CAUSES AND FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE REFORMATION

“One of the striking feature of the Christianity has been its perennial tendency to fission. With
difficulties held together during the middle ages, it sudden split asunder in the early 16th century”
pointed Lawrence Stone . In the early sixteenth century a great crisis shook Western Christianity and
destroyed the medieval unity of the faith and universal authority of the universal church which
propelled the faith of Western Christianity- Ecclesia Catholico . This was the Reformation- complex and
deep rooted in its origins, and varied and far reaching in its scope. It slighted, or at least called into
question virtually every existing ecclesiastical institution. Not only did a series new and independently
organized churches emerge after the earthquake Calvinist, Lutheran and Anglican- which together
formed what has been usefully described as “Magisterial Reformation”. In addition there oozed through
the cracks in the fabric of medieval Christianity a host of strange new sects with alarming revolutionary
belief and aspiration- collectively known as Radical Reformation. Schism was not a new shock to the
Christian world . In AD 1054 the Byzantine Church under the leadership of the Patriarch broke away
from the Western Church which was under the Bishopric of Rome. Since then the Church under the
Bishopric of Rome came to be known as Catholic or Universal Church.

The Bishop of Rome or the Pope who claimed to trace the Apostolic Succession from St. Peter, the first
Pope, remained the Spiritual head of the western Church with immense power. He also owned vast
amount of wealth and property. During the 13th century several rulers became the Vassals of the Pope
Innocent III. About one-third of the cultivable land in western Europe was under the control of the
Pontific of Rome . He raised his own army and his own ambassadors were appointed in different states.
The pope interfered in the internal, political and financial matters of rulers who found it difficult to
disobey the Papal edicts.

The Catholic church in the 14th and 15th centuries faced institutional problems because of the failure of the
papal authority to provide spiritual leadership. Bernard Moller in his work “ Piety in Germany around
1500” indicate that the failure of Papal church led to a carving for a purposeful religion and ideas of
salvation. Alister E. Grath mentions that almost a century before the Reformation, a crisis of Authority
was suffering in the Christian World. Various reformers responded to the crisis with an attempt to revive
the early Christian faith by eliminating medieval additions. The Devotio Moderna- Brothers and Sisters of
Common Life founded by Gerard Groote in Netherlands was such a response which made simplistic
approach to religion through the glasses of Scripture. Peter Waldo, a prosperous 12th century merchant
from the French city of Lyons whose followers were called the Waldensians or “Poor men of Lyons” .
The Oxford Don John Wyclif (d.1384). long regarded as the first translator of Bible in to English. The third
one to enter the scene of early medieval reformatory attempt was John Huss who from the pulpit
attacked indulgences , simony ( buying of Ecclesiastical office) and the papal immorality. Girolamo
Savonarola (d. 1452-1498), a Dominican Friar excommunicated by Pope Alexander VI and then executed
later.

A question that is often raised by Scholars is why these attempts failed while the attempts of 16th century
religious reforms succeeded. However, scholastic debate and inference have opened a wide plethora
plausible factors and explanations. In order to understand what the causes that led to the Reformation
were or what were the conditions in which the Reformation received a stimulus, emphasis on religious,
as well as economic, social and political factors is required . There are various factors put forward by
different historians as to what laid the basis for the origins of the Reformation in Germany. For instance,
Alister McGrath wrote that the Reformation arose from a complex heterogeneous matrix of social and
ideological factors. Peter Chaunu, enlisted three factors which were favourable to the German
Reformation which were 1) distance from Rome,2) widespread literacy and 3) fragmentation of political
power. Though there was a long history of opposition to financial exactions and other infamous
activities of the church, in the 14th and 15th centuries the church faced institutional problems because of
the failure of papal authority to provide leadership. There was an atmosphere of chaos created by war,
epidemic, disease and crop failures which created attributes to the wrath of god the people.

At this point, religion became more mechanical and materialistic. The Popes had developed an elaborate
network of control through bureaucrats, lawyers, cardinal etc. There was ecclesiastical corruption and
inefficiency and the church couldn’t satisfy people’s longing for personal piety. The papal courts were
preoccupied with financial and political matters. The papacy had its own extensive bureaucracy and
fiscal system where huge funds were used for crusades, fighting Turks, and the Italian war. They also
spent a large chunk on lavish buildings, basilicas, army and a lavish lifestyle. The expense burden was
placed on the people and they charged members for services like marriage, baptisms etc. The style of
collecting funds led to bitterness, and hostility. Traditional methods of revenue extraction were
intensified. Tithe was collected by the clergy along with various subscriptions like First Fruits which were
offerings connected with beginning of harvest and Annates which was the first year’s revenue benefice
paid to the papal coffers. Papal income was augmented by profits of jurisdiction in the cases referred to
Rome. They also earned from laymen with the sale of dispensation for breaches of cannon law, pardons
and the sale of post of Cardinals. An institution called sale of indulgences which had been existence
earlier gained momentum, which was the sale of indulgences. Indulgence was an important investment
for income of the church as it was remission of punishment in purgatory by God and not the church
alone. God’s grace was commonly sold through popes’ agents via Albrecht of Brandenburg and banking
house of Fuggers. It got official papal approval in 1343 and was popular as people feared purgatory. This
was also a huge source of income, as can be exemplified by the sale to the Fuggers who were a leading
bank family of Germany, as they retained 50% of proceeds. The episcopate or higher clergy created
problems too. Most cardinals also had high political positions, for example, Cardinal Ximenes in Spain.
There was also the practice of pluralism where many offices were held by the same position for
maximum revenue. It also led to absenteeism. Thus the standard of the church administration was
falling, and it led to an increase in the separation of upper and lower clergy as the latter were poor and
from among commoners.

At this time there was a distinct growth in Europe on the eve of the Reformation of popular religion.
N.S. Davidson makes a remarkable survey of the popular religion and the authorized church. One form of
popular religion was to undertake pilgrimages or make donations. There were efforts to convert abstract
views of theologians into concrete social practices. ‘Popular piety’ was tied to traditional ideas of hope,
prophecy, the desire to be redeemed, fears of death and ideas of purgatory and eternity. There was also
a questioning of dogma, and the doctrines that distorted simplicity of Christian faith. The path to
salvation was seen not through dogma and speculation, but through strict adherence to the moral and
ethical conduct of the church. The bible was seen as the true guide to Christian life.

The rise of Humanism in Europe prepared the ground for Reformers as the rise of Renaissance
Humanism created an intellectual climate and tools of criticism. It raised issues relating to the study man
and of original manuscripts. Christian Humanism was an attempt to rediscover man through the search
and study of original manuscripts. Bitter confrontation between humanism and scholasticism in the late
15th century created prelude for the Reformation to develop. Erfurt University in Germany was one
center for this. Martin Luther’s ideas relating to scholasticism asserted that it made religion too vague
and complex. The critical analysis of the original texts by the humanist scholars removed several
misquotations of the patristic writers. Rudolfo Agricola Conrad Celtis, Ulrich von Hutten, Erasmus of
Rotterdam and others were important figures in the Humanist movement, especially the latter who was
a major influence on the Reformation. He wanted to make Christianity meaningful for the people, by
emphasizing the role of scriptures, and moving away from monopolistic control of theologians. He
preached practical piety as a matter of spirit, not unnecessary religious practices. His work Enchiridion
Militis Christianis( Handbook of the Christian Soldier) was the most influential humanist writing of the
period. In Germany, the Humanist force directly challenged scholasticism and humanism developed in
two ways- towards religious change and even revolution, and development of powerful opposition to
Italian influence in Germany. The former provided support for Luther’s reforms and the latter convinced
rulers of West Germany that they had ideological justification in severing their ties with the papacy.

Lawrence Stone mentions a more plausible , sociological explanation of the Reformation which reflects
the rise of an educated elite of laymen, ready and anxious to take over the spiritual and administrative
functions of a now superfluous and discredited clergy. Perhaps the most important theological change
was the reduction in the role of salvation played by the sacrament. This in turn involved a sharp
reduction in the authority and prestige of the controllers of Sacraments; and consequently increased the
independence and self confident of the laity.

Regarding the economic origins of the Reformation, there is a debate whether it was the result of the
needs created by “capitalist” or a mercantile advance. The beginning of the Reformation has been
interpreted variously, such as by Henri Hauser who said that it took root in areas with victims of violent
economic and social dislocation. Thus what characterized the setting for the Reformation, according to
some was the rise in prices, fragmentation of rural holdings, rising rents, declining wages and widening
gap between the rich and the poor. G. R Elton discusses the economic conditions of the time preceding
the age of Reformation such as the decline in population in the late middle ages which led to a decrease
in rentals from land and lowering of agrarian production and manufacture. This resentment and
discontent of masses due to economic disruption as the basis for the cause of the Reformation taking
root was not accepted without qualification as it did not apply to Germany because the German
economy was reasonably developed at this time as reiterated by Lawrence Stone. He disagreed with this
view as he noted that in Luther’s time, the German towns saw extreme improvements in the standard of
living. For instance if we look at Augsburg, a town in Germany, we see that it was very prosperous and
flourished as manufacturer of textiles, clothes, shoes, books etc. The Hanse towns in South Germany,
too, were developing fast. The benefits of the economy were not evenly distributed. There were a few
families which controlled mining of ore and smelting process and exploited poor miners. For example the
Fugger family which went from being weavers to banking princes of Europe. They exercised a monopoly
in lending activities, too, aside from silver and copper mines. There were also others like the
Hochstetters, Welsers etc.

The economic data of this time show that commercial production and rational economic organization
replaced the traditional one. The German economy was developing with textile production, glass
manufacture, iron and copper smelting etc. There was an intrusion of money and price mechanism into
the agrarian economy. This change created personal freedom of the peasants. Thus in Germany in the
14th and15th centuries, emancipation of the peasantry was one occurrence. The peasants who became
more free and more prosperous resented the fiscal demands of church. There were still developments in
agriculture itself with improvements in methods of farming. This had positive effects, for instance, there
was large sale grain production in East Germany. According to Elton, this period was a watershed in
agrarian history as there was a greater degree of farming for the market and it saw the feudal age come
to an end. Still in the countryside, despite agricultural productivity, one saw attempts by lords to
reimpose feudal dues which was disliked by peasants and was the cause of several rebellions and revolts.
The Catholic Church still owned portion of land and the clergy played the role of landlord, fuelling a spirit
of revolt among peasants. Exploitation of surplus labour by landlord aggravated poverty. The agrarian
economy was connected with other governing classes which sought material foundation in landed
property, rents and labor services. All this accentuated the receptiveness to the more disciplined and
rational appeals of Martin Luther and Calvin.

On the social aspects of the origins of the movement, alternately, Marx and Engels suggest that the rise
of the bourgeoisie was revolutionary in nature and represented the challenge of a new class to the
feudal order. Their acclimatization as a class was the result of the Reformation. This played a major role
in constituting the social base of the Reformation according to them. The functionaries of administration
which couldn't be provided by the nobility or peasantry were supplied by the bourgeoisie. The stratum
of intellectuals and officials grew constituting the urban middle classes consisting of sons of nobles etc.
They were lawyer, bankers etc. The increasingly well-educated middle sectors of Northern Germany,
namely the educated community and city dwellers would turn to Luther's rethinking of religion to
conceptualize their discontent according to the cultural medium of the era.

There was also a new merchant class in the context of the developing economy that were affected and
affronted by the stance, of the Catholic Church against usury and other business practices. Marx called
this class town-bred, mercantile, sober and industrious. They also detested the opposition to slavery and
wanted to run business without institutional barriers of outmoded cultural traditions. They complained
of money going to Rome. Artisans and peasants were also affected by low wages and high prices and
rising taxes. The Reformation was seen as a manifestation of their economic interests embedded in a
new attitude. This middle class thus saw a chance to free itself from the shackles of old religious
practice.

G.R. Elton says this view is not wholly correct as the in16th century European social hierarchy, the
position of nobles was an exalted one. The rise of the bourgeoisie should mean growth of towns when
actually they were on decline according to him so it can’t be linked with social revolution headed by the
middle class. The wealth of merchants was rising but it was still not as great as that of the nobles. It is
thus the view of some that the reformist leaders appealed to the princes, nobility and the city councils
rather than the bourgeoisie who took advantage by seizing church property and power.

In this context we can also look at relationship of Protestantism with political authority which was
constituted by these upper classes. The political developments of the later middle ages saw a decrease in
the institutional power of the church and its pretensions. There were frequent instances of criticism of
the church control by those in power such as in the 14th century, William of Occam, criticized papal claim
to temporal dominion. Marsiglio of Padua wanted to exclude the clergy from all but purely spiritual
functions. Germany at this time was not a united entity; it was rather in the form of several states ruled
by different princes. German princes taking advantage of the weakened Holy Roman Empire and its
temporal head developed their own autonomy achieving virtual independence in many ways. The
stronger national monarchies which had come into being at that time sought to control more and more
the church in their territory., while expropriating official church property and overseeing the dissolution
of monasteries in order to meet the needs of these newly rising nation states. This resulted in the growth
of a new political consciousness, and thus was created an ideal field for religious dissent which prepared
the ground for Reformation in Germany. Politically, it inherited anti-papal sympathies from the medieval
struggles of the pope and emperor. It was only natural that princes and rulers of fragmented Germany,
should see religious wars as political weapons to extend their territory at the expense of neighbours and
their power at the expense of the emperor. There is a strand of thinking which emphasizes that the
princes acquired wealth by seizing church property and imposing new taxes. As these nations were
antagonistic to the state church, the anti–Roman feeling in Germany lent support to the Lutheran
Reformation.,

Also, in the 16th century because of the printing press there was a multiplication of copies containing
ideas that promoted Reformation, and of the bible. This facilitated the spread of ideas of religious
reformers. Martin Luther’s books were popular in England, for instance. At the time of Luther’s death
there were a million copies of bible. A lot of propaganda literature was circulated including tracts,
pamphlets, translations, pictures, cartoons etc.

Thus , to V.H.H. Green, the Reformation occurred in the second and third decade of the sixteenth
century because a certain set of circumstances created a situation which made its outbreak both
possible and probable. The factors leading to the Reformation were not new, and there was no single
causal factor,there was rather a conjunction of circumstances. The reformers were reacting to the
widespread dissatisfaction with the church, which included both a discontent with the church as an
institution and a desire for a simpler, more satisfying personal religion. The reformation would not have
achieved such immediate success if it had not been able to harness the powerful feelings of the
Separatism and Nationalism pointed Lawrence Stone. Not only did independent state churches spring up
to satisfy princely demand for total sovereignty but substitution of vernacular for Latin which increased
the homogeneity of the national cultures.