TOOLS ‘A Mothanstical Sketch end Yodel Book Bohort C. Tat Iouisione State Univorsity| DEC 22 1941 COPTRIGE? 1941 Robert C, YatooBe Smevbat in the nature of an experinent, this book has teen designed especially for college students vho are prospective teachers of mathematics. It sexves not only to focus their attention upon the geoostrical tool ani the precise mmer in vhich it ie used, but also furnishes thon with sbundant material thet can and should be introduced into high school work, ‘Tho subject mattor presented here requires no preliminary Imovledge of mathematics in advance of that acquired in the standart freshman courses of Algebm, Trigononotxy, and Arslytics. For Aifficultics will bo encountered even if the book ir studied at the freshman level. Since there aro already @ munber of excellent available texts dealing with modem geonstzy, ‘this subject has boon sacrificed toa large oxtent to make roca for material believed to be nore Adaptable to the needs of the prospective teacher. The arrangement is tased upon the throohour-porsvock clats, It is suggested tha’, two of these hours te spent in the classroom, the third in the Iatortory. Thus, at the average rate of ‘to plates per wook, the material will be found anple for a ysar course, Since, generally, any section is inlepontent of the others, the course can be armnged to met the desircs of the group. Turthomore, a stuient entering the cource at the begining of tho second senester will not necessarily be haniicappod if the onder of tho book is followed. Toore are approximately 60 plates, each facoi by explanatory text and each designed as a class-bour uit, Sufficient smce is provided for ansvors to questions, ‘The full veluo,of the book can be realized only ty sogo thought ani such labor. ‘The student should sake freo use of color in completing the drawings. ‘he essential role of sows vital parts of ® complicated configuration is mors clearly prosented if they appear in color. A supploncntary Rotebook with ring binder will be found useful in keeping models ani notes that cannot be inserted heroin. Mach depends upon tho instructor. It should to cloar that thore is no attengt to encoumge Seclanical perfection on the pert of tho ctudont in the art of drafting. Instead, it is hoped ‘Stat this will bring @ wore thorough and sympathetic understanding of gooustrical structure. In conploting dmwings eni saking suggested models, it is hoped that the student will develop the Seoling of boing co-author, In the ond, he will have a voluse containing a rvcord of his om creative efforts, = volune that aay serve him later as a source of cupplesontary miterial in his career as a teacher.‘the equipment for the laboratory ie inexpensive. The folloving should be included Thin colored art paper (standard size pads) Thin tmeing paper having o wax body oF finish Straightedge, Compasses, and Dividers. Colored poster-type carlboan about 12 ply Byelot punch. Tyolets, #2 ond #3. Bhototrinacr - nodiun or large. ‘Altbough the material of this book was gathered fron many sources, the following were of specis] service throughout Adler, A. + ‘Theorie der geouetrischon Konstruktionen, Lefprig (1906) (Out of print) Fourrey, B. 1 Procéaés originaux do Constructions gfonétriques, Paris (1924) (At present unobtainable) « Hudson, H. P. ¢ Ruler & Compasses, London, (1916). Kenpo, A. B. t How to Dray a Straight Lino, New York (1877) (Out of print ard rare). Ror, 2.8. 4 Goonttrical Exerciaas in Paper Folding, Madras (1093) (translated ty Besan ond Saith, Chicago, 1901) (Out of print), ‘The euthor wishes to thank Professor E. H, C. Hildebrandt for mary suggestions, Dorothy Blanchard for compiling the index and reading proof, and George Guttner for his courteous cooperation in the matter of publication. Baton Rouge, Louisiana June, 1942| Cowra 2 senor _t ns | THE STRAIGATEDGE AND YODER’ COMPASSES (Modern Ceonotzy). ee 6-38 Construction] Posssbilities-8; Fundamental Thevrems-10; Furdawontal Constauctions-2; Thorens of | Meneluus & Geva-I6; Sinilitude of Circles-I8; Paver of a Point & Foaical Axis-20: Hine-Point Circle, Baler Line, Orthocuntric Sets-22; Reflections-24; Tagular Polygonn-26, sportor 11 DISSHOTIOK OF FLAME FOO SOLERO IES | ‘Transformation of Polygons-36: Theoren of Pythagoras-38, SEOrIo# 11 THE COMPASSES (Gconstry of Mascheroni) 6... a se 2B | Inversion-46; Constructional Possibilities-50; Froblens-52. sEorIoy FOS AND GHEASES (Geouotzy of Paper Folding) . - . . +54 Faalels ard Pexpendiculars-56; Notable Points of the Trianglo-58; Regular Polygons-60; Constructional Possibilitice-62; Knots}. seoron v / ‘HE STRAIGHTEDGE (Synthetic Projective Geonetry) . . . = See Eee mec oy | Fhotograply-68; Theoren of Desargucs~70; Thoorens of Pascs1-72 Harmonic Sets-76; Poles and Polars~7@; | Problene. soonroH VE LINE HOPTCH LINKAGES (How to Draw a Straight Line)... . we. B10 Fomccliivr Cell and Tts Varintions-Gf; Ralligg Circles-90: Hart ani Kenpe Mechanisns.92. seoricn vir ‘RE STEAIGHTIDGE WITH IMGVABLE FIGIEE (Gconotry of Zoneclet-Stoiner) .... 2... ... . 102 = 117 The Strnightoige with Imovable Cirele-104; Thc Stmaightedge with Inovable Squirc-112; The Straightedge with Inovable Farallelogran-116. SECTION VII THE ASSIST STMIGHEEE. 6... 2 Gti oda sods 2h ta u8 = 127 ‘The Stmightodge and Collapsible Comyessos=120; The Strmightsigo end Rigid Compasece-122; Tho Stnightodge and Rigid Dividere-126, | swore x PARALLEL AND ANGE US 6 ner caster ote) ++ 28-3 ‘The Parallel Rulex-130; The General Angle Fuler-136; Tho Right Angle Rule: sporraa x RICHER TOOLS AND QUERITC SYSTRE .. . Unaciaewe sia Bae i cee Se SermacpenahIO? ‘Tho Marked Fulor146; Conchoids and ‘Limacons~148; Inzcrtion and Trisection=150; Discussion of Quartics and Cubles-I52; Chrpentor's Square-168: Teonhrk-160; Comassas of Homet-162; Two Bight Anglo Rulers-164; Strmightedge and Compasses with Innoveble Conio~166. smorrow x1 CHORAL PLANE LINAGES «6... | Pee ee ad or Taree Bar Linlagos=170; The Conics-I74; Famalielogrns-176; Mho Contra Conics-160: Lisnconaei82; Ciesoids-184; Ovals of Cassini-186; Pedale-1 sos WR 194re ase eae eISSN STORRS aU eENEOWoRE Selient fontures and inportent conclusions ore Listed here in order thet the studnt might goin Usrough thie broad vier gaueral understinding of the concepts discussed herein, Plane Buslider constructions are thoae which aoy be effected by straightedge and compasses. Gonetiner simple, sonetines complicated, they are all, nevertheless, oasposed of strotght lines st cizclee, The ultiaate object of any such omstmuction is the lecation of points which are Jaan an the intersection of two lines, a line end a circle, or two circles, Accordingly, sy foot (ouch az the dagle Biles) te oquivalent to the straightedge ond compansca if it is copsblo of acking these three fundenental constructions. Plone Suclidesn constructions have for thelr algebraic interpretations equations whose roots are ot nest quairatic irrationslities, or the nost part, such equations aro of degree fot higher then the second, Tools (or systeas*) which will produco uch constructions ure thus Galled quadratic. Into this classification fell the unassisted Compasses, the Parallel Ralery the Masiced Talon, the oysten of Stroightodge and Fixed Circle, oto, Those toole which will “effect constructions equivalent to equations of degree as high as the fourth are called quartic. Those include the Marked Filer, the Compasses «ni Fixed Oonic, the Carpenter's Square, tho Toashark, ote. ‘The suportince of the discussion of Oubles md Quartics prelisinary to the onalysis of Higher Toole connot be overeaphasized, Tt is stom thet any quartic cmotriction is reducible by noms of straightedge and cospesaos either to the trisection of a partlolar mgle or to dhe exbo root of m curtain segnnt length, The two cient problons of Trisection end Duplication of a Cube thus appear in roles of fresh importence, Fhine Linkages (compound couposses) aro very complex tools. Their appearmeo in the aidst of elenentexy tools {8 excused by a enticipation of normal curiosity. Having just completed » Goction devoted to straightedge canstmuctions, it is only natural to speculate upon the cxistence of such on instrment, 0 say we build ono straightedge upon mother as a guide is to beg the question. A sechanicel amatruction of a straight line or straightedge cones naturally only through the nediia of plene jointed links in the nner of Pemesllier, Hert, nd Keupo, In view of the fact that the sinplest Linkages producing line motion are thee fnvolving five bars, the tine-honored straightedge seuns disturbingly complex. ‘Jeo wnusual designations appearing frequently throughout the took are (1) the use of the contraction "hypo" (for hypothetical) to indicate a locus which is dofined but may not be Gres ena (2) tho notation A(B) to indicate the cizcle with center A end radius AB. The author does not wish to overburden the ctudent ly insisting upon the feithful adherence to ony particilar tool, For example, the location of the intersections of tro hypoctrcles by the Parallel Ruler rogulres thet certain porpendiculars be established, Having ‘already erected perpendicalars in ¢ prelininary figure, tho student aay consclentiously exchenge ‘the Porellel Baler for a ore edsptable tool. Sch practice, moreover, vould avoid amy ainor constmuctional cleats that might obsqure main issues and objectives. ‘Mis tock is presented with the sincere hope thet fron it a weelth of plenmure and satisfaction aay be derived. Intellectual profit vill then accumilate without qpperent effort * Such as those discucsod in Section VII,(odern Geonetzy) The Stmightedee se on inetrument used to ectablish the stmight lino pascing throug! to given Aistinct points. ‘Tho instrument called the Modem Compasses is used to draw the circle with given center and given mdius. If the maiue is not given "in position" ~ that is, with an extresity at the center - we postulate the ability to "cary" thie méius by the compasses into position. This is, in effect, absorbing the principle of the Dividers into the commasses. These tro tools and the mother restricted uses to which they are put soem scanty oquipaent inleed to ercot ary sort of goonctrice] structure vorth the effort, This mkss all tho more surprising the fact thet the production is intricate, elaborate, and certainly east valuable. Hovever elaborate a construction may bo, it is but the location of points found as the intersection of 1. two 2iness 2. 9 Lino and a oirelos 3. two efzeles. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING Altshiller-Court, ¥ s College Goonetry, Richmond (1923). ‘Bader 4 Principles of Geometry, Cambridge (1922). Casey, John 1 A Soquel to Buclia, Dublin (1881, 1866). Coolidge, J. 1. 1A Treatico on tho Geanetzy of tho Circle and the Sphero, Cambridge, (1914) Crap. Te ‘Darel, C. Ve + Modern Geometry, London (1920). Godfrey end Siddons t Modern Goonatzy, Canbriagé (1926). Gallatly, Wy 1 Modern Geouetzy of the Triangle, London (1910) Hudson, K.P. ‘Ruler and Conpassos, London (1916) 21-34; 59-69- Johnson, Re A. 1 Modern Geonetry, New York (1929). Tachlan, B 1 Modern Pare Geenstsy, Londen (1893). MeClelland, W. J. 1 Geanetzy of the Circle, London (2651)- Potorson, J+ { Problent of Goonctrical Constructions (translated ty Haagensen, Yow York (1923). ‘Russell, J. Wy 4 Elementary Pure Geometry, Oxford (1693). Sclwarz, He Ay + Gosannelte Mathenstische Abhendlungen, IIt 345+ Shively, l. 6, Modern Geoaotiy, Wiley, Nev York (1939) 1-253 44-781 126-129. The folloving pertain particularly to regular polygons. adler, Ay ‘Theorie der geonetriechen Konstruktionsn, Leipzig (1906) 200-229. Archilald, RC, 1 Gauss and the Regular Polygon of Seventeen Sides, Anorican Mithemticnl Monthly. 27 (1920) 323-326. Gesmichasl, Re D. 1 Anerican Mathomtical Monthiy26 (1919) 137 #2 Dickson, L. Z, + Constmctions with Ruler and Coopusses in J. W. Young!s Monogrons on Yaiern Mathenaties, Lengnans Groca (1911). Dadeney, He Be 4 Modern Puzzles, London, (1926). Buison, Ee P. t-Rulor and Compasses, London (1916) 31-34. Lowry, Je 3 The Mathesationl Repository, HS IV (1619) 160-168. Richsond, HV. 1 Quarterly Joumal of Yethemties, 26 (1893) 206-207. Saith, Le Le. 1 Anerioan Yothoantical Monthly 27 (1920) 322-323.Pago 8 - 9 3 CosSTRUCTTONAL POSSTBILITTES OF STRAIGHTEDGE & COMPASSES: PLATE 1 AML constructions of plane euclidean geonetry are but the location of points either as the inter- J section of two lines, or @ line and a circle, or tvo circles. WE SHALL PROVE THAT, UNDER THE TWO RULES GOVERNING THE USE OP THE STRAIGHTEDGE AND COMPASSES, THESE CONSTRUCTIONS CONSIST ONLY OF THE RATIONAL OPERATIONS OF ADDITION, SUBTRACTION, DIVISION, AND MULTIPLICATION TOGETHER WITH THE IRRATIONAL OPERA- TION OF THE EXTRACTION OF A SQUARE ROOT OF POSSESSED GEOMETRIC LENGTHS . We hell first show that these five operations are the only possible ones in straightedge and com- passes constructions. The proof 1 concerned with these cases: CASEI: Fig. 1. When given four pointa determining tvo lines ve may draw these lines and thereby determine. their intersections with tvo other arbitrarily chosen perpendicular lines used as reference axes. With theee intercepts knovn, the equations of the lines are x/ay + y/o, = 1° and x/aq + y/vg = 1 whore the a's and b'e are constructible lengths. The coordinates of their intersection point are the eimltancous eolutione: X= ayag(bg ~ by)/aybo - ab), 7 & dydp(@ - ap)/(apbo ~ agbs)- Bech fraction here represents a aries of constructions possible by the methode shown in Figures by 5, 6,7. Therefore, all line construbtione lead to nothing more than the retional operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of Tengthe. GASB IT: Fig. 2. Agiven line end a given ‘etrele have for equations: x/a+yf>o=2 and, (x - 0)? + (y - 1)? = 2. fo find their intersectiona, eliminate firet x, then y, obtaining A@ieciz + Gx 0, 1y2 + Wy + = 0, whore the cosffictents are constructible by Figures 4, 5, 6, 7- The solutions, x = (-B + /(BP - bac)i/2 for instance, of the most general of these quadratics involves, in addition to the rational operations, the frrational operation of extraction of square roots, but nothing further. cist IIT: Fig. 3. The intersection of two given circles is the eme as the intersection of their amon chord ana ono of the circles. Thus, aince the coefficients in the equation of the chord are ra- {onal functions of those in the equation of the circles, this case reduces imediately to II, and in froduces no new operation. We shall now show that these five operations are possible ty straightedge and compasses and give ‘the constructions. Figs. 4, 5 indicate the obvious means of addition and gubtraction of posssased lengths. Figs. 6, 7 give methods of multiplying and dividing the lengths @ and b. The donstructifon tn sithor cave fo that of oimilar triangles, involving the construction of parallel Lines. Fig. 8. This exhibite the construction for the square root of a length a. Describe the circle on (1 +a) as diameter and-erect the perpendicular at the Junction point. The length x intercepted by the |iqr'to Ya. Compare ainiiar triangles: = Fig. 9. Locate M, the midpoint of OA =1, Draw OB perpendicular to OA. With M as center and MB fs radiue doecribe an are outting AO extended at C. Calculate the lengths: oc = BoFATAL TERRES The following theoroze eorrcepend to those solected by the ational Comtttes on Mathenaticel Roguironents os of greatest inportenes and eto? by then as funinontal, ‘These are given to the student in order for hia to bridge the gap more ansily Betwoun high school geocotry md the oatertals of thie course, Loeate tho following theorume in Stendard toxt md list the poge reference opposite each, 1, If two triangles have two sides and the included angle of one equal respectively to tro sides end ‘ths included angle of the other, they are congruent. 2, If two trisngles have two ingles and the included side of one equil respectively to two angles ent the included side of the other, the two trimglos are eongrucnt. 34 If two trimgles hove three sides of one equal respectively to thros sides of the other the tro trlingles are eongrumt, 4e If tro night triangles have the hypotenuse and a leg of one equal respectively to the hypotenuse rad o log of the other, they are congruent, 5s If two sides of « triangle are equsl, tho angles opposite those sides are equal. 6, Me locus of points equally dott from tw given poiats is the perpndicular Usector of the Ine Joining thea, 7, The locus of points equilly distent from the sides of m mele is the biscotor of the angle, B, If to parallel Linos cre cut by 0 trmavorsal, tho eltemate interior angles axe equal, 9s If tro Lines are cut by a trensversal so thet a pair of altemets interior angles are equal, the Limes aro peraliel, 10, ‘he un of the engles of a trimgle is a straight mele, (16°). U1, A parellclogran is divided into two congruent triangles by a dingonal. 12, If the opposite sides of a quadrilateral are oquil, the figure is a parcllelogran, 13, If two ideo of a quairilators) are equsl ond parallel, the figure is a parallclogran, Lg, Tf a gorkes of parallel lings ait off equal sogacnte on one transvorsal, they cut off equal semants ‘on every trenaversal., 15, The oxen of a parallelogron is qual to the product of the base and cltituie, 16, Tho erea of a triongle is oquel to one half the product of its base and altitude. YJ, The aren of a trapezoid ic equal to.one helf the product of its altitude ad the ew of ite bases, 18, Tic oron of a regular polygon ie oqual to one-half the product of ite apothen end its perimeters ¥, If a straight Moo intersects to eldos of a trimgle and is parallel to the third aide, St divides ‘the two sides proportionately, 2, If a lino divides to sides of trimple proportionally, 1t is parallel to the third side. ZL, Tha sognante ext off on tro tronevereals by thros or sore parallel Lines are proportional, 22, Teo trimelee are elailar if they have tro mel other. of one ogunl respectively to te singles of the2h. 2D. a te Be Be a 3B Be @ 2. Be Me 5. 4 a PUGET, HENAN ‘wo triongles are eiailar if on mgle of one te oqual to an mgle of the other and the including sides are proportional. ho trimagles are siailar if thelr corresponding cides are proportional. If two chords intersect in a circle, the product of the yarts of one is equal to the product of the ports of the other. ‘tho pertuoters of two eiuilar polygons have the eine ratlo as my two corresponding sides. IE two polygons con be divided into two trlmgles which aro sinller and ciailarly placed, the poly= gous are sinilar, If tw polygons are similar, they cm be divided into triengles which are siailer «nd siailerly pllecod. ‘he tisector of an mele of a trigle divides the opposite side into parts proportional to the adjacent sides, ‘tho areas of tro sleiler triengles are to cach other as the equares of any two corresponding sides, ‘the areas of to eimilar polygons are to ouch other as the squares of my two corresponding sides, In eny right triegle the perpendicular froa the vertex of tho right angle on the hypotenuse Aivides the triengle into two triegles cach siniler to the given trimgle end to each other. In eny right triengle the square on the hypotinuse equals the eu of the eguares of the other to cides, Ta the ame circle or in equal circles, equal central engles have equal arc In the cone circle or in equal olzelec, equal arcs have ogual cantral angles, In the cone cleclo o in oquel circles, two cantral meleé are proportional to thelr arcs, In the sene circle or in oqual cizcles, oqual clone havo ogual arcs. In the sone circle or in equal circles, Sf two arcs are equal their chords ere oqual. A disnoter perpendicular to e chord bisects the cord end its arc, A disnoter which bisects a chord (not a diancter) is perpendicular to it. A tengent to a clrele at a given point is porpmdicular to the radius drem to that point, A Une perpendicular to a radius ot its outer extrenity is tengent to the circle. In the sone circle or in ogiel cizcles, equal chords are equally detent fron the emter, Tn the smae chrcle o in egiel circles, ctoris shich are equally distent fron the cater are oqual. ‘fo Sngoribed angle Se coasured by ononhalf ite arc. Jogles inserted in the ease segnent are equal. If a circle ie divided into oguel axes, the chords of these arcs fom a rogular inscribed polygon, end tengents at the points of division fora a regular circusseri bed rolyeoa, Me area of a circle is oqual to one half the product of its radius end ite ciremferncs, The clromference of a circle te equal to the product of ite disneter end pi.DLANTAL OONSTEDOTICNS ‘The following is a Hist selected by the National oui tte: on Mathenntical Requirenants as findenentel constructions, ike these twanty constructions, using the otraighteige and capasses fas indicated at tho boginning of thie ection. Place whatever explmatory notes ure necessary in the space provided between quastious. FIG, 1, Bisect the line egmnt ond draw its perpendicular bisector. FIG, 2, Bisoct tho given angle. FIG. 3, Construct the perpndiailar to tho givin line thivugh the given pointy FIG, 4, Constmuct on mgle ab P equal to the given engl FIG, 5, Draw the Line parallel to the given Line through the given point, FIG, 6 Construct the trimgle whose aiden are tho elven scgamts, ay by ce FIG. 7, Construct a trimglo, givin to «gles und the included sido, FIG, 8, Construct # tringle, given tro sides, a 0, snd the included «gle, FIG. 9, Divide the sogunt AB into parte proportional to the segnents a by FICO. Given the erd/of a circle, find its enter.FORMAT, CONSTELCTIONS Clromscrite a circle about the given triangle, Inccribe a cizcls in the given trimgle. Construct tho tmgmte to the given cizcle fron the extemal point F. Construct the tangent to the circle through the point P on the circle, h proportional to the three given segments a, by c. a mean proportional betwaen the tro given eogueate a, b. Polygon similier to the given polygon. Construct a, tringle with area equal to that of the given polygon. Inseribe a square in the given circle, regular hoxagon in the given eirelo, GIVE A LIST OF REFERRICE PAGES FEO A STANDARD TEND OW SHASE CONSTRICTONS 3. 8 3. 38.16 ‘DEORAMS OF MOTLAUS & CEVA Of prive inportance to much that will follow throughout the tock are the theorens of Nesclaus end Ceva, FIG, 1, he Theoren of Menolaust AY LINE CUTS SHE SITES (prolonged 4f necessary) OF A TRIANGLE 50 ‘HAD IE PROUUCT OF THREE NOS- (0,8 - 0,8)/(x, ~ 2, ‘Thus Ete Mkorlse a fixed point, Wotice that these centers of siailitude are the intersection of cumon tengente, Discuss the cose when x= 7. flay ~ 3,) = oonstente FIG, 2, Draw line cogzents fron P to the given circley What 4s the locus of the aidpoints of these segsente? (Hinti Conpare sintlor triengles). FIG, 3. Show that lines joining P, a point of intorsoction of two circles, to I end E Meect the angles at P ehich are forned by the lines joining P and the contors, FIG, 4. Construct the three extemal centore of sinilitude of the throc given circles, Shew that those three points lie ona straight Mine, (Bint: Use the theorem of Menelais). Hotioe that eny polr of incenters of slailitude is collinear with the other oxomter of similitudey + the notation O(r) signifies the circle with conter 0 snd radiue rsPOWER OF A FOLD AND RADICAL ARTS FIG, 1. Wo now establish a very inportent end fundanental theores of geouctay, hereafter described of ‘the Secent Property of the Circle, Froa a point P lings are dram to intersect the given circle, Since the are subtended ty < ACD plus that subtended ty < ABD is the entire clrouferece, these eagles are supploncntary end thus Zim = 2m. Teimgles 2CA ood FED are thorofore sisilar with tho proportion: ajc = /Ph or (eayten) = (20)(20). ‘thus, UF LINES ARE DRANG FROM A FIXED POINT 10 NTERSECT A FIXED CIRCLE, THE FRODUCD OF THE DISTANCES ‘FROM SHE FINED FOIVT 10 [BLE POINTS OF INTEESHOTTON OF EACH LENE AND CIRCLE 1S CONSTANT. FIC, 2, The emstent 1s essily evaluated ty draving the Line through P and the center of the circle, Fo haver 2 (ro 4 2)(P0+2) =p, aeostmt, oF (0)? =P er. the quantity p te celled the power of the point P with respect to the fixed circle, If the point > ts utside, on, oF inside the circle the corresponding power is positive, zero, or negative respectively. FIG, 3, Lot ws look for the locus of ll pointe P that have oul power with respect to two otrcles, Out). Or). TEP te my such point, Lot Hi be dropped perpendicular to the line of caters, Be, (op? m2 = (op)? = 22 or (nd? (0,0? = |= (33? + (09? ~ 2%. 2 2 2 2 ue (oad? = (0,07 = (opt ~ 0,9(0,u + 00 = #7 + 2's meat But ince (0,4 + 0,8) and ,2.~ 2,2 exe constanté, then (Oxi ~ 0,8) must therefore be a constants If two quantities have their sun and differmce both constints they are thensclves constants, Accord ingly, OM ts constent and thus Mis a fixod point for any position of P, The locus of P therefore te a straight Line porpendicaler to the line of centers, 0)0p, It 1s called the Radical Axis of the two elzcles. FIG, 4. Show that for all pointe on the radioal axis, the tangent Iengths dram to the circles are ‘equal, Notice that if the circles intersect, the Radical Axts is thelr comon chord, FIG, 5, For thros given clzcles there are three radical axes, Two of thea intersect at the point Te Taig potnt accordingly has oqual powers with respect to the circles 0, and Op as well at to 0, ent Opt ‘that ic, with respect to ell threc, It fe called the Radical Canter, The 1no through X perpendicifer to 010, ts the radical eats of the two sonintersecting cizcise, This iniioaics « sete’ of construct ing thd radical exts of tw non~interseoting circles, ny eircle such as Q2 will produce tro lince intersecting on the radical axts of tho two given circles. MIG, 6, Construct the radical excs of the three circles, using only one auxiliary olrcles Now drew ‘the clzcle orthogonal to ell three elven clrcles, (ote! ‘wo circles are orthogonal 1£ theix tear gents at a point of Intersection are perpendicular,SE NMIE-ZOINT CIRCLE - BUISR LIME ~ ORIOCHIIRIC sets FIG, 1, Locate the Oxthocenter (intersedtion of altitudes): tho Giremomnter (intersection of perpendicular Usectors of eldoe); ad the Centroid (intorsection of medians), Those throc points Mie on a Line called the Buler Line. (Johnson p.165) FIG,2, Locate the eidpoints of the sides; the aidpoints of segaets joining orthocenter to verticoss and the fect of altitudes. These nine points Iie on a circle whose rodius is belf that of the clromeizele and whose cater is aidway between clrouseenter and orthocmter, (Zohneon p.195). FIG.3, Locate the orthocenter H, ‘Tho four pointe, (the given vortices and the orthocenter 4) forn what is called m orthoeentric sot. Stow that the four trimgles formed from this (or any) orthocentric set all have the souo lineFoint circh FIG, 4, Drow the cfreuneizele ond Wine-Point Circle, Vorify that thelr intemal and extemal centers of einilitude are respectively the cmtroid and orthocenter of the elven trisnele, (Gomeon P2197) FIC. 5, Produce the alder of the Orthic Triangle (lines joining the fect of the altitudes) ‘the opposite sides of the given trimglo, The three points thus formed lle on a Linc. (For proof, wee Plate 26, 5). to esEFLECTIONS We assume that the path of a Light may or a billiard ball nekes equal angles at « reflecting surface. This path gmerally ie the shortest one possible. FIG. 1, The shortest path from P to the line and then to Q is found by reflecting @ (or F) in the Line end thon joining the reflected point to? (or @). Meke the construction, FIG, 2. Find the shortest path froa P to one of the lines, then to the second, end then back toF, (Hints Reflect P in eoch Lins), FIG. 3, The Trimgle of least perineter that say te inscribed in a trimgle ABC is the orthic txlengle 112, This trimgle mekes equal mglee with the cides of AC, For, triegles BYA end Cah are both right trlungles snd thus 259° -a= 2H, Now a circle dram on Hi az a dinseter passes through X and 2 since BUH end BIG are right angles, Ukerise, C, Y, H, Xie on a circle with Gl os a diascter. In the first circlo, Zl and (€ TE intercept the sane are and this are equal, In the second eizcle, < EXT end & HOT are equal. Accordingly, 2m se ‘has ‘BME AUNTTUDES OF A TRIANGLE BISUCT (HE AUGLES OF 17S ORIHIC TRIANGLE, (Schwarz, p» 345). FIG. 4. Swinners are to jusp off a clzciler float, swia to shore #1, then to chore #2, and then ack to their starting point, How would you pick the shortest path to win the race? (ltnts Drow 0 tengent to the elzcle that ie perpendicolar to the Line joining cantor und intersection of shore lines). FIG, 5, The billiard ball P ie to touch the four successive cushions 1,2,3,4, and retum to P. Drow the path, (Hint! Reflect P successively in the sides). Con you make a retum shot on tro adjacent cusblone? On thres? FIG, 6. The billiard ball F Se to touch all aides of the triengular table ond retum to ite original position, Whst paths are possible? FIG. 7. The Parebole ic a curve such that my billiard bell such as F traveling parallel to he axis of eymetry will pass through a fixed point F, called the focus, and then be reflected ‘long another parallel to the axis. Ist somo properties of this curve and your referees, FIG. B. If the table is Elliptical, there aro two fock, F, end Fp, If tho tall P be shot ‘long the line FF it will pass through 7, after roflection sd then continue to travel alternately through the fock.The discussion of regular polygons can be carried on conveniently if use is sade of coupler mabers, Such sumbors are of the form x + Sy whore x end y aro real numbers and the letter 2 Peeeeite Was gastos’ (DE (iP mea ety oat = 1; ote) Tor mictertel-nizeoess werahall agree to plot the point (x,y) on a eet of perpendicular axes os a representation of Vs maber a= x Hy. Tn this digeission we need mider only those points which lie on the unit elreler that Guise for ehich 2+ y2)= 1. he inclination 0 i¢ found fron ton @ = y/x, Ths: pce, yao; end Soma + ty = cond + Asie 1710, 3, A suprising feature of these unit complex mmbere is discovered on raising theo to powerst 2 = coed + Lreho® , c0e"0 + 2ireinboos® +i7ein°@= cos2 +S+sin2 . (cos@ + irsing)’ (cos® +1-sine)3= (cose +1-sin20)(coe® +iceine) = con® +4+5in3, Fe (oom sheen)” = coolae) + fotnlns) The guonotrical seming of tis should be epparentt If x is such amber with inclination O then 22, 3, 24, otes, are all points wpon the wit elrele with inclinations 20, 38 40, ste» respectively. It te just thls property that aokes then particularly uscful to us since they Popresent points ovenly distributed around the circle and thus are vertices of regular Polyeone+ By sctting = lve deomd a such pointe with one of then at the unit point, Tt is then the ‘Representative Equation of a rogilar polygon of n ites ‘Tile Representative Bquation can always be factored into the fora: (ea) GPT, Pa. ee = Ihe fret factor equated to zero gives one vertex, the other (n-l) vertices are given by the roote Gf the cenmna factor, Bub it will not be necessary to solve this equation of degree (o-1). Tor, since P= 10 om be rewritten (dividing by 2) ns 1/2? = 1 =0, it fe obvious that not only te x & mob but its reertprocal 1/2 is «leo = root, Wow, as maf be verified by cross multiplication: fe 1/ocek® +1.SinH6) = cost ~ i,stnlb. Therefore, since # 1s exy verter end since 1/x ts the reflection of + in the Line of rush munbers, the tl of oxy golyzois will be aymatrical to thie line ead the remulting construction 4s considerably lightened. HIG, 2, Since 2+1/z 1s 9 real nusber (the double of the alectsen of = or the diagonal of the shonlve Tilt on 0, 2, end 1/z) we any exploy the eubstitutiont [ERT EER] tre wen Pea ga/te 62 age 43) 43/8 =O tow tn order to old in the elgebratc colution of exy Representative Equation, Tf ¢ value x cm be deter” tained and lata off, the corresponding vertex nay be located by erecting the ordinate to nest the circle, In the following, the student 1s required to solve each Reprosantative Equation for x, vekng these elves in tho construction of the polygons, and caleulate the Length of a side, S, of encht HIG, 4, The Teimglet 2 - FIG. 5, he Square: 24-120. ‘The Hoxagont pal el=0 Tho vertices of the Trlongle. «Notice that this equation includes HG. 7, Mie Octagon: 2° -1=0 the vertices of the SquaresFy ‘EE FETAGGT ‘The Pentagon has for Representative Equation: 5 p tPetest= DG Writing the seccnd factor as Peet itis tafe? wo make the substitution 2+ 1/e= 2x (aoe Plato 9,3) and obtain ge taed oO, nose rooter xm (-+45)/4, (1 ~aB)/4 ate the abscitens of pairs of vortices of the Funtagon. Fron these values, calsilate the length of a sider FIG. 1, Given the unit cizele, Describe an arc with center at N:(1/2, 0) ant radius MA, cutting the Hoaxis in B, The longth of its chord AB ie oma to 8,, 6 side of the Pentagon. Why? FIG, 2. Given the unit cizcle. The oizele 4x + dy” + 2x = 1= 0 bas its center at Ht (-1/4, 0) ond passes through Kt (0, 1/2). ‘The tangents to this circle at the points where it cuts tho X-axis pass tturough the vortices of the Pontagon. Wig? FIG. 3. ho point B: (0, 1/2) is joined to F.: (2, 0). The bisector of < OB, neote OP, in the abscissa of P,, one vertex of the Pentagon. Hetablish this fact. ? [Hints tan 28 = 2tan 6/(1 ~ tan’e))30 FOLIOS OF 7, 15, 17 SIDES For the discussion to folloe, vo borrow a theorem frou Algobm, stated without proof*: IF ag] SQUATION OF THIRD DEGREE WITH TATEGER CORFFICTONS AND LEADING CORFFICIINT UIT HAS NO TYTEGER ROO? THT IP HAS NO ROOT CONSTRUCTIBLE BY STAAIGHTEDGE AND COMPASSES. The 3B. The Representative Byuation for a regular T-sided polygon is: @- Mets... +2) Tho second factors P+ x 4a+14 1s +1/274 Ife =0, decones, on cubstituting = + 1/1 P42 - meso. The roots of this eiuation are the double abscissas of pairs of vertices of the Heptagon. If this etuntion tas en integer root, that root aust be either +1 or =1 since on dividing by we seo that no other integer could possibly satisfy the equality. Thus by the foregoing theores there is no constructible root (since neither +1 nor =1 satisffe¢ the oquation) uni tho Hoptagon is not constructible by straightedge and compasses. FIG. 1, A simple stmightedge and comasses approxiate construction develops fron the follaving. Ono-talf the side of an equilateral triangle is sin 60” = 0.86602 (approx). The sido of the Hoptagon is 2sin (160°/7) = 0.86774 (opprox.). ‘hus, an erzor less than a thousandth part is comitted in taking the side of the Heptagon as half that of the Triangle, kr the constructions Fa ay(e +3 41) <0, te taster factor of which The Znnsagon (Qusides) is represented ty 2? - reduces tot Pe3e+1 ° on substituting = +1/z =x, Here is ancthor instance of an equition with nomconstructible roots, and the Bnnoagon is therefore not constructible, Is it possible to trisect with straightedge ani compasses ‘an anglo of 120° Rogular polygons of 11 ani 13 sides are alco not constructible, Is the 1d-gon? Give the lengths of a side of the Dscagon (10) and of tho Dedecagon (12) FIG. 24 The Fentedecagon (15~gon) is represented by Pre - ere aese P42) © - NG +2 +1) 20. ‘Fron an inspection of these factors, it is clear tint its verfices include those of both the Triangle and Pentagon, The contre] angle eubtonded ty eich side is 24". Tho Triangle ani Fentagon are constructed with 2 MM= 120°, @ POL= 14, Their difference, < POP is 24° ani thus choni PP is the side of ‘the rogular Pontodecagans WIG. 3. Surprising indeod is tho fact that the regular 17-gon can also be constructed by stmightodge and compasses, ho construction is given without proof:? Drm the perpendicular mili Ql = (B= 1. Upon @® mark the point D:(0, -1/4). With two bisections locate the point E on A such that < WE= < (OmA)/4. Constmct << HE= 45°. Drav tho cfrole with AH as diancter mecting the line OB in K, With B as conter sod ME as mins dmw the cizcle necting AdY in Land My Perpendiculars to Ad" at Zand { givo tho vertices F, ant F, of the sogilar W7-goos A side may then bo fom ty bisecting < FOP, obtaining the point By. 4 * Sec Dickson, 7.33. 2 Seo Rictnond,