Second Edition MT STUDENT GUIDE Written for ASNT by: Duane Badger NDT Assistance BS The American Society for Nondestructive TestingStudent Guide |. Introduction to the Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide ‘The materials in this training package are designed to provide basic knowledge of the fundamentals of ‘magnetic particle testing. ‘The training program that you are participating in will contain the following classroom hours of instruction to learn the information suggested in the ASNT publication Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Personnel and Qualification in Nondestructive Testing, Level [training will include lectures on chapters 1 through 6 in the Magnetic Particle Classroom Training Book, with an average of approximately 1-2 hours per lesson. Level II training will include lectures on all 15 chapters with an average of approximately 1-2 hours per lesson, with emphasis on chapters 7 through 15, The student shall assume the responsibility for reading all assignments to include the Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book, as well as additional reference materials associated with the Student Guide, attending all lectures, and participating in classroom discussions. Short exams will be administered after each lesson to provide students with an indicator of their progress and to stimulate stud. Il. Contents of Training Package Your training package contains the following materials with specific instructions and assignments to be given by the course instructor. 1, Student Guide A. Student Guide Introduction that outlines the purpose, content, and use of the training material, B. Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book that will serve as the major text for the training course. C. A printed copy of the PowerPoint” lecture, which includes 15 lessons of lecture material (one lesson corresponding with each chapter in the Classroom Training Book), providing an outline of the fundamentals of the magnetic particle instruction. During the lecture, the student should use the Student Guide to make additional notes, and it will also be valuable to study at a later date, Note: Contents of the printed lecture may differ from the content of the PowerPoint” slides. D. Quizzes, The instructor may elect to remove the quizzes from your packet prior to starting the course and administer them as each lesson is completed. A quiz will be furnished for each of the lessons in the training course.Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | FOREWORD 2. Outline of Lessons and Related Reading Assignments ‘The reading assignments will be made by the instructor and will correlate with the lectures. The Magnetic Particle Testing Classroom Training Book published by ASNTT follows the lessons/lectures in the training course in the following order: Chapter 1: Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing Chapter 2: Effects of Discontinuities on Materials Chapter 3: Magnetization Chapter 4: Principles of Demagnetization, Chapter 5: Equipment Chapter 6: Discontinuit s Chapter 7: Magnetic Principles Chapter 8: Flux Fields Chapter 9: Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application: Chapter 10: Magnetization by Means of Electric Current Chapter 11: Advanced Principles of Demagnetization Chapter 12: Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment Chapter 13: Types of Discontinuities Chapter 14: Evaluation Techniques Chapter 15: Quality Control Ill. Optional Reference Material ‘The following materials are available from ASNTT and are suggested where the student wants additional depth in the magnetic particle testing method. 1. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 6, Magnetic Particle Testing. 2. ASNT Level IT Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Method, latest edition. 3. ASNT Level III Study Guide: Magnetic Particle Testing Method, latest edition. 4, ASNT Questions & Answers Book: Magnetic Particle Testing Method, latest edition.Foreword: Student Guide .... sane a 7 i Lesson 1: Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing Introduction eee Capabilities of Magnetic Parficle Testing .........00.. Magnets and Magnetic Fields Magnetic Fields Detection of Discontinuities Law of Magnetism . ata Materials influenced by Magnetic Fields Characteristics of Magnetic Fields Personnel Qualifications . Lesson 1 Quiz wbeERRHELLL Lesson 2: Effects of Discontinuities on Materials Surface Discontinuities .... Scratches ‘Subsurface Discontinuities Lesson 2 Quiz Lesson 3: Magnetization ...... Magnetization Methods Circular Fields Direct Magnetization Indirect Magnetization Skin Effect . ae Inducing Magnetic Fields in Test Objects Equipment for Inducing Circular Fields Contact Plates . Prods... Discontinuity Detection Longitudinal Fields Field Strength and Direction Discontinvities Detected by Longitudinal Fields Advantages of Longitudinal Magnetization ........ Disadvantages of Longitudinal Magnetization ...... itMagnetic Particle Testing Student Guide Multidirectional Magnetization Test Materials Wet Particles . Dry Particles Lesson 3 Quiz - Lesson 4: Principles of Demagnetization Introduction Alternating Current Demagnetization Direct Current Demagnetization Efficiency of Demagnetization . Reasons for Demagnetization ... Reasons Not fo Demagnetize Balch Demagnetization .. Lesson 4 Quiz Lesson 5: Equipment Equipment Selection ... Purpose of Test Area Tested ...... Particles Used . Mobile Equipment . . Stationary Testing Equipment... Automated Equipment Medical Safety Considerations . Lesson 5 Quiz Lesson 6: Discontinuities Introduction . He Inherent Discontinuities ... Processing Discontinvities Primary Processing Discontinuities Rolling and Extruding Discontinuities Forging Discontinvities Welding Discontinvities Secondary Processing Discontinuities Inservice Discontinuities summary Se Lesson 6 Quiz ... ae iseaias Lesson 7: Magnetic Principles Theories of Magnetism, Magnetic Flux Leakage Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure ONTENTS: 13 14 4 14 oS 3I 31 31 31Testing Techniques PRE Se et eee ee veeeeee 82 Magnetic Field Theory .... 32 Magnetic Domains cae poset 32 Magnetic Poles 32 Magnetic Fields 33 Magnetized Ring . 33 Bor Magnet 33 Relenlivly ond Coercive Force 33 Effect of Materials on Electromagnetic Fields 33 Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux 34 Magnetic Hysteresis sibs bat inci 34 Magnetic Field Sttength and Flux Density «ss... 34 Removal of Residual Magnetism i ya seein 34 Residual Magnetism and Heat-Ireatment ..... ot Magnetic Permeability .. Lesson 7 Quiz Lesson 8: Flux Fields 39 Electric Curent 39 Alternating Current nae 2 Safety Precautions 39 Direct Current SRS SAVE Cain ve creer 3 Half-Wave Current 2 : : 40 Single-Phase Ful-Wave Curent ela oe AO Three-Phase Full-Wave Current Al Voltage and Curent Factors . Al Lesson 8 Quiz 43 Lesson 9: Magnetic Particles and Methods of Application AS Introduction . Particle Size oo AS Dry versus Wet Applications : ae eae 245 Use of Wetting Agents ........ ee 45 Dry Applicators «2... eeeeeeeesees - 46 Curent Level and Particle Application Ab Selection of Magnetization Method Ab Continuous Method 246 Continuous Wet Method Procedure - drewiamvs st a as:33 A Magnefizing Curent with the Continuous Method 47 Residual Method = AT Residual Method Amperage . AT Residual Wet Method Procedure sees . oy . see AB Use of Dry Powders with the Residual Method .. AB Field Direction a6Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | CONTENTS Magnetic Field Measurements Hall Effect Meter... Pie Gage Adhesive Indicator Circular Magnetization Direct Contact Central Conductor ......+.+ . Amperage for Circular Magnetization . Direct Contact Amperage Central Conductor Amperage Longitudinal Magnetization Coil Shot . Cable Wrap Amperage for Longitudinal Magnetization Sensitivity Level ... Efiect of Amperage on Senshivily Effect of Testing Media on Sensitivity Lesson 9 Quiz Lesson 10: Magnetization by Means of Electric Current ...........+ arses OB Introduction Units of Measure and Terminology SI Units for Magnetic Testing Magnetic Field Intensity Magnetic Flux Density . Magnetic Flux tiumination Untraviolet Radiation Types of Magnetic Materials Circular Magnetization Circular Magnetization of Solid Test Objects . Circular Magnetization with Prods Circular Magnetization with Direct Contact Circular Magnetization with Induced Current Circular Magnetization of Hollow Test Objects 5B Longitudinal Magnetization 58 Coil Magnetization 58 Field-Flow Magnetization 58 Yoke Magnetization .. 59 Yoke Break or Lift Test . 59 Concurrent Leakage 59 Combined Circular and Longitudinal Magnetization 59 Calculation of Magnetic Force Requirements 60 PROC acs rs eax comin v4.4 «raw 60 viYokes . Cois Heda Ait-Core Cail Longitudinal Magnetization Fill-Factor Cols . Magnetic Particle Indications ... Indications ae Generation of Indications Interpretation of indications Evaluation of indications Magnetic Writing LOS6OM ND QUIZ! creer essen vewaice soe baci <2 Lesson 11: Advanced Principles of Demagnetization ........ sagen: 67 Purpose, toes ove 23x sdena 7 Principles of Operation for Demagnetization 7 Requirements to Demagnetize . . 67 Reasons to Demagnetize . . 7 Reasons Not to Demagnetize 68 Demagnetization Methods ae . eee Ateres a 68 Heating above Curie Point .... pee a feat oe OB Electromagnetic Demagnetization ..... eee wee 68 Alternating Current Demagnetization . ie Saree erat 68 Direct Current Magnetization peat : sever ana? Yoke Demagnetization 69 Demagnetization Practices 9 Lesson 11 Quiz . 7 Lesson 12: Magnetic Particle Testing Equipment Stationary Equipment Portable Equipment . : Multidirectional Equipment ... Dry Powder Test Equipment Powder Selection ... Powder Applications Applicators oe Wet Visible Test Equipment . Parficle Selection eet sre Black Powder Concentrate... Red Powder Concentrate Suspension Characteristics Parlicle Concentrates... Media . - “ Surface Preparation for Wet Method . . Wet Fivorescent Method ..Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide Test Variables . Bath Strength . Volume Loss... Bath Replenishment suspension Preparation Suspension Application ....... Dry Powder Liquid Concentrate « Wet Paste Concentrate Water Baths Water Bath Safely Water Bath Issues : Water Bath Concentration Settling Test Wet Magnetic Patices for Yoke Magnetization Fuorescent Background Check Oil-Based Media Contamination Check Fuvorescent Test Materials Maintenance Surface Preporation for Wet Fluorescent Method Fluorescent Bath Test Variables Uttraviolet Radiation i Generation of Ultraviolet Radiation... Utiraviolet Lamp Fixtures Sources Carbon Are Systems Low Pressure Fluorescent Bulbs . High-Pressure Arc Bulbs. Lesson 12 Quiz Lesson 13: Types of Discontinuities . Introduction 7 Effects of Discontinuiies on Materials. Inherent Discontinuities Cold Shuts Pipe Hot Tears Blowholes and Porosty Nonmetallic inclusions Segregation i Primary Processing Discontinutios Seams Laminations Stringers CuppingCooling Cracks aa Forged and Rolled Laps Internal and External Bursts Hydrogen Flakes Welding Discontinuities . ... Cold Cracking Hot Cracking . Lamellar Tearing Lack of Fusion Lack of Penetration Porosity Inclusions... Undercut Overlop His Secondary Processing Discontinuties . Grinding Cracks HeaHreating and Quench Cracks Picking Cracks Machining Tears Plating Cracks Inservice Discontinuities Fatigue Cracking Creep Cracking Stress-Comosion Cracking Hydrogen Cracking Lesson 13 Quiz Lesson 14: Evaluation Techniques ........ Reference Standards... Emptical Rule for Using Reference Standards System Evaluation system Standardization Parametric Evaluations Weld Bead Crack Reference Standards . Technique Development Roference Standards for Systern Evaiation Standard Tool Steel Ring ... Using the Ring Standard Ring Standard Magnetic Fields Limitations of the Ring Standard . Reference Standard Test Blocks ..... Prism Test Block... Spit Prism Test Block Magnetized Test BlockMagnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | CONTENTS: Block Standard Measurements . Electronic Reference Standards Hall Effect Meters Eddy Curent Devices Summary Lesson 14 Quiz Lesson 15: Quality Control Introduction New Materials In-Use Materials... Bath Degradation .. Material Contamination Evaporation Losses Heat Degradation Process Degradation Material Control Requirements Use of Settling Test . Ultraviolet Radiation and Facilities Uttraviolet Radiation Intensity Requirements . ‘Ambient Light Measurements . Uttraviolet Light Measurement Voriables Line Voltage Variations . Service and Aging Variations . Ultraviolet Lamp Hazards . Proper Procedures, Variation in Technique Selection of Curent Current Application Choices Selection of Media ........- Selection of Technique ..........+ Field Orientation Head Shot Central Conductor . Longitudinal Field. Sensitivity Requirements Lesson 15 QuizPrinciples of Magnetic Particle Testing Introduction Magnetic particle testing is: 1. Cost effective. Simple Fast, ‘The most reliable nondestructive testing method for detecting surface and near-surface discontinuities. Able to detect discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials that are not open to the surface. aa een ‘An easier method in terms of cleaning than liquid penetrant testing, Capabilities of Magnetic Particle Testing 1. Will detect discontinuities through smeared metal. 2. ‘The discontinuity does not have to be completely dry. 3. Discontinuities disrupt the magnetic flux field and small magnetic particles will form a visual indication of the discontinuity. Magnets and Magnetic Fields 1. Permanent magnets. 2. Directly induced by current flow. a. Head shot, b. Prods. 3. Indirectly induced with no electrical contact. a. Central conductor. b. Coil. c. Yoke. d. Wrapped cables.Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LESSON Magnetic Fields Permanent magnets and longitudinally magnetized test objects have a north and south pole. Opposite poles attract each other. Like poles repel each other, Direct electrical contact creates a circular field. A central conductor creates a circular field with no electrical contact. A coil, yoke, or wrapped cables create a longitudinal field with no electrical contact. A discontinuity will interfere with the magnetic field and form north and south poles that will attract, small magnetic particles applied. Detection of Discontinuities 1 Discontinuities are imperfections that may interfere with the usefulness of an article or exceed acceptability limits established by applicable specifications. Magnetic particle testing is limited to disclosing only those discontinuities that are at, or very near, the surface and only in magnetizable materials, Electromagnetic forces act to align atomically small zones called domains in one direction within a ferromagnetic test object. Law of Magnetism 1 2. Magnetic particle testing will not work on paramagnetic/diamagnetic materials. Magnetic particle testing only works on ferromagnetic materials that are strongly attracted to a magnet. Materials Influenced by Magnetic Fields 1 2. 3 4. Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted (commonly tested with magnetic particle testing). Paramagnetic materials are weakly attracted (not tested with magnetic particle testing) Diamagnetic materials are weakly repelled (not tested with magnetic particle testing). Nonferromagnetic materials are not attracted or repelled (not tested with magnetic particle testing). Characteristics of Magnetic Fields Napa Magnetic lines of force are strongest and most dense at the poles. Magnetic lines of force always seek the shortest path of least resistance through metal. Magnetic lines of force never cross each other. Magnetic lines of force are called magnetic flux. Magnetic lines of force only enter or leave the poles of a magnet. A circular magnet with no irregularities has no poles. ‘Magnetic poles will attract magnetic particles.Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing Personnel Qualifications 1. ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNT-T( 2. ANSW/ASNT GP-189 3. NAS 410. 4, Each company performing nondestructive testing must have its own written practice describing its training and certification requirements.Lesson 1 Quiz Magnetic particle testing will detect discontinuities in: conductors of electricity. ferromagnetic materials. paramagnetic materials. diamagnetic materials. Magnetic particle testing can be used to reveal which of the following discontinuities? Surface and near-surface discontinuities Surface discontinuities only. Surface paramagnetic discontinuities only. Surface and near-surface paramagnetic discontinuities. ‘A magnetic field exists within and around a. aluminum, copper, and plastic parts b. permanent magnets and longitudinally magnetized test objects. c. unmagnetized ferromagnetic parts. 4. permanent magnets and circularly magnetized parts. NAME: DAT Some discontinuities too small to be seen ‘without magnification can be seen with the unaided eye during magnetic particle testing because: a. they run parallel to the magnetic fie. b. they run perpendicularly to the magnetic field. they disrupt the magnetic field and small particles will collect to form a visual indication of the discontinuity. 4. they interrupt the magnetic field and form an indication of the type of current being applied. Magnetic particle testing can be effectively used on which of the following? Paramagnetic materials, Ferromagnetic materials. Diamagnetic materials, Geomagnetic materials, Ferromagnetic materials are: rarely attracted to magnetism. capable of being magnetized. not capable of being magnetized. sometimes able to be magnetized. anceMagnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LE 10, IL Ferromagnetic materials are strongly attracted 12, to: diamagnetic fields. tachyons. ‘magnetic fields nonferromagnetic fields. A material is easily magnetized if it is: paramagnetic. diamagnetic. ferromagnetic. 13, nonferromagnetic. Diamagnetic materials are magnetic field, bya strongly attracted unaffected weakly attracted 4, weakly repelled aoe Magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux): never cross each other. are least dense at the poles will not travel in the path of least resistance. always cross each other. Magnetic particle testing cannot be used on parts whose main content is. iron, nickel, copper. cobalt. When would you use magnetic particle testing on paramagnetic materials? a Only when the technician has permanent ‘magnets or prods at his or her disposal. b. A technician would never use magnetic particle on paramagnetic materials. ¢. When liquid penetrant testing is not available. . The decision has to be made by the responsible Level IIL A bar magnet that is cut in half will produce which of the following? a. Four north and no south poles. b. Four south and no north poles. c. One north and one south pole. 4. Two north and two south poles. A continuous circular (ring-shaped) test object without a leakage magnetic field will have north and south poles. a, strong, easily detected 1b. no detectable c. covalently formed (ionized) attractingEffects of Discontinuities on Materials Surface Discontinuities 1, Iflinear and 90° from the magnetic field direction, discontinuities will form poles and a leakage field that will attract magnetic particles and form a visible indication. Surface discontinuity indications are sharp and well defined. For high detectability of forming surface cracks, magnetic particle testing uses induced alternating field magnetization techniques as the primary method to test inservice ferromagnetic objects. 4, Wet alternating current fluorescent techniques generally produce the highest sensitivity obtainable. Scratches 1. Scratches sometimes attract particles in a very strong field. 2. Field strength may have to be reduced to verify there is no deeper discontinuity present. Subsurface Discontinuities 1, Subsurface discontinuities are broad and fuzzy and more easily blown or rinsed away than a deep surface indication. 2. Subsurface discontinuities are more difficult to detect unless larger than 0.06 in. (1.5 mm) and especially if over 0.06 in. (1.5 mm) deep when direct current must be used.Lesson 2 Quiz Surface discontinuities that disrupt the flow of magnetic flux lines will a. be difficult to detect b, attract magnetic particles and form a sharp visible indication . attract magnetic particles and form a broad fuzzy indication, 4. not attract magnetic particles. Surface cracks exhibit metal grain plastic tearing; this metallurgical condition has what effect on magnetic particles? a, It restricts magnetic partieles from forming. at the indication, b. It effectively repels magnetic particles, rendering the crack “invisible” . Itwill make cracks difficult to detect when using a dry powder technique. It will create a break in the magnetic flux lines, enabling the formation of a visible indication. ‘Magnetic particle testing uses induced alternating field techniques as the primary method to test objects. a. diamagnetic b. paramagnetic . nonferromagns 4. ferromagnetic NAME: Allelse being equal, which magnetizing ‘medium will produce the most pronounced indications? a. Red dry powder. b. A dry powder color that most closely matches the test objects surface & Awet fluorescent medium, i. A.wet fluorescent medium viewed with a white light source ‘The successful detection of subsurface indications is most dependent upon: a. the indication’ size, orientation, depth, and composition, b, the brand of electromagnetic yoke selected. properly identifying the north pole of the indication prior to equipment selection, 4. no single factor, as only surface-breaking discontinuities are detectable by magnetic particle testing.Magnetization Magnetization Methods The following factors determine the test parameters to be followed by the technique supplied to the Level I or Level Il technician: 1. The service intended for the test object and what discontinuities are acceptable for that service. 2. The sequence of operations including field strength and direction verification and demagnetization requirements, The technique to be used, including current type, required field strength, and direction, Alloy, shape and magnetic condition of the test object. ‘Type of current required Circular Fields A circular magnetic field is induced into a test object either by: 1, direct magnetization, or 2. indirect magnetization. Direct Magnetization 1, Through direct magnetization, circular fields are created when current is passed through a test object (head shot or prods), but these techniques can cause arc burns. 2. Prod magnetization is most effective when the prods are spaced 6 to 8 in. (150 to 200 mm) apart. Indirect Magnetization 1, ‘Through indirect magnetization, circular fields are created when a central conductor or other indirect induction is used (with no damage possible from arc burns). 2 The magnetic field direction is always 90° from the current flow unless distorted due to the test object shape or the interaction from the two fields created, 3. The right-hand rule is an easy method for determining the direction of an electrically induced magnetic field, nMagnetic Particle Testing Student Guide Skin Effect 1. As the frequency of the magnetization current increases, the depth of penetration decreases. 2. This is called the skin effect, whereby circular magnetic fields induced directly by alternating current produce very high surface sensitivities. Inducing Magnetic Fields in Test Objects 1, Irregularly shaped test objects may have their magnetization currents tested using direct field indicators to determine optimum testing conditions. 2. Tubular objects may be tested by using a central conductor or wrapping a coil through a long test object and rotating the test object. 3, Deep holes and sharp gear teeth may be tested by using magnetic particles suspended in a self-curing, ‘magnetic rubber. Equipment for Inducing Circular Fields Contact Plates 1. Stationary unit direct contact copper pads for contact headshot must be clean, with no fraying and a firm contact maintained to prevent burning or arcing, 2. Contact plates are found in specialized magnetic particle equipment called wet horizontal bench machines. Prods 1. Prods must have clean and firm contact. 2. Daily maintenance of contacts should be done. 3. Prods are not used much because of the danger of arc burns. 4, Heavy bulky equipment with few advantages over the yoke method for surface discontinuities. Discontinuity Detection 1. A discontinuity that is 45° to 90° from the magnetic field direction will disrupt the magnetic field and will create new poles. 2. These poles will attract small particles and form an indication if an adequate magnetic field is used for testing Longitudinal Fields 1, Longitudinal fields are created with: a. Wrapped cables or a coil, also referred to as a solenoid, usually comprising five turns. b, Wrapped cables use three to seven wraps. Ayoke, 12Magnetization 2. Transverse discontinuities will be detected if the proper magnetizing force is used and verified 3. The magnetic field strength is increased with increased amperage. 4, The magnetic field strength increases with the number of turns in the coil or number of wraps around the test object. Field Strength and Direction 1. Field strength will always be maximum at the surface of test objects, and also maximum at the surface closest to the conductor that induced the field 2. The field direction is 90° from current flow for direct current flow through the test abject, 3. The field direction is 90° from the current flow through wrapped cables of a solenoid. 4. Odd-shaped test objects will have distorted field direction that require verification of proper field strength and direction in certain locations. Discontinuities Detected by Longitudinal Fields 1. Discontinuities commonly discovered by longitudinal fields include transverse discontinuities 2. ‘Transverse discontinuities are discontinuities oriented perpendicular to the major axis of the test object. Advantages of Longitudinal Magnetization 1. Easy to demagnetize. 2. Opposite magnetic poles are readily identifiable at the extreme ends of the part. 3. No electric contact with the partis necessary. 4, Easily obtainable by wrapping of cols. Disadvantages of Longitudinal Magnetization 1, No detection of longitudinal discontinuities. ‘The leakage flux is weakened if pole ends are not parallel to the part surface. ue for use on certain test objects, such as plates. 2 3. Time-consuming techni 4. Systematic repositioning of the test object is required in order to detect random discontinuities. Multidirectional Magnetization 1. Uses several contact points and relay switches to produce constantly varying magnetic fields. 2. ‘Typical applications are large castings, high-volume small test objects with automatic detectors, and critical test objects such as aircraft landing gear. 13Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LESSON 3 Test Materials 1. ‘The technique, type of particles, and application will be in the work instruction. 2, ‘Test materials include wet and dry particles. Wet Particles 1, Suspended in an oil or water carrier controlled for wettability, corrosion, and anti-foaming 2, For wet tests, larger rounded particles may produce an indication faster under continuous magnetization techniques, 3, The wet method offers the advantage of easy, complete coverage of the surface of test objects of all sizes and shapes. Dry Particles 1. Come in vatious colors for contrast and different sizes and shapes to form better indications. 2. The dry method is superior to the wet method for detecting discontinuities lying wholly below the surface. “4Lesson 3 Quiz LOA magnetic field may be created ina test object when current is passed through the test object. a. longitudinal b. elliptical © circular arcing 2, The optimal spacing recommended when using prods is: 60 to 79 in, (150 to 200 em) b. 0.210 0.3 in. (6 to 8 mm). & 6 to8 in. (15 to 20cm), 4. 150 t0 200 in. (381 to 508 em), 3. The skin effect is when the magnetization ‘current frequency _ while the depth of penetration decreases, a. increases b. decreases © remains the same 4, logarithmically expands ‘What type of equipment can be used to induce magnetization indirectly to create a circular magnetic field? b. Pie gage. Central conductor. 4d. Prods. a. Bipolar conductor « NAME; DATE: Where current flows through the test object, magnetization is said to be: a. direct. b. indirect. © polar 4. rectangular, ‘The right-hand rule demonstrates that the ‘magnetic field direction is: parallel to the current direction. perpendicular to the current direction. angular to the current direction, in line with the current direction, The magnetic field created by a head shot or central conductor is for the entire length ofthe test object. ‘nonuniform undetectable parallel uniform Prods are used to test welds for: a. are burns. copper contamination. surface and subsurface discontinuities. internal voids only. 15Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide Coils can accommodate test objects of irregular shapes. regular shapes. complex shapes. a variety of shapes, aces 10. The field generated by is within a coil voltage resistance current impedance IL. A yoke creates a a. longitudinal b. circular irregular 4. nonpolar 16 2. the force needed to successfully magnetize a test object 13. _ magnetic field. ‘What type of equipment is similar to a temporary horseshoe magnet? a. Prods. b. Yoke. c. Scissor magnets. d. Coil. ‘The magnetic field produced by the use of a yoke: a. is unique and varies drastically from one set of equipment to the next. b, lies exclusively outside the test object. . lies both inside and outside the test object. 4. normally lies entirely within the test object. ‘Wrapping several turns of cable around a test object or placing a test object inside a coil creates @ magnetic field, longitudinal circular irregular nonpolarPrinciples of Demagnetization Introduction 1. Ferrous materials usually retain some residual magnetic field after the magnetizing current is removed. 2. Hard, alloy or high carbon steels usually have a higher residual field Alternating Current Demagnetization A simple and fast process uses an alternating coil to reduce residual magnetism to than 2 or 3 G (0.0002 or 0.0003 T) by remagnetizing a test object ally zero but less 2. Then the technician reduces the field strength to zero by increasing the distance from the energized alternating current in the coil, which is usually a 10 s process. Direct Current Demagnetization 1, Some stationary bench units have a reversing step-down demagnetizing coil, which, theoretically, will demagnetize deeper fields induced with direct current better than the alternating current coils. 2. With either alternating current or direct current, the initial magnetic field strength in the coil must first initially be stronger than the residual field present. 3. The demagnetizing force must reverse, which is normal for alternating current coils and controlled by circuits for direct current coils. 4, The demagnetizing force must be reduced, usually by distance from the alternating current coil and an amperage step-down circuit for direct current, 5, Demagnetization may be aided by vibrations or by striking with a hammer during current reversal and step down, 6. Residual field strength is measured with a pocket size field indicator that measures low field strength from 0 t0 10.G (0 to 0.01 T). Efficiency of Demagnetization 1. Demagnetization can only be measured accurately if the last field induced was a longitudinal field. 2. Itis very difficult to measure or detect if round test object has a residual circular field 7Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LE: 3. The requirements for demagnetization will be specified in the specification, technique sheet, procedure or work order Reasons for Demagnetization iculty in posteleaning, Interference with welding due to arc blow. Magnetism causes chips to cling to the test object during machining, Particles attracted to the field can cause wear in a moving inservice test object. Interference with nearby instruments that work on magnetic principles, Difficulty if the test object needs to be magnetized in a different direction at a lower magnetization force. Reasons Not to Demagnetize Demagnetization is usually not required: 1. for assemblies of low carbon steel with low retent ty, 2. if the material is heat-treated above its curie temperature, or 3. ifthe test object is magnetized in another direction at the same or higher amperage. Batch Demagnetization Batch demagnetization of small test objects may be accomplished using the following methods 1. Thermally treating the test objects above their curie point. 2. Vibratory treatment, if applicable. 18Lesson 4 Quiz 1. ‘The magnetic field strength retained by the material after the magnetizing force is removed is referred to as: a. polaric magnetism. b, longitudinal magnetism. . circular magnetism, 4. residual magnetism. 2. Direct current demagnetization is usually than alternating current demagnetization, more complete and effective less complete and effective no different vastly inferior 3. Ferrous materials ‘magnetism. after the magnetizing current stops flowing, do not retain residual retain residual cannot retain contain polarie arge 4. Assimple, common, convenient method of demagnetizing a test objec i a. direct current. . alternating current. impedance current. resistive current, NAME: DATE: When is demagnetization usually not required? a. When the test object is to be heat-treated above its curie point. b, When the residual magnetism may cause chips to cling to the test object during machining ¢. When the residual magnetism may interfere with nearby instruments. 4. When the test object isto be heat-treated below its curie point. Demagnetization is normally required in the specification or work instruction: a. for assemblies of low carbon steel with low retentivity b. if the material is heat-treated below its curie temperature. c. when interference with welding due to are blow is a concern, 4, for nonferromagnetic materials 19aaaEquipment Equipment Selection Considerations include the cost versus the purpose of the test, as well as technical and specification requirements: 1. Wet or dry method. Automated or manual Demagnetization requirements. Solution capacity for wet methods. Electricity, air, and water supply requirements. Accessories required. Indication, recording, and reporting requirement. ‘Technician training and certification requirements. Mobile or stationary equipment, Purpose of Test 1. Verify construction and service expectations are correct 2. The equipment used will be specified in the work instruction for a Level I or Il 3. Ifthe test is required by a national standard, specification, procedure, or technique, approval by a Level III may be required for the technician to follow. Area Tested 1, The area tested will be in accordance with customer and contract requirements, and a Level III approved written instruction will normally be provided for the Level [or Level II technician, 2. Level I personnel may operate equipment with direct supervision of a Level II or Level III personnel, Particles Used 1. The particles must have high permeability to be strongly attracted to magnetic leakage fields, have a low residual field, and must be tested for standard performance priot to use 2. Dry powder or suspended in a liquid, 21Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LESSON 5 3. Visible or fluorescent, 4, Visible comes in various colors for contrast Mobile Equipment 1. Mobile equipment can be moved around a shop and usually transported in @ truck. 2, Provides about 3000 to 4000 A and can be a power supply for prods or wrapped cables. 3. The power supply is usually 220 or £40 V and may provide either alternating or direct magnetizing current. Stationary Testing Equipment 1, Stationary horizontal wet units have two adjustable contact heads that can be used for direct ‘magnetization (head shots) or central conductor indirect magnetization and a coil (which is normally five turns of the cable), 2, ‘The unit has a tank, pump, and agitation and circulation system for the wet solution used for testing, and a nozzle for wetting the test object. 3. ‘The unit has amperage controls, current timers, and an ait or hydraulic cylinder for clamping test objects. 4, ‘The equipment is usually supplied with three-phase 220 or 440 V and may provide either low-voltage alternating current or direct current at high voltage for magnetization. Automated Equipment 1. Magnetization is in two directions to detect randomly oriented discontinuities. 2. Because two magnetic fields cannot exist simultaneously in one test object, it is necessary to switch from one direction to the other. 3. Current can be switched several times per second to magnetize the test object both circularly and longitudinally. Medical Safety Considerations 1, Safety is an issue to technicians who perform magnetic particle inspection with an implanted pacemaker or defibrillator. 2. Employers must be concerned with visitors as well as employees with implanted devices. 22Lesson 5 Quiz Most stationary horizontal wet units have two adjustable contact heads for head shots and central conductor testing, and also have a five-turn coil. Considering these components, which one(s) can induce a longitudinal field in a part? Central conductor only. Head shot only. Central conductor and coil. Coil shot only. ‘Which statement below is true regarding Level 1 certification? a. Level I personnel may operate magnetic particle test equipment under the direct supervision of Level II or Level IIt personnel. b. Level [ personnel may operate magnetic particle test equipment and accept or reject test objects if properly trained. . Level I personnel may independently accept or reject test objects if approved by a Level IL 4. Level I personnel can only assist a Level II or III, and cannot independently operate ‘magnetic particle test equipment, even with direct supervision NAME: DATE: Under the direction of Level II or Level III personnel, Level I personnel may: a. watch but not operate magnetic particle test equipment. b. may set up but not conduct a magnetic particle test ¢. operate magnetic particle test equipment. 4. approve written procedures for a magnetic particle test Mobile MT equipment: a. is defined as any equipment that can be lifted and carried by one person, b. typically refers to a unit capable of coil or prod MT testing that can be transported to various locations or jobsites. . is typically used to perform remote head shot inspections. 4. will include a tank, pump, and agitation and circulation system for the wet solution, and a nozzle for wetting the test object. Stationary testing equipment is usually fixed and typically requires a: 220 or 440 V three-phase power supply. . 440 or 880 V power supply. 180 V dual-phase power supply. 110 V power supply. ae 23Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LE: 6. Magnetic particles should have which of the 7. What is one advantage of automated following properties? ‘multidirectional magnetic particle testing equipment? a, Low residual field / high permeability. b. High residual field / high permeabil a. Itcan be easily transported to remote field c. High residual field / low permeability. locations. 4. Low residual field / low permeability. b. Itenables Level I personnel to perform independent inspections. . It can induce magnetization in two directions simultaneously. 4. Current can be automatically switched several times per second to magnetize the test object both circularly and longitudinally. 24Discontinuities Introduction Discontinuities are broadly divided into three categories: 1. Inherent discontinuities - formed during the basic formation of the test object. 2. Processing discontinuities ~ formed during operations such as forging, welding, and heat-treatment. a, Primary processing discontinuities ~ Produced when steel ingots are worked down into usable size and shape, such as billets and slabs. b. Secondary processing discontinuities ~ Produced after primary operations during finishing ‘operations, such as machining, heat-treating, and similar processes. 3. Inservice discontinuities ~ caused during use. Inherent Discontinuities Inherent discontinuities are formed during the initial melting and solidification of ingots and castings: 1. _Ingot pipe is caused by shrinkage at the top of the ingot. Ingot cracks can form anytime during solidification or cooling metal ‘Nonmetallic inclusions are slag pickets, alloy, segregation, or foreign material. Blowholes and porosity ate caused by gas pockets escaping the molten metal. Blowholes in a casting may be caused when moisture in the mold flashing turns into steam and blowing into the molten metal occurs. Segregation is the result of uneven distribution of some of the chemical constituents during solidification. Internal fissures are ruptures that occur due to stress. 5. 6. 7. Scabs are splashes or spatters that harden on the wall of the mold. 8. Cold shuts are caused by molten metal flowing together but not fusing together. 9. Hot tears and shrinkage are caused by unequal cooling and stress buildup. 10. Shrinkage cracks are surface cracks formed after the material cools. 25Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LESSON ¢ Processing Discontinuities Primary and secondary processing can cause discontinuities or change the shape of inherent discontinuities. Primary Processing Discontinuities Rolling and Extruding Discontinuities 1. Seams are in rolled bar. 2. Laminations are in rolled plate. 3. Cupping is in cold drawn material 4, Cooling cracks are caused during cooling, Forging Discontinuities 1. Hydrogen flakes are caused by cooling and hydrogen embrittlement. 2. Forging bursts are caused by improper forging temperatures. 3. Forging laps ate caused by metal folded over during forging. 4, Burning is the result of overheating of a forging to the point of incipient melting. 5. Flashline tears are caused by improper trimming or stress buildup. Welding Discontinuities 1, Lack of penetration is the unfilled area at the root during welding. 2. Lack of fusion isa void or gap between the filler material and parent material. Both lack of penetration and lack of fusion are caused by nproper weld joint preparation or welder technique. 3. Heat-affected zone cracks can be caused by improper preheat, heat input during welding, post weld cooling, or incorrect filler material 4. Crater cracks are caused by improper technique for stopping the weld. Secondary Processing Discontinuities 1. Grinding cracks are caused by overheating. 2. Machining tears are caused by dull tools or excessive depth of cut. 3. Cracks can be caused by a multitude of reasons at any stage during manufacturing including residual stress, improper heating and cooling, or improper hydrogen control. 4, ‘Types of secondary processing cracks include: a. Etching and pickling cracks. b. Plating cracks. ¢. Straightening cracks. 26Discontinuities Inservice Discontinuities 1, The most common inservice discontinuities are fatigue cracks and corrosion 2. Cracks are usually at or near the surface and propagate in terms of length and depth. They may also start, as internal cracks and propagate in length toward the surface. Cracks can occur as a single cycle fatigue crack or from multiple cycles. 4. Corrosion and underbead weld cracking may generate surface-breaking stress cracks. 5, Stress-corrosion cracking occurs when residual or tensile stress is developed and material is exposed to a corrosive environment. However, this type of discontinuity is very difficult to detect by magnetic particle testing, Summary 1, Magnetic particle testing is used to detect surface and some slightly subsurface discontinuities as early in the manufacturing process as possible. 2. Some specifications require half-wave or full-wave rectified current for manufacturing tests. Alternating current may be used for inservice tests arLesson 6 Quiz Discontinuities are broadly divided into three main categories: inherent, processing, and inservice. inherent, processing, and lack of fusion. inherent, inservice, and machining. processing, inservice, and cracking. Inherent discontinuities (formed during the tial melting and solidification process) clude: ingot pipe, stress corrosion cracks, porosity, and blowholes. . ingot pipe, ingot cracks, nonmetallic inclusions, and blowholes. . hydrogen flakes, forging bursts, and. forging laps. 4, crater cracks, lack of penetration, and lack of fui Examples of inservice discontinuities include: seams in bar stock and laminations in plate. grinding cracks and machining tears. cold shuts and hot tears. fatigue cracking and corrosion. aoe NAME: DATE: Forging bursts and laps are discontinuities. inservice a b. primary processing c. inherent 4 | secondary processing Cold shuts, hot tears, and shrinkage are common discontinuities. inservice processing inherent casting Common casting discontinuities include: inherent, processing, and inservice. flakes, bursts, and laps. cold shuts and hot tears. stress-corrosion cracking. ae ee 29Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LESSON 6 7. Stress-corrosion cracking is considered a(n) _—-8._—- What statement below best describes how 2 discontinuity magnetic particle testing is used in the manufacturing process? a. inservice b. processing a, Magnetic particle testing may be performed inherent following secondary processing but offers d. secondary processing Tittle value before then, b. To save time and effort, magnetic particle testing should be performed only after all manufacturing processes are completed. ¢. Magnetic particle testing is used to detect surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in the manufacturing process. d. Magnetic particle testing is best reserved for inservice inspections. 30Magnetic Principles Theories of Magnetism 1, Magnetic particle testing will reveal surface and slightly subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic ‘materials. 2. Other nondestructive testing methods, usually liquid penetrant or eddy current testing, must be used to test materials not strongly attracted to a magnet, 3. Magnetic particle testing may be used for raw material in process during manufacturing to prevent further manufacturing expense for test objects containing discontinuities and to repair internal discontinuities, such as cracks at the root of a weld. 4, Final product testing is used on the final test objects to prevent test objects with discontinuities from entering service. 5. Maintenance tests are used for inservice discontinuities that may have been formed by overloading or fatigue cycles. Magnetic Flux Leakage 1, Magnetic particle testing is based on the principle that magnetic flux ines will be disrupted by a discontinuity and this distortion will cause some of the magnetic flux lines to exit and reenter the test ‘object forming poles at the discontinuity. 2. This phenomenon is called magnetic flux leakage and will attract fine magnetic particles that form an indication outline of the discontinuity. Magnetic Particle Testing Procedure ‘The magnetic particle test consists of six basic operat 1, Clean the surface to be tested. Establish a suitable magnetic flux in two directions at 90° in the test object axis. Apply magnetic particles in either a dry powder or a liquid suspension. 2 3 4, Test the object for discontinuities under suitable lighting conditions. 5. Interpret and evaluate the test indications. 6. Demagnetize, if necessary. 34Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LESSON 7 Testing Techniques Level If technicians will be provided with a standard written procedure or technique for each particular magnetic particle test. The technique will depend on the following factors: Specification and contract requirements. ‘The type of discontinuity. ‘The material type, shape, and size. ‘The magnetic particle testing equipment available. ‘The type and amount of electric current to be used for magnetization. Alternating current has several advantages for surface and very near-surface discontinuities (less than 0,06 in, [1.5 mm]): a. The rapid current reversal and skin effect provide better particle mobility to the discontinuity flux leakage site, b.. Thisis less pronounced in the wet method because particles may be rinsed away by the liquid flow. ‘The direction of the current flow and the resulting magnetic field direction obtained using these currents, 7. The kind of magnetic particles to be used. 8, How the testing media is applied. Magnetic Field Theory Magnetic Domains 1. Materials that can be magnetized have submicroscopic regions called magnetic domains that will have positive and negative polarity at opposite ends if magnetized 2, Ifa material is not magnetized, the magnetic domains are randomly aligned. 3, When the material is subjected to an indirectly induced magnetic external magnetic field or if current is. passed directly through the test object, the magnetic domains align themselves and form a north and south pole in the test object. Magnetic Poles ‘Magnets will have two or more opposite polarity poles, called north and south poles. These poles are where the magnetic lines of force leave or enter the magnet. These lines of force have the following important properties: 1, They form continuous loops that are never broken. 2. They never cross one another, 3. Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles. 4, They seek the path of least magnetic resistance or reluctance in completing theit loop, which is the shortest distance through metal 32Magnetic Principles 5. Ifa bar magnet is broken or cracked, new magnetic poles are formed. Unlike poles attract and like poles repel each other. Magnetic Fields 1, Magnets or magnetized test objects only attract ferromagnetic materials at their poles or flux leakage sites such as discontinuities, 2. Magnetic lines of force prefer to travel through magnetic material rather than air. Magnetized Ring 1, There will be no poles to attract magnetic particles if a uniform ring contains a circular magnetic field. 2, Accrack 90° from the magnetic field direction will create poles and an external flux leakage field that will attract magnetic particles and form an indication. Bar Magnet 1. Ifa horseshoe magnet is straightened to a bar magnet, it illustrates a longitudinally magnetized bar. 2. A transverse machined notch or crack in a longitudinally magnetized bar will cause new poles with a flux Teakage field that will attract particles Retentivity and Coercive Force 1, The retentivity of a particular magnetic material is its property to retain, to a greater or lesser degree, a certain amount of magnetism after the magnetic force is removed. 2. Coercive force is defined as the reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove the residual magnetism to demagnetize a test object. Effect of Materials on Electromagnetic Fields 1, Materials with high permeability (soft or low carbon steel) will have a stronger magnetic field strength at a given magnetizing force than material with lower permeability (high carbon or hard material). 2. Permeability is defined through the relation in the following equation: where B is flux density and H is magnetic field strength, Flux density B is often the quantity of interest and has higher values for the permeability of a given source field strength H. 33Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LES: Units of Measure for Magnetic Flux |. Magnetic flux density is the number of lines passing transversely through a unit area as measured in gauss (traditional unit) or testa (SI unit). 2. ‘The term magnetic flux is used when referring to all ofthe lines of flux in a given area. 3. Flux per unit area is called magnetic flux density, the number of lines of flux passing transversely through a unit area. Magnetic Hysteresis bs 1. A magnetic hysteresis loop or curve is a graph that plots magnetizing force and magnetic field Saturation strength. 2, By increasing the magnetizing field strength H “ He in small increments and measuring the flux density B at each increment, the relationship eekavel magnetism between magnetic field strength and flux D Reverse & density can be plotted, as shown, magnetization point ‘Magnetic Field Strength and Flux Density 1, Field strength will always be maximum at the surface of test objects, and also maximum at the surface closest to the conductor that induced the field. 2. Beyond the saturation point, increases in magnetic field strength do not increase the flux density in the material. 3. In diagrams of full hysteresis loops, a curve referred to as the virgin curve is often drawn asa dashed line because it occurs only during the initial magnetization of unmagnetized material 4, When the magnetic field strength is reduced to zero, the flux density slowly decreases. Removal of Residual Magnetism 1. Removal of residual magnetism requires the application of a magnetic field strength in an opposite or negative direction. 2. ‘The amount of magnetic field strength necessary to reduce the flux density to zero is called coercive force. Residual Magnetism and Heat-Treatment 1. Demagnetization occurs as a side effect of heat-treatment if the test object temperature is taken to the curie point or above — about 1400 °F (750 °C) for steel. 2, At the curie temperature, magnetic domains retuen to their random orientations and the material is, demagnetized when it cools, making further demagnetization unnecessary. a4Magnetic Principles Magnetic Permeability 1, Permeability is how easily a material can be magnetized. More specifically, it the ratio between the flux density and the magnetizing force. 2, Magnetic properties and hysteresis loops vary between materials, material conditions, shape, chemical composition, microstructure, and grain size. 3. The following figure shows permeability curves of (a) high-permeability (easy-to-magnetize) and (©) low-permeability (hard-to-magnetize) material 8+ saturation = ae Flux density Flux density = zg 4, The next figure (a) isa hysteresis loop for a low-permeability (hard-to-magnetize) material and illustrates the higher residual magnetism and the higher coercive force required to demagnetize, Residual ‘magnetism H Flux density Flux density z 2 5. Shown in (b) is a hysteresis loop for a high-permeability (easy-to-magnetize) material and illustrates the lower residual magnetism and lower coercive force required to demagnetize. 35Lesson 7 Quiz ‘A magnetic flux leakage field can be caused by 5. ‘magnetic lines of force leaving or entering a test object where their path is by a discontinuity. distorted facilitated minimized covered up Magnetic particle testing can be used to test all 6, of the following except: a. starting material before it is used. b, finished test objects before they go into service. . periodic maintenance tests. 4. aluminum fabricated parts. Magnetizable objects are classified as: a. nonferromagnetic. b, ferromagnetic. 7 c. diamagnetic. paramagnetic. A test object must be attracted to a magnet for ‘magnetic particle testing to: repair discontinuities. detect discontinuities. create discontinuities. climinate discontinuities. NAME: DATE: What is the most important starting factor ‘when considering the use of magnetic particle testing? a. Purity of the materials being used. b. Size and complexity of the part. Part retentivity. 4. The capability of the test object being strongly or easily attracted to a magnet. ‘Magnetic poles commonly have magnetic lines of force entering or leaving them that contain the following properties except: a. they form continuous loops that are never broken. b. their density decreases as distance increases from pole to pole. . they crisscross one another. they seek the path of least magnetic resistance. Materials with low permeability will: be easier to magnetize. be harder to magnetize never be magnetized. never demagnetize. poop 37Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide 38 ‘Magnetic lines of force form continuous loops, 10. which: a. cross each other. . decrease in density with increasing distance from the poles. c, seek the path of most resistance. 4. increase magnetibility. ul ‘A magnetic field is made up of. within and around a magnetized object. ionic particles plasma quarks and leptons flux lines A uniform circular ring that contains a circular magnetic field will: a, have easily detectable poles. b, have no one dominant pole. c. have no external poles. 4. also be known as an eternal magnet. ‘The relationship between magnetic field strength and flux density is for ferromagnetic materials. nonlinear . linear quadratic cubic apFlux Fields Electric Current ‘Three types of current used for magnetic particle testing: 1. Alternating current (AC). 2. Fall-wave current (FW). 3. Half-wave current (HW), Alternating Current 1, Is best for surface and very near-surface discontinuities, and half-wave or full-wave current is used for deeper subsurface discontinuities. 2. Is readily commercially available and relatively inexpensive to transform to low-voltage, high-amperage ‘magnetizing current and rectify to half-wave and full-wave current. 3. Standard United States alternating current alternates at cycles 60 times per second or 60 Hz, (One cycle is 1 Hi.) 4, Alternating current is recommended for detection of surface discontinuities, which comprise the majority ‘of service-induced discontinuities. Small subsurface discontinuities greater than 0.125 in, (3 mm) deep are difficult or impossible to detect and are usually found with ultrasonic or radiographic testing. Safety Precautions ied before use for any kind of arc, electric shock, 1. All electrical appliances should be properly ve burns, etc. 2. Contact between the material and current-carrying equipment for magnetic particle testing should be properly made. 3, To avoid hand injuries, an inspector must maintain extreme care when placing test objects between the headstocks of a magnetizing unit. Direct Current 1. Pure direct current is only obtained from batteries or generators and is seldom used, 2. Half-wave and full-wave rectified current penetrate deeper in the test object than alternating current. 3. The primary method for obtaining direct current for magnetic particle testing is through rectification of alternating current using silicon rectifiers. 39Magnetic Particle Testing Student Guide | LESSON 8 Half-Wave Current 1. Half-wave rectifiers block the negative current flow and create a pulsing current. 2. Half-wave current (HW) provides the greatest sensitivity for detecting discontinuities that are below the surface, 3. HW has penetrating power comparable to single-phase full-wave current (FW). 4. One disadvantage of HW magnetization is that the current does not reverse so it cannot be used for demagnetizing. IV 2 Halhwave Halt. wave dict Alternating rectifier ‘ourent output ccurent input Half-wave current (HW) waveform. Single-Phase Full-Wave Current 1. Fullewave rectifiers block the negative current flow and invert it so the number of positive pulses is, doubled, 2. Single-phase FW has essentially the same penetrating ability as three-phase PW. (One disadvantage of single-phase units is that the equipment requires 1.73x more input current than three-phase units. oe as ° Time —> current Single-phase full-wave current (FW) waveform. 40Flux Fields Three-Phase Full-Wave Current 1. Commercial electric power can be provided as three-phase alternating current, with each phase providing part of the total current. 2. All three phases are inverted and rectified to produce the desired current, but the current draw and electric bill may be reduced by nearly half. Ele E ins \ 6 = “veo > 2760 ° Tie —> Seconds Three-phase alternating Thvee-phase full:-wave current (AC) waveform. current (FW) waveform. Voltage and Current Factors 1. Since voltage remains constant in most of the equipment during magnetic particle testing, an arrangement for accounting for voltage fluctuations is not necessary. 2. Since the current in magnetic particle testing varies within a range, the equipment for measuring current, such as an ammeter, should be properly calibrated for a specified duration. 3. Various factors for adjusting current ranges include: Material and type of test object. b. Thickness of the test object. c. Sensitivity of the test object. 4. The size and depth of the expected discontinuity. Length of the coil and/or object to be tested. £, Types of rectifications, for example, half wave, full wave, ete. a4ECE SERVLesson 8 Quiz ‘The standard available current in the United States is 60 cycles per second, which is: 60 kk, 60 ohms. 60 Hz. 60 cy. aos Pure current is obtained from batteries or generators. direct alternating half-wave rectified ages Rectified alternating current is sometimes referred to as in magnetic particle testing bidirect current indirect current half- or full-wave current half-life current aoe Ahalf-wave rectifier: a. reverses the current flow. , reverses half the current flow. . allows current to flow only in one direction, 4. changes the amperage in a circuit, NAME: DATE: ‘What are the three main current types used in magnetic particle testing? a. Alternating current, full-wave current, and pure direct current. b. Alternating current, full-wave current, and half-wave current. ¢. Three-phase full-wave current, permanent magnets, and half-wave current. 4. Alternating current, direct current, and rectified alternating current. Alternating current is the preferred current for detecting discontinuities a. subsurface b. back-surface c. near-surface d. surface Advantage(s) of alternating current for magnetic particle testing include which of the following? a. It is readily commercially available and can be used for demagnetization. b. It can be readily obtained from batteries and generators. c. It provides the greatest sensitivity for detecting subsurface discontinuities. 4. It presents zero risk of electric shock or arcing. 43