaces while liquids have a zero
velocity @ the sand grain surface.
• This is because gas does not adhere to the pore walls as liquid does.
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Permeability (k)
• From the other hand @ low pressures, the mean free path of the gas
molecule (which is a function of its molecular size & kinetic energy) is
relatively large compared to the pore opening sizes.
• As the pressure increases & gas becomes more compressed so the
mean free path of the gas molecules approach those of the liquid.
• This means that @ low pressures; gas has a higher permeability than
@ higher pressure.
• This slippage in case of gases lead to an apparent higher flow rate,
hence an increase in the measured permeability value than the real
permeability.
• This is called the Klinkenberg effect or gas slippage effect.
• This mean that the permeability measured by gases in the lab (kg) is
often unrealistic & it should be corrected to the real rock liquid
permeability before being used.
289
Permeability (k)
• In order to correlate between the permeability measured by gases & that
is measured by liquids, Klinkenberg introduced a new definition known
as mean pressure (Pm).
• Mean pressure (Pm) is defined as the upstream flowing pressure (P1) plus
downstream flowing pressure (P2) divided by (2).
𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑃𝑚 =
2
• Klinkenberg also found that for a given porous medium, as the mean
pressure (Pm) increases, i.e., (1/Pm) decreases, the calculated
permeability decreases.
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Permeability (k)
• Klinkenberg concluded that if the measured permeabilities by gas (kg)
are plotted vs. (1/Pm) values then extrapolated a best fit straight line to a
permeability point where (1/Pm= 0) that is in turns mean that the mean
pressure goes to infinity (Pm = ∞).
• This extrapolated permeability is

referred to as (kinfinity) & then it is
called “Klinkenberg” permeability (kK).
• This “Klinkenberg” permeability (kK)

would be approximately equal to the
liquid permeability (kL) or the
absolute permeability.
291
Permeability (k)
• The resulting straight-line relationship can be expressed as:
𝐶
Permeability
𝑘𝑔 = 𝑘𝐿 + kg
𝑃𝑚
C
kg : measured gas permeability.
kL : equivalent liquid permeability or the
Klinkenberg infinity permeability, i.e., kL
absolute permeability (k).
Pm : mean pressure (P1 + P2)/2.
C : slope of the best fit straight line which 1/Pm
is a function of the influence of the Klinkenberg method to determine the
pore size and the mean free path. absolute permeability using the gas
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Permeability (k)
• Klinkenberg effect is function of the gas type that is used to measure
the permeability of a core sample because the mean free path of the gas
is a function of its molecular size & the kinetic energy.
• This was clear from Klinkenberg's

experiments using three different
gases of varying molecular sizes
(Hydrogen, Nitrogen & Carbon
dioxide).
• In the lab, permeability is
measured by passing inert gas
(Helium or Nitrogen) through the
sample.
293
Permeability (k)
Permeability Classification:
• Permeability can be classified based on the number of fluids flowing at
the same time inside the rock to:
1. Absolute Permeability.
2. Effective Permeability.
3. Relative Permeability.
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Permeability (k)
1- Absolute Permeability:
• It is the permeability of a porous medium
when ONLY ONE FLUID present, i.e., the
porous medium is fully saturated only
with one fluid (only single-phase flow).
• By another words, absolute permeability
is the permeability when the rock is 100%
FULLY saturated with a single fluid.
• Absolute permeability is a specific
property of the rock since it is not
affected by type of the liquid (NOT
fluids) flowing inside the rock.
• So, for all liquids when any liquid flows
alone inside the rock, the absolute
permeability of this rock is constant.
• It is labeled as (k) or (kabs).
295
Permeability (k)
2- Effective Permeability:
• It is the ability of a rock to flow or
transmit a particular fluid when more
than one immiscible fluids flowing
simultaneously inside the rock (two or
three phases flow).
• By another words, it is the permeability
when the rock is PARTIALLY saturated
(NOT 100%) with a single fluid.
• Any fluid will not start to move inside
the rock except when its saturation
reaches to a specific value that is
called CRITICAL SATURATION @
which the rock will develop an effective
permeability to this fluid to start flowing.
• It is labeled as (keff−o, keff−w, keff−g)
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Permeability (k)
• Generally, effective permeability (keff) to any fluid is a function of its
saturation inside the rock, effective permeability (keff.x) to a specific fluid
increase when its saturation (Sx) increase,
• Since there are more than one immiscible fluid flowing simultaneously
with each others inside the rock while the saturation of any fluid in the pore
space is < 100%, so the effect of different fluids flow on the rock
permeability appears.
• In this case one of the fluid trying to affect & interfere the movement of
the other fluids inside the rock but will never affect the overall ability of
the rock to transmit fluids through it.
• By definition, Effective permeability < Absolute permeability.
0 < keff < kabs
297
Permeability (k)
• When there are two immiscible fluids (such as oil & water) flowing
simultaneously together inside the reservoir, then the total flow (Qt) is
given by:
k eff−o AΔP k eff−w AΔP

𝐐𝐭 = 𝐐 𝐨 + 𝐐𝐰 𝐐𝐭 = +
μo L μw L
• Note that, in this equation, we used the effective permeability (keff) & the
mobility (m) for each phase.
• That is why the permeability obtained from the pressure transient
analysis (PTA) is the effective permeability to the phase that we used
its viscosity as an input @ the beginning of the analysis.
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Permeability (k)
3- Relative Permeability:
• It is a ratio of the effective permeability (keff) of k eff
the rock to a specific fluid to the absolute kr =
permeability (kabs) of the rock. k abs
• It is labeled as (kro, krg, krw).
Effective permeability to OIL keff−o

kro = =
kabs kabs
Effective permeability to GAS keff−g

krg = =
kabs kabs
Effective permeability to WATER keff−w

krw = =
kabs kabs
299
Permeability (k)
• Since Effective permeability < Absolute permeability (0 < keff < kabs).
• Relative permeability (kr) to any phase in the presence of the other phases
ranges from more than (0) for (0 < keff) of this phase to less than (1) for
(keff < kabs) of this phase.
• So as K
a rw = K@Sw / Kabs
summary:
− (kr = 0) @ 0% saturation of any phase.

Krw = K@Sw / Kabs
− (kr > 0) @ saturation > 0% of this phase.
− (kr < 1) @ saturation < 100% of this phase.
− (kr = 1) @ 100% saturation of this phase.
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Permeability (k)
• In case of there are more than one phase flowing @ the same time inside
the rock, the sum of the relative permeabilities values for all the phases is
always LESS THAN (1).
• This means that → kro + krw + krg < 1
• While we know that (So + Sw + + Sg = 1).
• So, what is the reason for this inconsistency?
• This is because the coexisting different

immiscible fluids simultaneously moving
inside the rock @ the same time will cause
the phases interfere each others.
301
Permeability (k)
• Relative permeability data is plotted vs. water saturation (Sw) data that
result-in a unique plot known as a relative permeability curve.
• Can you identify what is happening @
points A, B, C, D & E? Water Oil
NOT Oil & Water
NOT
flow flow together
flow
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Permeability (k)
• @ any water saturations lower than the initial (critical) water saturation
(Swi) or equal to the irreducible (connate) water saturation (Swirr), then:
• Relative permeability of water is zero
(there is no free or mobile water) @ Water Oil
NOT Oil & Water
point-B. NOT
flow flow together
flow
• @ this point, only oil is moving inside
the reservoir & relative permeability to
oil is the maximum @ point-A).
• As water saturation increases, relative
permeability of oil gradually decreases
until becomes zero @ the residual oil
saturation (Sor) @ point-D.
• @ this point, only water move inside
the reservoir & relative permeability to
water is the maximum @ point-E.
303
Permeability (k)
• In the reservoir, this point-E corresponds to the Oil Water Contact (OWC).
• @ any other water saturations > (Swi)
& < (1 – Sor), so both oil & water are
moving simultaneously inside the Water Oil
NOT Oil & Water
reservoir with different relative NOT
flow flow together
flow
permeabilities ratios depending on
their relative saturations.
• Inside the reservoir, this area
corresponds to the transition zone.
• @ point-C, both fluids moving with
the same relative permeability
value however they have different
saturation values.
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Permeability (k)
Relative Permeability Ratio:
• Relative permeability ratio is a ratio between the relative 𝐤 𝐫𝐨
permeability of a rock to any fluid to the relative permeability
of the same rock to another fluid flowing together in the rock. 𝐤 𝐫𝐰
• @ oil saturation ≈ 100% (water saturation is ≈ 0% → relative permeability
to oil (kro) is (1) & that to water (krw) is (0).
• @ this point, relative permeability ratio (kro / krw) is infinite (1 / 0) = (∞).

• With production, oil saturation decreases, while water saturation
increases until reaching a point @ which water saturation has the highest
value ≈ 100% & oil saturation has the lowest value ≈ 0%.
• So, @ this point relative permeability to oil (kro) is (0) & that to water (krw)
is (1) that result-in the relative permeability ratio (kro / krw) is (0 / 1) = (0).
• This means that relative permeability ratio (kro / krw) data itself varies with
a wide range from (∞) @ very low (Sw) to (0) @ very high (Sw).
305
Permeability (k)
Relative Permeability Ratio:
• Similar to relative permeability data, relative permeability ratio data is
also plotted vs. water saturation (Sw) data that result-in a unique plot.
• But since relative permeability ratio data varies with a wide range so the
Cartesian representation is not suitable for this type of data.
• Instead, Logarithmic representation
of the relative permeability ratio data 𝐤 𝐫𝐨
= ae−b𝐒𝐰
is used with the saturation data on 𝐤 𝐫𝐰
a semi-Log plot that established a
straight-line relationship that is
mathematically represented by this
equation.
• So, @ any given water saturation
(Sw), we can estimate the
corresponding value of the relative
permeability ratio (kro/krw).
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Mobility (l)
• Mobility (l) of any fluid (x) is a ratio between the effective permeability
(keff–x) of this fluid to its viscosity (mx).
k eff(x)
λx =
μx
• Mobility (l) is a function of both the saturation (Sx) of this fluid (x) in the
rock & the relative permeability (krx) to it.
• From Darcy law we have:
k eff(x) AΔP AΔP k eff(x) AΔP

qx = = ∗ = ∗ λx
μx L L μx L
307
Mobility Ratio (M)

• Mobility ratio (M) is a ratio between the mobility of the displacing fluid
(water or gas) to that of the displaced fluid (oil).
• For W.I system we have:
k eff−w
𝛌𝐰 μw k eff−w ∗ μo
𝐌= = =
𝛌𝐨 k eff−o k eff(o) ∗ μw
μo
M=1 Neutral → Water & oil moving equally (ideal displacement)
M<1 Favorable → Oil moving easier than water (better sweep)
M > 1 Un-favorable → Water moving easier than oil (breakthrough)
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Tortuosity (t)
• LAMINAR fluid flow through pipes is in straight parallel lines.
LAMINAR flow
• In the reservoir, due to porous structure

of the rock, the grains are arranged &
packed beside each others in such way
to form the rock structure.
• These type of arrangements cause the
paths allowed for fluids to pass & flow
between the grains is zigzagged &
winding such as a snake movement.
309
Tortuosity (t)
• Kozeny in 1937 introduced the
concept of hydraulic Tortuosity to
account for the tortuous character
of flow through porous media.
• Tortuosity or Lithology constant is L\
a factor that describes the deviation
of the fluid flow path inside the
porous media than the straight-line
trend due to presence of the pore L
space structure. (L\):actual fluid flow path
(L): core length
• It is represented by a ratio of the
length of the actual streamline fluid
flow path (L\) between two points to
the straight-line distance (L)
between that two points.
• Actual fluid flow path (L\) length is more than the core length (L).
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Wettability
• First let’s be aware with some important definitions.
Gas ꟷ water
• Surface Tension: it is the force that acting @ interface
an immiscible gas-liquid interface results from Gas
an imbalance in the intermolecular forces @ the
surface between them (Van der Waals).
• This imbalance causes the surface molecules to Liquid
experience a net pull directed into the bulk of the
solution.
Interfacial surface film due
• Interfacial Tension: Oil to unequally attraction
forces between water & oil
It is the force that acting molecules cause tension in
the surface
between the surface of two
adjacent different immiscible
LIQUIDS (oil – water).
OIL & WATER molecules
Water attracted equally in all
directions
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Wettability
Wetting
• The ATTRACTION force or the ADHESION force
that is acting between the rock & the contained
fluids is called WETTABILITY.
• In the reservoir, when there are two different
immiscible fluids co-exit, one fluid wets the
surfaces of the formation rock (wetting phase) in Non-Wetting
preference to the other fluid (non-wetting phase).

• Wettability is defined as:
− The preference & affinity of the rock to be in
contact with one fluid & to adhere to each
other rather than another existing fluid. Wetting
− Or it is the tendency of one fluid to wet,

spread on or adhere to the solid surface in a
rock in the presence of other immiscible fluid. Non-Wetting
− Or the tendency of one fluid to displace

another fluid from a solid surface.
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Wettability
• This spread of liquid on top of the solid is ranging from complete spread
of the fluid on the solid surface (wetting the solid) to the liquid form a
sphere on the solid due to no wettability (not wetting the solid).
• These two pictures show a droplet of water that is completely wetting
the rock & the other that is completely NOT wetting the rock.
Water completely wetting the rock Water completely not wetting the rock
313
Wettability
• In water-wet reservoirs, water coats rock surfaces & is preferentially
held it in smaller pores since water is the wetting phase.
Low High
permeability permeability
Oil Connate water
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Wettability
• Nonwetting hydrocarbon phases (oil & gas) occupy the central space
of the larger pores.
• This image shows the position of the wetting & non-wetting phases
inside the rock for both water wet, mixed wet & oil wet rocks
• One of the famous conventional methods to measure the wettability is

the contact angle (q) which is the angle between the curved surface of
the fluid droplet & surface of the solid.
315
Wettability
• If the contact angle (q) measured through fluid (1) is acute (q < 90o),
then the separation surface between the two immiscible fluids will be
concaved towards fluid (2).
• Then fluid (1) will displace fluid (2)
from the solid surface & then fluid (1)
is said to be a wetting phase with
respect to the solid surface.
• For a Gas ─ Water system, Gas is
the non-wetting phase. q
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Wettability
• If the contact angle (q) measured through fluid (1) is obtuse (q > 90o),
then the separation surface between the two immiscible liquids will
tends to be much spherical.
• Then fluid (2) will displace fluid (1)
from the solid surface & then fluid (2)
is said to be a wetting phase with
respect to the solid surface.
• For an Oil ─ Water system, Oil is
usually the non-wetting phase. q
• For oil wet reservoirs, water will be
the non-wetting phase so there will
be a huge amounts of oil adhere to
the rock without production.
317
Wettability
• If the contact angle (q) is a right angle (q = 90o), then this is called
critical contact angle.
• In this case, neither fluid (1) nor fluid (2)

can displace each others from the
solid surface.
• Wettability in this case is called Neutral
or mixed or intermediate wettability.
• In water – oil displacement process, water is mostly the wetting fluid.

• In gas – oil displacement process, gas is always the non-wetting fluid.
• Let’s see how to estimate the Wettability from Relative Permeability Curve.
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Wettability
1. End points values comparison: Maximum relative permeability values
comparison.
• In the water-wet system,
relative permeability to water kro @ Swi
end-point (krw @ Sor) is low
while relative permeability to oil
end-point (kro @ Swi) is high & krw @ Sor
vise versa in oil-wet system.
• So as a conclusion:
► If krw @ Sor < kro @ Swi
→ water wet reservoir.

Swirr. Swi Sor
► If krw @ Sor > kro @ Swi
→ oil wet reservoir.

Sw% So%
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Wettability
1. End points values comparison: Irreducible water saturation (Swirr.) &
residual oil saturation (Sor) comparison.
• In the water-wet system,
irreducible water saturation
(Swirr.) is higher than the
residual oil saturation (Sor) &
vise versa in oil-wet system.
► If Sor < Swirr.
► If Sor > Swirr. Swirr. Swi Sor
Sw% So%
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Wettability
2. Point of intersection between the two relative permeability curves:
• Intersection point (Swx) between
the two curves will determine if
the rock is water wet or oil wet.
• If (kro = krw) @ the intersection
point (Swx) between the two
curves, it means that both oil &
water are moving in the same
way inside the rock (Neutral
wettability).
• But if the corresponding water
saturation @ this intersection
point is greater than the
corresponding oil saturation,
then this mean that much water Swx
remain & hence water is the
wetting phase & vise versa. Sw% So%
321
Wettability
3. Relative permeabilities comparison @ equal saturation value (50%):
• Comparison of the relative
permeability values (kro & krw)
@ equal saturations value of
So = Sw = 50% will indicates
the wettability.
► If kro > krw @ So = Sw = 50%

kro
► If kro < krw @ So = Sw = 50%
krw
50%
Sw% So%
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Capillary Pressure (Pc)

• Capillary pressure appears as a result of the surface tension existing
@ the interface separating two adjacent different immiscible fluids.
• Let's consider what happens when a tube of capillary radius (r) is dipped
in a larger container filled with water.
• Water in the capillary tube rises above the water level in the container to a
height (h) that depends on capillary size or the radius of the tube (r).
Height (h) is inversely proportional to (r).
• In this case, the Attraction (Adhesion) q
force that is acting between the solid
surface of the tube & the contained
fluid allows water to rise in the
capillary tube WHILE the gravity force
acts in the opposite direction.
• Water rises until there is a balance
between these two opposing forces.
323

• The surface tension force for liquid – gas system or the interfacial
tension force for oil – water system will create a Capillary Force on the
contacting surface area between these two different immiscible
adjacent fluids that distorts the liquid surface from a planar shape &
concaving it downward or upward.
• This capillary force per unit surface area is called Capillary Pressure.
• This Capillary Pressure (Pc) represents the
pressures difference across the curved
q
interface between the coexisting two
immiscible phase fluids which are in
contact in the capillarity pore system.
• Displacement of one fluid by another is either
aided or opposed by the capillary pressure.
• Based on this, an analogy can be drawn
between this capillary tube radius & the
radii of pores throats in the rock matrix.
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• In order to understand the concept of the Capillary Pressure inside the
reservoir, let’s go back to the initial oil migration when all the existing
liquid inside the pores was only water & water saturation (Sw) was 100%
(water wet rock).
• In this case there are two types of water saturations:
1. Saturating water saturation (Sw) moving inside the pore spaces.
2. Wetting water saturation or irreducible water saturation (Swirr) that

adhering to & coating the grains surfaces due to the wettability.
(Sw) = 100% = Oil
Saturating Wetting
% PV
Water Water
1 = Sw + Swirr
325

• In this case, oil initially was not able to get into the rock, except if it had
some extra energy to push the exiting saturating water saturation (Sw)
in this system out of the rock.
• Due to the continuous movement of the migrated oil into the reservoir,
an extra energy was developed that successfully enabled the oil gotten
into inside the rock pores & displaced the saturating water downward
of the structure due to buoyancy forces created by density differences
between the two fluid phases.
• This extra energy is called the Capillary Pressure (Pc) that is pressure
difference between the pressures in oil & water phases (Pc = Po – Pw).
100% saturation =
% PV Saturating Wetting
Oil Water
1 = So + Swirr
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• Although the oil had this extra energy, but it could not never displace
100% of the in-Situ water in the rock pores system due to the attraction
(adhesion) force that is acting between the rock & its contained wetting
fluid.
• This will result-in some water will be held by the capillary forces in the
rock pores that is called Irreducible water saturation(Swirr.) or connate
water saturation (Swc).
• @ equilibrium, a water surface known as Oil Water Contact (OWC), will
be formed @ some elevation (h) in the reservoir.
• Phases pressures of both oil & water @ this Oil Water Contact (OWC)
are different & then the oil-water capillary pressure will be the
difference in phases pressures @ this elevation or interface.
• In the reservoir, as in the capillary tube, the capillary rise (h) will be
greater in a rock with smaller pores throats (r), i.e., low permeability
rock than in rocks with large pores throats, i.e., high permeability rock.
327

• This figure that shows the effect of different capillary tube radius sizes
(r) on the rise of the water levels (h) in the tube that mimics the different
values of the rock permeabilities (pores throats) in the reservoir.
Small pores Medium pores Large pores

throats throats throats
Small Medium Large
FWL
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• Just remember that the transition zone of a reservoir is the
So= 100%
region between depth when water saturation is 100% @
the base of the reservoir (this is called Oil Water Contact
“OWC”) & another higher depth in the reservoir when water
saturation is @ its irreducible water saturation (Swirr.) @
which movable oil saturation is 100%.
• This figure summarize the change in OIL SATURATION
(So) with depth inside the TRANSITION ZONE.
So= 0%
329

• Capillary Pressure (Pc) is the main responsible of the fluids distribution
inside the transition zone in the reservoir where saturation changes
gradually from mostly oil with irreducible water @ the top of the transition
zone to mostly water with residual oil saturation @ the bottom.
So= 100%
So= 0%
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• In the reservoir, the Free Water Level (FWL) is located @ the base of the
transition zone of a hydrocarbon column.
• Free Water Level (FWL) is defined as the DEEPEST elevation of the
100% water saturation (wetting phase) @ which the capillary pressure
become zero (PC = Pw – Pnw = 0) because only ONE fluid (water)
present @ this level.
• Similar to the capillary tubes in the lab,

in the reservoir due to equilibrium, q
water raise in the transition zone to a
height above the FWL that is called Oil OWC
Water Contact (OWC) which is function
of the transition zone permeability & the FWL
wettability.
331

• Oil Water Contact (OWC) is defined as the LOWEST elevation of the
100% wetting phase saturation @ which the capillary pressure is
greater than zero (PC = Pw – Pnw > 0) because there are TWO fluids
present & mobile hydrocarbons occur.
• That is why both of FWL & OWC have the

same value of water saturation (Sw = 100%) q
but with different capillary pressure values
which is the min of zero @ the FWL while it OWC
is the max @ the OWC.
FWL
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• Mathematically, Capillary Pressure (Pc) is expressed as the difference
between the non-wetting phase pressure (Pnw) & the wetting phase
pressure (Pw) as follow.
𝐏𝐜 = Pnon wetting
− Pwetting
−
• Capillary Pressure (Pc) can be also expressed either as a function of the

capillary radius (r), surface tension (s) & the wettability (q) or as a
function of height (h) above Free Water Level (FWL).
2σ Cosθ
𝐏𝐜 = 𝐏𝐜 = Δρnw−w ∗ gh
r
333

• This is the general form of the capillary pressure equation in terms of
both height (h) above Free Water Level (FWL), capillary radius (r),
surface tension (s) & the wettability (q).
2σnw−w × Cosθ
𝐏𝐜 = ΔP = Pnon − Pwetting = Δρnw−w ∗ gh =
− wetting r
Pc : capillary Pressure, dyne/cm2, (dyne/cm2 = 1.45 × 10-5 psi)
Pnon-wetting : pressure in the non-wetting phase, dyne/cm2
Pwetting : pressure in in the wetting phase, dyne/cm2
rnw & rw : densities of the non-wetting & wetting phases respectively, gm/cm3
Drnw-w : densities difference between non-wetting & wetting phases, gm/cm3
g : acceleration due to gravity = 980.665 cm/sec2
h : capillary rise or height above the Free Water Level (FWL), cm (cm = 0.0328084 ft)
snw-w : interfacial or surface tension between non-wetting & wetting phases, dyne/cm
r : capillary tube radius that represent equivalent pore radius of reservoir permeability, cm
q : contact angle @ the interface between non-wetting & wetting phases surface, degrees
in the lab it is measured in radians (degree = radian × π/180)
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2σnw−w × Cosθ
−wetting r
• So, from the equation, the capillary pressure (Pc) is equal to the product
of the height (h) above the Free Water Level (FWL) & the density
difference between the two immiscible fluids @ reservoir conditions.
• Or equal to the product of the surface tension (s) by the contact angel
(q) between the two immiscible fluids which is a function of the
wettability divided by the capillary radius (r) @ reservoir conditions.
• Capillary pressure is (0) if the interfacial tension (s) is (0) which occurs
only in case of TWO MISCIBLE FLUIDS coexist with each others inside
the reservoir such as in case of miscible gas injection.
• Also from the equation, capillary pressure (Pc) & height (h) above the
(FWL) are inversely proportional to pore size (capillary pore radius, r)
that means an increase in pore radius (r) leads to a decrease in the
capillary pressure (Pc) & the height (h) above the (FWL).
335

2σnw−w × Cosθ
−wetting r
• In rock with smaller pores throats radii (r), higher capillary pressure (Pc)
is required to displace wetting phase (water) with non-wetting phase
(oil) fluids.
• In rock with larger pores throats radii (r), non-wetting phase fluid is
more easily entering into the pore spaces.
• This is because movement of fluids within a rock depends more upon
the size of pores throats than on size of the pores.
• There is a direct relationship between permeability (which is controlled
by pore throat size, r) & the capillary pressure (Pc).
• Thus, high permeability rocks with relatively large pores throats radii
(r) have lower capillary pressure (Pc) & lower capillarity rise (h) above
the (FWL) than low permeability rocks with relatively small pores
throats radii (r) containing the same fluids.
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• As example, this figure shows a reservoir consist of 3 layers with different
permeabilities of 1, 10 & 100 md respectively. So, @ any water saturation:
− (Pc1) for (k = 1 md) > (Pc2) for (k = 10 md) > (Pc3) for (k = 100 md).
− (h1) for (k = 1 md) > (h2) for (k = 10 md) > (h3) for (k = 100 md).
1 md
Capillary pressure (Pc) psi or
height above FWL, ft
10 md
OWC
High permeability
100 md
Pc1 or h1
OWC1
Pc2 or h2 OWC2
100 md
Pc3 or h3 OWC3
FWL Low permeability

Sw% 1 md
337

• Capillary pressure data is plotted vs. water saturation data that result-in
a unique plot called capillary pressure curve that describes the
capillary pressure required to obtain a given non-wetting phase
saturation in a rock.
• This is a typical capillary pressure (Pc) vs. water saturation (Sw) curve.
• Capillary pressure (Pc) vs. water

saturation (Sw) data are important
because they can be related to the
water saturation (Sw) vs. height (h)
above the oil – water or gas – water
contacts or Free Water Level (FWL)
inside the reservoir.
• This information is used to determine
the initial hydrocarbon saturation
distribution inside the reservoir.
338
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• Pore geometrical factor (G) which is defined
as the range of grains sizes, grains shapes
& tortuosity of the pores throats.
• Large pore geometrical factor (G) refers to
poorly sorted pores throats & tortuous.
• This pore geometrical factor (G) define
shape of the curved portion in the
capillary pressure vs. saturation plot.
Coarse grains
Pore geometrical factor
Well sorted (G) define the shape of
this curve
Fine grains
Well sorted
Water is immobile
Entry in this region
pressure
339

• Generally, there are 5 important points on the capillary pressure curve
that should be identified & recognized.
1. Free Water Level (FWL).
2. Displacement pressure (Pd).
3. Oil Water Contact (OWC).
4. Connate water saturation (Swc).
5. Transition zone.
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1- Free Water Level (FWL):
• Free Water Level (FWL) is the elevation of the wetting phase @ which
capillary pressure (Pc = 0) because only one fluid exist.
• FWL is NOT the OWC, but it is the
depth @ which there is only water
present (Sw = 100%) & there is no
residual oil saturation so capillary
pressure (Pc) @ the FWL = (0).
• FWL (which is deeper than the
OWC) CANNOT be determined
from open hole resistivity log
because it will be masked by the
OWC because both of FWL & FWL
OWC show low resistivity due to
water saturation = 100%.
341

• FWL can be determined from the MDT measurements which is the
intersect point between the oil & water gradient lines.
• This is because the intersection point between the two gradient lines
on the MDT plot mean that oil pressure = water pressure @ this
intersection point.
• So, pressure difference
@ this intersection point is
(0) which is the definition
of the capillary pressure
that it equal to ZERO @
the FWL.
Free water level FWL
Pc @ FWL = 0
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• Height (h) above the Free Water Level (FWL) can be calculated from the
capillary pressure equation as shown in the below equations.
2σnw−w × Cosθ
wetting
− r
Pc : Capillary pressure, dyne/cm2
(dyne/cm2 = 1.45 × 10-5 psi)
2 σnw−w Cosθ h : capillary rise or height above Free
h= Water Level (FWL), cm
r g Δρnw−w rw & ro : water & oil density, gm/cm3
so-w : oil-water surface tension, dyne/cm
r : capillary radius, cm
g : acceleration due to gravity,
Pc = 980.665 cm/sec2
h= q : contact angle, degrees
Δρnw−w g in the lab it is measured in radians
(degree = radian × π/180)
343

• From the capillary pressure (Pc) equation we can 2σnw−w × Cosθ
𝐏𝐜 =
see that both of capillary pressure (Pc) & height 𝐫
(h) above Free Water Level (FWL) are inversely 2 σnw−w Cosθ
proportionally with the pores radii (r). 𝐡=
𝐫 g Δρnw−w
• Rise of water in the reservoir above

the Free Water Level (FWL)
depends on the permeability, i.e.,
water will rise in LOW permeability
reservoirs higher than that in HIGH
permeability reservoirs.
• So, transition zone thickness (h)
increase when its permeability is
low (pores radii “r” is relatively
small) & vise versa.
LOW permeability HIGH permeability
reservoir reservoir
344
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2- Displacement Pressure (Pd):
• A force is needed to overcome the capillary pressure to displace a
wetting fluid with a non-wetting fluid out of the rock.
• Displacement (entry) pressure
(Pd) is the MINIMUM pressure @ 2σo−w Cosθ
𝐏𝐝 =
which the non-wetting phase (oil) 𝐫
start invading the core to displace
the wetting phase (water) outside
the core.
• Displacement (entry) pressure
Pd
(Pd) is controlled by the sizes of
the pores throats openings, the
smaller the pores throats radii (r), FWL
the higher the pressure required for
displacement.
345

3- Oil Water Contact (OWC):
• Oil Water Contact (OWC) is the
deepest point in the reservoir
where the movable oil exist @
which capillary pressure (Pc > 0)
because two fluids exist.
• OWC located above the Free Water
Level (FWL).
OWC
Pd
FWL
346
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• OWC can be determined from the open hole resistivity logs which is
located @ the shallower point showing water resistivity.
• Remember that FWL (which is
deeper than the OWC)
CANNOT be determined from
open hole resistivity log
because it will be masked by
the OWC because both of FWL
& OWC show low resistivity OWC
due to water saturation = 100%.
347

• Oil Water Contact (OWC) is NOT the FWL that is determined from MDT.
• To locate the OWC on the MDT plot,

just determine the value of the
displacement pressure (Pd) from the
capillary pressure vs. saturation plot.
• Then convert this displacement

pressure (Pd) to height (P = rgh).
• Finally, subtract this height (h) from

the FWL depth that give the location
of the OWC on the MDT plot.
348
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• This is a summary plot to locate both FWL & OWC on the MDT plot.
Oil zone
True
Vertical
Depth
(TVD)
Oil phase pressure
Capillary gradient line
transition zone
Pc
𝐡=
Δρo−w ∗ g Water phase pressure
gradient line
OWC
FWL
(Pc = 0)
Water zone
Water saturation, Sw % Pressure
349

• This figure showing the location of the FWL & OWC in the reservoir
corresponding to that obtained from the capillary pressure curve.
350
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• This figure is an actual example showing the location of the FWL & OWC
in the reservoir corresponding to that obtained from the capillary
pressure curve, open hole logs & pressure gradient survey.
351

4- Connate Water Saturation (Swc):
• Connate water saturation (Sw) is also called irreducible water saturation
(Swirr) which is immovable water forming a film around grain surface.
• It is defined as the MINIMUM
immobile amount of the wetting
phase that can NOT be displaced
from the core by the non-wetting
phase even after applying higher
pressures. OWC
Pd
This is a typical connate Swirr. FWL

water saturation (Swc)
in the reservoir rock
352
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• Grain size has a strong influence on the amount of the irreducible
water saturation (Swirr).
• Rocks with SMALL grains sizes have higher (Swirr) because there are
more grains surface areas available for the irreducible water to coat &
form a film around the grains surfaces compared to the same rock
volume with a LARGER grains sizes & vise versa.
SMALL grains sizes with HIGH (Swirr) LARGE grains sizes with LOW (Swirr)
353

• It is important to know that the
irreducible water saturation (Swirr)
is NOT the water saturation @ which
the rock start developing a
relative permeability to wetting
phase to start moving because this
is called the initial (critical) water
saturation (Swi).
OWC
• Of course (Swirr) < (Swi). Pd
• But how to determine this Initial
(critical) water saturation (Swi)? Swirr. FWL
Swi
354
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1.0
4- Connate Water Saturation (Swc): 0.9
0.8
• From the definitions: 0.7
0.6
kro & krw

− @ the irreducible water saturation
0.5
0.4
(Swirr), there is no effective permeability 0.3
0.2
for water to move & hence no relative 0.1
permeability to water @ the irreducible 0.0

0 20 40 60 80 100
water saturation (Swirr). Swirr. Swi

Sw %
kro krw
− @ the initial (critical) water saturation 3000
(Swi), the rock start to develop an 2500
effective permeability to water & hence 2000
water start moving @ the initial
Pc, psi
1500
(critical) water saturation (Swi). 1000
− Between (Swirr) & (Swi) there is NO 500
MOVABLE WATER. 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw %
Swirr Swi Pc, psi
355

5- Transition Zone:
• Transition zone of a reservoir is the
region between depth when water
saturation is 100% @ the base of the 100% movable oil
reservoir (this is called Oil Water
Contact “OWC”) & another higher Transition
depth in the reservoir when water zone thickness
saturation is @ its irreducible water
saturation (Swirr) @ which movable
oil saturation is 100%. OWC
Pd
• This 100% movable oil saturation line
is the intersection between capillary
pressure curve & the vertical line @ Swirr. FWL
irreducible water saturation (Swirr).
• Water free production occurs above the elevation of this 100% movable
oil saturation line.
356
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5- Transition Zone:
• Just to remember, these figures summarize the change in OIL
SATURATION (So) with depth inside the TRANSITION ZONE.
So= 100%
So= 0%
357

• This is a summary of fluids saturations distribution inside the reservoir.
• The interval (h) between FWL & OWC is fully saturated with movable
formation water (Sw = 100%).
• Transition zone separate the zone contains mostly movable oil from that
contains mostly movable water.
Capillary Pressure or Height
Oil zone
100 % movable oil
+
irreducible Swirr.
Transition Movable oil

+
zone Movable water
OWC (Pc > 0)
Non movable oil
h Pd +
FWL (Pc = 0) Movable water
0
Swirr. Sor 100
Sw% Water zone
100% water & NO residual oil
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Drainage & Imbibition

• Drainage & Imbibition are referring to the history of the saturation
change (Hysteresis) between wetting & non-wetting fluids.
• Drainage & Imbibition hysteresis showing what is happening inside the
pores spaces to the NON-WETTING phase as its relative permeability is
developed during the displacement process.
• This is because the NON-WETTING phase relative permeability curve is
NOT the same when the non-wetting phase is the displaced or the
displacing fluid.
• WETTING phase relative permeability curve does NOT depend on the
saturation history (Hysteresis) that means the wetting phase relative
permeability curve is the same regardless if the wetting phase is the
displaced or the displacing fluid.
• This is because wetting phase (either when it is being displaced or
displacing) will move without any resistance from the non-wetting
phase during the displacement (natural tendency to saturate the rock).
• In water – oil displacement process, water is mostly the wetting fluid.
• While in gas – oil displacement process, gas is always non-wetting fluid.
359

• The process of displacing the • In contrast, the process of
wetting phase (water) with the non- displacing the non-wetting phase
wetting phase (gas or oil), is called (gas or oil) with the wetting phase
the DRAINAGE process. (water) is called the IMBIBITION
process.
• During drainage process, wetting
phase (water) saturation decreases • During imbibition process, wetting
while nonwetting phase (gas or oil) phase (water) saturation increases
saturation increases. while nonwetting phase (gas or oil)
saturation decreases.
• This drainage process establishes
the fluid saturations when the • This imbibition process establishes
reservoir was discovered & was in the fluid saturations occurs during
equilibrium after the initial the W.I project or due to water
migration. influx from an aquifer.
→
Oil in
→Water out
→
Water in
→Oil out
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• This is typically a drainage & imbibition RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
curves for both non-wetting phase (oil) & the wetting phase water.
• We can see that:

− NON-WETTING phase relative
permeability curve is NOT the
same when the non-wetting Drainage
phase is the displaced or the
displacing fluid.
− WETTING phase relative
permeability curve is the same Imbibition
regardless if the wetting phase
is the displaced or the
displacing fluid. Sor
Swirr
Wetting phase saturation, fraction of pore space
361

• This is typically a drainage & imbibition CAPILLARY PRESSURE
curves for both non-wetting phase (oil) & the wetting phase water.
• For the drainage curve, there is a 30

k = 28.2 md
capillary pressure called the Entry or
displacement pressure (Pd) that is 25
Capillary Pressure, psig
the minimum pressure in the wetting

phase that is required to displace the 20
non-wetting phase out of the rock. Swirr.
15
• There is no minimum pressure
required to displace the non-wetting
10 Imbibition
phase in the imbibition.
Drainage Pd
• Difference between the saturations @ 5
the end points of both imbibition &
drainage curves is the residual 0
Sor
0 20 40 60 80 100
saturation of the non-wetting (Sor)
Wetting phase saturation, fraction of pore space
fluid that is trapped inside the rock.
362
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Rock Typing
• The relationship between permeability & porosity of a reservoir rock is
not related to a unique trend but in most cases due to reservoir
heterogeneity, it may have many trends & even with some cloudy data.
• So, it is unfair just to set a straight line through the scattered points
saying that this is the trend that that represents the entire reservoir rock.
363
Rock Typing
• These are other examples of the permeability vs. porosity relationship.
• So, it is difficult in such cases to set a direct relationship between
permeability & porosity that represents the entire reservoir rock.
Core Porosity Vs. Permeability Core Porosity Vs. Permeability

10000 10000
1000 1000
khoriz_core (md.)
Khoriz_core (md.)
100 100
10 10
1 1
0.1 0.1
0.01 0.01
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
PHI_core (%) PHI_core %
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Rock Typing
• For this reason, rock typing technique was developed to classify
reservoir rocks with similar petrophysical properties (porosity,
permeability & pores throats sizes) into groups called Hydraulic Flow
Units (HFU) so that each group or flow unit is characterized by a set of
unique petrophysical properties.
Capillary Pressure, psia

k, md
f Sw
365
Rock Typing
• This is an example of a reservoir rock type grouping that show different
distribution of the rock properties because the reservoir consist of
many rock types & hence Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU).
Pore Throat Size Dominant Inter - Rock -Type R.T.
Distribution Curves Connection Nature Name No.
pore throat distribution
180
160 Interconnected Grainstone 12

140
120
between grains
100
80
Group No. 4 Grainpack 11
60
40
Kh 0.4 - 5000 md.
20 Packgrain 10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Avg. Kh 250 md.
180
High Diss .
160
140
Highly Intercon- Packstone 9
120 nected in Matrix
High Diss .
100
80
0 Group No. 3 Float/Pack
8
60
Kh 0.4 - 1100 md.
40
High Diss .
20
0
P Avg. Kh 85 md. Wackestone 5
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
180
Diss .
160
140
Fairly Intercon- Packstone 7
120
nected in Matrix
100
Diss .
80
60
Group No. 2 Wackestone 4
40 Kh 0.25 - 250 md.
20
0
Avg. Kh 10 md. Packstone 6
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

180
160
140
Poorly Intercon- Wackestone 2
120
nected in Matrix
100
Cemented
80
60
Group No. 1 Wackestone
3
40 Kh 0.25 - 200 md.
1
20
0 Avg. Kh 5 md. Mudstone

0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Rock type with Kh < 0.2 md andf < 5% in Dense intervals 0

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Rock Typing
• Reservoir is classified with the same rock type when they have the same
Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) with unique (k vs. f) trend, the same
capillary pressure curve & the same pore throat distribution.
367
Rock Typing
• These are different Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) with different (k vs. f)
trend, different capillary pressure curve shapes & different pores type.
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Rock Typing
• These groups or Hydraulic Flow Units (HFU) are then used to predict the
spatial distribution of petrophysical parameters (f, k & Sw) on a field-
wide level.
369
Reserves &
Recovery Methods
370
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Reserves
• Reserve is the total amount of the hydrocarbon that can be produced
from the STOOIP (Stock Tank Oil Originally In Place) under the current
Policy, Technology, Economics, Political & Environments conditions.
• All reserve estimates involve some degree of uncertainty that depends

mainly on the amount of reliable geologic & engineering data available
@ the time of the estimate & the interpretation of these data.
• Finally reserves estimates will generally be revised when additional

geologic or engineering data becomes available, or when economic or
political conditions changes.
• Reserves estimation & production forecasting are important inputs into the
decision-making process & investment scenario evaluation.
371
Reserves
• Reserve can be classified based on the confidence of estimation in terms
of (3P) to 3 categories, Proven (P1), Un-Proven Probable (P2) & Un-
Proven Possible (P3) as in this diagram.
Reserve
Proven (P1) Unproven (P2)
Non-
Developed Probable
Developed
Non-
Producing Possible
Producing
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Reserves
• Reserve can be also classified based on the confidence of probability of
occurrence 3 scenarios (P90, P50 & P10). Where subscripts 90, 50 & 10 are
the parentage of probability of occurrence as in this figure.
N, stb
Cumulative probability %
90% 50% 10%

Cumulative probability graph
Probabilities of occurrence
373
Reserves Calculations
• Several methods are used to calculate the STOOIP (Stock Tank Oil
Originally In Place) & the reserves such as:
1. Deterministic: using a single value assigned for each input
parameter of the reserves calculations is that gives a fixed value of
the reserve (Proven & Un-Proven reserves).
− Volumetric method
− Material balance method
− Production decline curve analysis method
2. Probabilistic (Stochastic): a full range of values are used for each
input parameter into the reserve calculation that gives reserve
values @ some various confidence levels of P90, P50, P10, etc.
− Monte Carlo Probabilistic & stochastic method
3. Reservoir Simulation Model: Numerical reservoir simulation models
are used to compute the changes in pressures & saturations for all
phases for each grid cell @ every time step based on well known
reservoir engineering equations & techniques to predict the flow of
reservoir fluids through porous media.
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Reserves Calculations − Deterministic Method

• In this case, reserve is calculated using the best estimates of the data
based on known fixed value for the geological, engineering & economic
data @ the time of calculations.
𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖 𝑨 𝒉 ∅ 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒘𝒊
𝑵 =
𝜷𝒐𝒊
375
Reserves Calculations − Deterministic Method

• Deterministic reserve is divided into 3 categories (P1) Proven, (P2)
Unproven Probable & (P3) Unproven Possible.
• (P1) Proven reserve that refers to the lowest estimation value with high
confidence of estimation. It may be either developed or undeveloped.
• Unproven reserves includes both (P2) Probable reserve that refer to
most likely best estimate value with reasonable confidence of
estimation & (P3) Possible reserve that refer to the highest estimation
value with low confidence of estimation.
Reserve
• Total reserve using the sum of these 3 categories is

defined in terms of (3P) as follow: Proven Unproven
− (1P) = Proven (P1) Developed

Non-
Developed
− (2P) = Proven (P1) + Probable (P2) Non-Producing

Probable
− (3P) = Proven (P1) + Probable (P2) + Possible (P3) Producing Possible
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Reserves Calculations − Volumetric Method

• Volumetric method for estimating the STOOIP (Stock Tank Oil Originally
In Place) & the reserves gives a single static value of the reserve.
• This volumetric reserve accuracy depends on the most confident
parameters (porosity “f”, reservoir net thicknesses “h”, areal extent “A” &
hydrocarbon saturation “Swi”) that are used in the calculations.
Oil
Total rock Rock Connate Estimated
formation
volume average water recovery
volume
porosity saturation factor
factor
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐞 = 𝐀 𝐡 × ∅ × 1 − 𝐒𝐰𝐢 /𝛃𝐨𝐢 × 𝐑𝐅
377

• Assuming this reservoir so the total reservoir volume A
= reservoir net thickness (h) * reservoir area (A)
• But NOT all this volume contain fluids, it is ONLY h
the pore spaces so, reservoir volume available for
fluids is given by:
= reservoir thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) * porosity (f)
• But NOT all this pore volume contain ONLY

oil, but water is also existing inside the pore
spaces with an initial water saturation (Swi).
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• So, reservoir volume available ONLY for oil is given by:
= reservoir thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) * porosity (f) * initial oil saturation (Soi)
• But we know that → oil saturation (Soi) + water saturation (Swi) = 1
• Oil volume @ the reservoir conditions is given by:
= reservoir thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) * porosity (f) * (1 − Swi)
• But on the surface this volume of oil will be reduced due to the liberated
gas volume comes out of oil that was in solution (this is represented by oil
formation volume factor, b o).
+
→ Free gas volume
In the reservoir @ surface (standard conditions)
379

• So, Original Oil volume In Place (OOIP) @ the standard conditions is:
= reservoir thickness (h) * reservoir area (A) * porosity (f) * (1 − Swi) / (b oi)
• Oil volume @ standard conditions is called (N): 𝐍 = A h ∅ 1 − Swi

βoi
• All of the variables (A, h, f & Swi) used above are the average values.
• In order to use direct field units, area (A, acres), reservoir thickness (h, ft) &
oil formation volume factor (b o, res. Bbl/stb) a constant (7758) is introduced
to the above equation which is the equivalent barrels of one acre-foot.
Assuming an area of (1) acre = 43560 ft2
Volume of (1) foot thickness of this area is = 43560 ft3
But volume of (1) barrel = 42 gal = 5.615 ft3
(1) acre-foot = 43560 ft3 / 5.615 ft3 = 7758 bbls
• So, Stock Tank Oil Originally In Place 𝟕𝟕𝟓𝟖 A h ∅ 1 − Swi

(STOOIP) volume @ the standard 𝐍=
conditions (N, stb) is given by: βoi
380
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• Similarly for gas, Original Gas volume In Place (OGIP) @ standard
conditions is called (G, scf).
43560 A h ∅ 1 − Swi
𝐆=
βgi
• Gas formation volume factor (b g, ft3/scf) is defined as a RATIO of the free

gas volumes @ reservoir conditions (Vres) to its volume @ the standard
conditions (Vsc) which is given by:
0.02827 Z (T + 460)
Bg =
P
• So, Original Gas In Place

(OGIP) volume @ the standard 1540856 A h ∅ 1 − Swi Pi
𝐆=
conditions (G, scf) is given by: Zi Ti + 460
381
Reserves Calculations − Material Balance Method

• Material Balance Equations (MBE) is an analytical graphical method that
allows a quick identification of reservoir drive mechanisms & in place
hydrocarbon volumes based on historical production data & PVT data.
• Basically, it depends on the volumes changes & expansions of the
reservoir fluids, so it is a combination of the fluid production data & the
change of their physical properties with pressure change (PVT) data.
• For propre estimation of reserves, this method requires sufficient
production history to be available with accurate PVT data.
• Since it was NOT developed to describe the fluids movement inside the
reservoir, so it DID NOT contain the permeability term.
• The most uncertain values in the Material Balance (MB) calculations are:
− Size of the initial gas cap
− The influx from the aquifer (We)
− STOIIP (N)
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• Reservoir drive mechanism is the way by which the reservoir provides
the required energy for driving the fluids through the reservoir to be
produced through the wellbore.
• Total fluids produced from the reservoir equal total expansion of:
1. Hydrocarbon in the oil zone.
2. Gas in the gas cap.
3. Rock & its associated water compressibility.
4. Water influx from the aquifer into the oil zone.
383

• As a summary, hydrocarbon reservoirs are classified based on the
drive mechanism as follow:
Reservoirs
Gas Oil
Reservoirs Reservoirs
Without Under-Saturated Saturated

Water Drive (Pi > Pb) (Pi < Pb)
With Without Depletion Drive

Water Drive Water Drive Solution-gas drive
With Water Drive Gas Cap Drive
Active Water Drive
Combination Drive
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• Drive mechanisms for GAS reservoirs:
− Due to gas compressibility, so gas Gas
present in the reservoir significantly Dew pressure
differ in volume & quality when they Current pressure
reach the surface because of change in

pressure & temperature.
− Nature of gas reservoir itself may be Gas
+ Condensate
either Dry gas reservoir or Retrograde

condensate gas reservoir.
Associated gas
− Gas in the reservoirs may exist as
associated gas reservoir (connected to
an oil reservoir below it that is known
as gas cap) or non-associated gas
reservoir (there is no oil reservoir
connected with it but may be connected Non-associated gas
to an aquifer or no).
385

• Drive mechanisms for OIL reservoirs:
− Expansion of reservoir rock (reduction of pore volume) & liquid
expansion drive mechanism reservoir.
− Depletion, Solution, Internal or Dissolved gas drive mechanism
reservoir.
− Gravity Drainage drive mechanism reservoir.
− Gas Cap drive mechanism reservoir.
− Water drive mechanism reservoir.
− Combination drive mechanism reservoir.
Expansion Gravity drainage drive
drive
Wellbore
Secondary
gas cap
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• Drive mechanisms for OIL reservoirs:
− Production performance for any reservoir is a strong function in its
drive mechanism.
− These figures showing the general production performance for the
different drive mechanisms.
Depletion Drive Mechanism Gas cap Drive Mechanism Water Drive Mechanism
387

• Recover Factor (RF) is defined as the ratio between the producible
reserve to the Original Oil volume In Place (OOIP).
• This is a summary table with the average recovery factors for oil & gas
reservoirs:
Range Average
Average Oil Recovery Factors,
Drive Mechanism
% of OOIP
• Highest oil recovery
1- Solution Gas Drive 5 - 30 15
factor comes from active
water drive mechanism. 2- Gas Cap Drive 15 - 50 30
Oil Reservoirs
3- Active Water Drive 30 - 60 40
4- Gravity Drainage Drive 16 -85 50
Average Gas Recovery Factors,

% of OGIP
• Highest gas recovery 1- Volumetric reservoir
70 - 90 80
factor comes from gas Gas Reservoirs
(Gas expansion drive)
reservoir without water 2- Water Drive 35 - 65 50
drive mechanism.
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• General terms used in the material balance calculations are:
N&G : Original oil & gas in place.
NP & GP : Cumulative oil & gas produced to a certain date.
m : Bulk volume ratio of the gas cap zone to the oil zone.
Ct : Total compressibility = Cf + CoSo + CwSw + CgSg
Co, Cw, Cg, Cf : Oil, water, gas & formation compressibilities respectively.
So, Sw, Sg : Oil, water & gas saturations respectively.
Rs, Rp : Gas in solution & producing GOR, scf/stb
b o, b w, b g : Oil, water & gas formation volume factors respectively.
bt : Two-phase (total) formation volume factor which is used
below bubble point pressure = b o + (Rsi − Rs) bg
Z : Gas compressibility (deviation) factor.
389

Material balance for Gas reservoirs without water drive:
• In this case there is no aquifer, so the main driving energy comes from
gas expansion in the reservoir due to high gas compressibility.
• Expansion of reservoir rock & connate water are always present but
often minor sources of reservoir energy for gas reservoirs due to too high
gas expansion with pressure changes.
Gp
G b gi (G – Gp) b g
After production time (t)
P i & Zi P&Z
• Apply the material balance since

reservoir volume is constant → G ∗ βgi = G − Gp ∗ βg
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• Re-arranging the equation we have:
Gp
Bad measurement
βgi Gp βgi
Gp = G 1 − R. F = = 1−
βg G βg
• So, plotting values of (Gp) vs. (1 − b gi / b g) G

@ different times will result-in a straight-
line relationship passing through the bg
origin with slope equal to (G). 1− i
bg
βg = 0.00504
TZ
P → Gp = G 1 −
βgi
βg
=G 1−
Zi P
Z Pi
• Similarly, plotting values of (Gp) vs. (1 − ZiP / ZPi) @ different times will
result-in a straight-line relationship passing through the origin with
slope equal to (G).
391

• From this equation, since the term (Pi/Zi) is Zi P
constant, so the term (P/Z) is hence linear with (Gp). Gp = G 1 −
Z Pi
• So, it is easy now to find the value of
(G) by plotting the values of (Gp) on
X-axis with their corresponding (P/Z)
values of (P/Z) on Y-axis.
• This result-in a straight line that is (Pi/Zi)
intersect with X-axis @ a point
equal to (G) & intersect with Y-axis
@ a point equal to (Pi/Zi). No aquifer
• Deviation of this relationship away

from the straight line indicating a With aquifer Gp
presence of an aquifer (bottom
water) below the gas reservoir. G G
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Material balance for Oil reservoirs:
• Same as for gas reservoir, the material balance for any oil reservoir
drive mechanisms can be driven.
• The general form of the material balance equation for oil reservoirs can
be described as a net withdrawal (withdrawal − injection).
Oil & dissolved gas Water Water Gas
production production injection injection
Oil & dissolved gas Compression of pore space + Water Gas cap
expansion connate water expansion influx expansion
393

Drive Mechanisms Indices:
• Havlena & Odeh simplified Material Balance Equations (MBE) as follow:
• The expansion terms (Eo, Eg & Ef,w) in the equation are defined as:
− (Eo) expansion of the oil & its originally dissolved gas
− (Eg) expansion of the free gas
− (Ef,w) expansion of the pores & connate water
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Drive Mechanisms Indices:
• Drive indices for oil reservoirs indicate the relative magnitude of the
various drive mechanisms & energy sources acting in the reservoir.
• A simple description of a drive index is the ratio of a particular
expansion term to the NET withdrawal (hydrocarbon voidage).
• The sum of these drive mechanisms indices = 1
395

Water Influx Models used in Material Balance:
• Active water drive reservoir is a reservoir that is
in contact with a supporting aquifer below it
where water invasion from this aquifer into the
reservoir pushes oil toward the producer wells.
• In this case, reservoir fluids production is supported by the EXPANSION

of the COMPRESSED AQUIFER WATER into the reservoir when
reservoir pressure drops due to production of the reservoir fluids.
• When the produced water cut (W.C%) becomes very high & the
production is not more economic, this is called “water out.”
• Wells located @ low structure part (down dip of the reservoir) near to
the aquifer will be watered-out before wells located @ high structure.
• Watered-out wells are good candidates & economically most efficient
to be converted to water injection wells for water flood operation.
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• There are two types of the aquifers.
1. EDGE water drive:

Aquifer exclusively feeds
one side or flanks of the
reservoir.
2. BOTTOM water drive:

Aquifer feeds the entire
bottom of the reservoir.
• Water drive mechanism is effective if the aquifer contacting to the

reservoir is very large as in case of BOTTOM water drive.
397

• Reservoir−Aquifer systems are commonly classified based on:
− Degree of pressure maintenance
− Flow regimes
− Outer boundary conditions
− Flow geometries
• Various mathematical water influx that are commonly used in Material
Balance calculations have been developed for estimating water influx
that all are based on assumptions that describe the characteristics of
the aquifer such as:
− Carter & Tracy unsteady state & Schilthuis steady state
− Fetkovich method (Radial & Linear aquifer)
− Van Everdingen Hurst unsteady state (Edge & Bottom water drive).
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Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• Oil & gas production rates declining with time due to loss of reservoir
pressure with production.
• Production Decline Curve Analysis (DCA) including Production Analysis
(PA) or Rate Transient Analysis (RTA) is a graphical analytical approach
that is used to analyze the declining in production rates with time to
establish a trend line of decline as a function of time in order to:
− Forecasting the future production performance for the total field
(or the individual well) that help in the reservoir development.
− Predict the abandonment date based on the set abandonment rate.
− Estimate ultimate recovery.
399
Reserves Calculations − Decline Curve Analysis

• This is a typical production performance; it is important to know that:
− There is no decline across the green areas, for the initial production
startup or during the constant production “Plateau”.
− Only across the yellow area, the decline occurs.
400
200

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10/08/2022

Sources of Geological Data

− Depositional facies − Structure geometry − Lithology − Depositional facies − Lithology

Geological Structure Contour Map

Geological Contour Map

Geological Contour Map

Geological Contour Map

Geological Contour Map

• Carbonate (CaCo3) it is different than

Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Shale

Clay Anhydrite Gypsum Salt

• Syncline Fold is the opposite type of fold, Syncline

• Folds typically occur in anticline-syncline

Reservoir & Cap Rocks

• Reservoir rock such silica (sandstone) & calcite (carbonate) appears in

• Cap rocks are relatively impermeable

• Traps can be divided into Structural traps & Stratigraphic traps.

• Another type of the structural traps

Reservoir Geometry Definitions

Reservoir Thicknesses Definitions

Reservoir Thicknesses Definitions

Seismic for Hydrocarbon Exploration

Seismic for Hydrocarbon Exploration

Seismic for Hydrocarbon Exploration

Seismic for Hydrocarbon Exploration

Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP)

Rotary Drill String Components

Drill Collar (DC)

Multilateral Extended reach Horizontal

Kick off Point & Landing Point

Kick off Point

Sidetrack & Directional Drilling

Sidetrack & Directional Drilling

Inclination & Azimuth in Directional Drilling

• By another words, it is an estimate d q2

• It is usually expressed in degrees q4

Drilling Fluids (Mud) Circulation

Drilling Fluids (Mud) Pressure Gradient

• Using mud weight (ppg):

Drill Pipe Stuck

Drill Pipe Stuck (1 − Differential Stuck)

Drill Pipe Stuck (2 − Mechanical Stuck)

Accumulation of cuttings Shale layer caving in

Drill Pipe Stuck (2 − Mechanical Stuck)

Drill Pipe Stuck (3 − Key Seat Stuck)

• In key seat stuck, the drill string is more likely

Overbalance & Underbalance Drilling

• Under Balanced Drilling (UBD) is used where the

Types of Well Completion

Barefoot (open Perforated Gravel pack

Types of Well Completion

• These perforations will create channel

• Otherwise, penetration in one direction

Perforating Gun Calibrating Depth

• Velocity of the firing explosive charge

• Pressure applied on the target casing

Explosive charges Detonator cord Detonator

Detonator Detonator cord

Perforating Gun Geometry

Perforating Gun Geometry

Perforating Gun Geometry

Shoot Per Foot (SPF)

• A field study conducted by King, Correlation for oil wells