‫‪Complex numbers‬‬

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 • What are complex numbers ?

The complex numbers are the field of numbers of the form ,

where and are real numbers and i is the imaginary unit equal to the square
root of , . When a single letter is used to denote a complex
number, it is sometimes called an "affix." In component notation, can
be written . The field of complex numbers includes the field of real
numbers as a subfield.

The set of complex numbers is implemented in the Wolfram

Languageas Complexes. A number can then be tested to see if it is complex
using the command Element[x, Complexes], and expressions that are complex
numbers have the Head of Complex.

Complex numbers are useful abstract quantities that can be used in calculations
and result in physically meaningful solutions. However, recognition of this fact is
one that took a long time for mathematicians to accept. For example, John Wallis
wrote, "These Imaginary Quantities (as they are commonly called) arising from
the Supposed Root of a Negative Square (when they happen) are reputed to
imply that the Case proposed is Impossible"

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 • Application of complex numbers

Complex numbers have applications in many scientific areas, including signal

processing, control theory, electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, quantum
mechanics, cartography, and vibration analysis. Some of these applications are
described below.

1. Geometry

Shapes

Three non-collinear points in the plane determine the shape of the triangle .
Locating the points in the complex plane, this shape of a triangle may be expressed by
complex arithmetic as The shape of a triangle will remain the same, when the complex
plane is transformed by translation or dilation (by an affine transformation),
corresponding to the intuitive notion of shape, and describing similarity. Thus each
triangle is in a similarity classof triangles with the same shape.

Fractal geometry

The Mandelbrot set is a popular example of a fractal formed on the complex plane. It is
defined by plotting every location where iterating the sequence does
not diverge when iterated infinitely. Similarly, Julia sets have the same rules, except
where remains constant.

Triangles

Every triangle has a unique Steiner inellipse – an ellipse inside the triangle and tangent
to the midpoints of the three sides of the triangle. The foci of a triangle's Steiner inellipse
can be found as follows, according to Marden's theorem Denote the triangle's vertices in
the complex plane as a = xA + yAi, b = xB + yBi, and c = xC + yCi. Write the cubic
equation take its derivative, and equate the (quadratic) derivative to zero. Marden's
Theorem says that the solutions of this equation are the complex numbers denoting the
locations of the two foci of the Steiner inellipse.

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Algebraic number theory

As mentioned above, any nonconstant polynomial equation (in complex coefficients)

has a solution in C. A fortiori, the same is true if the equation has rational coefficients.
The roots of such equations are called algebraic numbers – they are a principal object of
study in algebraic number theory. Compared to Q, the algebraic closure of Q, which also
contains all algebraic numbers, C has the advantage of being easily understandable in
geometric terms. In this way, algebraic methods can be used to study geometric
questions and vice versa. With algebraic methods, more specifically applying the
machinery of field theory to the number field containing roots of unity, it can be shown
that it is not possible to construct a regular nonagon using only compass and
straightedge – a purely geometric problem.
Another example are Gaussian integers, that is, numbers of the form x + iy,
where x and y are integers, which can be used to classify sums of squares.

Analytic number theory

Analytic number theory studies numbers, often integers or rationals, by taking

advantage of the fact that they can be regarded as complex numbers, in which analytic
methods can be used. This is done by encoding number-theoretic information in
complex-valued functions. For example, the Riemann zeta function ζ(s) is related to the
distribution of prime numbers.

Improper integrals

In applied fields, complex numbers are often used to compute certain real-
valued improper integrals, by means of complex-valued functions. Several methods
exist to do this; see methods of contour integration.

Dynamic equations

In differential equations, it is common to first find all complex roots r of the characteristic
equation of a linear differential equation or equation system and then attempt to solve
the system in terms of base functions of the form f(t) = ert. Likewise, in difference
equations, the complex roots r of the characteristic equation of the difference equation
system are used, to attempt to solve the system in terms of base functions of the
form f(t) = rt.

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 2. In applied mathematics

Control the

In control theory, systems are often transformed from the time domain to the frequency
domain using the Laplace transform. The system's zeros and poles are then analyzed in
the complex plane. The root locus, Nyquist plot, and Nichols plot techniques all make use
of the complex plane.
In the root locus method, it is important whether zeros and poles are in the left or right
half planes, that is, have real part greater than or less than zero. If a linear, time-
invariant (LTI) system has poles that are

• in the right half plane, it will be unstable,

• all in the left half plane, it will be stable,
• on the imaginary axis, it will have marginal stability..

3. In physics

Electromagnetism and electrical engineering

In electrical engineering, the Fourier transformis used to analyze

varying voltages and currents. The treatment of resistors, capacitors, and inductors can
then be unified by introducing imaginary, frequency-dependent resistances for the latter
two and combining all three in a single complex number called the impedance. This
approach is called phasor calculus.
In electrical engineering, the imaginary unit is denoted by j, to avoid confusion with I,
which is generally in use to denote electric current, or, more particularly, i, which is
generally in use to denote instantaneous electric current.
Since the voltage in an AC circuit is oscillating, it can be represented as
To obtain the measurable quantity, The complex-valued signal is called
the analytic representation of the real-valued, measurable signal .

Fluid dynamics

In fluid dynamics, complex functions are used to describe potential flow in two
dimensions.

Quantum mechanics

The complex number field is intrinsic to the mathematical formulations of quantum

mechanics, where complex Hilbert spacesprovide the context for one such formulation
that is convenient and perhaps most standard. The original foundation formulas

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Operations with complex numbers

To add two complex number , add the real part to the real part and the imaginary part
to the imaginary part.

(a+bi)+(c+di)=(a+c)+(b+d)i

Example 1: (2+7i)+(3−4i)=(2+3)+(7+(−4))i=5+3i

To subtract two complex numbers, subtract the real part from the real part and the
imaginary part from the imaginary part.

(a+bi)−(c+di)=(a−c)+(b−d)i

Example 2: (9+5i)−(4+7i)=(9−4)+(5−7)i=5−2i

To multiply two complex numbers, use the FOILmethod and combine like terms .

(a+bi)(c+di)=ac+adi+bci+bdi2
=ac+(ad+bc)i−bd (Remember i2=−1)
=(ac−bd)+(ad+bc)i
Example 3:

(3+2i)(5+6i)=15+18i+10i+12i2
=15+28i−12
=3+28i

To divide two complex numbers, multiply the numerator and denominator by the
complexconjugate , expand and simplify. Then, write the final answer in standard form.

a+bi/c+di ⋅ c−di/c−di = (ac+bd)+(bc−ad)i/c2+d2

Example 4:

3+2i/4−5i = 3+2i/4−5i ⋅ 4+5i/4+5i

=12+15i+8i+10i2/16+25
=2+23i/41
=2/41+23/41i

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 • More examples
1. Plot the complex number 3−4i on the complex plane.

Solution

The real part of the complex number is 3, and the imaginary part is −4 −4i. We
plot the ordered pair (3,−4)(3,−4) as shown in Figure 3.2.43.2.4.

2. Evaluate : (1 + i)6 + (1 – i)3

Solution
(1+i)6 ={(1+i)2}3=(1+i2 +2i)3 =(1–1+2i)3 =8i3 =–8i
and (1–i)3 =1–i3 –3i+3i2 =1+ i–3i–3=–2–2i
Therefore, (1+i)6+(1–i)3 =–8i–2–2i=–2–10i
3. Exercise
(−2 + 6i)/ (1+2i)= (−2+6i) (1+2i) × (1−2i) /(1−2i)
= (−2 + 6i)(1 − 2i) / 1+4
= 1/5(−2+6i)(1−2i)
= 1/5(−2+4i+6i−12i2)
= 1/5(−2+10i+12)
= 1/5(10+10i)
=2+2i

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 v References

1. Abramowitz, M. and Stegun, I. A. (Eds.). Handbook of Mathematical Functions with

Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables, 9th printing.New York: Dover, pp. 16-17,
1972.
2. Arfken, G. Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 3rd ed. Orlando, FL: Academic Press,
pp. 353-357, 1985.
3. Bold, B. "Complex Numbers." Ch. 3 in Famous Problems of Geometry and How to Solve
Them. New York: Dover, pp. 19-27, 1982.
4. Courant, R. and Robbins, H. "Complex Numbers." §2.5 in What Is Mathematics?: An
Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods, 2nd ed.Oxford, England: Oxford University
Press, pp. 88-103, 1996.
5. Ebbinghaus, H. D.; Hirzebruch, F.; Hermes, H.; Prestel, A; Koecher, M.; Mainzer, M.;
and Remmert, R. Numbers. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1990.
6. Krantz, S. G. "Complex Arithmetic." §1.1 in Handbook of Complex Variables. Boston,
MA: Birkhäuser, pp. 1-7, 1999.
7. Mazur, B. Imagining Numbers (Particularly the Square Root of Minus Fifteen). Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 2003.
8. Morse, P. M. and Feshbach, H. "Complex Numbers and Variables." §4.1 in Methods of
Theoretical Physics, Part I. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 349-356, 1953.
9. Nahin, P. J. An Imaginary Tale: The Story of -1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 2007.

v Publisher
1. Weisstein, Eric W. "Complex Number." From MathWorld--A Wolfram
Web
Resource. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ComplexNumber.html

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number