RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

‘ALL MEN BY NATURE DESIRE TO

KNOW’
ARISTOTLE
‘‘Necessity is the mother of all
inventions”
 Meaning
• Research means intensive search for knowledge
• Knowledge is awareness or familiarity
• Different levels of knowledge – raw material, information data,
insights connoting seeing into a situation leading in connections
defined by inner perceptions and ideas.

• Definition of knowledge includes

• Know what(knowledge about fact)
• Know why (Knowledge of principles and laws of nature)
• Know how(Skills or capacities)
• Know who (information about who knows what how to do that)
• Inshort Knowledge is the familiarity gained by research and
experience
 Cont…….
• Research also means search for truth .it states
whether our picture of physical reality
corresponds to what is “really real”.it is a part
of productive thinking
• Why knowledge for business?
• It is an engine of economic growth
• Knowledge-> Productivity growth->economic
growth
 QUEST for knowledge
• Research is a never ending QUEST for
knowledge
• QUEST means search for something
• Question – Search –understand, educate,
Stimulate
 RESEARCH - Definition
• Research in any discipline dives deep into the
ocean of knowledge to discover new relations,
new theories and better understanding of various
phenomena.
According to advanced learners dictionary of
current English Research means
‘A careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge’
L.V Redman and A.V.H. Mory defines research as “ a
systematized effort to gain new knowledge”
 BUSINESS RESEARCH
• According to Mc Daniel and Gates”Business research is
the planning ,collection and analysis of data relevant to
business decision making and communication of the
results of this analysis to management”
• Business research is a continuous search for improving
organizational performance through increased
effectiveness and efficiency.
• It is a systematic study of problems encountered by
business organizations with a view to finding solutions
to the problems in the interest of stakeholders.
 FEATURES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
• -> Process bound
• ->objective oriented
• ->Interdisciplinary
• ->Multi-dimensional
• ->Environmental consideration
• ->Flexible
• ->Demand-Driven
• ->empowerment of business managers
• ->Project management
• ->Customer oriented
• ->Systamatic
• ->Time bound
• ->Dynamic
 Significance of business research

• 1. it leads to discovery and innovation

• 2. It improves decision making
• 3. it helps in ascertaining trends
• 4. Social science also depends on research
• 5. it aims in framing government policies
• 6. Research is widely used in business
organisations.
 Process of decision making
• There are five steps process
• 1. Defining the problem
• 2. Gathering the information
• 3. Developing and selecting the best
alternative
• 4. Implementation
• 5. Evaluation
 TYPES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
Research may be classified into different types
According to nature of data
Quantitative and qualitative
According to coverage
Macro and Micro
According to utility
Basic and applied
According to research method used
Survey
Observation
case study
Experimental
Historic
comparative
 Cont…….
According to time frame
Single time period
Longitudinal research
According to purpose of the study
Descriptive
Analytical
Evaluation
Exploratory
According to place
Field study
Laboratory studies
 Cont……
• Based on areas of business research may be
• -> Management research
• -> Production and manufacturing research
• ->Personnel research
• ->Financial management research
• ->Accounting research
• ->Marketing research
 Business Research cont……
• Basic Research:-
• ->also called fundamental or pure research
• ->concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of
theory.
• ->express a theory or a principles relating to a particular
phenomenon.
• ->here the focus is not based on the immediate application of the
theory but serves the society in the long run in a general manner.
• ->there is no commercial value to the discoveries resulting from this
research
• ->”Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake” is the basis of this
research
• ->the value and purpose research findings can only be realised in
the long run
 Cont…….
• Applied Research:-
• ->Also known as practical research, action research
• ->conducted to find out a solution faced by the society
• ->practical gain can be achieved from this research
• ->it is need based research having high practical
relevance. It is specific in nature, is result oriented and
it is driven by a clear aim.
• ->Research to identify any social, economic or political
trends of a particular situation or marketing research
belongs to this category
 Cont……..
• Exploratory research:-
• This research is concerned with the discovery of new
facts,things,focus or ideas. it is in fact a beginning of
the research. It is generally carried out with the
purpose of gaining familiarity with a particular topic or
to gain insight into unexplored areas.
• Exploratory research is often carried out before
formulating a hypothesis.
• Eg. A domestic company –wants to start a company
abroad-this is a new attempt of the company-will
conduct a initial research –whether the company can
explore the possibility of new idea.
 Cont…….
• Descriptive research:-
• It is carried out with the objective of describing a particular
situation, event or an individual. It is a fact finding
investigation.
• This type of research aims at studying the express
characteristics of a problem.
• Descriptive research may be a survey research,
comparative research or ex-post facto research. survey
research is based on sample or census survey. Data can be
collected through questionnaire or personal interview. if a
research is undertaken about events that have already
taken place it is called ex-post facto research.
 Cont…….
• Casual research:-
• This type of research aims at identifying the cause and
effect relationship between variables. it is designed to
determine whether one or more variables causes or
effects one or more outcome variables. This type of
research deals with WHY questions. This research is
very complex in nature.
• Eg. If one performs a public opinion poll to try to
determine whether a recent political advertising
campaign changed voter preferences, he is studying
whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion
of voters who would vote UPA or NDA(effect)
 Theory and Research
• Research and theory are dependent on each
other
• Every science is based on curiosity and it is the
curiosity that gives rise to the development of
science.Scientisits try to find out the cause and
effect relationship as a result of curiosity.
• Once the cause and effect relationship has been
found out attempts are made to explain and
interpret it. This leads to the formulation of
theory.
 Cont…….
• Theory can point out certain areas in which research is
likely to be fruitful, can summarize the findings of a number
of specific studies and can provide a basis for explanation
and prediction
• Research findings on the other hand can test theories
which have been worked out can clarify theoretical
concepts, can suggest new theories or extend old ones.
• Theory building requires ongoing comparison between
theory and data and the continuous modification between
theory and practice. It is a gradual process which occurs
over a long period of time and requires a high level of
creativity and imagination on the part of the researcher.
 Theory and practice
• Theory and practice are interdependent.
Theory gives quality and effectiveness to
practice. Practice, in turn may enlarge or
correct or confirm or even reject a theory.
• Theory:-
• Most common meaning of theory is that it is
an explanation of observed regularity. If
something is to be called a theory, it must
satisfy the logic of permanence.
Induction and Deduction approach
• If data is collected to test a theory, it is deductive.
On the other hand if data is collected to build a
theory it is inductive approach.
• Induction:-It is the process of reasoning whereby
we arrive at generalizations from particular facts.
It is a movement of knowledge from particular to
general ie from particular observations to general
rule or principle. It involves a passage from
observed to unobserved. It involves two process
observations and generalization.
 Cont…..
• In inductive reasoning theory is the outcome of
research.
• Observations/findings -> theory
• Observations-> Pattern->Tentative Hypothesis-
>Theory
• In inductive reasoning we begin with specific
observations and measures begin detecting
patterns and regularitie,formulate some tentative
hypothesis that we can explore and finally end up
developing some general conclusions or theories.
 Deduction theory
• It is a way of making a particular inference from
generalisation.it is a movement of knowledge
from general to particular ie from a general rule
to a particular case.
• Example:- “All Chinese eat snakes” is a general
rule. chao is a Chinese. Therefore it can be
deduced that chao also eat snakes
• In deductive reasoning either confirmation or
rejection of the theory is the outcome of
research.
• Theory-> observations/theory
 Cont……
• As deductive reasoning works from general to
particular this is called top-down approach.
• Theory->hypothesis-> observation->confirmation
• In deductive reasoning we begin with thinking up a
theory about our topic. Then narrow that down into
more specific hypothesis that we can test. Then narrow
down further when we collect observations to address
the hypothesis. This ultimately leads to test the
hypothesis with specific data and finally end up either
in the confirmation or the rejection of our original
theories
 Variables and attributes
• Variable:- A variable is an attribute on which things
vary .Meaning of variable is changing or changeable. A
variable is an entity that can take on different values. a
variable is anything that can change in its quantity or
value. If an attribute does not vary. It is a constant.
Sales a and profits are variables but names and
telephone numbers are constant. Thus any thing that
can vary can be considered a variable. Variables are not
always quantitative or numerical.
• Attribute:- An attribute is a specific value on a variable.
• Eg. The variable gender has two attributes Male and
Female.
 Different types of Variables
• Dependent variables and independent variables:-
• The distinction between independent and dependent
variables particularly relevant when we are
investigating cause-effect relationship. In simple terms
independent variable is the cause and dependent
variable is the effect. In other words independent
variable is deemed to have a casual influence on the
dependent variable.
• Eg. Increase in poverty leads to increase in crimes.
• Bad governance leads to increase in corruption.
• Regular trainings improve productivity of workers.
 Intervening variables
• An intervening variable is one which suggest that
the relationship between the independent and
dependent variable is not direct one. In other
words it tells why there is a relationship between
two variables.
• Eg. Market orientation-> employee attitude-
>Organizational performance
• In other words it suggests that the impact of
market orientation on organizational
performance is viewed
 Moderating Variables
• This type of variable can moderate the relationship
between two variables. For eg. If the relationship between
two variables holds for men but not for women then the
relationship is said to be moderated by gender.
• A moderating variable is one which alters the relationship
between other variables. Increase in daily wages rates may
lead to increase in consumption of liquor. This is true in the
case of men, but not for women. Thus the overall impact of
higher wages rates on the consumption of liquor is
moderated by gender. the original relationship between the
independent and dependent variables gets modified in the
presence of a third variable i.e. the moderating variable.
 Difficulties in Business Research
• Lack of scientific training in business research
methodology.
• Investment in research is a waste
• Findings of research are seldom put to practice.
• Running an R&D department is costly.
• People are custom bound.
• There is less industry-institution interaction.
• There is uniform reluctance to share research data
• Indian researchers experience severe paucity of funds.
• Many research findings are based on out of date data
 RESEARCH DESIGN
• After the formulation of hypothesis it has to be tested. This is called
the empirical test of the hypothesis. For this a design has to be
drawn. A research design provides a framework for the collection
and analysis of data. Research design is also known as research
outline, plan, blue print etc.
• According to Pauline v Young “A research design is the logical and
systematic planning and directing a piece of research.”
• According to Reger E Kirk "Research design are plans that specify
how data should be collected and analyzed”.
• Research design is therefore, the base on which we proceed
towards the study of the problem after formulating the hypothesis.
• According to Destch and Cook “Research design is the arrangement
of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine the relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure”
 Functions of research design
• A good research design serves three important functions.
• -> It gives a blue print for the research
• ->It limits the boundaries of research activity and makes systematic investigation
possible.
• ->it enables a researcher to anticipate potential problems that he may encounter
in future.
• PHASES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
• There are four phases of research design. They are
• 1. Sampling design:- it is concerned with method of defining and selecting the
sampling units.
• 2. Observational design:- it describes the conditions under which the data is to be
collected or observations are to be made.
• 3. Statistical design:- it addresses the question of how many units are to be
observed and how the collected data is to be analyzed
• Operational design:- it deals with the specific techniques using which the above
specified procedures in sampling, statistical ,and observational design can be
carried out.
 Characteristics of Good Design
• 1. Objectivity:- The research design shows no proclivity
towards any side and the resultant data collected under
this design would be free from bias.
• Reliability:- A good design would deliver consistent results
each time the is repeated under the design. The response
given by the respondent is genuine and would be remain
same.
• Validity:- the design would deliver accurate and correct
results. It collects and measures what it is supposed to do
and nothing else.
• Generalization:- It means that the results collected under
this design, which hold true for a sample must hold true for
the entire population
 Importance of Research Design
• 1. A research design gives direction to the study. it prevents our
research from being unfocussed aimless empirical wandering.
• 2. It ensures that the research is economically and smoothly
conducted. It gives a researcher maximum output with minimum
effort, time and money.
• 3. it helps the researcher in deciding the relevant and irrelevant
facts.
• 4. The research design acts as a tool to control the level of accuracy
desired.
• 5. A research design is especially useful in social science research. It
helps in developing better ways of inquiring.
• 6. The research design also gives a tool in the hands of critics to
evaluate the projected study.
 Components of a Research Design
• 1. Need for the study
• 2. Literature review
• 3. Statement of the problem
• 4. Research objectives
• 5. Formulation of hypothesis
• 6. Operational definitions
• 7. Scope of the study
• 8. sources of data
 Cont….
• 9.Methods of collection
• 10.Tools and techniques
• 11. Sampling design
• 12. Data analysis
• 13. Presentation of the results of the study
• 14. Time estimates
• 15. Financial budgets
• 16.Administration of the enquiry
 Types of research design
• The different types of research designs are
• -> Exploratory research design
• ->Descriptive/diagnostic design
• ->Experimental research design
• Exploratory research design:-
• Exploratory research is conducted with the purpose of gaining a better
insight into a problem. It is of a great use when a researcher has only a
vague idea of the problem he would encounter during a study. It may also
help in saving time and money because if a problem is not as significant as
it was first thought then the project can be cancelled.
• An exploratory research design employs three diffeent techniques.
• -> Secondary data analysis
• ->Expert surveys
• ->Case studies
 Cont…..
• Secondary data analysis:- refers to literature, published or unpublished
available results of studies made by others for their own purposes.
Researcher may review the literature with the purpose of framing a
hypothesis or he may review hypothesis already developed for further
study by others to see their applicability.
• Expert surveys:- Often called as experience surveys, involves an
interaction with people who are experts in the area under study. An expert
would be a good source of hypothesis about modus operandi of
conducting such research sources of information and the possible problem
that may come in the course of study.
• Case studies:-Refers to” insight stimulating examples” these involves a
study of all the cases which are relevant to the area of study. Success of
this method is depends on
• ->Attitude of the investigator
• ->Intensity of the case studies
• ->Integrative power of the investigator.
 Descriptive and diagnostic research
design
• The descriptive research design is used when the purpose of the
study is to learn who,what,when,where and how a topic.
• Descriptive research is conducted with the following intention.
• ->To describe the characteristics of relevant group like consumers,
tribal's etc.
• ->To study or estimate the proportion of people in a particular
population who hold certain specific attitudes, opinions etc.
• ->to make predictions related to a particular phenomena.
• On the other hand diagnostic research is conducted to
• ->Establish whether two or more variables are associated
• ->Determine the degree to which the variables are associated etc.
• Hence these types of research is more clearly defined,pre-planned
and structured. its sampling design, statistical design, observation
and operational design are rigidly defined.
 Cont….
• Six W’s of descriptive research
• ->Who – is a part of the study(subject)
• ->What-information is to be collected (content)
• ->When is the information to be collected (time)
• ->Where should the respondents be contacted(place)
• ->Why are we obtaining the observations(objectives)
• ->Way of obtaining information
• While preparing the designs we need to observe the following points:-
• 1. Clear definition of the problem
• 2. Methods of data collection
• 3. Preparation of instruments
• 4. Sampling design
• 5. Data collection and analysis techniques.
 Experimental Research Designs
• Experimental research is conducted to study the cause and effect
relationship between variables under study. it is based on
experiments. Experimentation is the basic tool of physical sciences
but now it is widely used in social sciences also.
• According to Stuart Chapin “Experiment is simply observation under
controlled conditions. When observation alone falls to disclose the
factors that operate in a given problem it is necessary for the
scientists to resort to experiment”.
• Experimentation is a research process used to observe cause and
effect relation ship under controlled conditions. In other words it
aims at studying the effect of an independent variable on a
dependant variable, by keeping the other independent variables
constant through some type of control. In experimentation the
researcher can manipulate the independent variables and measures
its effect on the dependent variables.
 Features of Experimental Method
• 1. Isolation of factors or controlled observation
• 2. Replication of the experiment
• 3. Quantitative measurement of results
• 4. Determination of cause and effect relationship
more precisely
• Types of experiment.
• There are two types of experiments they are
• 1. Laboratory experiment
• 2.Fields experiments
 Principles of experimental Design
• -> Principles of replication:- According to this principles the
experiment should be conducted more than once i.e. it should be
repeated again and again. Principles of replication increases the
accuracy of the study.
• -> Principles of Randomization:- Randomization is used to control
the effect of extraneous variables. The units and treatments are
randomly assigned so that the variations caused by extraneous
variables can be controlled and can be clubbed under a general
factor “chance". the effect of extraneous variables are randomly
distributed among the groups.
• -> Principles of local control:- Using this principle it become possible
for the researcher to measure and eliminate the effect of
extraneous variables. The known source of variability i.e. the
extraneous factor is made to vary deliberately over a wide range in
a manner that its effect can be measured.
 Types of Experimental designs
• 1. Pre-experimental design:-This is the first and the basic experimental
design in which the basic experimental steps are followed, but there is no
control group. By using this design the researcher studies a single group
and does not make any comparisons between this group and an
equivalent non-treatment group.
• 2. Quasi-experimental design:-A quasi experimental design looks a little
like an experimental design but the subjects are not randomly assigned to
the group.
• 3. True-experimental design:- This is considered as the most important
type of experimental design which is considered as the most accurate type
of experimental research because it uses statistical analysis to support or
reject a hypothesis.
• 4. Statistical designs:-Statistical designs permit the researcher to measure
and eliminate the effect of extraneous variables. In statistical design a
blocking factor is introduced. It is the extraneous variable which the
research is able to isolate and eliminate its effect.
 Research reliability and validity
• Reliability:
• Reliability is the extent to which research procedure yields the same result on repeated trials.
Reliability ensures that research findings can be used to satisfactorily draw conclusions,
formulate theories, or make claims about the generalizability of the research.
• There are four types of reliability .They are
• 1. Equivalency reliability:-
• It is the extent to which two items measure identical concepts at an identical level of
difficulty. Equivalency reliability indicates the degree of relationship or association by relating
two sets of test scores to one another.
• 2. Stability reliability/Test-Re-test reliability:
• Stability reliability measures the reliability of instruments used in research over time. To
determine stability a measure or test is repeated on the same subjects at a future date.
Results are compared and correlated with the initial test to give a measure of stability.
• 3. Internal consistency:- It is the extent to which the research tests or procedures measure
the same characteristics skills or quality. It is an indicator of the precision between the
observers or of the measuring instruments used in a study. This types of reliability creates
standardization which makes it easy for the researcher to interpret data.
• 4. Inter rater reliability: Inter rater reliability is the extent to which two or more individuals
tests the consistency of the implementation of a rating system.
 Validity
• Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately reflects or
measures the concept that the researcher is trying to measure.
While reliability measures the accuracy of the content measured,
validity measures the extent to which the study succeeds in
measuring what it is suppose to measure. Validity can be measured
under the following heads.
• 1. External validity:- external validity refers to the extent to which
the results of a study are generalized.
• 2. Internal validity:- Internal validity refers to the precision with
which the study was conducted and the extent to which the
designers of a study have taken into account alternative
explanations for any casual relationships they explore. Some of the
studies may not involve testing of casual relationship, in such a
situation the internal validity would only pertain to the precision.
 Measurement and Scaling
• Measurement is the process of observing and
recording the observations that are collected as part of
research. The recording of the observations may be in
terms of number or symbols. Thus we assign numbers
to the characteristics of the objects being observed.
For example one may wish to assign the number1 for
the response YES and 2 for response NO. We see that
numbers are assigned to the various characteristics
according to certain prescribed rules. Using numbers
has certain advantages. numbers can easily handle, it
can facilitate further statistical analysis of data
obtained and it facilitates communication of
measurement rules and results.
 Scaling
• The word scale or scaling is generally used for measuring something. It is in fact a device
through which we measure various things. There are generally accepted scales for the
measurement of physical phenomena. for eg. We use barometer ,thermometer etc for
measuring weather and heat respectively. Similarly tapes, meters and other yardsticks are
used to measure different aspects of physical phenomena.
• But measurement of social phenomena is not an easy task. In social phenomena there are
two types of variables. some variables can be measured through scales that are used for
measuring physical phenomena. it is possible to measure the number of males and females in
a society, age and income etc. But it is not possible to measure social status, social attitudes,
standard of living etc. They are qualitative constructs that cannot be measured easily. some
how or other we have to measure them. Thus scaling emerged as an important branch off
measurement that involves the construction of an instrument that associates qualitative
constructs with quantitative metric units.
• In social research measurement or scaling implies conversion of qualitative data into
quantitative data. After conversion scaling is done. Various kinds of statistical measurements
are used for this conversion.
• Scaling is an attempt to bring about greater accuracy which is desired by all the sciences
whether physical or social. Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics
according to a rule.
 Types of measurement scales
• 1. Nominal scale:-A nominal scale of measurement is
used merely categorizing objects into different groups.
For example for the variable gender only two
categories are possible namely, male and female. A
code is 1 can be assigned to males and a code 2 can be
assigned to females or vice versa. Thus we can
categorize objects into groups.
• 2. Ordinal Scale:- This is an improvement over the
nominal scale because ordinal scale involves the
ranking of items along the continuum of the
characteristics being scaled. In other words it can
arrange the objects in a hierarchical order, say from
lowest to the highest or younger to older and so on.
 Cont……..
• 3. Interval scale:- The interval scale allows one to compare
distance between attributes. For example, the difference
between1 and 2is equal to the difference between 3 and
4.Further the difference between 2 and 4 is twice the
difference between 1 and 2. However in an interval scale
the zero point is arbitrary and not true zero. Measuring
temperature is an example of interval scale.
• 4. Ratio scale:-Ratio scale is the highest level of
measurement scales. In ratio scale there is always a
meaningful absolute zero. This allows one to construct a
meaningful ratio. Examples of ratio scales includes
weights,Lenghts,and times. Ratio scales permits to compare
both differences in scores and the relative magnitude of
scores.
 Sources of errors in measurement
• 1. Respondents reluctance
• 2.Situational factors
• 3. Transient personal factors
• 4.Defective instruments
• 5. Mechanical errors
 Goodness of measures
• Any measurement tool should have the ability
to measure a particular variable accurately
and it must measure what it is supposed to
measure. Hence it becomes imperative that
we assess thee goodness of the measures
developed. Any instrument that meets the
test of reliability, validity and practicality is
said to possess the goodness of measures.
 Validity
• A measuring instrument is said to possess validity to the extent that it can measure
the true difference between the characteristic or variable under study. Validity is
referred in context of two terms viz internal validity and external validity. External
validity refers to the generalizability of research findings to the external
environment like population settings, treatment variables etc. internal validity
tests the authenticity of the cause and effect relationship ie the ability to measure
what it aims to measure. Validity of an instrument can be tested on three points
they are
• 1. content validity:- it measures the representatives of the content of the
instrument. It is the extent to which the instrument provides adequate coverage
and representation to the characteristic being measured. The more the scale items
represent the domain or universe of the concept being measured, the greater the
content validity.
• 2. criterion-related validity:- It reflects the success of the instrument used for
estimation or prediction. Criterion related validity is established when the measure
successfully differentiates individuals or objects on a criteria it is supposed to
predict. it involves either concurrent validity or predictive validity. Concurrent
validity is established when the scale is able to discriminate between individuals
who are different with respect to an attribute or characteristic.
 Cont…….
• Examples of criterion related validity, if the instrument is
administered to a group of prospective employees and it is
able to distinguish between people with work experience
and no experience than it possess concurrent validity.
• Predictive validity differentiates between individuals with
respect to some future criterion eg. An opinion instrument
that correctly forecasts the outcome of student election in
a university has good predictive validity.
• 3. construct validity:- It is concerned with factors that
account for difference or variance in the measurement
scores. This validity tests the extent to which the scores
obtained relates to the theory around which the
instrument has been designed.
 Reliability
• In our every day language the word reliable
means dependable or trust worthy. But in
research the term reliability means repeatability
or consistency. A measure is considered reliable if
it would give the researcher the same result over
and over again.
• There are three prominent factors involved in
considering whether a measure is reliable. They
are:-
• Stability, Internal reliability and inter-observer
reliability.
 Cont……
• Stability:- If the scale yields the same result when repeated
measurements are made constant conditions, it is said to be stable.
The most obvious way of testing for the stability of a measure is the
test-retest method. Under this method the same scale is used on
the same set of respondents using the same method.
• Internal reliability:- Here the issue is whether the indicators that
make up the scale are consistent. In other words when the
respondents scores on any one indicator tend to be related to their
scores on other indicators, the scale is said to be internally reliable.
• Inter-Observer reliability:- If more than one observer is involved in
activities such as recording of observations there is the possibility
that there is lack of consistency in their decisions.
 Practicality
• From a scientific view point it is necessary that a scale be valid and reliable
however from an operational view point it is necessary that the instrument is
practical also
• According to Thorndike and Hagen practicality has been defined as economy,
convenience and interpretability.
• Economy:- A balance has to be struck between the research projects and research
results. The chioce of instrument is affected by cost restraints. Eg more items in an
instrument contributes to reliability but often involves greater time and cost in
administering it. E-questionnaire , telephonic surveys using an interview schedule
are becoming popular instruments.
• Convenience:- A good instrument is easy to administer. Clear detailed instructions
with examples if possible ,a simple but attractive design and layout of the
questionnaire, all makes it easy for the respondents to answer the questions in
comfort.
• Interpretability:- It should be easy to interpret the scores given by the instrument.
Interpretability becomes an important consideration when persons interpreting
the results are not test designers themselves but someone else.
 SCALE CONSTRUCTION
TECHNIQUES/APPROACHES
• The instrument that is used for measurement is called a scale. The
process of constructing these scales is called scaling .The techniques
that are used for the construction of the scales are called scale
construction techniques. There are five approaches to the
construction of scales. They are
• 1. Arbitrary approach:- Here the researcher develops a scale on his
own. He does what he thinks true to his belief and experience. He
believes that the scale would be capable of measuring the
characteristics in question. It is simple and less expensive However
its reliability depends upon logical application.
• 2. Consensus approach:- Under this method the scale is shown to a
panel of judges for consideration or rather the scale will be
developed by a panel of judges. Differential scales developed by
Thurston are coming under this category.
• 3. Item analysis approach:- As per this approach the actual
responses are analyzed on the basis of statements for determining
their accessibility. A particular item is evaluated on the basis of how
well they discriminate between those persons whose total scores
are high and those who scores low. The most ideal items for such
discrimination will be included in the final statement.
• 4. Cumulative scale approach:- This approach is based on a series of
statements that possess a cumulative effect in the sense that the
statements which are related amongst themselves form a
cumulative series. This method is also known as scalogram analysis.
• 5. Factor analysis approach:- As per this approach factor scale are
designed to inter correlate items to determine their degree of
interdependence between items. Semantic differential scale is an
example of factor analysis approach.
 Response methods
• RATING SCALES:-
• Rating scales are the most common forms of scales. In
this scale the respondent places the person or object
that is being evaluated along a continuum, where each
point on the continuum signifies a score value. These
scales generally have an ordinal value, especially direct
rating scale but an interval scale may also be used. Eg.
Likert scale, semantic differential scale, staple scales
etc. In a rating scale the object or person is judged
without any reference to some other object or person.
The scale may be presented in a graphic form or in a
statement form.
 Cont….
• Graphic rating scale:- under this a graphic representation usually a line
with various points marked, helps the respondent to indicate his response
to a particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the
line.eg.on a scale of 1 to 10 how would you rate your supervisor.
• The itemized rating scale/statement form:-
• This scales removes some deficiencies of graphic rating scales by using a
series off statements which have been ordered progressively in items of
more or less of some property. The respondent tick mark on the
statement that best reflects his opinion. By providing the alternative in a
statement form it provides more information and meaning to the rater
and thus increases the reliability of the scale. Another advantage is that
the researcher can use as many statements as considered necessary.
• Disadvantages:-
• 1. Halo effect
• 2. Generosity error
• 3.Contrast error
 RANKING SCALES
• Ranking scales are used to tap preference
between two or more objects or persons i.e
the objects are ranked after comparing one
against another or more. The popular ranking
scales are paired comparison scale, rank order
scale, constant sum scale etc.Ranking scales
are effective when there are two or less
number of items to be compared. But they are
not particularly useful incase the number of
items are many.
 Paired comparison scale
• Here a respondent is presented with two objects at a
time and asked to select one object(rate between two
objects at a time) according to some criterion. The data
obtained are ordinal in nature. For example there are
four brands of toilet soaps- lux,rexona,pears and vivel.
The respondent can prefer lux to rexona or pears to
vivel. In all we have six comparison. The formula is
• No. of Pairs=N(n-1)/2 ie 4(4-1)/2=6
• Paired comparison is useful when the number of
brands is limited
 Rank order scale
• Here the respondents are presented with
several items simultaneously and asked to
rank them in order of priority. This is an
ordinal scale that describes the favoured and
unfavoured objects, but does not reveal the
distance between the objects.Eg respondents
may be asked to rank five brands of chocolate
in order of their preference giving rank 1 to
the most preferred brand and rank 5 to least
preferred.
 Non-Comparative Scaling
• In non-comparative scaling the respondents are asked to evaluate a single object
rather than several objects .it can further be divided into
• A) Continuous rating scales
• B) Itemised rating scales
• Continuous rating scales:-
• It is very simple and highly useful. Under this scale the respondents rate the
objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a continuous line that
runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
• Itemised rating scales:-
• Itemised rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief descriptions associated
with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scales position and the
respondents are required to select one of the limited numbers of categories that
best describes the product attributes being rated. Itemised rating scales are widely
used in market research. Some rating scales may have only two responses such as
agree or disagree. Inclusion of more response categories provides the respondents
more flexibility in the rating task. The two most important scaling techniques are
Likert Scale and semantic differential scale.
 Selection of an appropriate scaling
technique
• Problem definition and type of statistical
technique
• Comparative V/S non-comparative scales
• Verbal or numeric category labels
• Maximum number of categories
• Balanced V/S unbalanced scale
• Forced V/S non forced categories
 Types of Data
• Primary data: Data collected by the
investigator himself/ herself for a specific
purpose. Examples: Data collected by a
student for his/her thesis or research project.
Secondary data: Data collected by someone
else for some other purpose (but being
utilized by the investigator for another
purpose).
 Advantages and disadvantages of
primary data
• Advantages
• Primary data is specific to the needs of the researcher at the moment of data
collection. The researcher is able to control the kind of data that is being collected.
• It is accurate compared to secondary data. The data is not subjected to personal
bias and as such the authenticity can be trusted.
• The researcher exhibit ownership of the data collected through primary research.
He or she may choose to make it available publicly, patent it, or even sell it.
• Primary data is usually up to date because it collects data in real-time and does not
collect data from old sources.
• The researcher has full control over the data collected through primary research.
He can decide which design, method, and data analysis techniques to be used.
• Disadvantages
• Primary data is very expensive compared to secondary data. Therefore, it might be
difficult to collect primary data.
• It is time-consuming.
• It may not be feasible to collect primary data in some cases due to its complexity
and required commitment.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
secondary data
• Advantages
• Secondary data is easily accessible compared to primary data. Secondary data is available on
different platforms that can be accessed by the researcher.
• Secondary data is very affordable. It requires little to no cost to acquire them because they
are sometimes given out for free.
• The time spent on collecting secondary data is usually very little compared to that of primary
data.
• Secondary data makes it possible to carry out longitudinal studies without having to wait for
a long time to draw conclusions.
• It helps to generate new insights into existing primary data.
• Disadvantages
• Secondary data may not be authentic and reliable. A researcher may need to further verify
the data collected from the available sources.
• Researchers may have to deal with irrelevant data before finally finding the required data.
• Some of the data is exaggerated due to the personal bias of the data source.
• Secondary data sources are sometimes outdated with no new data to replace the old ones.
 Difference between primary and
secondary data
• Process
• Researchers are usually very involved in the primary data collection process, while
secondary data is quick and easy to collect. This is due to the fact that primary
research is mostly longitudinal.
• Availability
• Primary data is available in crude form while secondary data is available in a
refined form. That is, secondary data is usually made available to the public in a
simple form for a layman to understand while primary data are usually raw and
will have to be simplified by the researcher.
• Data Types
• The type of data provided by primary data is real-time, while the data provided by
secondary data is stale. Researchers are able to have access to the most recent
data when conducting primary research which may not be the case for secondary
data.
• Data Collection Tools
• Primary data can be collected using surveys and questionnaires while secondary
data are collected using the library, bots, etc. The different ones between
these data collection tools are glaring and can it be interchangeably used.
 Cont…..
• Sources
• Primary data sources include; Surveys, observations, experiments, questionnaires, focus
groups, interviews, etc., while secondary data sources include; books, journals, articles, web
pages, blogs, etc. These sources vary explicitly and there is no intersection between the
primary and secondary data sources.
• Specific
• Primary data is always specific to the researcher's needs, while secondary data may or may
not be specific to the researcher's need. It depends solely on the kind of data the researcher
was able to lay hands on.
• Accuracy and Reliability
• Primary data is more accurate and reliable while secondary data is relatively less reliable and
accurate. This is mainly because the secondary data sources are not regulated and are
subject to personal bias.
• Cost-effectiveness
• Primary data is very expensive while secondary data is economical. When working on a low
budget, it is better for researchers to work with secondary data, then analyze it to uncover
new trends.
• Collection Time
• The time required to collect primary data is usually long while that required to collect
secondary data is usually short. The primary data collection process is sometimes longitudinal
in nature.
Methods of primary data collection
• Research data two types -> primary $
Secondary
• Primary data->Quantitative and Qualitative
• Quantitative->
Survey,Observation,Experimental
• Qualitative->Focus group, Depth interviews,
Projective techniques
• Surveys->Interview and questionnaire
 Survey
• A survey is a research method used for collecting
data from a predefined group of respondents to
gain information and insights into various topics
of interest. They can have multiple purposes, and
researchers can conduct it in many ways
depending on the methodology chosen and the
study’s goal. In the year 2020, research is of
extreme importance, and hence it’s essential for
us to understand the benefits of social research
for a target population using the right survey tool.
 Features of survey method
• It is a field study, always conducted in a natural settings
• It deals with the immediate problems of the society
• It is a concrete and direct study. There is a direct contact
between investigator and the respondents
• It has a limited geographical scope
• It has time frame
• The facts collected through survey may form the basis for
further research on the matter
• Generally it gathers information from a large population
• It is suitable for obtaining personal and socio-economic
facts,beliefs,attitudes,opinions etc.
 Objectives of survey
• To provide information on any problem
affecting the society
• To explain a phenomenon
• To study social problems and find solutions to
them
• To collect useful knowledge about the
problem with the object of making practical
use of the knowledge collected
• To acquire cause and effect relationship
 Types of surveys
• Two types of surveys they are:-
• ->Cross sectional surveys- are conducted to collect information from the
population at a single-point of time. The purpose is to collect a body of data in
connection with two or more variables.
• -> Longitudinal survey:- is one that take place over a period of time. it means the
data is gathered over a period of time.
• Longitudinal surveys are of three types they are
• a)Trend studies:- Trend studies focus on a particular population which is sampled
and scrutinized repeatedly .it may be conducted more than one researcher or
research project survey of subscribers of a newspaper to gather their opinion.
• Cohort studies:- A cohort study select either an entire cohort of people or a
randomly selected sample of them as the focus of data collection. The cohort is
made up of people who share a certain characteristics.
• Panel studies:- under panel studies the same sample of the population is surveyed
repeatedly. Here the same sample of individuals will be surveyed again and again.
 Methods of surveys
Census method
• A statistical investigation in which the data are collected for each and every element/unit of the
population, it is termed as Census Method. It is also known as 'Complete Enumeration' or '100%
Enumeration or Complete survey. Useful in case Intensive Study is required or the area is limited.
Merits of Census Method.
• Principal merits of census method are as under:
• Reliable and Accurate: Results based on census method are accurate and highly reliable. This is
because each and every item of the population is studied.
• Less Biased: Results based on census method are less biased. It is because of the absence of
investigator’s discretion regarding the selection of sample items.
• Extensive Information: Information collected through the census method is quite exhaustive and,
therefore, more meaningful because all the items of a universe are examined. For example,
Population census in India gives exhaustive information relating to the number of people in
different parts of the country, their age and sex composition, education, status, occupation, and the
like.
• Study of Diverse Characteristics: By using census method, one can study diverse characteristics of
the universe.
• Study of a Complex Investigation: When items in a universe are of complex nature and it is
necessary to study each item, only census method can produce the desired results. Data on
country’s population are collected by this method.
• Indirect Investigation: Census method can be successfully used in indirect investigations, relating to
Unemployment, Poverty, Corruption, etc.
 Cont……
• Demerits of Census Method.
• However, there are certain demerits of census method as under:
• Costly: Census method is very costly and is, therefore, generally not used for
ordinary investigations. Only the government or some big institutions can afford to
use this method and that too for specific purposes only.
• Large Manpower: Census method requires a lot of manpower. Training of a large
number of enumerators becomes essential but is a very difficult process.
• Not suitable for Large Investigations: If the universe comprises large number of
items, it may not be possible to cover each and every item: Census method
becomes practically inoperative in such situations. Census method is suitable
when:
• Area of investigation is limited.
• The units are of different qualitative phenomenon.
• More accuracy is desired.
• The use of census method depends on the area of research, its purpose and the
available resources time, money and energy.
 Sampling method
• When doing a research study, we should
consider the sample to be representative to
the target population, as much as possible,
with the least possible error and without
substitution or incompleteness. The process of
selecting a sample population from the target
population is called the “sampling method.
 Cont…..
• Advantages of Sampling
• Sampling saves time to a great extent by reducing the volume of data. You do not go through each
of the individual items.
• Sampling Avoids monotony in works. You do not have to repeat the query again and again to all the
individual data.
• When you have limited time, survey without using sampling becomes impossible. It allows us to get
near-accurate results in much lesser time
• When you use proper methods, you are likely to achieve higher level of accuracy by using
sampling than without using sampling in some cases due to reduction in monotony, data handling
issues etc.
• By using sampling, you can get detailed information on the data even by employing small amount
of resources.

• Disadvantages of Sampling

• Since choice of sampling method is a judgmental task, there exist chances of biasness as per the
mindset of the person who chooses it.
• Improper selection of sampling techniques may cause the whole process to defunct.
• Selection of proper size of samples is a difficult job.
• Sampling may exclude some data that might not be homogenous to the data that are taken. This
affects the level of accuracy in the results
 OBSERVATIONS
• Observation is the basic method of gathering
information about the world around us. It is the
process of noting and recording information about
people and the behaviour without asking specific
questions.
• Definition
• “accurate watching and noting of phenomena as they
occur in nature with regard to cause and effect or
mutual relations”. Thus observation not only a
systematic watching but it also involves listening and
reading. It involves three process they are Sensation,
Concentration, and perception.
 Characteristics of Observation
• Direct method
• Collection of primary data
• Scientific observation and deep study
• Collection follows observation
• Relationship between the investigator and the
respondent
• Scientific method of collecting dependable data
• Selective and purposeful collection
 Types of Observations
• 1. Simple or uncontrolled observation:-
• In this method observation is made in the natural surroundings. It is also called unaided observations.
There is no planning on the basis of which observation is made. Under this method the observer becomes
a part of the group upon which he is studying.
• 2. Controlled Observation and Contrived Observation:-
• In this type of observation an attempt is made to exercise control over the phenomenon being observed.
This type of observation controls over the observation and the observer.
• In the case of contrived observation, the observer actively alters the situation to observe the effects of an
intervention.
• 3. Structured Observations:- it is also called systematic observation, is a technique which observes
employs an observation schedule to record the behaviour of the people being observed. Each participant
is observed for a pre-determined period of time using the same rules.
• 4. Unstructured Observations:- Here there is no observation schedule. There is no predetermined rules for
observation and the aim is to record as much detail as possible about the participants.
• 5. Participant Observations:-In the case of participant observation the observer takes part in the activity, ie
he acts as an observer and a participant.
• 6. Non participant Observation:-- Here the observer observes but does not participate in what is going on
in the social setting. The observer observes from outside merely as an onlooker
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of Observation
1. Very direct method for collecting data or information – best for the study of human behavior.
2. Data collected is very accurate in nature and also very reliable.
3. Improves precision of the research results.
4. Problem of depending on respondents is decreased.
5. Helps in understanding the verbal response more efficiently.
6. By using good and modern gadgets – observations can be made continuously and also for a larger
duration of time period.
7. Observation is less demanding in nature, which makes it less bias in working abilities.
8. By observation, one can identify a problem by making an in depth analysis of the problems.
• Disadvantages of Observation
1. Problems of the past cannot be studied by means of observation.
2. Having no other option one has to depend on the documents available.
3. Observations like the controlled observations require some especial instruments or tools for effective
working, which are very much costly.
4. One cannot study opinions by this means.
5. Attitudes cannot be studied with the help of observations.
6. Sampling cannot be brought into use.
7. Observation involves a lot of time as one has to wait for an event to happen to study that particular
event.
8. The actual presence of the observer himself Vis a Vis the event to occur is almost unknown, which acts
as a major disadvantage of observation.
9. Complete answer to any problem or any issue cannot be obtained by observation alone.
 Experimental method
• Experiment. An experiment is a controlled study in which the researcher
attempts to understand cause-and-effect relationships. The study is "controlled"
in the sense that the researcher controls (1) how subjects are assigned to groups
and (2) which treatments each group receives.

• An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In

an experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is manipulated and the
dependent variable (the effect) is measured; any extraneous variables are
controlled.

• The most basic example of experimental research is laboratory experiments,

which may differ in nature depending on the subject of research.
 Steps of Experimental methods

• It should be a tentative idea. ...

• Make a prediction. ...
• Our hypothesis should be broad; it should apply uniformly through
time and through space. ...
• All of these conditions that are subject to change are called
variables. ...
• Perform an experiment. ...
• Analyze the results of the experiment. ...
• Draw a conclusion
 Advantages
• 1. It gives researchers a high level of control.
When people conduct experimental research, they can manipulate the variables so they can create
a setting that lets them observe the phenomena they want. They can remove or control other
factors that may affect the overall results, which means they can narrow their focus and
concentrate solely on two or three variables
• 2. It allows researchers to utilize many variations.
Researchers have almost full control when they conduct experimental research studies. This lets
them manipulate variables and use as many (or as few) variations as they want to create an
environment where they can test their hypotheses — without destroying the validity of the
research design.
• . 3. It can lead to excellent results.
The very nature of experimental research allows researchers to easily understand the relationships
between the variables, the subjects, and the environment and identify the causes and effects in
whatever phenomena they’re studying. Experimental studies can also be easily replicated, which
means the researchers themselves or other scientists can repeat their studies to confirm the results
or test other variables.
• 4. It can be used in different fields.
Experimental research is usually utilized in the medical and pharmaceutical industries to assess the
effects of various treatments and drugs. It’s also used in other fields like chemistry, biology, physics,
engineering, electronics, agriculture, social science, and even economics.
 Disadvantages
• 1. It can lead to artificial situations.
In many scenarios, experimental researchers manipulate variables in an attempt to replicate real-world
scenarios to understand the function of drugs, gadgets, treatments, and other new discoveries. This works
most of the time, but there are cases when researchers over-manipulate their variables and end up
creating an artificial environment that’s vastly different from the real world.

• 2. It can take a lot of time and money.

Experimental research can be costly and time-consuming, especially if the researchers have to conduct
numerous studies to test each variable. If the studies are supported by the government, they would
consume millions or even billions of taxpayers’ dollars, which could otherwise have been spent on other
community projects such as education, housing, and healthcare. If the studies are privately funded, they
can be a huge burden on the companies involved who, in turn, would pass on the costs to the customers.
As a result, consumers have to spend a large amount if they want to avail of these new treatments,
gadgets, and other innovations.
• 3. It can be affected by errors.
Just like any kind of research, experimental research isn’t always perfect. There might be blunders in the
research design or in the methodology as well as random mistakes that can’t be controlled or predicted,
which can seriously affect the outcome of the study and require the researchers to start all over again.
• 4. It might not be feasible in some situations.
There are times when the variables simply can’t be manipulated or when the researchers need an
impossibly large amount of money to conduct the study. There are also cases when the study would
impede on the subjects’ human rights and/or would give rise to ethical issues. In these scenarios, it’s
better to choose another kind of research design (such as review, meta-analysis, descriptive, or co
relational research) instead of insisting on using the experimental research method.
 Focus Group
• A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about
their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards a product, service, concept,
advertisement, idea, or packaging. Essentially it is a group interview. Focus group typically
emphasizes a specific theme or topic that is explored in depth. The person who runs the
focus group session is usually called the moderator or facilitator who is expected to guide
each session. In a focus group the researcher will be interested in how people respond to
each others view and build up a view out of the interaction that take place within the group.
Therefore the researcher will aim to provide a fairly unstructured settings for the extraction
of others view or perspectives.
• Features of the Focus Groups:
• Vital tool for providing feedback
• Professionals and experienced are the members
• It is a kind of interview
• The focus groups are unstructured
• Natural form of groups
• Ideas flow freely in a group
• It is a form of qualitative research
• The ideas, the perceptions are mainly discussed
 Advantages
• Advantages of Focus Groups:
• 1. The discussions are kept under control
• 2. Moderator is the key
• 3. New ideas are generated
• 4. The focus groups are not static
• 5. Changes can be bought whenever required
• 6. The results are better at the end
• 7. Personal observation is allowed
• 8. Useful insights are provided by the process
• 9.Current position of the company is examined
• 10. Helps in identifying the end-user
• 11. The reaction of the customers can be measured
 Disadvantages
• 1. The moderators control the discussion as
per his or her experience
• 2. Sensitive ideas may not be discussed
• 3. Heterogeneity of individuals
• 4. Sometimes the findings are not at all
natural
 INTERVIEW
• An interview is generally a qualitative research
technique which involves asking open-ended questions
to converse with respondents and collect elicit data
about a subject. Interviews are conducted with a
sample from a population and the key characteristic
they exhibit is their conversational tone.
• Interviews are most effective for qualitative research
They help you explain, better understand, and explore
research subjects' opinions, behavior, experiences,
phenomenon, etc. Interview questions are usually
open-ended questions so that in-depth information will
be collected.
 Characteristics of interview
• -> it is a dialogue between two or more
persons
• -> There is a definite object of interview, such
as knowing the views and ideas of others
• ->There is face to face contact or primary
relationship between the individuals
• ->Through this method data are collected for
studying social problems.
 Classification of interview
• Interviews are classified into four categories
• 1. Direct personal interview:- Under this method the interviewer meets the
informants personally asks questions pertaining to enquiry and collects the desired
information.
• 2. Indirect personal interview:- This method is followed where it is not possible to
collect data directly from the informants who come under the study. Under this
method the investigator contacts third parties or witnesses who are closely
associated with the persons/situations under study and are capable of providing
necessary information.
• 3. Structured Interview:- In the structured interview a set of questions will be
asked and the responses are recorded in a standardized form. Questions are
usually very specific and very often offer the informant a fixed range of answers.
This is useful in large scales interviews where a number of investigators are
assigned the job of interviewing. The researcher can minimize the bias of the
interviewer.
• 4. Unstructured Interview:- in unstructured interview the investigator may not
have a set of questions but only have a number of key points around which to
build the interview. The interviewer has full freedom.
 Techniques/Types of interview
• Personal Interview is the foremost tool to judge the abilities of a person in the
face-to-face contact between the interviewer & interviewee, it is possible to
record more than only verbal responses which are often superficial. Personal
Interview is the foremost tool to judge the abilities of a person.
• Telephone interviews are often conducted by employers in the initial interview
round of the hiring process, this type of interview allows an employer to screen
candidates on the candidate's experience, qualifications, and salary expectations
pertaining to the position and the company.
• Focus group interview:

Idepth interviewing is a qualitative research technique that involves conducting

intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore
their perspectives on a particular idea, program, or situation.

• Projective techniques allow respondents to project their subjective or true

opinions and beliefs onto other people or even objects. The respondent's real
feelings are then inferred from what s/he says about others. Projective techniques
are normally used during individual or small group interviews.
•
•
 Types of projective techniques
• Rorschach test:
• The Rorschach inkblot test is very frequently used by the experts for the purpose of
projective tests. In this test, there are various inkblots which are plotted symmetrically, but
in an irregular position. The person is then asked what they are seeing in these blots. They
get various responses from this test – the response is then analyzed keeping in mind
various parameters.
• Thematic apperception test:
• This test is another well-known test – it is more popularly known as the TAT test. In this
type of test, the individual is asked to look at various scenes which are ambiguous. The
respondent is given time to analyze the scenes and also to understand different aspects of
the picture or scene.
• Behavioral test:
• The respondent will be asked to provide information about what type of a picture is shown
– what are the characters present; what are the emotions present in these characters or
you can also ask what will happen further. The experts check these responses and come to
a conclusion and thus understand the frame of mind of the person.
• Graphology:
• It has been proved by various studies that the handwriting of a person can reveal many
things. Graphology is a skill of handwriting through which the experts can understand your
nature and physical characteristics.
 Merits
• it provides flexibility to the interviewers
• The interview has a better response rate than mailed
questions, and the people who cannot read and write can
also answer the questions.
• The interviewer can judge the non-verbal behavior of the
respondent.
• The interviewer can decide the place for an interview in a
private and silent place, unlike the ones conducted through
emails which can have a completely different environment.
• The interviewer can control over the order of the question,
as in the questionnaire, and can judge the spontaneity of
the respondent as well.
 Demerits
• Conducting interview studies can be very costly as well
as very time-consuming.
• An interview can cause biases. For example, the
respondent’s answers can be affected by his reaction to
the interviewer’s race, class, age or physical
appearance.
• Interview studies provide less anonymity, which is a big
concern for many respondents.
• There is a lack of accessibility to respondents (unlike
conducting mailed questionnaire study) since the
respondents can be in around any corner of the world
or country.
 QUESTIONNAIRE
• A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types of
prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire is typically
a mix of close-ended questions and open-ended questions. Open-ended, long-form questions
offer the respondent the ability to elaborate on their thoughts. Research questionnaires were
developed in 1838 by the Statistical Society of London.
• The data collected from a data collection questionnaire can be both qualitative as well
as quantitative in nature. A questionnaire may or may not be delivered in the form of a survey,
but a survey always consists of a questionnaire.

• Types of questionnaires:
• Computer questionnaire. Respondents are asked to answer the questionnaire which is sent by
mail.
• Telephone questionnaire.
• In-house survey.
• Mail Questionnaire.
• Open question questionnaires.
• Multiple choice questions. .
• Dichotomous Questions.
• Scaling Questions.
 Characteristics of questionnaire
• Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
• Following are the qualities of a good questionnaire.
• The length of questionnaire should be proper one.
• The language used should be easy and simple.
• The term used are explained properly.
• The questions should be arranged in a proper way.
• The questions should be in logical manner.
• The questions should be in analytical form.
• Complex questions should be broken into filter questions.
• The questions should be described precisely and correctly.
• The questionnaire should be constructed for a specific period of time.
• The questions should be moving around the theme of the investigator.
• The answers should be short and simple.
• These answers should be accurate.
• The answers should be direct one.
• The answers should be relevant to the problem.
• The answers should be understand able to everyone of respondents.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
questionnaire
• The advantages of questionnaires
• Practical
• Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of
people in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way
• Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with
limited affect to its validity and reliability
• The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily
quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package
• Can be analyzed more 'scientifically' and objectively than other forms of
research
• When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast
other research and may be used to measure change
• Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new
theories and / or test existing hypotheses
 Disadvantage of questionnaire
• The disadvantages of questionnaires
• Is argued to be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes
of emotions, behaviour, feelings etc.
• Phenomenologist state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by
the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information without
explanation
• Lacks validity
• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being
• There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in
• The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the
situation
• People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their
own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is 'good' to someone may be 'poor'
to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not acknowledged
• There is a level of researcher imposition, meaning that when developing the
questionnaire, the researcher is making their own decisions and assumptions as to
what is and is not important...therefore they may be missing something that is of
importance
 Questionnaire Design Process
• The following steps are involved in the questionnaire design process:

• 1. Specify the Information Needed: The first and the foremost step in designing the
questionnaire is to specify the information needed from the respondents such that the
objective of the survey is fulfilled. The researcher must completely review the components of
the problem, particularly the hypothesis, research questions, and the information needed.

• 2. Define the Target Respondent: At the very outset, the researcher must identify the target
respondent from whom the information is to be collected. The questions must be designed
keeping in mind the type of respondents under study. Such as, the questions that are
appropriate for serviceman might not be appropriate for a businessman.

• 3. Specify the type of Interviewing Method: The next step is to identify the way in which the
respondents are reached. ie personal interviews, telephonic interview, etc.

• 4. Determine the Content of Individual Questions: Once the information needed is specified
and the interviewing methods are determined, the next step is to decide the content of the
question. The researcher must decide on what should be included in the question such that it
contribute to the information needed or serve some specific purpose.
 Cont…..
• 5. Overcome Respondent’s Inability and Unwillingness to Answer: The researcher should not presume
that the respondent can provide accurate responses to all the questions. He must attempt to overcome
the respondent’s inability to answer. The questions must be designed in a simple and easy language such
that it is easily understood by each respondent.
• 6. Decide on the Question Structure: The researcher must decide on the structure of questions to be
included in the questionnaire. The question can be structured or unstructured. The unstructured
questions are the open-ended questions which are answered by the respondents in their own words.
These questions are also called as a free-response or free-answer questions. While, the structured
questions are called as closed-ended questions that pre-specify the response alternatives. These
questions could be a multiple choice question, dichotomous (yes or no) or a scale.
• 7. Determine the Question Wording: The desired question content and structure must be translated into
words which are easily understood by the respondents. At this step, the researcher must translate the
questions in easy words such that the information received from the respondents is similar to what was
intended.
• 8. Determine the Order of Questions: At this step, the researcher must decide the sequence in which the
questions are to be asked. The opening questions are crucial in establishing respondent’s involvement and
rapport, and therefore, these questions must be interesting, non-threatening and easy.
•
• 9. Identify the Form and Layout: The format, positioning and spacing of questions has a significant effect
on the results. The layout of a questionnaire is specifically important for the self-administered
questionnaires. The questionnaires must be divided into several parts, and each part shall be numbered
accurately to clearly define the branches of a question.
 Cont……
• 10. Reproduction of Questionnaire:
• Here, we talk about the appearance of the questionnaire, i.e. the quality of paper
on which the questionnaire is either written or printed. In case, the questionnaire
is reproduced on a poor-quality paper; then the respondent might feel the
research is unimportant due to which the quality of response gets adversely
affected. Thus, it is recommended to reproduce the questionnaire on a good-
quality paper having a professional appearance. In case, the questionnaire has
several pages, then it should be presented in the form of a booklet rather than the
sheets clipped or stapled together.
• 11. Pretesting:
• Pretesting means testing the questionnaires on a few selected respondents or a
small sample of actual respondents with a purpose of improving the questionnaire
by identifying and eliminating the potential problems. All the aspects of the
questionnaire must be tested such as question content, structure, wording,
sequence, form and layout, instructions, and question difficulty. The researcher
must ensure that the respondents in the pretest should be similar to those who
are to be finally surveyed.
 SAMPLING DESIGN`
• CENSUS SURVEY:- A statistical investigation in which
the data are collected for each and every element/unit
of the population, it is termed as Census Method. It is
also known as 'Complete Enumeration' or '100%
Enumeration or Complete survey.
• The advantage of a census
• Accuracy and detail.
• Disadvantages
• They are also expensive and time consuming.
• Collecting data from a larger population involves
lengthy analysis and a longer publication time-frame.
 Sample survey
• A sample survey is a survey which is carried out using a sampling method, i.e. in
which a portion only, and not the whole population is surveyed.
• MERITS
• Economical: It is economical, because we have not to collect all data
• Less Time Consuming: As no of units is only a fraction of the total universe, time
consumed is also a fraction of total time
• Reliable
• Organizational Convenience
• More Scientific
• Detailed Enquiry
• Indispensable Method
• DISADVANTAGES
• Inflexible design
• Not ideal for controversial issues
• Possible inappropriateness of questions
• Data on subpopulation/small geographical area may be too unreliable
 Characteristics of a Good Sample
• Representativeness
• Adequacy
• Unbiasedness
• No substitution
• High precision
• STEPS IN SAMPLING DESIGN
• Defining the Population
• Defining the Sample Unit
• Determining the sample frame
• Selecting the Sampling techniques
• Determining the sample size
• Execution of sampling process
 Types of sampling techniques
• PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:-
• Probability sampling means that every member of the target population
has a known chance of being included in the sample. Probability sampling
methods include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
sampling, and cluster sampling
• Simple random sampling, as the name suggests, is an entirely random
method of selecting the sample. This sampling method is as easy as
assigning numbers to the individuals (sample) and then randomly
choosing from those numbers through an automated process. Finally, the
numbers that are chosen are the members that are included in the
sample.
• There are two ways in which researchers choose the samples in this
method of sampling: The lottery system and using number generating
software/ random number table. This sampling technique usually works
around a large population and has its fair share of advantages and
disadvantages.
• Stratified random sampling involves a method where the researcher divides a
more extensive population into smaller groups that usually don’t overlap but
represent the entire population. While sampling, organize these groups and then
draw a sample from each group separately.
• A standard method is to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity, and similar ways.
Splitting subjects into mutually exclusive groups and then using simple random
sampling to choose members from groups.
• Members of these groups should be distinct so that every member of all groups
get equal opportunity to be selected using simple probability. This sampling
method is also called “random quota sampling.”
• Random cluster sampling is a way to select participants randomly that are spread
out geographically. For example, if you wanted to choose 100 participants from the
entire population of the U.S., it is likely impossible to get a complete list of
everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e., cities or counties)
and randomly selects from within those boundaries.
• Cluster sampling usually analyzes a particular population in which the sample
consists of more than a few elements, for example, city, family, university, etc.
Researchers then select the clusters by dividing the population into various smaller
sections.
• Systematic sampling is when you choose every
“nth” individual to be a part of the sample. For
example, you can select every 5th person to be in
the sample. Systematic sampling is an extended
implementation of the same old probability
technique in which each member of the group is
selected at regular periods to form a sample.
There’s an equal opportunity for every member
of a population to be selected using this sampling
technique.
 Non Probability sampling
• Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the odds of any member
being selected for a sample cannot be calculated. In addition, probability sampling
involves random selection, while non-probability sampling does not—it relies on
the subjective judgment of the researcher.
• Convenience sampling:
• Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples are
selected from the population only because they are conveniently available to the
researcher. Researchers choose these samples just because they are easy to
recruit, and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that represents the
entire population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the population. But,
in some research, the population is too large to examine and consider the entire
population. It is one of the reasons why researchers rely on convenience sampling,
which is the most common non-probability sampling method, because of its
speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.

•
• Consecutive sampling:
• This non-probability sampling method is very similar to convenience
sampling, with a slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person
or a group of a sample, conducts research over a period, analyzes the
results, and then moves on to another subject or group if needed.
Consecutive sampling technique gives the researcher a chance to work
with many topics and fine-tune his/her research by collecting results that
have vital insights.
• Quota sampling:
• Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of
male and female employees in an organization. There are 500 employees
in the organization, also known as the population. To understand better
about a population, the researcher will need only a sample, not the entire
population. Further, the researcher is interested in particular strata within
the population. Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the
population into strata or groups.
• Judgmental or Purposive sampling:
• In the judgmental sampling method, researchers select the samples based
purely on the researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words,
researchers choose only those people who they deem fit to participate in
the research study. Judgmental or purposive sampling is not a scientific
method of sampling, and the downside to this sampling technique is that
the preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results. Thus,
this research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.
• Snowball sampling:
• Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult
to locate. Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small
and not easily available. This sampling system works like the referral
program. Once the researchers find suitable subjects, he asks them for
assistance to seek similar subjects to form a considerably good size
sample.
 Difference between non-probability
sampling and probability sampling:

• Sample selection based on the subjective judgment of the researcher. -> NPS
• The sample is selected at random. -> PS
• Not everyone has an equal chance to participate. ->NPS
• Everyone in the population has an equal chance of getting selected. -> PS
• The researcher does not consider sampling bias. ->NPS
• Used when sampling bias has to be reduced. -> PS
• Useful when the population has similar traits. ->NPS
• Useful when the population is diverse.->PS
• The sample does not accurately represent the population.->NPS
• Used to create an accurate sample. -> PS
• Finding respondents is easy. -> NPS
• Finding the right respondents is not easy.->PS
 Report writing
• Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research work in a written form.
• Formal or Informal Reports:
• Formal reports are carefully structured; they stress objectivity and organization, contain much detail, and
are written in a style that tends to eliminate such elements as personal pronouns. Informal reports are
usually short messages with natural, casual use of language.
• Type # 2. Short or Long Reports:
• This is a confusing classification. A one-page memorandum is obviously short, and a twenty page report is
clearly long. But where is the dividing line? Bear in mind that as a report becomes longer (or what you
determine as long), it takes on more characteristics of formal reports.
• Type # 3. Informational or Analytical Reports:
• Informational reports (annual reports, monthly financial reports, and reports on personnel absenteeism)
carry objective information from one area of an organization to another. Analytical reports (scientific
research, feasibility reports, and real-estate appraisals) present attempts to solve problems.
• Type # 4. Proposal Report:
• The proposal is a variation of problem-solving reports. A proposal is a document prepared to describe how
one organization can meet the needs of another. Most governmental agencies advertise their needs by
issuing “requests for proposal” or RFPs. The RFP specifies a need and potential suppliers prepare proposal
reports telling how they can meet that need.
• Type # 5. Vertical or Lateral Reports:
• This classification refers to the direction a report travels. Reports that more
upward or downward the hierarchy are referred to as vertical reports; such reports
contribute to management control. Lateral reports, on the other hand, assist in
coordination in the organization. A report traveling between units of the same
organization level (production and finance departments) is lateral.
• Type # 6. Internal or External Reports:
• Internal reports travel within the organization. External reports, such as annual
reports of companies, are prepared for distribution outside the organization.
• Type # 7. Periodic Reports:
• Periodic reports are issued on regularly scheduled dates. They are generally
upward directed and serve management control. Preprinted forms and computer-
generated data contribute to uniformity of periodic reports.
• Type # 8. Functional Reports:
• This classification includes accounting reports, marketing reports, financial reports,
and a variety of other reports that take their designation from the ultimate use of
the report. Almost all reports could be included in most of these categories.
 Contents of a report
• I.Prefatory information:
• Title page
• Dedication
• Preface
• Letter of transmittal
• Letter of authorization
• Table of contents
• List of tables groups and appendices
• Executive summary
 Cont……
• II. Main body:
• Problem statement
• Research objectives
• Research methodology
• Findings
• Limitations
• Conclusions and recommendations
• III. End section
• Bibliography
• Appendices
• Glossary
• Index
• Blank sheet
 PHASES OF BUSINESS RESEARCH
• -> Choice of research area
• -> Review of literature
• -> Formulation of research question
• -> Formulation of hypothesis
• -> Developing a research design
• ->Collection of data
• ->Analysis of data
• -> Interpretation of data
• ->Conclusions
• -> Replicate the study for generalizations
 DATA PROCESSING
EDITING
The process of checking and adjusting responses in
the completed questionnaires for omissions, legibility,
and consistency and readying them for coding and
storage.
•Detects errors and omissions, corrects them when
possible, and certifies that minimum data quality
standards are achieved.
 TYPES OF EDITING
• 1. Field Editing
• Preliminary editing by a field supervisor on the
same day as the interview to catch technical
omissions, check legibility of handwriting, and
clarify responses that are logically or
conceptually inconsistent.
• 2. In-house or Central Editing
Editing performed by a central office staff;
often done more rigorously than field editing.
 Purpose of editing
• To ensure
• 1. Accuracy of data collected
• 2. For consistency between responses
• 3. Uniformity
• 4. For completeness in responses– to reduce
effects of item non-response
• 5. To facilitate and Simplify coding and
Tabulation.
• 6. To better utilize questions answered out of
order .
 CODING
• What is coding?
In qualitative analysis, coding is the process perusing data for
categories and meanings (themes, ideas, etc.) and then systematically
marking similar strings of text with a code label.
• This allows for systematic retrieval at a later stage for further
comparison and analysis. Coding the data makes it easier to identify
any patterns that require further investigation.
• Codes may be based on:
– Actions, behaviors
– Themes, topics
– Ideas, concepts
– Terms, phrases
– Keywords

• Code only relevant data (Not all data must be coded)

 CONT…
• Codes are given meaningful names that are applied to all instances
of similar content.

– Strings of text may contain more than one code.

• When new content is discovered, a new code is created to apply to
it and other similar content.
• Through analysis,
– Codes may evolve
– The number of codes may grow
as more topics or themes become apparent.

• Therefore, generate and maintain a list of codes to help to identify

the content contained in the codes and the data set.
 Cont……
• Sources of codes :
– A priori codes
• Previous research
• Previous theory
• Research question
• Your intuition of the data or setting
– Grounded codes
– suspend your ideas about the phenomenon and
let your data determine your thinking.
 CLASSIFICATION
• It is a systematic grouping of units according to
their common characteristics
• Objectives of Classification
• Simplifies and makes data more comprehensible
• • Condense the data
• • Brings out the points of similarity and
dissimilarity
• • Comparison of characteristics
• • Brings out the cause and effect relationship
• • Prepare the data for tabulation
 Classification of Data
On the basis of nature of Variable-
• •Quantitative data
• •Qualitative data
• •Discrete data
• •Continuous data
• •Chronological or temporal data
• •Geographical or spatial data
On the basis of Source of Collection
• •Primary data
• •Secondary data
On the basis of Presentation
• •Grouped data
• •Ungrouped data
On the basis on content
• • Simple Classification
• •Manifold Classification
 On the basis of nature of variable
• Quantitative data –
• Classification of data according to quantitative characteristics such as age , weight,
height, marks etc
• •Qualitative data –
• Classification of data according to qualitative characteristics such as sex, honesty,
intelligence, literacy, colour, religion, marital status etc
• •Discrete data - Classification of data which takes exact numerical values (whole
numbers) Eg: No of Children in a family, shoe size
• •Continuous data - Classification of data which takes numerical values within a
certain range Eg: Weight of girl baby of one month is given as 3.8kg, but exact
weight could be between 3.2 and 5.4.
• Chronological or Temporal data:
• When the data are classified or arranged by their time of occurrence such as
years,months,weeks,days etc. Eg, Time series data
• Geographical data:
• When the data are classified by geographical region or location like
states,provinces,cities,countries etc.
 On the basis of Sources
• Primary data:-
• Data which are collected directly collected by
the researcher and investigator.
• Secondary data
• Data which are not directly collected by the
researcher ie which is already collected by
some other persons.
 Cont….

• On the basis of presentation

• Grouped data-
• data which is presented in group Eg: Age: 20-25 (12 persons),25-30
(8 persons)
• •Ungrouped data-
• data which is presented individually
• Eg: Age: 28 years, 27 years, 23 years, 25 years, 26 years etc
• On the basis of Content:-
• •Simple Classification:
• Classification of data with one characteristics Gender ie Boys ,Girls
• •Manifold Classification:
• Classification of data with more than one characteristics
 Tabulation
• MEANING “Table is systematic organization and
presentation of data in the form of rows and columns.
Whereas rows are horizontal arrangements and
columns are vertical arrangements.
• Objectives of Tabulation
• To carry out investigation
• To do comparison
• To locate omissions and errors in the data.
• To use space economically
• To simplify data
• To use it as future reference
 Types of Tabulation
• According to Purpose
• General Purpose Table:
• General purpose table is that table which is of
general use. It is does not serve any specific
purpose or specific problem under
consideration.
• Special Purpose Table:
• Special Purpose table is that table which is
prepared with some specific purpose in mind.
 Cont….
• According to Originality
• Original Table:
• An original table is that in which data are
presented in the same form and manner in which
they are collected.
• Derived Table:
• A derived table is that in which data are not
presented in the form or manner in which these
are collected. Instead the data are first converted
into ratios or percentage and then presented.
• According to Construction
• Simple Table and Complex Tables
• .Simple Table :-
• In a simple table (also known as one-way table), data are
presented based on only one characteristic.
• Complex Tables
• In a complex table (also known as a manifold table) data are
presented according to two or more characteristics
simultaneously.
• The complex tables are two-way or three-way tables
according to whether two or three characteristics are
presented simultaneously.