Prof. Dr.

Hassan Megahed
Metallurgical Processes during
Welding

 Melting
 Alloying
 Solidification
 Heat treatment
 Hot- and cold working.

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Solidification of a metal

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Cellular and dendritic growth

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Weld metal solidification

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

 Solidification Mode
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains Columnar
HAZ grains HAZ

Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead

On solidification the bonding
between the grains may be
adequate to maintain
cohesion and a crack is
unlikely to occur
Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed
On solidification the low
melting temperature continues
thin film exists at the weld bead
centerline. Bonding between
the grains may be poor to
maintain cohesion and a crack
may result.
Width to Depth Ratios (Weld bead
shape factor)
5mm 15mm

20mm 20mm

Width = < 0.7 5 = 0.25 Width = > 0.7 15 = 0.75

Depth 20 Depth 20
Cracking likely Cracking unlikely
Higher dilution levels Lower dilution levels
faster cooling slower cooling

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

 Solidification Cracking
 Causes:
 1 .Large depth/width ratio of
weld bead ( Weld Bead Shape
Factor).
- High arc energy and/or preheat
 2. Low melting point
constituents (Sulpher,
phosphorus or niobium pick-up
from parent metal)
FeS-----Fe eutectic (melting
temperature= 988 C ,L- solid(1),Solid (2)
NiS----Ni eutectic ( m.t.= 690)
 3. Residual stresses.
Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed
Solidification Cracking
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
 The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose
favourable welding conditions to obtain better weld bead shape factor
(Width to depth ratio), and choose the proper joint design.
 High manganese content electrodes can form spherical MnS between
the grains (slag inclusion)and maintain grain cohesion.
 As carbon increases Sulpher segregation tendency increases.. Carbon
content % should be a minimised by careful control in electrode and
dilution.
 Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint and
residual stresses.

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Time-Temperature-Transformation
Curves (TTT)

Plain Carbon
Steel of
Eutectoid
Composition

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Metallurgical changes in weld HAZ

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

 Classification of HAZ sections:

Section 1: (fusion zone) is a mixed section between

filler metal and parent metal.
Section 2 : ( overheated section) the metal was
overheated to a high degree which lead
to grain coarsening, the most brittle
 region (1100 C – solidus line )
Section 3: ( normalized section) the temperature
didn’t exceed 1100 C (900-1100 C) the
metal in this section has improved
mechanical poperties compared to parent
metal.

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Section 4: (incomplete recrystallization section).
Incomplete recrystallization of the metal
occurred, since it was heated to temperature
between Ac1 and Ac3.

Section 5: (recrystallization section), no structure

changes occur in the metal, (500 C – Ac1).
Section 6: (blue shortness section), no structure
changes occur in the metal. If the parent
metal for example low carbon steel
contains gases in the ranges ( O2 > 0.005%,
N2 >0.005% and H2> 0.0005) the impact
value considerably reduces. ( 100 –500 C)

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Weld metal and HAZ

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Hydrogen Induced Cracking, Cold
cracking, Delayed Cracking
There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of
the factors occur together:
1. Hydrogen More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
2. Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)
3. Residual Stress More than ½ the yield stress

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

1-Sources of Hydrogen

1. Water of recrystallization in electrode

coatings (Drying)+ selection of welding
process and low hydrogen electrodes and
fluxes.
2. Rust and oil on base metal surfaces.
(Cleaning)
3. Moisture in welding fluxes, and shielding gases.
(Drying).

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
• Hydrogen is the smallest atom known

• Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on the

electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the consumable gases.

Water vapour Moisture on

in the air or H2 the electrode
in the H2 or grease on
shielding gas the wire
H2
Oxide or grease on H2 H2
the plate

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Solubility of hydrogen in steel

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Hydrogen
Atomic
diffusion
Hydrogen
(H)

Molecular
Hydrogen
(H2)
Steel in expanded condition Steel under contraction
Above 300oC Below 300oC
Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed
Cold cracking mechanism

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
2. Susceptible Microstructure:
Hard brittle structure – MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (Ce)
Ce = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
6 5 15
B) high alloy content
C) fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.

Heat input (J/mm) = Amps x Volts

Welding velocity (mm/s )
Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed
Hydrogen Cold Cracking Avoidance
To eliminate the risk of hydrogen cracking

 Hydrogen  SMAW (basic electrodes). MAG

 Cleaning base metal before welding etc.
• Use austenitic filler material

 Susceptible  Preheat-reduces cooling rate which reduces

Microstructure the risk of Susceptible Microstructure

 Residual Stress  Design, Balanced welding.

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Prediction of Preheating temperature

Prof. Dr. Hassan Megahed

Welding Metallurgy of
stainless steel grades
The Three Main Categories of
Stainless Steel
1-Austenitic Stainless Steels. These are the most frequently used types of
stainless steels. Austenitic stainless steels tend to have a high chromium
content compared to other steel alloys, giving them a higher resistance to
corrosion-their grades are
2-Ferritic Stainless Steels •
These are plain chromium (10.5 to 18%) grades such as Grade 430 and 409
• Their grades are
Martensitic Stainless Steels. Their corrosion resistance tends to be lower
than either ferritic or austenitic alloys, but they have a high hardness
 Common types of stainless steels
Steel Typical welding Practical
___________composition problems Solution___________
Austenitic 18%Cr-8%Ni Solidification Maintaining 4-10%ferrite
Stainless 22%Cr-20%Ni cracking in weld phase in weld metal
Steels 22%Cr-12%Ni metal Keep C/ √Si ≥ 0.22 in
fully austenitic weld metal

Martensitic 12-16%Cr Hydrogen-induced Preheat 200-400 º C and

Stainless 0.3%C cracking in HAZ post heat at 750 º C

Ferritic 16-30%Cr Low toughness in Preheat 200 º C

Stainless 0.1%C grain coarsened
Steels HAZ
 Sigma Phase
embrittlement

Hot cracking

Cold Embrittlement by grain

cracking coarsened 475C
embrittlement
Schaeffler diagram for weld metal
Schaeffler and Delong DAIGRAM
The Shaeffler Diagram
 Solved example
If a tube (A) of 2.25 %Cr-1%Mo and an austentic stainless
steel tube (B) are to be welded , it is required to choose
the correct electrode . the solution is as follow, first
composition of A and B are to be located on the schaffler
diagram. Point D midway between A and B , this means
that the dilution between the two alloys is 50%. If MMA
electrode is used point C. The dilution is arranged to be
between 42%- 62% point E to avoid cracking
-Draw the schaeffler diagram and locate the following stainless
steel alloys.
Element C Mn Si Cr Ni Others
AISI 312 0.25 2.01 .5 25 21 ---
AISI 310 0.08 2.0 1.0 19 10 ---
AISI 308 0.08 2.0 1.0 20 11 ---

-Name the situated alloys and determine their ferrite numbers

-Discuss the weldability of the above alloys and choose their
suitable electrode materials in case of SMAW Process
The iron carbon phase diagram
The transformation diagram
TTT-TRANSFORMATION
DIAGRAM
Heat Affected Zone Welding
Concerns
Formation of HAZ
Classification of HAZ sections:
 Classification of HAZ sections:

Section 1: (fusion zone) is a mixed section between

filler metal and parent metal.
Section 2 : ( overheated section) the metal was
overheated to a high degree which lead
to grain coarsening, the most brittle
region (1100 C – solidus line ) •
Section 3: ( normalized section) the temperature
didn’t exceed 1100 C (900-1100 C) the
metal in this section has improved
mechanical poperties compared to parent
metal.
Section 4: (incomplete recrystallization section).
Incomplete recrystallization of the metal
occurred, since it was heated to temperature
between Ac1 and Ac3.

Section 5: (recrystallization section), no structure

changes occur in the metal, (500 C – Ac1).
Section 6: (blue shortness section), no structure
changes occur in the metal. If the parent
metal for example low carbon steel
contains gases in the ranges ( O2 > 0.005%,
N2 >0.005% and H2> 0.0005) the impact
value considerably reduces. ( 100 –500 C)
 Two dissimilar materials A&B are welded together. They are in the form
of plates. The thickness of each plate is 10 mm. The chromium
equivalent of the used electrode is 26 with ferrite number equals 10.
The chemical composition of the two base metals A and B are as
follows:-
Elements (Wt%) Cr Ni C Mn Si
Alloys
A 2 1 0.03 0.5 1.3

B 14 22 0.1 2 1.5

x x

A 60˚ B
10

2mm
From the Schaeffler diagram, and the shown joint design answer the following
questions
Name the located alloys.
Get the dilution of the electrode material.
Calculate the distance X shown in the joint design.
( Note: The fused areas from the two base metals A and B are equal and they are in
4-Draw a diagram showing the metallurgical
changes in HAZ of butt welded steel plates,
what are the mechanical and structural
properties of each section.