Our body has two types of glands pancreas, etc. On the other hand the exocrine glands and the endocrine endoerine glands are ductless gland». 1 Slands. The exocrine glands send thelr gecretions are called hormones, which poured directly into the blood and are | secretions (enzymes) through duets to the target organs. For example, salivary glands, carried by blood to the target organ ENDOCRINE GLANDS The hormone-producing glands ? called endocrine glands. These glands !» no ducts and they pour their « directly into the blood (Fig, 5.1). 1 Hed ductless gland® they are also ca iacletont ores glands, i.c., hormon”” | Wre Weereted in very small quantities) ‘ate vital and carried to all par’ ly, ach hormone has a specific!" ducts and duciany Concise BIOLOGY — Middle Boro! ~ 4 i —_—i 4 its effect is produced in one or more s only. irectly. lood stream and acts on In this chapter, we will discuss only the important endocrine glands, namely qoid, adrenal, pancreas and pityitary thy’ verily glands sg bor THYROID GLAND ny UByulet ‘The thyroid js’ bilobed gland/situated ‘on either sido6t the wind pipe, just below — | Thyroid aca are common in many Fig. 5.3 Simple goitre Tt secretes the hormone | parts of India(The use of iodised (iadine~ added) salt im the food is recommended because jodine is required in_the most of the activities of the body. Tt production of thyroxine.) production? stimulates growth in infants, The insufficent Ev eer de secretion or over-secretion of this gland has 2. Cretinism : It is an ailment which harmful effects on the body. brings about abnormal development in an infant. This results in both physical BACK VIEW and mental retardation. wonwe pane PHARYNX ee sy 3, Myxoedema : It is a condition seen in an adult when insufficient amount of thyroxine is produced. It shows general sluggishness, with swelling on the face and hands. ‘moe os B. Oversecretion of thyroxine causes an OESOPHAGUS increased metabolic rate, increased heart beat, weight loss and general restlessness 4 Fig. 5.2 The Thyroid Gland the. thyroxine which is an iodine-containing Tn, This hormone speeds up the rate of ner ADRENAL GLANDS '°|\*! * : esas tereton of thyroxine The adrenal glands are like caps over the iF kidneys (Fig. 5.4). Each adrenal gland |. le goitre : It is an ailment caused consists of two parts —a central medulla and _ 7 Aue to the enlargement of the thyroid a i a peripheral cortex. . It appears as a swelling in the \m — ‘i eck ' jedulla secretes adrenaline|(also called be a pet sce to insufficient iodine epinephrine or emergency hormone). Th : ae y % pre) secreted when a person is under ; wf ate < tus UW Endocrine System and Adolescence QF ner | thewline Comets dathilis Praipeblood supply to the muscles and release | more into the blood by the liver (ike SS a, ADRENAL GLANS. ye" mere os vem Fig. 5.4 The ts sland si 4 adrenal /cortex secretes many hormones, but the well-known hormone is Sottisone. In general {the cortical hormones wane, (‘The influence carbohydra' it, and protein metabolism) Also, the¥ requlate the salt an a water balance in the body They adapt the body to “stresses” such as extreme heat, cold, infections, iC] Pyucista Of CORNZOUE PANCREAS > if beth. axperint & _ tar Va —* (the a: is situated behind the stomach) Although it is mainly a digestive gland, it has a cluste eting cells called IsTe ger They i $- insulin and —_ y stream in three-ways { (@) Converts extra ghico ~~ which is ultimately sti and muscles /(Gi) Induces the cells to b glucose to produce heat | A for the body. |(@) causes the cells to com ie glucose into fat. Unsufficient secretion of insulin diabetes (more correctly called diab mellitus) A diabetic person has a high concentration of sugar (glucose) in the blood: t deal of urine loaded loss of ee ee ee ee i Usually he loses weight and tends to become weak.) Syrians 4 gia In certain persons, the glucose level comes down due to oversecretion of insulin This is very harmful and may have serious crideq.Sonsequences. Glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen in the liver to glucose, Thus, it raise the sugar level in the blood. PITUITARY GLAND Pituitary gland is a pea-sized glan located below the brain. It secretes seversome of which regulate the ‘other endocrine glands. So, the nd is also called the “master Some major hormone ~ producing glands in humans Table 5.1: Some of the main hormone-producing glands and their secretions in the human body Some of the functions of major hormones produced by the pituitary are : — Growth hormone regulates growth especially in the adolescent years. Insufficient amount of growth hormone causes dwarfism and excess secretion results in gigantism. — Thyroid-stimulating hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine. — Follicle-stimulating hormone influences the production of sperms in males and the ova or eggs in females. — The pituitary gland plays an important role in the birth process as it produces hormones which cause the contraction of the muscles of the uterus durin: child birth. —3 un — Prolactin stimulates ‘the breasts to produce milk after child birth. On either side of the wind pipe, just below | the larynx. | eta ce over the Kidneys. Adrenaline E Behind the stomach. + Insulin + Glucagon | (i) Growth hormone (GH) Gi) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Follicle-stimulatingayn 789105 © UT WaLSASOO3 LSadO5 “seare [eonyderdoa G mn p ad& cam ue ayy ut Afuo aay 03 paidepe are sqeuma squeyd au [Ty “2p Jo Sususperp ans diay} ary seare Upns [Ty “SuTeyUnOUT pe |, PLOM YaeID ay} WO 3, uray aug ‘AT[eIAHT uo 214019 uaamyaq uor, PUDSIPU| = 42q Uolyo0Ja,uI ‘uolpUIJap :swaysksore Bull rape sneyTiuAsForest is a large area of land with a dense growth of trees and a large variety of shrubs, bushes, gra ses, etc. All these plants produce their own food through photosynthesis and are, therefore, categorised as self-food producers, more technically called the autotrophs (auto : self, troph : food) Next, there are plant-eating animals (herbivores) such as deer, rabbits, pigeons, parrots, or even insects like grasshoppers, crickets, butterflies, bees, etc. They all eat the plants directly or eat their fruits, flowers etc., or even suck the plant juices. All such animals are ranked as primary consumers (meaning direct plant eaters) Next to the primary consumers, there are animals like tiger, lion, wolf, lizards, snakes, some birds which capture the herbivores and eat their flesh. Such animals are categorised simply as carnivores, or technically the secondary consumers. Consider another possibility in a forest involving one more stage of food level. Grass (producer) eaten by Grasshopper. Grasshopper (primary consumer) eaten by a Frog. | Prog (secondary consumer) is eaten by a Snake. Suppose the snake (tertia: eaten by a peacock, then the peacock belong, to another food level. All such food levels - called the trophic levels meaning food. obtaining steps in a food chain, Eating the dead : All the different trophic level animals die ue to one reason or the other. If the body of the dead is not eaten by the putrefying flesh- eaters (scavengers), it will spoil the ecosystem, The dead material is further broken down by bacteria and fungi in the soil, thus helping in the return of nutrients back to the soil for the plants to grow. ry consumer) i, Thus in a forest, or in any other the chain of the types of food obtaii be as follows : Producers > Primary — Second: consumers consumers consumers (Green (Herbivores) (Primary jecondary plants) camivores carnivores COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM In an ecosystem there are two categories of components : the living components (all Kinds of plants, animals, and microorganisms) called the BIOTIC component, and several non-living components like sunlight, air water, warmth, ete. collectively called the ABIOTIC component. A. The BIOTIC (living) components of a" ecosystem consist of the following sequence of trophic (food) levels : 1. Trophic level 1 (Green plants) : The- consist of the trees, bushes and grasse* These are the starting point of tl“nourishment «l for all life in an econystem. They produce the food > thesis, thus categorised ss producers (autotrophs), . All the different food levels next to are covered under a common “category — Bore meaning, 4 Topic level 2 Panag animal the + These are the vast varieties of ~ animals such as deer, rabbits, rats, pigeons, parrots, grasshoppers, bees, ete, They directly eat the plants or their parts such as fruits, seeds, flowers, etc. or suck the plant sap from their leaves or stems, [Producers v6 consumers : As described ‘earlier, the green plants are ranked as the plant-eating animals are ‘ranked as consumers (they consume the d by the plants) or even more 'as primary consumers because first direct plant eaters.] level 3 (Flesh-eating animals — + These are the animals which eir prey (some herbivore) and eat es:Tigers, wolves, snakes, lizards, ‘birds, etc. These are also described lary consumers (eating, the primary el4 (Second rank flesh-eaters) : canbe a good example of this third ‘consumers. Its food chain sequence as follows : Rat + Snake + Peacock Consumer Consumer — Consumer P CPimary) (Secondary) (Tertiary) & the above mentioned four chain- s, there is yet another category of Trophic lovvol 1 Vig. 4. Trophie levels within a food chain organisms that feed on the dead material of the organisms occupying the above four trophic levels, These can be further divided into scavengers, detritivores and decomposers Scavengers feed on dead animal and plant material. Example : Vultures, kites, crows, some insects, etc, Detritivores and decomposers consume the remains left by the scavengers Detritivores such as earthworms, millipedes, slugs, etc. feed on detritus or decomposing plant and animal parts as well as faeces while decomposers obtain nutrition by absorbing nutrients that result from the breaking down of the dead organic matter. Bacteria, fungi and protists fall under the category of decomposers as they are unable to ingest dead matter directly. B. The ABIOTIC (non-living) components in an ecosystem constitute the following, 1. Sunlight : For the production of food in green plants by photosynthesis. ——— Ecosystems2 Ales > Te prowidle oxygen to plants and setts for repeation, and carton shore to plants for photosynthesis, > To serve as a medium for Hight for Randy, nseets, ete. * Toserve as an agony for the dispersal Sf seeds, fruits and pollen, by the owing wank ‘S. Water : Recetwedd as rainfall and absorbed ‘SS Soel water, and then taken by the plants <= Soesumed by the animals in drinking from Grains, puddles or rivers. & Temperatare = Hot, mild or cold Semperatare of a region influences the Sede fonctions of the plants and animals Beme & Sat region, Sell.= Sell. im.a, way. is. the. foremost Seespoment of the forests and for that Sass even for all other ecosystems. The Snoits a= well os fox cutfowncms wig, en ao the mand containing dead orga Taner The sow types are di Even ponds, rivers and lakes Line Of soil at their bottom, wise seared by the organisms living there, Sie FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD Wea gai member and isitsefeaten by ya ‘member. x d web is a network of several i chains, inter. FOOD CHAINS The diagram given below depicts , i chain involving five organisms Tepresent; five trophic levels starting from a grec, plant at the bottom. Eagle — Top carnivore, Trophic level + (Quaternary consumer) Snake «if —Gamivore, Trophic level 1V + ertiary consumer) Frog t —CGamivore, Trophic level II] consumer) Pee Grasshopper $% | Herbivore, Trophic level Il (Primary consumer) & Green Plant Producer, Trophic level | Soet Here again. the green plant Producer, the caterpillar which is © Be remy consumer, 2 smpyramid Cangy 4 atwonye uprighe into organi compounds for the consumption of other living things in the ecosystem. These nutrients are passed on through Irzlnphic levels in fond webs. plants fail to “"ranster these materials, animals would not be able to gain the nutrients they need to sarvive. Plants do this by extracting nutrients from the ground — nutrients that Se. directly from the source, iz, soil. Brora how Advantages of Food Webs ¥e%"* Sr 28 (Tee! food webs permit alternative foods) (these espe a beter Chance of Survival of an — em a happens to be scare)it simply means that food_web provides more stability to an ecosystem than a food chain) pro Selim 7: ake Y . (eet * 8 yo a uctic - sea mniealt "te represented in Fig. 44 FOOD PYRAMIDS uci: = iy thong 2S lod APE netic mt fare Nigh dusfic tae! Baugh SP You know what a pyramid mete It’ interdegendence between ets means any figure or shape that has a large base, which continues narrowing at each level upwards, finally ending as a small point. Same thing generally happens in a food chain. For erample, let us take a food chain with tiger at the top. Grass ~ Deer ~> Tiger 4 grown up tiger must have eaten several deer im its life-time and each one of these deer must have eaten hundreds and thousands of ase twigs. This was in terms of number of Weightwise or more appropriately mass-wise, telationship can be indicated in food char’ E Largest mass is consumed at the first. level ; (grass — deer), which does not lead to the : ‘same mass of flesh of the deer. Next, again the total mass of flesh of deer eaten by the Concise BIOLOGY — Middle School — @ Bo Oy Maus only fo. M91 96 Bron Fig. 44 Two examples of food pyramids tiger in its life time, must have been severs} times that of its own body mass. Thus, these two types of pyramids (of numbers and of biomass) in a certain forest can be supposedly In the beginning of this chapter, you hav learnt that biotic components (plan and microbes) of every ecosyster pond forest or ocean can not live independently They are interdependent on each other in one way or the other. Possibly you can not think of any Population on earth that is inhabited just by its own. For any species, the minimal Tequirement is more species on which it can feed. Even a plant which produces its own food, can not survive alone; it needs soi microbes to break down the organic mat in soil and return the inorganic nutrients absorption. Not only this, the plants need an animal agent for pollination. Thus, it is Obvious that in nature animals, plants and microbes can not live independently but they Kebic leve/ ¢o 4dent on each other in many a biological community. ; dence between organisms arise fon interaction of populations of two rent species: These interactions could be {iter harmful or neutral to one species eon ‘The three such relationships are : stein sti’ parasitism and predation. josis : In this interaction, both the ing species are benefitted. The most inating, example is found in plant-animal ip. Plants need the help of animals for pallinaing their flowers and dispersing ther oeeds. Animals are paid “fees” by the plants in the form of juicy and nutritious Frits. Lichens provide another good example of symbiosis in which a fungus and a photosynthetic alga live in a symbiotic relationship. Parasitism : In this interaction, one partner (the ite) receives advantage while the other (the host) is at a loss. In fact parasite enjoys free lodging and meals at the cost of the host. The life-cycles of parasites are often complex, involving one or more intermediate hosts. Themalarial parasite, Plasmodium needs host (vector) — a mosquito other hosts. Human liver fluke parasite) depends on two diate hosts (a snail and a fish) to life-cycle, The parasites harm the they may reduce the revival, growth roduction of the host. A predator catches and kills s for food. Predation is nature’s ing energy. Although animals Muits are categorised as ‘herbivores’, tin broad ecological context, not very ‘from predators. ee and the deer provide a good : predation, but a house sparrow eating any seed is no less a predator. FLORA AND ECOSYSTEM FAUNA OF FOREST Flora means the plants naturally occurring ina particular area, and similarly fauna means the animals naturally living in that area Flora and Fauna of a forest can never be same throughout the world. Forests of very cold regions, of moderately warm regions and those of hot regions will have their own particular types of plants and animals. So, a single description cannot serve the purpose. ‘There are different kinds of forests of India each with its characteristic life forms, for example : 1. Tropical rain forests such as those on western coast of India and North East Himalayas. Flora ; Evergreen trees, bamboos, shrubs. Fauna : Jungle cats, leopards, monkeys, flying squirrels, snakes, centipedes, millipedes, many insects, snails, etc Temperate Deciduous forests suchasthose found on the eastern coast of India. Flora : Teak, sandalwood, sal, ete: Fauna: Moths, beetles, deer, wolves, foxes, etc. Coniferous forests such as the Himalayas at an altitude above 3000 metres. Flora : Fir and pine trees. Fauna : Very few animals deer, goat, wolves, some ferns, x those found in 1700 to s such as squirrel, birds like robin, sparrow. — Ecosystems 39.Now, let us study some particular forests of India : * Gir Forests (Gujrat) F Various Kinds of large shady trees such as peepal, acacia, neem, etc. Some wild bushes, and grasses. Animals like bears, dogs, cats, rats, rabbits, crows, kites, vultures, and the most Significant animal, the Lion. * Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand) Flora : Various kinds of trees including the pine trees, shrubs and grasses Fauna = Various types of animals, especially the tiger. * Jaladpara Sanctuary (West Bengal) Flora = Various kinds of trees, including banyan trees. Fauna = Various kinds of animals and birds, especially the rhinoceros. Risks to ecosystem With the increased industrialisation and Scientific approach to our life, the natural dwindling greatly. Any kind « nature results into severe danger to our bi ecosystem. Its treatment with nature hay Pose many serious challenges and problem ike climate change, vector-bore diseases, decay wildlife and its resources and food and \. shortage today. Exploitation of nat resources prevalent all over the World, erupted into severe ecological degradation which is definitely the biggest threat to Proper functioning of our ecosystem, has Restoring an ecosystem by establishing finer balance between organisms and environment is the best that, being responsible humans, we can do. Until and unless the steps to preserve the decaying charm of our ecosystem are not initiated, our ecosystem is not going to support us in having a better and healthy environment. Nowadays, it is imperative that we assist nature by not disturbing its integrity, and help in restoring its lost balance. By protecting our native natural resources like wildlife, rivers forests, etc., one can contribute greatly towards the preservation of our ecosystem Radical changes have to be made in ourApart from the transportation substances and the removal-of-metaboli tory system also helps in protecting the body fri and regulating the activities of the body oe transporting hormones. THE PUMPING ORGA *(t heart has the size of one’s folded "| fist and_weighs about 225-340 grams, It is located _it cent) st_cavity, with its tip slightly tilted _to_the left side. layered membrane called pericardium) Thi space between the two- membranes if anes is fill with a fluid called pericardial fluid which SS shocks, jerks or any mechani ne mall eee heart is td CAPILLARIES Sree from the diagram that blood in our body circulates i er ie,all the time through blood vessels. The blood flows through blood vessels and its flow is regulated by the heart.(The heart, acting as a pump, pushes and receives the blood to.and from the whole body through the blood vessels. Such a type of blood circulatory system is called a closed vascular system) As ceive and pump blood and to keep i irculating in t the body thre rough blood vessels} Internally, the heart is divided vertical divided heals into two chambers om chamber called auricle rt has four chambers in all — auricles and two ventricles. The pa are the “receiv into hinge and Dibod vexcee a ‘The CirculatorySUPERVOR VENA CAVA 37 PULMONARY ARTERY PUUONARY TRUNK Fig. 6.2 Internal structure 0 all parts of the in size and their wall muscular § of the body. Ventricles ls are thicke as_to efficiently ‘© different parts of the body "isht auricle opens into the right this opening is guarded by the spid valve (having. three cusps or flaps), "ly, the opening between the left auricle eft ventricle is guarded by ihe ricuspid valve (having two cusps or flaps @ regulate the flow of blood in in one , rom auricles into the ventricl Ne blood flows from. the right ven into monary artery and from the left ventricle aorta (the fargest artery) The Tow xc from_the ventricles into-these two 's also regulated by valve Ives. These resemble a half moon, hence they are 1 semi-lunar_vab aes valves are et INTERVENTICULAR SET human heart (Diagrammatic) Preset at the o autery and aorta Jeave the right and left ventricles repanT hey ensure that the blood does Not flow back into the ventricles. Pacemaker Ye} ‘The heart is a muscular organ made u; wuscular organ made of specialised mus m called any huscles These muscles show continuous contraction and relaxation, without any rest throughout the lifetime of a person. This contraction (and simultaneous relaxation) is a result of an electrical impulse which originates jn a node called the sinoatrial or SA node. (This node is located in Theupper right_corner of the right auricle and is responsible for setting a rhythm for the contractions and relaxations of the heart or simply the heart beat) Henée, itis also called as the “natural pactnaket of the heart”. The Circulatory System usclesat carry blood . They are of three carry blood away from frraro dene i) Veins : They carry blood towards the heart from different body parts. Gapillaries : These are the finest blood Vessels in the body interconnecting the arteries and the veins. These are_the Principal sites where the exchange of water, oxgyen, carbon dioxide and many other nutrients and waste substances between the blood and body tissues takes place. Blood vessels of the hes Gi Vena cavae — These are the two large veins bringing deoxygenated blood to the right auricle. The superior vena D(a brings in deoxygenated Blood ] Arteries of blood flow. ire of blood 3. Flow of blood | the pulmonary artery) and under high pressure. 4 Valves | Valves are absent. 5. Position in the body | Arteries are deep-seated Differences between arteries and veins {1 Carry blood from the heart to various parts of the body. | Camry oxygenated blood (except Blood flows with high speed oxygenated blood from the left lungs. These veins open into the left ayy Pulmonary trunk — It arises froq right ventricle carrying d to the lungs for o (The pulmonary trunk bra tn left and right pulmonary artery, ¢ Soing into the respective Jung.) Aorta — Leaves the left ventri carrying oxygenated blood toa of the body through its branches, Coronary artery — It is the blood) vessel that distributes oxygenated) blood to the walls of the heart Te i a branch that arises from the aorta, Coronary veins — They bring back deoxygenated blood from the walls » of the heart and pour it into an opening in the right auricle. ' | Veins Carry blood from different parts of the body to the heart. Carry deoxygenated blood (except the pulmonary vein), Blood flows with low speed and under low pressure. Valves are present. Veins are comparatively superticial4,000 CIRCULATION 4? | the deoxygenated blood from different sarts of the body is rece} t suricle. Simultaneously, fhe o A od Te ane from the lungs is AV vA\ves ceived in the Teft auricle (Fig, 6 TRS e right auricle contracts and pumps covygenated blood into the right ventricle. * simultaneously, the left auricle contracts From B0o¥ pours oxygented blood into the left VENTRICLES ride caoaes e atrio-ventricular valves close with a B. -ound when the ventricles are full (end AV VALVES an auricular contraction). At the same me ne the semi-lunar valves open. PROM nooy, FROM ness + The right ventricle begins to contract. The deoxygenated! blood is pushed into To BODY PARTS To LUNGS © pulmonary artery, which transports oars ARTERY) < blood to the lungs for oxygenation. similarly, the left ventricle contracts and xygenated blood is pumped into the c. aorta th great re VENTRICLES rta with great pressure because the _VENTFICLES blood has to reach all parts of the body. —_ sound when the | in the ventricles Cube b has been pushed into the arteries (end | Fig. 6.3 Working of the heart of a ventricular contracti % blood on the right side of the heart never It should be remembered that when the _ mixes with that on the left side. heart chambers relax — they are filled with pouyble circulation blood and when they contract — blood is The gisod flay nroughieheanteere pushed out of them. Both auricles relax and ie) Oo ice one full circulation contract together. Similarly, both ventricles thretenott thares fi too, relax and contract together. The 7 contraction of the auricles is quickly followed _* {At first, blood flows from the right side »y the contraction of the ventricles. This goes of the heart to the lungs and then "ina rhythmic manner, about 72 times per _Teturns to the left side of the heart vinute, Also remember that the right half of (Pulmonary circulation).) hat {pists heart (ie. the right auricle and the right * The second time, the blood flows from ntricle) receives deoxygenated blood, while the left side of the heart to all parts of left half (ie. the left auricle and the left the body and then returns to the right ‘ricle) receives oxygenated blood. The side of the heart (Systemic circulation), > 57 The Circulatory System GUACH pulmonig aPULMONARY VEIN CARRYING BLOOD BACK TO THE HEART AORTA = THE MAJOR ARTERY LEAVING THE ARTERIES TO HEART. THE BODY CAVA RETURNING BLOOD TO THE HEART CAPILLARY BEDS IN TISSUES From the above diagram it is clear that blood passes through the heart twice, once when it is deoxygenated and then after getting oxygenated, This is called the double circulation of blood.