UNIT 10 STRENGTHENING OF STONE AND

BRICK MASONRY STRUCTURES

Structure
10.1 Introduction
Objectives
10.2 Sources of Defects
10.3 Diagnosis and Measurement of Defects
10.3.1 Cracksas LndicrSors of Defects
10.3.2 Equipmen& for Diagnosis theDefects
10.4 Classificationof Defects
10.4.1 Structural or PhysicalDefects
10.4.2 Chemical Actioa
10.5 Strengthening and Repair Techniques
10.5.1 Plaster Cracks
10.5.2 Efflorescencein Walls
10.5.3 Treatment of Masonry Walls
10.5.4 Buttress Walls
10.6 Case Study - Arresting Cracks in Masonry Walls
10.7 Preventive Maintenance Techniques
10.7.1 Stohe Masonry
10.7.2 Brick Masonry
10.7.3 Selection of Bricka and Acceptance Tests
10.7.4 Selection of Stones and AcceptanceTeats
10.8 New Materials for Strengthening Masonry Walls
10.9 Summary
10.10 Answers to SAQs

16.1 INTRODUCTION
You hat c ,:ready learnt about defects in buildings in itcans like timber, steel and sanitary
fittings and plumbing. The repaicing of timber, steel, sanitary fittings and other materials
has been studied by you in the previous units. Now, in this unit repairing and preventive
maintenance techniques for strengtheningof stone and brick masonry will be taught.
Strengthening of stone and brick masonry structures is considered as very important work.
It requires mr lsures which enhance the life and functions of the structures in question.
Timely action of strengthening will extend structures life time and conserve resources
which havc, to be used otherwise to rebuild the damaged structure.
Stone and brick masonry structures require strengthening in two situations. Onc due to
weakening over a perictcl of time starting with normal wear and tear on their surf aces due
to exposure to natural forces such as weathering action, deteriorationof materials,
functiqnal use etc, The second situation occurs due to unanticipated hazards such as fire,
earthquake, cyclone and so on.
Thorough knowledge on actual defective conditions of the stone and brick masonry and
appropriate techniques of strengthening are prerequisite for successful rehabilitation and
restoration. Enhanced life of the existing structures for continuous functional use is the
primary objective of strengthening a building.
In this unit such methods have been presented which reflect upon the identification of
causes and measurement of defects in stone and brick masonry. Strengtheningand
preventive maintenance techniques for stone and brick masonry are discussed.
Repair & PwventOve Objectives
MaintenanceTechniques
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
describe sources of defects,
classify the types of defects.
distinguish the techniques for strengthening, and
identify the preventive maintenance techniques.

10.2 SOURCES OF DEFECTS

R. Lee (1987) defines building defect as an imperfection, deficiency or fault in a building

element or component which adversely affect its functional performance and appearance.
In case of stone and brick masonry some defects are the natural consequence of aging and
normal use but many premature failures can be traced due to lack of proper skill and care
during construction and maintenance. Masonry undergoes decay due to aging,weatheri.g
and subsequent damage. It is quite likely that they are hardly maintained properly, and
once the decay starts, accelirated damage takes place.
Unlike stonewalls, brick walls are more prone to deterioration particularly when it is not
covered with any protective coating such as plaster, slurry coating or cement based
painting. Climatic conditions such as prolonged and severe rains and saline and chemical
environments hasten the deterioration of brick works. Poor quality of cement used can be
the main reason for deterioration a d it is hastened due to saline and chemical
environments. Some of the commonly experienced defects calling for strengthening in
brick and stone superstructure can be as given below.
Use of Bad Quality of Bricks ZW Stones
Brick or stones used for masonry work must conform to the quality standards laid down by
the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). Quality standards must be ensured at all stages of
the masonry works.
Rain Water Splashing on Unprotected Surface
Due to rain water splashing under burnt bricks and bricks made out of poor clay gets badly
affected. If only a few bricks are affected, it would be enough to cut and replace the
affected portions with good quality bricks. Where the problem is more severe affecting the
entire wall, the remedy lies in either providing an impervious layer of cement plaster after
thoroughly cleaning the surface or, in the extreme, replacing the entire affected brick wall.
Dewy of Wall Due to Leakage from Raln Water Pipes and Guttem
Defective guttering which may lead to water continuously flowing over the affected
portion of the wall, if any, should be remedied by providing proper guttering to prevent
gutter water flowing over the wall.
Reaction of Brick or Stone with Salinity In the Atmosphere
This is quite common in coastal area. Salinity in the atmosphere reacts with the bare
bricks in the wall leading to withering and disintegration. Remedy is in providhg a cement
pladter coating in the brick walls and periodical painting with cement based paints to fill up
the hair cracks that may develop in cement plaster so that the salinity does not penetrate to
the brick face.
Sulphate Attack on Mortar and Crystallization Effects
Bricks are affected by sulphate in mortar due to expansion of mortar leading to cracks.
This results in brick edges spalling off. The remedy lies in reconstruction of affected
portion.
Brick and Stone Withering Out
Further, various natural factors coupled with negligence, keep on attacking the stone and
brick masonry thereby causing further damage in stone and brick masonry. Tbe causes for
defects may be attributed at the following levels.
 10.2.1 Levels in Sources of Defects Strength* d Stone &
Brick Masonry Structures
i) Conceptual Level
It is often said that defects start on the drawing board. This may stem from unrealistic cost
limits or failure to give vital information on the functional requirements of the building for
choosing the proper masonry elements in the building.
ii) Design Level
The most common faults for stone and brick masonry may be grouped as under.
a) Failure to follow established design criteria in the choice of masonry system
and selection of materials.
b) Ignorance of the properties of materials, especially when more than one
material is used.
I
c) Use of new materials without performance data and time tested qualities.
d) Misjudgment of climatic conditions under which the materials have to
perform.
e) Poor communication from design to construction teams.
iii) Constsuction Level
The most common causes leading to defects in stone and brick masonry are:
a) A realistic working environment not considered in +signs, coupled with
emphasis on speedy completion, leading to careless and skimped masonry
work.
b) Absence of Quality Assurance groups to ensure greater care in quality of
materials and techniques used in masonry construction at all stages in the
construction process and closer supervision.
iv) User Level
1 Defects may be caused by unintentional misuse through a lack of information on the
correct mode of use, or by deliberate acts of vandalism. ?his though probabilistic in
I
I occurrence and depends on various related matters, the serious economic implications of
defects due to these causes are of great concern. Sometimes the design loadsme exceeded
by the users resulting in cracks in buildingelements.
v) Maintenance Level
Incorrect identification of the true cause of a defect followed by inappropriate remedial
work in stone and brick masonry fails to rectify the original defect but also may
substantidly worsen the condition of building. This is important as masonry is quite often
serve as load bearing structural support for the whole building.
Deterioration and improper alterations during the service life of the building affect actual
margin of safety provided for the building. The need, therefore, exists to evaluate the
potential hazard of each building proposed for rehabilitation. Following such an evaluation
the cost of appropriate ~Fengtheningor retrofit procedures has to be calculated so that the
feasibility of various schemes to mitigate unacceptable hazards can be determined.

10.3 DIAGNOSIS AND MEASUREMENT OF DEFECTS

10.3.1 Cracks as Indicators of Defects
Cracks in different structural members in a building are good indicators of the sources of
defects. In practice, the commonly observed types of cracks can be classified as given
below.
i) Diagonal Cracks
Diagonal cracks at lintel and sill level are caused due to differential strain between the
lightly loaded masonry below the opening and heavily loaded adjoining masonry where no
opening exists.
~epcrir& ~ r e v e ~ ~ t l v e ii) Horizontal Cracks
MaintenanceT&qucs
Horizontal cracks in the top most storey below slab level occur due to horizontal
movement of the roof slab resulting from shrinkage and consequent pulling of slab causing
llflfng W at its edgeS as shown in Figure lO,l@).

Cmcks 7 7-

iii) Vertical Cracks

Vertical cracks can be caused due to differential settlement of foundation as shown in
Figure 10.2.

Cracq can be caused at junctions of two dissimilar materials used in the wall, for example
conqte and brick work due to difference in thermal coefficient of expansion of materials
used. W1 these cracks can be repaired after enlarging the cracks and filling the crack by
appropriate mortar or using patent compounds/mastics. Generally this method is applied in
case of dormant cracks, fine pattern cracks and isolated defects. Disadvantages of this
method of repair is that the repaired portion looks proud.
Figures 10.3 to 10.14 show some of the typical cracks in masonry walls occurred due to
various reasons are discussed as follows:
a) The tensile cracks developed in mesomy wall due to tensile force can be seen in
Figure 10.3 .

Crack due tp
direct tension

b) Flexural tension cracks at lintel level due to shrinkage and construction of slab as
shown in Figure 10.4.
c) Shear crack at corners of wall B due to expansion of wall A can be seen in
Figure 10.5.
d) Norxnally shear crack in masonry pillar occurred due to expansion of RCC beam.
These cracks are shown in Figure 10.6.
e) Cracking due to expansion of brick work are shown in Figure 10.7.
f) Cracks by the sides of door frames with wall surface on both sides are shown in
Figure 10.8.
 Strengthening &Stone &
Brick Masonry Stroctares

Flexural tension
crdcks

7
LE
E VATION SECTION

A p r e 10.4 :F l e d Temiam Cracks

EPpre 10.7 :Cracks in Brick W o k

 Figon 10.8 t C& Developed by tbe Side dtbc Door h e

Cracking in top most storey of a load bearing structure due to compaction &
concretion of the slab and beams. Those cracks are shown in Figure 10.9.

Figure 10.9 :Shear Craclrs in Load Beerlng W d

Horizontal crack at the base of brick masonry parapet supports on a projecting

parapet are shown in Figure 10.10.

Vertical crack in multistoried buildings having window o p e m s in load bearing

walls.
WaLl marked as 'A' acts as pillars and are stressed much more than the portion 'B'
marked resulting differential sttesses. The cracks developed in walls are shown in
Figure 10.11.
Vertical cracks at junction of RCC column and brick masonry due to expansion and
contraction of RCC and bricks masonry are shown in Figute 10.12.
Vertical crack in brick wall (panel) of framed structure due to expansion of brick
work as shown in Figure 10.13.
Cracking of a partition wall supported on RCC beam when length to height ratio is
large and there is a central door opening assclearlyshown in Figute 10.14.
 Crack

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PLAN
 10.3.2 Equipments for Diagnosing the Defects
The general approach in diamosing the defects in stone and brick masonry shall be t0
examine carefully all the symptoms, consfdering all the probable causes. By a process M
eliminatidn the true cause and its source shall be identified and then an appropriate
remedial action shall be decided. In many instances a visual examination will be sufficient
for an experienced inspector to determine the cause. Where this is not possible instruments
may be u$ed for a more objective diagnosis.
There are many portable instruments in the market for investigating the causes of defects
whi* have useful applicationh brick and stone masonry also. They include :
~ o l s h i Meter:
a to test the comparative moisture content of materials used in the
' masonry works.
Endoscope: which comprisrs a slender tube fitted with a magnifier and light that can be
inserted through a small hole to give a view of the interior of wall cavities and other voids
within the masonry works.
Tel-tale Method
'Ih~,re~atetwo'types of cracks namely donnant and progressive. The tel-tale glass method
is used in lorder to h o w ,thetype of crack to ascertain the reasons for the same. In this
rpethod tek-tale glass pieces of appropriate'sizes will be fured to the masonry when cracks
are noticed. Over a period of time, increase in the width of cracks are observed. If the
width of the crack is increasing appreciably, suitable strengthening measures are employed
a d the m c t s rectified.

i) Define a defect, enlist various sources of defects in different stages in the life
of a masonry.
ii) What are the instruments used for diagnosing the defects ? Explain cracks as
indicators of defects ?

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10.4 CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS
Classification of defects in the stone and brick masonry in the buildings can be made in the
fobwing categories based on the sources of defects. They are:
a) Structural or Physical, and
b) Chemical action.
10.4.1 structural or Physical Defects
In tbis catekoty tfie following types of defects can be encountered:
i) settlement cracks in supported masonry walls due to overloading beyond the
load specified in the design, e.g. width or depth insufficient in relation to
b e h g capacity of sub-soil,
ii) building used for a purpose different from that for which it was designed,
iii) structural alterations, e.g. formations of large openings in supported wall, and
iv) concentrated load on adjacent foundations.
Tbe varioul causes for structural defects are given below:
a) shrinkage of clay subsoil due to withdrawal of ground water by prolonged
drought,
b) presence or fast growing trees nearby.
c) improper site drainage,
d) tunneling,
 undermining of foundations as a result of finer particles of sandy soil being Strengthening d Stone &
e) Brick Maaoryl Sthactwes
washed out by underground streams,
i
f) floodingor leaky drains,
g) long term settlement of peat and makeup ground,
h) downhill creep of clay soils,
i) shallow holes and mine working under foundations,
j) new excavations immediately adjacent to building to greater depth than old
foundations,
k) foundations of extensions, bays, screen walls etc., with shallower foundations
than those to the main building, and
1) vibrations from heavy traffic, machinery, piling operations, tunneling, etc:
The smctural defects in the external walls could be seen as diagonal aacks due to
settlement. Due to omission of expansion joints in long lengths of walling, stfuctural
cracks occur in the walls sometimes resulting in outward bulging of wall. Displacement of
walls occurs due to any one of the following factors:
i) thickness of wall insufficient in relation to height,.
ii) inadequate lateral support,
iii) overloading of structure, and
iv) vibrations from heavy traffic or machines.
10.4.2 Chemical Action
Chemical actionin brick and stone masonry originates basically from the phemical
reactions of the constituent minerals and the atmospheric gases. In case of brick masonry
white powdery deposit in the form of efflorescenceis caused by crystallization of soluble
salts in bricks or mortar. Further, spalling of surface can be caused due to sulphate attack
crystallization of salts in outer layers of friable bricks, and weathering of less durable
under-burnt bricks.
Another defect is the bowing of brick facings to concrete wall; the causes for which are
differential movement that is drying shrinkage of concrete with possible moisture
expansion of freshly fired bricks.
Staining of bricks is caused by runoff from concrete roof or external stairs or washings
from lime stone feahrres. This may be also due to leaking gutten, cracked rainwater pipes
or overflowswith inadequate projection.
Stone masonry pitting and staining of lime stone plinths can be caused due to damp proof
pavement finished at a higher level than wall damp proof course or where there is a
basement, lack of continuity of wall damp proof course. In case of decay of sand stone
plinths the attributed factor has been washing from limestone wall above. Blistering of
surface is attributed to atmospheric pollution wherein sulphur dioxide is absorbed into rain
water to form a weak acid solution which attacks the biding medium of the stone.
The masonry walls and floors in factory buildings are affected by the vapours gases and
effluents from the chemicals. The gases should be taken away by chimneys and stacks.
The effluents should be drained off from the building without affecting the building
components.
SAQ 2
How do you classify defects ? What is chemical abtion in masonry ?
Repair & Preventive
MJnienanceTechniques '
10.5 STRENGTHENING AND REPAIP TECHNIQUES
Many defects are encountered in the masonry and it is necessary to strengthen for proper .
use of the building. However, the problems in no two buildings are the same. They have --
multiple combinations and many a hmes have different concepts of their structural
framework. Therefore, the problem of arriving at the most appropriate strengthening
techniques needs good un&rstmding, special attention, experience and care.
Visible repairs would lead to the indication of quantum of invisible repairs and extent of
repair activity and expenditure required in the building. This guess work requires lot of
experience and it is an individual expertise. Cracks in the partition walls would also
indicate direction and location of problems. Cracks over the openings would indicate
behaviour of external walls.
Separation cracks along columns, junctions with the walls, local crushing of walls, spalling
portions, sagging and hogging of flooring systems would indicate the nature of damage
and repairs required. This when further examined would indicate undisclosed repairs
required due to chain reaction, in combination of various causes for defects.
The masonry can be attacked from leaching and acid attack. Although a building may be
perfectly dry when constructed, limestones or carbonaceous sand stones may become
progressively more porous as the carbonate content is leached away by rainfall. In polluted
urban and industrial areas the much stronger sulphur and nitrogen acids may be formed in
rainfall, greatly increasing the rate of carbonate erosion and even causing slow
deterioration of silica. The impervious carbonate such as marble will cause surface
etching, whereas a stone with high total porosity will tend to retain moisture due to limited
ventilation of the pores and powerful capillarity. When water retention occurs in this way
it permits protracted absorption of atmospheric pollutants and thus prolonged acid attack
of the stone components, so that deterioration tends to be more severe.
Before studying the strengthening techniques, it is better to understand the properties of
stone and brick masonry. Masonry is defined as the construction of units such as stones,
brick, concrete pre-cast blocks etc., bonded together with or without mortar, to form a
mass which will resist compressive stresses.
Stone masonry is stronger and more durable than brick masonry. While stone is a natural
material, brick is artificial.Brick absorbs moisture and is liable to make the building damp.
With dampness certain salts also rise in the walls from the ground which may weaken the
structures. Although stone is stronger than brick, the latter, if of good quality, is
sufficiently strong for ordinary purposes and more convenient when protected by cement
plaster on exposed surfaces.
Strengthening of masonry may be necessary not only due to deterioration of masonry but
due to @.herreasons also. This is likely to arise from one or more of the following reasons :
a) Increased load capacity.
b) Change of use.
c) Poor construction.
d) Poor design.
In order to take appropriate action, we need to examine each case in turn as the deficiency
is usually the result of one or more of the following factors in case of stnne and brick
masonry.
10.5.1 Plaster Cracks
Generally, the brick wall has much lower thermal expansion compared to cement plaster
and thus it causes differential movement at the interface during expansion and contraction
leading to cracks in plaster. If the cracks are not severe and profuse, periodical painting
with cement based paint may offer some solution. However, removing the old plaster and
doing it with plaster of compatible characteristicswith that of the base material can only
offer a permanent solution for this.
When sand used in plastering is very fine or it contain more silt or decayed vegetation
beyond tolerance levels closely spread random cracks occur.
 Lack of adequate cement content or use of adulterated cement can also contribute to this Strengtheningd Stme &
Blick Masonry ShlletOPOS
problem. If the problem is not very severe painting periodically with cement based paints
should 5e enough.

I Where plaster has started disintegrating and de-bonding from the base (indicated by
hollow sound produced on tapping the surface) it is advisable to remove and redo the
plastering using proper material and with adequate supervision.
Quite often there is a tendency to give a very smooth finish to the cement plaster after the
floating course often using fine sand or extra cement. If this practice is resorted to during
very warm climatic condition, discontinuous starry surface cracks occur particularly
during drying process under windy condition. Therefore, it is advisable not to give extra
smooth finish to cement plaster. A reasonably smooth surface can be obtained by applying
putty to the full wall surface while doing painting. Wherever extra smooth surface is
needed lime water can be used.
10.5.2 Efflorescence in Walls
Where soluble salts are present in excessive quantities in the bricks or the mortar they
absorb the moisture either from the air or during construction and are brought to the
surface in solution and deposited in concentrated patches either as a white powder or as
translucent crystals, as the moisture dries out. This crystalline growth either flakes off or is
reduced to a powder which can be brushed off. Attempts to seal back efflorescence are not
usually successful and it is advisable to allow the efflorescence to expand itself as the wall
dries before attempting any treatment at rendering or whitewashing the walls.
Soluble salts can be removed by repeated washings with water and brushing the face of the
masonry. Salts from small patches can be extracted by trowelling on the surface a layer of
slaked lime about 6 mm thick made up of a stiff paste. This is left in place until dry, and
then removed, and wall brushed down.
Salts from brick work can be removed with a solution of zinc sulphate and water. The
surface is brushed off when dry. A solution of one part hydrochloric or sulphuric acid and
5 parts water is applied vigorously with scrubbing brushes, water being constantly sprayed
on the work with a hose to prevent the penetration of the acid. This will remove white or
yellow blotches from floors or walls due to efflorescence.
Cleaning of external brick walls after completion of the building can be done with a five
percent solution of muriatic acid. The walls must be thoroughly washed with copious flow
of clean water both before and after the application of the solution.
A mortar can be ma& as follows which is waterproof and will also be useful in preventing
efflorescence
One part cement, two parts sand to which is added 12 kg pulverized alum for each cubic
metre of sand. Mix all the three dry and then add the proper quantity of water in which has
been dissolved 75 grams of soft soap per litre of water, and thoroughly mixed.
10.5.3 Treatment of Masonry Walls
I Water ingress through solid walls in the form of moisture from the exterior to interior due
to porosity of the masonry. More rapid penetration is through the mortar joints, and an
, efficient pointing on the exterior will greatly resist the passage of water. The simple flush
pointing will offer good protection. If any water proofing compound can be added to the
mortar in pointing cavity walls afford sound protection and ensure a dry interior even if
i porous material is used for outside. The application of a non-porous rendering on the
I
I external surface will do much to prevent direct penetration.
In case of aggressive chemical environments, the solution would be to provide an epoxy
coating after the brick wall is plastered with cement mortar. Epoxy coating can be done in
the follawing sequence : Allow the plastered surface to dry fully. Clean the surface
thoroughly. Apply epoxy formulation using Araldite binder(GY 257) and Hardner (HY
840) with quartz sand as filler. Being a quick setting mir the epoxy coating should be
applied and finished within 30 to 60 minutes, depending upon the pot life specified for the
product used.
1 10.5.4 Buttress Wqlls

I In many cases to strengthen stone and brick masonry, Buttress Walls are provided. These
are masonry retaining walls in front of the wall to strengthen it for lateral stability against
Rep& & Reventive thrust from an arch, roof, or wind pressure. Sometimes Flying Buttress are also
Mointenal~ceTechniques
constructed. Flying buttress is a detached buttress or pier of masonry at some distance
from ZIwall, and connected there with an arch or portion of an arch, so as to discharge the
thrust of a roof or vault on some strong point. Buttresses are generally made stepped or
sloping, giving grea-thickness at the bottom. Buttress w a s transmit their thrust to the
soil through buttresses projecting from the front of the wall. Types of retaining walls
including Buttress walls are as shown in Figure 10.15.

-..
' .v~vall
21
:?
uttress
1.*
?#. ~

b
:.

$!

R p n 10.15
SAQ 3
i) What are the strengthening techniques in masonry works ? Explain plaster
cracks and remedies for them.
ii) What is efflorescence masonry wall?
iii) What are the techniques to prevent efflorescence ?

10.6 CASE STUDY -ARRESTING CRACKS IN

MASONRY WALLS
When lodd bearing walls show cracks localized in patches, lintels can be introduced to
overcomftthe uneven distribution of loads. This method is most suitable in cases where the
cracks are due to uneven distribution of loads in bearing walls. Quite often this technique
is employed in cases where progressive deterioration may lead to irreparable losses.
introducing a lintel in the load bearing wall should be carried out with caution and care.
Opening h the walls must be made after providing sufficient support to the load bearing
wall. Figqre 10.16 (a) indicatm the nature of lhc problem (crack pattern is shown) and the
introduction of the lintel is done (Figure 10.16 0)to arrest the cracks to extend beyond the
lintel.
t inw

F i r e 10.16
 Strengthening of Stone 81
Step by Step Procedure to Repair a Cracked Wall Brick Masonry Structures
Figure 10.17 gives the details of a cracked wall. These types of cracks are common in load
bearing w&. IIhesacks are primarily due to differential settlements.

f l

- -,
(b)
Flgare 10.17
Step 1: The crack is identified on either side of the load bearing wall. Causes of the
crack are analyzed.
Step 2: Approximately at 1.5 m to 2 m vertical spacing precast RCC slabs with
n o m a l reinforcement of size 400 x 230 x 100 mm are introduced across
the crack line.
Step 3: The repair work is finished with commercially viable filler material in
between the pre-cast member and the wall.
Step 4: The crack line is widened and filled with the filler material.
Step 5: Two course of cement based paint is given later for restoring the appearance.

10.7 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE TECHNIQUES

Before considering restoration processes in detail it is essential to clearly establish the
nature of damage in the masonry. As you have already learnt, natural stones can be
classified according to their origin namely, primary or igneous rocks, the secondary or
sedimentary rocks and the metamorphic rocks. In stone masonry the common types of
rocks used are, basalt, dolerite and granite in case of igneous rocks, sand stone and
limestones in sedimentary rocks and schists and gneisses (from igneous sources) and
quarzite (from sand stones) and marbles (from lime stones) and slates (from mud and
shale) in metamorphic rocks.
Ensuring quality construcuon in the stone and brick masonry to a greater extent prevents
defects and thereby prolong the functional life span of the structure. In the construction
process, quality materials, time proven construction techniques and methods shall be used.
This essentially consists of setting down appropriate standards and using well defined
inspection procedures for quality materials and methods. Materials test results together
with methods of sampling and testing the materials and performance characteristics will
greatly contribute to a well executed masonry work free from defects.
Based on a very long heritage of stone and brick masonry, a number of preventive
techniques that are of paamount importance can be found in practice. A few of them are
enlisted. In tl~efollowing sub-section for stone and brick masonry, various efforts that can
be incorporated to minimize or prevent repairing prospectus and costly maintenance
itcti~itiesover a period of time are indicated.
10.7.1 Stone Masonry
1) As a rule every stone in ordinary walls and arches should be laid upon its "natural
bed" the bed upon which the stone is rested should be perpendicular tothe direction
of the principle pressure. When a stratified stone in a wall is placed vertically so
that the layers of which is formed are parallel to its face, the layers are apt to be split
off in succession by the action of the weather.
Repair & Preve~itive The masonry should be so constructed that a proper bond is maintained throughout
Mainteuance Techniques
the Work. A good bond in walls breaks vertical joints both in the length and
thickness of the wall, giving the stones a good lap over one anc2ther in both
directions so as to afford as much hold as possible between the different parts of the
wall, Effect of a bond is to distribute the load that comes on each stone and on and a
number of stones as shown in Figure 10.18 (a).

F i r e 10.18
The break of joints in the wall shown in the Figure 10.18 (a) causes the load to be
distributed over a large area between the dotted lines.
The cantinuous vertical joints (Figure 10.18 (b)) apart from concentration of load,
may cguse the part under the load between the joints to sink. As far as possible,
stones lfrom the opposite faces should be laid as to cross each other, thereby adding
traversle strength to the wall.
Through stones used in the work must have a sufficient sectional area throughout
their length. As a rule, the width of a through stone must be one and a half times the
height, and the aggregate surface, shown by their ends on each surface of the wall,
must bg from one eighth to one fourth of the surface area. For masonry consistil~g
of courses, the spacing of headers, or through stones, is usually 1.5 111 and these
should Be laid staggered in successive courses.
The intarior of the masonry must be properly packed with mortar and chips, the
latter being necessary in types of stone masonry other than ashlar.
The vertical faces of the masonry must be tested for their verticality, and the
battened faces should be tested with a wooden template and a plumb to ensure that
the batter is being given unifornlly from bottom to top.
As far as possible, the masonry in the entire length of a wall should be uniformly
raised as lit eliminates the danger of unequal settlement.
The stonds to be used in the masoluy must be wetted before use so that they do not
absorb the moisture from the mortar and thereby reduce its strength.
The joint between the old dry surface and new work must be swept clean and
wetted bejfore mortar is spread upon it, to form a bed for the new work. This will
ensure proper joints.
Proper prqcautions must be taken to see that the work is well watered until the
mortar has set. Normally, watering should be done for 7 to 10 days when cement
mortar is qsed.
All joints Qn the exposed surface should be raked at least 3 cm deep and pointed
with cemebt.
No tensile stresses should be allowed in masonry.
10.7.2 Brick Masonry
1) In corbelliqg with bricks, the projection of courses should never exceed one fourth
brick lengtlb ( 5cm ). A lesser projection is advisable when great strength is requlretl.
2) Arches of lkger spans, however well bonded should be built in cement mortar
( 1 : 1 : 6 ), half brick rings should never be used in spans exceeding 8 m, when an
arch of whatever span occurs near the end of a wall, provision of a mild steel tie rod
should be made for any thrust.
3) If an old brick masonry wall is to be raised, one top most course should be removed.
the surface cleaned, and watered to the point of saturation before the fresh course ic
laid.
 4) If a buttress is to be constructed, it should be built along with the wall, to form an Strengthening of Stone &
Brick Masonry Structures
integral part of it. It should i ~ obe
t simply added even with a few inter bonds at a
few places.
5) If a wall is to be extended sometime in future, the end which is to be extended, shall
not be left vertical, but each course from the bottom should be set back
10 crns beyond the one below it, so as to form a series of steps for a perfect bond
between the old and new wall as shown in Figure 10.19 (a) and (b). This is known
as racking back.
6) When a cross wall is to be constructed later at right angles to the main wall,
rectangular recesses should be left in the main wall in alternative courses 10 cms
deep and of the size of a brick for securing a perfect bond between the main and
cross walls, as shown in Figure 10.19(e). This is called toothing.
7) When a brick wall, already built, is likely to be thickened in future, recesses of
20 cm x 20 cm x 10 cm should be cut in the wall already built at several
places, into which, after they are cleaned and profusely watered, the bricks of the
new work should be inserted to make a bond. This is called block bonding as shown
in Figure 10.19 (0.

( 10.7.3 Selection of Bricks and Acceptance Tests

'

I
The second very important level of intervention that can be thought of in preventive
maintenance of masonry works is in the quality of materials used in works. ?he following
guidelines based on the field practices are of relevance.
Bricks used in masonry must qualify the tests criteria. Based on field guidelines it is a
common practice to subject bricks for works where 25,000 and more bricks are used to the
following tests.
1 1) Dimensional tolerance,

1 2) Water absorption,

I 3) Compressive strength,
8) Efflorescence, and
Repair & Preventive In case ~f works involving bricks less than 25,000, the following tests are recommended
MaintenanceTechniques based on practice for ensuring the quality of bricks.
1) Dimensional tolerance,
2 Water absorption, and
3) Compressive strength.
The peamissible variations in each of the tests are given in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1:Acceptance Tests for Bricks

SI. No. Tests Permissible

Variation 1
Dimensional tolerances : length, breadth (+) o r (-)
and height 3%
Water absorption 20%
Compressive strength 20%
Efflorescence Moderate
Warpage ---

IS :3495-1966 stipulates the methods of tests for bricks used in constructions. The testing
procedure and acceptable limits are as given below:
1) Dim~nsionsand Tolerance
20 whale bricks shall be arranged upon a level surface successively. The overall length of
assembled bricks shall be measured with a steel tape. Deviations on the dimensions of the
nominal size indicated shall not exceed (+) or (-) 3%. The same stipulation holds good for
width and height of bricks also as indicated in IS : 1077-1970.
2) Water Absorption
Water absorption shall not be more than 20% of Dry weight of brick after 24 hours
immersion in cold water preconditioninig.The testing of bricks shall be as per IS-3495
(Part 111-1973. The average of 5 results to be considered.
3) Compresshe Strength
It shall be of minimum 35 kglsq cm or of the strength specified in the work order schedule.
Frogs in bricks shall be filled with cement mortar and the 7.6 cm cubes made of Mortar
should be tested for 3 days and 7 days strength and the bricks shall be tested only when
cube strength of mortar is close to the anticipated strength of brick. Pre-conditioning and
testing of bricks in all cases shall be as per methods given in IS-3495 (Part 1)- 1973. The
average of 5 results shall be considered.

ExamiOe the bricks for efflorescence after second evaporation using distilled water.
Moderate efflorescence, i.e. where there is heavier deposit covering up or 50% of exposed
area of brick but unaccompanied by powdering or flaking of the surface only is permitted.
Procedures for the tests shall be as given in IS:3495 (Part-111)-1973.
5) Warpige
Both concave and convex warpages are to be measured by using steel rule graduated from
one end in 0.5 mm divisions or alternatively a steel measuring wedge 60 mm in length 13 .
mm in width or 15 rnm in thickness at one end and tapered at the other end is to be used.
Pre-conditioning and testing shall be as per IS-3495 (Part-IW-1973.
Further, the following general observations assist in quality assurance of bricks.
a) sound hard and well burnt with sharp edges of uniform size and regular shape
free from cracks, stones, or nodules of lime and other defects,
b) a clear metallic ring when struck together,
c) square regular and uniform in colour and of size indicated,
d) not broken, cracked, stratified, under burnt, over burnt or soft, and
e) the texture homogeneous nature free from stones and lumps of lime. .
Thc dirricrisions of the nominal sizes of bricks indicated shall be within the range Stmngthening of Stone &
Brick Masonry Structures
prescribed below :
Length from 19 to 25 cm
Breadth from 09 to 12.5 cm
DeptNthiclcness from 06 to 09 cm
10.7.4 Selection of Stones and Acceptance Tests
The selection of samples, test conditions for the tests to be conducted for the stones are
given in IS:1121 (Part I)-1974 andIS:1124-1974.
The following tests are to be generally followed for detennining the strength properties of
natural building stones.
1) Compressive strength
2) Traverse strength
3) Tensile strength
4) Shear strength
Standard methods are followed for tests to determination of water absorption, apparent
specific gravity and porosity of natural building stones. While the above tests are
necessary for stone used for construction purposes, based on practice, stones satisfying the
following two tests are essential for the quality masonry works.
i) Crushing strength
ii) Water absorption
Further, it is always preferable that stones used for masonry are from approved quarries.
Comparative strength of common types of stones are given at Table 10.2.
Table 102 :Minimum Crushing Strength of Common Stones
Miaimurn Crushing Strength,
S1. No. Type of Stone
&dm21
1) Granite lo00
2) Basalt 400
3) L i e stone 200
4) Sand stone 300
5) Laterite 30

All stones shall be sound durable bee from defects like cavities, cracks, flaws, sand holes,
injurious veins, patches of loose materials etc. As far as possible stones shall be of uniform
colour and texture. The percentage of water absorption should not generally exceed 5
percent.

10.8 NEW MATERIALS FOR STRENGTHENING THE

MASONRY WALLS
Depending on the length and breadth of the cracks in the masonry, commercially available
chemicals are used for rectifying the defects.
The following crack filling materials are generally used in practice:
a) Tar PlastIc Compound Conforming to IS: 1580-1969 :This is a cold-applied
plastic bitumen caulking compound used for water proofing purposes, filling cracks
and stopping leakages in masonry.
b) Hydroplast RedfGreen :A colloidal dispersion of bitumen in water, incorporated
with pigment. The dry film gives brick red/green mat finish used for a surface
decorative coating over waterproofing treatments. This chemical is also used for
damp -proofing of external brick walls.
c) Sflkagard 67 :Silkagard 67 is a product for protective coatings and impregnations
is an all purpose protective epoxy resin dispersion. This can be used for protecting
Repair & Preventive retaining walls as a coating. The resin is applied at 0.15 kg /sq m per coat. It is also
MaintenanceTechniques
available in 0.1 to 0.15 mm dry film.
d) Conbextra GP : A commercially available free flow non-shrink grout is
advantageous for grouting in small gaps. Non-shrink nature of the grout having
controlled expansion ensures surface contact after setting. Similarly, Conbex 100
which is a expanding grout admixture for non-shrink injection grouting and
concrete fills is advantageous in underpinning below foundations and confined
cavity walls.
e) Rknderoc is a high quality polymer modified cementitious repair mortar which is
impermeable - does not allow Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, Water, Chloride to
diffuse. Non-shrink-inhibits tendency to crack. High strength -good bond strength,
compressive strengths, can be used for structural repairs. This chemical which is
easy to mix and use is extensively used for jacketing to strengthen structural
members.
f) Nitomortar is a high performance epoxy resin based mortars. This chemical has a
hiah performance even in chemically aggressive environment. Ready strength gain
facilitates repaired areas serviceable quickly. It has got very high strength taking
good abrasion, impact and tensile forces. This material is used in repair of masonry
especially when it is damaged Jue to chemical attack and for repairing areas subject
to high impact or tensile loads.
g) Centricide powder is a premixed polymer based grout for injection of cracks. It has
high flowability and high strength at low water cement ratio. It provides better
bonding and is non-shrinking.

SAQ 4
i) Enlist the vanous precautions that must be ensured for the preventlve
maintenance in S;S"P, and brick masonry.
ii) Enlist the different quality tests of imporqce in stone and brick masonry
works.
iii) What are the chemicals used for strengthening masonry works ?

10.9 SUMMARY
Strengthening of stone and brick masonry in buildings has become necessary in recent
years because of the high cost of new construction. In planning and executing the
strengthening works, retrofitting and upgrading the building to mitigate the effects of
natural hazards should be considered. This has ta be done on an individual basis. The
diagnosing of defects before deploying a specific method of strengthening stone and brick
masonry is vital. The simple understanding of transformation of forces by the masonry by
means of good bonds and proper use of surfaces are very important in strengthening of
stone and brick masonry structures. Cracks m the masonry are also good inclir?tors of
defects. Repairing the defects in masonry can be properly planned ackxecuted after
proper analysis of the causes for defects. Quality assurance of materials, good techniques
and careful subemision during construction should be enforced for preventing failures and
taking action tb strengthen the masonry at a later date. To take care of inevitable
strengthening bf maso~lrydue to a varied natural and other forces specific solutions must
be resorted to. Quality of materials for stone and brick work must be tested for a varied
parameters bebre using them in the work. There are a number of chemicals available
commercially to repair a defective stone and brick masonry in addition to preventive
approaches.

10.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Detailed answers for all SAQs to be prepared by the students based on the text in the
sections. Check'the answers with the preceding text.