nt ER CONSTRAINT
Constraints are used for modeling limitations on the relations between entities. There are
two types of constraints on the Entity Relationship (ER) model − Mapping cardinality or
cardinality ratio. Participation constraints.// Mapping Cardinality
It is expressed as the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via a
relationship set.//One-to-one relationship An entity set A is associated with at most one
entity in B and an entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A.//One-to-many
relationship An entity set A is associated with any number of entities in B with a possibility
of zero and an entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A.//Many-to-one
relationship An entity set A is associated with at most one entity in B and an entity set in B
can be associated with any number of entities in A with a possibility of zero.//Many-to-
many relationship An entity set A is associated with any number of entities in B with a
possibility of zero and an entity in B is associated with any number of entities in A with a
possibility of zero. /(/Participation Constraints
Participate constraints are two types as mentioned below −Total participation
The participation of an entity set E in a relationship set R is said to be total if every entity in
E Participates in at least one relationship in R.//Partial Participation If only some of the
entities in E participate in relationship R, then the participation of E in R is said to be partial
participation.
An entity type refers to a collection of entities that share common characteristics or
attributes. An entity is a distinct object or concept that is represented in the database.
For example, consider a database for a university. In this case, “Student” could be an entity
type, and each individual student (with specific details like student ID, name, and
enrollment status) would be an instance of that entity type. The attributes of the “Student”
entity type could include things like “StudentID,” “Name,” “DateOfBirth,” and
“EnrollmentStatus.”In summary, an entity type is a category of entities with shared
attributes in a database, and it helps organize and structure the information stored in the
system.
How is key different from E R model A "key" is a field or combination of fields in a database
table that uniquely identifies each record. There are different types of keys, such as a
primary key (which uniquely identifies each record in a table) or a foreign key (which
establishes a link between two tables). Keys are essential for maintaining data integrity,
enforcing relationships between tables, and enabling efficient data retrieval.On the other
hand, the “Entity-Relationship (ER) model” is a conceptual framework used to represent the
relationships between entities in a database. It involves entities (objects or concepts) and
their relationships, along with attributes that describe the entities. The model helps in
designing and visualizing the structure of a database before its implementation.keys are
specific fields used for identification and relationship purposes within a database table,
while the ER model is a broader conceptual framework for designing and understanding the
relationships between entities in a database.
Data Abstraction:
Data abstraction is a fundamental concept in computer science and database management
that involves simplifying complex systems by representing only essential details while hiding
unnecessary complexities. In the context of databases, there are typically three levels of
data abstraction://Physical Level:Describes how data is stored and the low-level details of
data representation, such as file structures and indexing mechanisms.
//Logical Level:Represents the data in a structured way, abstracting away the physical
storage details. It focuses on the relationships between data items, entity types, and
attributes.//View Level (or External Level):Provides a user-specific view of the data, hiding
certain details based on user requirements.
IMPORTANCE OF DATA MODELA data model is crucial for database design as it serves as a
Data Model is the modeling of the data description, data semantics, and consistency
constraints of the data. It provides the conceptual tools for describing the design of a
database at each level of data abstraction. Therefore, there are following four data models
used for understanding the structure of the database:/A Data Model in Database Management
System (DBMS) is the concept of tools that are developed to summarize the description of
the database. Data Models provide us with a transparent picture of data which helps us in
creating an actual database. It shows us from the design of the data to its proper
implementation of data.//
TYPES Relational Data Model: This type of model designs the data in the form of rows and
columns within a table. Thus, a relational model uses tables for representing data and in-
between relationships. Tables are also called relations. //
2Entity-Relationship Data Model: An ER model is the logical representation of data as
objects and relationships among them. These objects are known as entities, and relationship
is an association among these entities.//Object-based Data Model: An extension of the ER
model with notions of functions, encapsulation, and object identity, as well. This model
supports a rich type system that includes structured and collection types.//The semistructured
data model allows the data specifications at places where the individual data items of the
same type may have different attributes sets.
Advantages of Data Models/Data Models help us in representing data accurately.
It helps us in finding the missing data and also in minimizing Data Redundancy.
Data Model provides data security in a better way.//The data model should be detailed
enough to be used for building the physical database.//The information in the data model can
be used for defining the relationship between tables, primary and foreign keys, and stored
procedures.
DISADVANTAGE In the case of a vast database, sometimes it becomes difficult to
understand the data model.
You must have the proper knowledge of SQL to use physical models.
Even smaller change made in structure require modification in the entire application.
There is no set data manipulation language in DBMS.
To develop Data model one should know physical data stored characteristics.
DATABASE ARCHITECTURE The Database Management System (DBMS) architecture
shows how data in the database is viewed by the users. It is not concerned about how the data
are handled and processed by the DBMS.//It helps in implementation, design, and
maintenance of a database to store and organize information for companies. The concept of
DBMS depends upon its architecture. The architecture can be designed as centralized,
decentralized, or hierarchical.
The architecture of DBMS can be defined at three levels as follows –
External levels./Conceptual levels./Internal levels.:External Level (User View):The external
level is the topmost layer of the three-level architecture and is also known as the user view or
user interface level.//Each user view presents a subset of the data from the overall database,
showing only the relevant information to the users.
Users at this level are typically unaware of the internal structure of the database and interact
with it using high-level query languages and applications.//Conceptual Level (Logical
Schema):The conceptual scheme is the middle level of the three-level architecture.//The
conceptual schema provides a global and integrated view of the data, ensuring data
consistency and integrity across different user views.//Internal Level (Physical Schema):The
internal level is the lowest layer of the three-level architecture, also known as the physical
schema.//Changes at this level, such as storage optimizations or database reorganization, do
not impact the external or conceptual levels as long as the external schema remains
unchanged…
blueprint for structuring and organizing data. It helps in understanding, designing, and

communicating the database structure. Here are some key aspects of its importance://

Structured Representation:Offers a structured way to represent and organize data, defining

entities, attributes, and relationships.//Data Integrity and Constraints:

Enforces integrity constraints to maintain the accuracy and consistency of data.

//Data Retrieval and Manipulation:Guides the efficient retrieval and manipulation of data by

defining relationships and optimizing queries.//Communication Tool:Acts as a

communication tool between developers, administrators, and stakeholders

Types of Data Models://Hierarchical Data Model://Represents data in a tree-like structure,

with a parent-child relationship. Mainframes and early databases often used this model.

Network Data Model://Extends the hierarchical model by allowing more complex

relationships between entities. It was prevalent in the 1970s.

Relational Data Model://Represents data as tables (relations) with rows and columns. It has

become the most widely used data model due to its simplicity and flexibility.//Entity-

Relationship (ER) Model:Focuses on the conceptual representation of data and relationships

between entities.

ARCHITECTURE Three-Schema Architecture:

External Schema: User views or how data appears to specific users.

Conceptual Schema: Represents the entire database structure.

Internal Schema: Describes the physical storage details.

Client-Server Architecture:

Separates the database server responsible for storing and managing data from the client

applications that interact with the data.

Web-based Architecture:

Utilizes web technologies to provide access to databases over the internet, often using a

combination of client-server and browser-based approaches.