Cover Artwork

Liv Weaver
Journal for Pre-Health Affiliated Students
2014-2015
Volume XV
 To Encourage the Exploration and Discovery of Science, Medicine, and Global Healthcare

JPHAS
President, Editor in Chief Vice President Editor in Chief Faculty Advisor
Natalie Weaver Simeon Nittala Donald Lei Saul J. Weiner, MD

EDITORIAL STAFF JPHAS CONTRIBUTORS SPECIAL THANK YOU TO:

Executive Layout Editor Gaurav Agnihotri The University of Illinois at
Shreya Thakkar Elizabeth Breen Chicago Honors College
Harsh Choksi
Layout Editors Sam Dabah Dr. Bette L. Bottoms
Shilpa Kolachina Layal Dairi Dean of the Honors College
Neelam Patel Marisol Flores Professor of Psychology
Shuodan Zhang Joe George
Beatrice Go Dr. Sara F. Hall
Assistant Editor in Chief Sharmeen Razvi Associate Dean for Academic
Nicholas Silas Nabiha Shamshuddin Affairs, Honors College
Associate Professor of Germanic
Ragav Sharma
Studies
Section Editors Shreya Thakkar
Lakshmi Andra Richard Walsh Stacie L. Williams
Beatrice Go Shuodan Zhang Associate Dean of the Honors
Alvin George Jane Zhang College
Judy Hamad
MISSION STATEMENT Saul J. Weiner, MD
Section Layout Designer The Journal for Pre-Health Vice Provost of Planning and
Shilpa Kolachina Affiliated Students (JPHAS) Programs
was created in May 2001 to Professor of Medicine, Pediatrics
Communications Liaison more fully recognize the broad and Medical Education
Layal Dairi spectrum of pre-health students
at the University of Illinois at Sara Mehta
Webmaster Chicago. JPHAS strives to offer Honors Academic Advisor and
Erika Peters students considering careers in Program Specialist
health-oriented professions a
Layout Liaison valuable, informative Leigh Hellman
Christine Lee resource and a forum to Graduate Assistant and Editorial
express, present, and Advisor
DISCLAIMER exchange ideas. JPHAS
The articles and overall content aspires to strengthen the
presented here do not network of support for
necessarily represent the views pre-health students.
of the University of Illinois at
Chicago, the Honors College,
the Journal for Pre-Health
Affiliated Students, its editorial
staff, or any of its affiliates and
sponsors.
Table of Contents
FEATURES RESEARCH

The Mechanism and Possible Future Advancements in

Synthesis of Acetaminophen ....................... 1 HIV Treatment .............................................. 14
Richard Walsh Shuodan Zhang

A New Device to Treat Burn Patients .......... 3 Hippocampal Neurogenesis Associated

Elizabeth Breen with Short Term Memory Loss ................... 15
Harsh Choksi
Recent Breakthroughs for
Alzheimer’s Disease ..................................... 4 The Effect of Cocaine on the
Joe George Cerebrovascular System..............................16
Jane Zhang
Discovery of a Genetic Connection
Regarding Cerebral Palsy ............................ 5 Changing the Diagnosis of Malaria .......... 17
Beatrice Go Marisol Flores

The Link Between Sodium Intake and

Cardiovascular Health .................................. 6
Ragav Sharma

NEWS OPINIONS

An Unhealthy Diet’s Depressive Effect The Negative Effects of E-Cigarettes ........ 18

on Mental Health ........................................... 8 Sam Dabah
Marisol Flores

A Study Suggesting Major Breakthrough In The Importance of Dental Flossing

Brain-to-Brain Neurological Practices....................................................... 19
Communication. ...........................................10 Layal Dairi
Gaurav Agnihotri

The Inhibition of Melatonin Associated with A Correlation Between Brassieres and

Blue Light .................................................... 11 Breast Cancer? ............................................ 20
Nabiha Shamshuddin Shreya Thakkar

The Connection Between Smartphones

and Health..................................................... 12
Sharmeen Razvi
 FEATURES
The Mechanism and Synthesis of Acetaminophen
Richard Walsh
Classification and Uses two other molecules in the body – paracetamol and aniline
Currently the widely used, but not as widely understood
organic chemical Paracetamol, also known as Acetaminophen,
can be found in virtually any medicine cabinet in the
United States and around the world.5 The two names of
acetaminophen and paracetamol are utilized interchangably
in this report. This drug, a NSAID (non steroidal anti-
inflammatory drug), is one of the most common pain
relievers/fever reducers available over the counter. Many
products include acetaminophen as an active ingredient,
including Tylenol, NyQuil, DayQuil, Robitussin Cold and
Flu Decongestant, and many other products used for fever
reduction. Acetaminophen is still being tested for its various
applications, in particular as an antioxidant acting to slow
atherosclerosis, which is cholesterol buildup on the arterial
walls.5 It is currently a top-selling drug for fever reduction and
a helpful, but not nearly as effective over-the-counter (OTC)
pain relief drug.6
Dosing
Similar to many organic molecules used in medicine,
it is toxic at certain doses. An overdose for an adult is typically
7.5-10g a day, while it is less for children. OTC tablets, such
as Tylenol can be present in quantities of 500mg.4 Following
dosing instructions will ensure that the liver does not contain
toxic levels of the drug. A common misconception is that
taking more of the drug will relieve greater pain. However,
the correct dosage of Acetaminophen is its saturation point, at
which the pain relieving effects are at a maximum. An overdose
of the drug can lead to acute hepatic failure, also known as
acute liver failure.4 Overdose of Acetaminophen was the
leading cause of acute liver failure in the U.S. and the second
leading cause of liver transplants as of 2006. The overdosage
of Acetaminophen is even above viral hepatitis, the most
severe hepatic virus seen in the U.S.6
History
Acetaminophen is synthesized from a toxic agent
known as Acetanilide. The main difference between the drug
(Figure 1) and its predecessor (Figure 2) is the addition of
a hydroxyl group para to the existing substituent on the
benzene ring.6 The drugs are both non-steroids as they lack
the characteristic four cycloalkane rings. Acetaminophen
was given the IUPAC name of N-(-4-Hydroxyphenyl)
ethanamide or N-(-4-Hydroxyphenyl) acetamide.6 Acetanilide
is known to be very toxic even in small doses, but its pain-
relieving and antipyretic (fever-reducing) abilities make it very
attractive to medicine. It was first introduced by accident into
a patient’s prescription and then later isolated and chemically
analyzed.6 It was discovered that Acetanilide is converted into
1
(Figure 3).5 Aniline is toxic in very small doses and can cause
hypoxia (oxygen deprivation), whereas paracetamol is toxic
in large doses.1 In aniline, the nitro group on the benzene
ring chemically denatures hemoglobin, which results in the
inability to carry oxygen.1 Paracetamol on the other hand gives
the analgesic pain-relieving and fever-reducing properties
that acetanilide-ingesting patients feel without denaturing
hemoglobin.6
The drug was first synthesized in 1893 by Joseph
Von Merring.5 It was not mass produced until the 1950’s
in the United States. Acetaminophen was not favored as an
analgesic due to the widespread use of aspirin in the 20th
century.6 Aspirin was effectively used as a pain reliever long
before the production of paracetamol, but aspirin caused
stomach or intestinal bleeding in 50-70% of cases. Aspirin
also had been linked to a serious disease in children, known as
Reye’s syndrome.5 Reye’s syndrome is characterized by violent
vomiting, seizures, swelling of the brain, and in extreme cases
coma and death. The symptoms of Reye’s syndrome generated
a fear of aspirin use in the 20th century. However, Paracetamol
provided the same analgesic effect of aspirin, but with a much
lower prevalence of stomach and intestinal bleeding.4
Synthesis
Acetaminophen, a new “go to” drug, had to be
synthesized quickly and efficiently. Currently, paracetamol
is synthesized by nitrating phenol to yield ortho and para
isomers of nitro-phenol. The ortho isomer is then removed
by steam distillation and the p-isomer is acetylated to form
paracetamol.6
Mechanism of Action in the Body
Acetanilide and acetaminophen work in the same
way, but only acetaminophen provides both analgesic and
antipyretic effects. Both are processed by the same enzyme
though they are broken down into different products.7 The
addition of an alcohol to the benzene ring of Acetanilide to
make paracetamol results in a molecule that follows a different
breakdown pathway.6 There are two major reactions: the
first is pain suppression, while the second is toxic metabolite
formation by the liver. Paracetamol functions through a
mechanism via cyclooxygenase enzymes. Although the exact
mechanism of action for Acetaminophen is unknown, it is
estimated that it works similarly to drugs via prostaglandin
inhibition, which signal proteins for pain and fever.2
They prevent prostaglandin synthesis by attacking the
enzymes that form them through a signal cascade. These are
known as cyclooxygenase enzymes. The enzymes activate a
 FEATURES

The Mechanism and Synthesis of Acetaminophen

Richard Walsh

chain of reactions to lead cells to produce more prostaglandins. Figure 4: Quinone Imine
Similar drugs to Acetaminophen inhibit these enzymes and
prevent the signaling, thus preventing prostaglandin synthesis
and reducing pain.
In order to break down acetaminophen, it must
be converted to another molecule by the liver. Paracetamol
is broken down into a quinone imine (Figure 4), which is
extremely reactive. Its reactivity is so high that it begins to
attack and react with liver cells causing severe liver damage.7
The liver is equipped with tripeptides and glutathione to
break down the hazardous quinone, but when overdosing
occurs, these are overwhelmed by quinones and the quinones
persist.7 There are other uses for Paracetamol that are being
investigated, including antioxidant properties. By acting as
weak acids, they attract free radicals and then distribute to
their electron sinks – the ketone or phenol group.3


Figures

Figure 1: Acetaminophen REFERENCES

1. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2002. Managing
Hazardous Materials Incidents. Volume III – Medical Management Guidelines for
Acute Chemical Exposures: Aniline. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service.
2. Botting, R. M. (2006). Inhibitors of cyclooxygenases: Mechanisms, selectivity, uses.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Retrieved from http://jpp.krakow.
pl/journal/archive/11_06_s5/articles/08_article.html
3. Carey, F. A., & Giuliano, R. M. (2011). Organic chemistry. New York: McGraw-Hill
Figure 2: Acetanilide 4. Casteels-Van Daele M, Van Geet C, Wouters C, Eggermont E.Eur J Pediatr. (2000)
Reye syndrome revisited: a descriptive term covering a group of heterogeneous disor-
ders.
5. Perez, E. (2013). Acetaminophen overdose. A.D.A.M., Retrieved from http://www.
nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002598.htm
6. Prescott, L. (2000). Paracetamol: Past, present, and future. American Journal of
Therapeutics, Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11319582
7. Rzepa, H. (2006). Paracetamol (acetaminophen). Imperial College London, Retrieved
from http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/mim/drugs/html/paracet_text.htm

Figure 3: Aniline

2
 FEATURES

A New Device to Treat Burn Patients

Elizabeth Breen

Burn patients may soon find themselves facing melanocytes (key to appropriate pigmentation), Langerhans
something rather unexpected -- a doctor pulling a gun on cells, and fibroblasts, is sprayed over the affected area and
them. The guns in question are filled not with bullets, but with bandaged. The entire procedure is estimated to take 90
a solution of the patients’ own skin cells. This new technique minutes. One of the benefits of the enzymatic process is
may fill an important gap in caring for victims with burn- the exposure of basal keratinocytes, a cell that is found in
related injuries. Burns can be classified as first-degree, second- the dermis, but differentiates as it matures. Due to the way
degree, or third-degree; the degree increases with the severity that skin grows, from the bottom up, basal keratinocytes are
of the burn. Second-degree burns inflict damage on the outer necessary to form all of the layers of the skin that reside above
layer of skin, or epidermis, as well as a portion of the dermis the basal layer. They are proliferative and result in enhanced
below. Partial-thickness burns can present difficulty in both epithelialization,2 but unfortunately, this key cell type is not
diagnosis and treatment of victims with burn-related injuries. selectively obtained by the conventional technique.3
Superficial partial-thickness burns are difficult to distinguish The goal of the skin cell spray-transplantation
because they heal without surgical intervention due to deeper procedure is to promote healing and restoration to burned
burns, which require skin grafting.1 It is not always clear if areas of skin. While skin grafting is still considered the
a patient will require a surgical graft until a few weeks into “gold standard” for treating epidermal loss, skin cell spray-
the healing process. However, after two weeks of healing, the transplantation appears to have a place in the arsenal of burn
skin reaches a “particularly problematic stage” for applying a management.4 Currently, the device is awaiting FDA approval;
conventional skin graft..3 there is hope that this technique can be used to treat other
For patients with burns that cover a large surface area skin conditions including enlarged scars, acne scars, ruptured
on much of their bodies, there is often not enough healthy skin surgical wounds, and various skin discolorations.2
remaining for traditional grafting. This problem is solved by
technology, as sheets of the patients’ own skin can be grown REFERENCES
and applied to the wounds. Unfortunately, growing this new
1. Atiyeh, B., Gunn, S., Hayek, S. (2005). State of the Art in Burn Treatment.
cultured skin normally takes a few weeks’ time, which leaves
World Journal of Surgery, 29(2), 131-148. Doi: 10.1007/s00268-004-1082-2
burns more exposed to infection. Additionally, it is difficult
2. De Angelis, B., Lucarini, L., Montone, A., Cervelli, V. (2009). ReCell: A new in
to handle cultured grafts due to their fragility and high cost.1
device for skin autologous inplants in the treatment of burns and scars. Burns,
Enter the skin cell gun.
35, S36. Doi: doi:10.1016/j.burns.2009.06.144
The skin cell gun, developed by Jorg Gerlach and his
3. Gerlach, J.C., Johnen, C., McCoy, E., Brautigam, K., Plettig, J., Corcos, A.
colleagues at Stem Cell Systems GmbH in Berlin, provides
(2011). Autologous skin cell spray-transplantation for a deep dermal burn patient
the ability for a patient’s own skin cells to treat second-degree
in an ambulant treatment room setting. Burns, 37, e19-23. DOI: 10.1016/j.
burns, without the time delay or fragility involved in using
burns.2011.01.022
conventional cultured skin. The skin cell gun is known as a
4. Gravante, G. Fede, M.C., Araco, A., Grimaldi, M., De Angelis, B., Arpino, A.,
skin cell spray-transplantation procedure, which begins with
Cervelli, V., Montone, A. (2007). A randomized trial comparing ReCell system
harvesting cells from healthy skin in an area of approximately
of epidermal cells delivery versus classic skin grafts for the treatment of deep
two square centimeters.3 Compared to traditional grafting,
partial thickness burns. Burns, 33(8). 966-972. Doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2007.04.011
the harvesting in skin cell spray-transplantation disturbs less
5. Pierce, S., Carolan-Rees, G. (2014). ReCell Spray-on Skin System Additional
healthy skin in order to be cultured. The estimated ratio of
Report. Cedar Health Technology Research Centre. Cardiff and Vale University
harvested skin to treatment area is 1:20. Patients who do not
Health Board. 1(48). Retrieved from www.fdanews.com/ext/resources/
have enough healthy skin remaining for conventional skin
files/04/04-16-14-ReCell.pdf
grafting may be able to receive skin cell spray-transplantation.
The pain and complications associated with harvesting
skin cells will be reduced with this procedure. In a study
comparing grafting with the spray-transplantation, patients
who underwent traditional grafting complained of pain at the
harvesting site, while those who received the spray treatment
experienced little pain or no pain at all at the harvesting site.4
Once the skin cells are harvested, the skin is dissected,
broken down by a series of enzymes, sieved, centrifuged,
and added to a solution of the patient’s own blood serum.
The resulting suspension, which contains keratinocytes,
3
 FEATURES
Recent Breakthroughs for Alzheimer’s Disease
Joe George
The human body inevitably breaks down with age.
Cells die, muscles fail, and the brain starts losing its abilities.
However, the degree to which the body is breaking down
may indicate that something more than “normal aging”
is occurring; it may be Alzheimer’s disease, a debilitating
disease that affects over 30 million people around the world.
Alzheimer’s disease is typically associated with memory
loss, but it can also cause mood swings, abnormal behavior,
and depression, which can put tremendous stress on family
members who care for affected patients. Eventually, the
autonomic nervous system breaks down to such a degree
that patients “forget” to clear their lungs and typically die of
pneumonia. Despite first being diagnosed in 1906, surprisingly
little has been found regarding its cause. Recently, however,
several studies have discovered possible underlying causes of
the disease.1
The main culprit in Alzheimer’s disease is the
amyloid-beta protein. It is found in the post-mortem brains
of nearly all Alzheimer’s patients. In the worst stages of the
disease, amyloid-beta clumps together to form plaques that
inhibit neurons from growing. These plaques are considered
the hallmark of the disease, as well as an indicator for the
diagnosis of Alzheimer’s. However, recent evidence has
actually shown that amyloid-beta is toxic to neurons even
before it aggregates to form plaques; smaller forms, called
oligomers, have been shown to cause neuronal death. Curiously,
in most people it is not the overproduction of amyloid-beta
that causes the disease; rather, the problem lies with its
ineffective breakdown.1
More recently, researchers have been looking at the
ways in which amyloid-beta interacts with other proteins. One
such protein is apolipoprotein E (APOE). Its main function
is to transport cholesterol to neurons in the central nervous
system. It is also hypothesized that APOE can bind to and
break down amyloid-beta. The problem is that apoE has three
alleles: APOE e2, APOE e3, and APOE e4. It was found that
people with APOE e4 allele are at a much greater risk of
developing Alzheimer’s disease than people with either of
the other two alleles, as it was discovered that the APOE e4
allele is not as effective as the other two isoforms at binding
to amyloid-beta. Through APOE, Alzheimer’s disease also
has a strong genetic component. Incredibly, the APOE e4
allele differs from the APOE e3 allele by only one amino
acid. Researchers are trying to discover why this miniscule
difference causes such a drastic loss of function in the APOE
e4 allele.1
Another protein that has been shown to interact with
amyloid-beta is prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). This protein is a
receptor found on the surface of microglia (cells in the central
nervous system that assist neurons, which include breaking
down amyloid-beta). One study found that, as humans age,
PGE2 becomes misfolded and microglia are unable to perform
their typical functions. A group of researchers deleted
the PGE2 gene in mice and found increased amyloid-beta
clearance and better cognitive ability in these mice. This
study connects with earlier evidence that non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can improve the condition of
Alzheimer’s patients. NSAIDs work to block the production
of prostaglandins, which suggests that prostaglandins have a
detrimental effect on Alzheimer’s disease.4
Several studies have also shown that Alzheimer’s
presents itself earlier and more aggressively in women as
opposed to men. Although this phenomenon could be due
to several factors, current research suggests that hormones
play an important role. Menopausal women stop producing
estrogen at approximately 50 years old. Estrogen has been
shown to have protective effects on the brain, so its sudden
decrease can have drastic effects on neuronal health in women.
Hormone-replacement therapies have been moderately
effective in maintaining long-term neuronal health in elderly
women.2
Regular exercise has also been shown to counteract
the effects of aging, and its benefits are evident in Alzheimer’s
patients. Individuals who exercise regularly have larger
hippocampi, the region of the brain involved with memory
storage and retrieval. In addition, these people consistently
perform better on cognitive and neuropsychological tests
compared to similar individuals who do not exercise. Lastly,
studies indicate that mice engaged in physical activity have
lower levers of tau, a protein that is linked to neurotoxicity.
Research on the underlying causes of Alzheimer’s disease has
turned up several promising leads. The next step in many
cases is to develop pharmaceuticals that have reliable effects.
Although more research is yet to be done, the last decade has
seen numerous promising breakthroughs towards finding a
cure for Alzheimer’s.3
REFERENCES
1. Bird, T. (2014). Alzheimer disease overview. National center for biotechnology
information.
2. Carter, C., Resnick, E., Mallampalli, M., & Kalbarczyk, A. (2012). Sex and
gender differences in Alzheimer’s disease: recommendations for future research.
Journal Of Women’s Health, 1018-1023.
3. Intlekofer, K., & Cotman, C. (2013). Exercise counteracts declining
hippocampal function in aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Disease,
57, 47-55.
4. Johannson, J., Woodling, N., & Wang, Q. (2014). Prostaglandin signaling
suppresses beneficial microglial function in Alzheimer’s disease models. American
Society for Clinical Investigation, 125(1), 350-364.
4
 FEATURES
Discovery of a Genetic Connection Regarding Cerebral Palsy
Beatrice Go
Cerebral palsy is a neurodevelopmental disorder
resulting in movement and cognition disabilities, which
include muscle tone loss and posture defects. Current research
has estimated that cerebral palsy occurs in approximately
2.1 per 1,000 births.5 The disease typically manifests in the
brain prior to birth, and symptoms appear between infancy
and five years of age. The disorder is also associated with a
variety of neurological problems including vision difficulties,
seizures, involuntary movement, rigidity of limbs, coordination
problems, fine-motor skills, and sensation disabilities.
Individuals with cerebral palsy may also suffer from
dyskinesia, which involves fine-motor skills characterized
by jerky actions, or spastic quadriplegia, which is marked
by stiffness in the limbs.2 The parameters and net effects
of cerebral palsy are difficult to define due to variability of
symptoms in patients. However, most researchers and medical
professionals agree that cerebral palsy encompasses a set of
symptoms that are non-progressive, yet possibly changing, as a
consequence of lesions in the brain during development.6
There are several causes that contribute to the onset
of cerebral palsy. Damage to the brain usually occurs during
pregnancy. Lesions that form up until early childhood can be
related to the diagnosis of cerebral palsy. Some physiological
causes of cerebral palsy include exposure to radiation and
toxins, lack of adequate oxygen supply, premature labor, and
childhood traumas.1 Along with congenital infection and
perinatal asphyxia, previous research has discovered that
approximately 2% of all cerebral palsy cases are attributed
to genetics.4 However, a new discovery has signified the
importance of genetics, as it is a possible risk factor for
cerebral palsy.
A research team at the University of Adelaide, in
Australia, discovered that a genetic mutation may be a primary
cause of cerebral palsy. The researchers had suspected that
certain genes interfere with proper brain development in
infants. The researchers discovered a correlation between
specific genes and cerebral palsy through sequencing methods.
The study consisted of sequencing the exomes of 183
Caucasian patient-cases and comparing the DNA from either
both parents, one parent, or neither parent when parental
DNA was unavailable.3 In comparison to whole genome
sequencing, exome sequencing consists of determining
the DNA composition for all genes in the genome, with the
exception of untranslated regions and introns.
It was found that instead of the proposed 2% genetic
correlation, about 14% of the cases had conserved genetic
variants between child and parent exomes. These mutations
were found in a total of five previously known disease-causing
genes and in eight novel genes, suggesting that these new
genes impact the onset of cerebral palsy. Prior to this study,
5
it was suggested that patients with mutations in the five
disease-causing genes suffered from poor motor control and
spastic muscle movements.3 Currently, the research team at
the University of Adelaide continues to seek correlations
between mutated genes and cerebral palsy, with the hope
of strengthening the genetic connection between cerebral
palsy and certain genes. Conserved mutations in the newly
discovered genes may lead to significant changes in the
therapeutic approach and cure of cerebral palsy.
The idea of a genetic component to cerebral palsy
also takes pressure off of obstetric physicians, who are often
blamed for conditions that promote the onset of cerebral palsy.
Finally, the genetic connections to cerebral palsy discovered
by the researchers at the University of Adelaide are similar
to those found in other neurological diseases, such as epilepsy,
autism, and schizophrenia. The correlation between genetics
and cerebral palsy may provide a new outlook on other
neurological disorders, as they may share a connection to
genetics as well.
REFERENCES
1. Beukelman, D.R. & Mirenda, P. (1999). Augmentative and alternative
communication: Management of severe communication disorders in children and
adults. Baltimore: Paul H Brookes Publishing Company.
2. Krigger, K.W. (2006). Cerebral palsy: An overview. American Family Physician,
73(1): 91-100.
3. McMichael, G., Bainbridge, M.N., Haan, E., Corbett, M., Gardner, A., Thompson,
S., van Bon, B.W.M., van Eyk, C.L., Broadbent, J., Reynolds, C., O’Callaghan, M.E.,
Nguyen, L.S., Adelson, D.L., Russo, R., Jhangiani, S., Doddapaneni, H., Muzny, D.M.,
Gibbs, R.A., Gecz, J., & MacLennan, A.H. (2015). Whole-exome sequencing points to
considerable genetic heterogeneity of cerebral palsy. Molecular Psychiatry, 1-7. doi:
10.1038/mp.2014.189
4. Online ‘Mendelian Inheritance in Man’. (2006). Cerebral Palsy, Spastic
Quadriplegic,, 1; CPSQ1. Retrieved from http://omim.org/entry/603513
5. Oskoui, M., Coutinho, F., Dykeman, J., Jette, N., & Pringsheim, T. (2013). An update
on the prevalence of cerebral palsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Develop-
mental Medicine & Child Neurology, 55(6): 509-19.
6. Rosenbaum, P., Paneth, N., Leviton, A., Goldstein, M., Bax, M., Damiano, D.,
Dan, B., Jacobsson, B (2007). A report: The definition and classification of ce-
rebral palsy April 2006. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 49:8–14.
doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.tb12610.x
 FEATURES
The Link between Sodium Intake and Cardiovascular Health
Ragav Sharma
Physicians have recently considered obesity a
modern epidemic in the United States. Increasing awareness
of obesity-related health risks has increased the number of
health-conscious individuals in the U.S. Generally, health-
conscious individuals focus on the macronutrient breakdown
and net calories of food, with an emphasis on the ratio between
carbohydrates, protein, and fat. What many individuals fail to
account for are micronutrients, most importantly, sodium. The
amount of sodium consumed by an individual might not affect
the net calories of food intake, but it still has a large impact on
an individual’s cardiovascular health. The primary culprit that
decreases cardiovascular health is hypertension, which close
to one billion adults suffer from, and which accounts for more
than nine million deaths annually.4
A high salt intake has been correlated to
cardiovascular disease for several years; however, many
individuals have ignored it. Primarily, a high sodium intake
will cause damage to many of the organs and systems related
to the heart. Salt is a hygroscopic compound, meaning that
it will attract and hold water molecules around it, inducing
the kidneys to make the body retain more water.1 Therefore,
excessive consumption of salt will create problems in the
cardiovascular system and the endocrine system. Excess
sodium in the blood will lead to the kidney’s inability to draw
out excess water from the bloodstream, resulting in a higher
volume of fluid in the cardiovascular system. Increased volume
leads to a higher blood pressure; over time, this may ultimately
result in kidney disease, arteriosclerosis (excess cholesterol
in the arterial walls), and myocardial infarction (heart attack).
In order to maintain a healthy cardiovascular system and
endocrine system, it is important to reduce the body’s overall
sodium intake. However, recent research has failed to discover
a clear link between low sodium intake and the rate of
cardiovascular disease.
Contrary to past beliefs about sodium levels and
cardiovascular risks, recent studies focusing on the effects of
a low sodium diet on cardiovascular health have discovered
neutral results. The findings generally indicate that overweight
and hypertensive individuals must lower their sodium intake
in order to avoid cardiovascular disease. For overweight
individuals, a slightly higher than normal sodium intake
was associated with a 32% increase in stroke incidence, 89%
increase in stroke mortality, 44% increase in coronary heart
disease mortality, 61% increase in cardiovascular disease
mortality, and 39% increase in mortality from all causes.3
These results suggest that excess sodium can be dangerous
in diets of individuals who are already overweight or
hypertensive. Increased salt intake places stress on an already
overworked cardiovascular system. Thus, a simple decrease
in overall sodium intake would be very beneficial. A study
done on normotensive adults showed that the restriction
of salt intake for people with normal blood pressure is not
recommended due to insufficient evidence of a lower sodium
intake reducing the risk of hypertension.2 Thus, only those
who are already hypertensive need to take immediate action
about their sodium intake.
More recent studies have attempted to take a
different approach to find a link between low sodium
intake and cardiovascular health. A study conducted by
Suzanne Oparil, M.D. attempted to increase dietary potassium
while decreasing sodium, in order to battle hypertension.
Sodium and potassium excretions were measured in morning
urine samples and correlations between these samples and
cardiovascular health were assessed. In general, a hypertensive
individual with a high concentration of sodium in their
urine had a lower potassium concentration.4 Although this
relation depicts the association of high sodium intake and
low potassium excretion, the correlation was not found.
Consuming a higher amount of potassium concurrent with a
high intake of sodium is not linked to a lower or higher risk
of cardiovascular disease. The study also found that both low
and high levels of sodium excretion showed an increased risk
of hypertension versus those in the moderate intake range.4
The lack of correlation between low sodium intake and a
decreased risk of cardiovascular disease points to the fact that
reducing sodium intake in normal individuals is not an effective
strategy of preventing hypertension. Furthermore, increasing
potassium intake also fails to show a positive correlation with a
decreased risk of hypertension.
Overall, studies demonstrated the necessity to
aggressively reduce sodium intake in order to combat
hypertension in hypertensive and overweight individuals.
A lack of evidence for a reduced risk of hypertension in
normotensive individuals was observed. The recommended
sodium intake for normal individuals by the CDC is less
than 2,300 mg a day; other groups such as those over 51
years old, African Americans, and those with hypertension,
diabetes, and kidney disease should also limit their intake to
a max of 1,500mg a day.5 In conclusion, individuals wishing
to control their cardiovascular health should be conscious
about their sodium intake. Individuals who are predisposed to
hypertension and obesity should be very cautious and restrict
their sodium intake to reduce the risk of cardiac or renal
disease.
6
 FEATURES

The Link between Sodium Intake and Cardiovascular Health

Ragav Sharma

REFERENCES
1. Blood Pressure UK. (2008). Salt’s effects. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from http://

www.bloodpressureuk.org/microsites/salt/Home/Whysaltisbad/Saltseffects
2. Fodor, J., Whitmore, B., Leenen, F., Larochelle, P. (1999). Lifestyle modifications
to prevent and control hypertension. 5. Recommendations on dietary salt. Canadi-
an Hypertension Society, Canadian Coalition for High Blood Pressure Prevention
and Control, Laboratory Centre for Disease Control at Health Canada, Heart and
Stroke Foundation of Canada. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal, 160(9),
S29-S34.
3. He, J., Ogden, L., Vupputuri, S., Bazzano, L., Loria, C., & Whelton, P. (1999). Dietary
Sodium Intake and Subsequent Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in Overweight Adults.
JAMA, 282(21):2027-34. doi:10.1001/jama.282.21.2027.
4. Oparil, S. (2014). Low Sodium Intake - Cardiovascular Health Benefit or Risk? New
England Journal of Medicine, 371(7), 677-9. doi: 10.1056/NEJMe1407695
5. U.S. Department of Agriculture and Health and Human Services. (2010). Dietary
Guidelines for Americans. Retrieved November 21, 2014, from http://health.gov/
dietaryguidelines/dga2010/dietaryguidelines2010.pdf

7
 NEWS
An Unhealthy Diet’s Depressive Effect on Mental Health
Marisol Flores
American society runs on efficiency. Food-
consumption patterns reflect the busy schedules of
individuals living in the United States. The need for
faster and cheaper food can lead busy individuals to select
unhealthy food choices. The U.S. has seen an increased
consumption of “fast food,” which has led to the overall
decline in the health of U.S. citizens. Diabetes, for
example, is considered an epidemic that affects 1 in 3
Americans born after 2000.1 In addition to the increasing
concerns over U.S. society’s physical health are also U.S.
citizens overall mental health. In the U.S. both mental
illness and depression have been increasing alongside “fast
food.” This leads many to question whether mental health
and physical health are linked.
Mental health and diet can be linked chemically.
The observance of cytokines suggests a possible link
between mental health and physical health. Cytokines
are chemicals that are used in the immune response and
are commonly observed during periods of inflammation
in the human body. Previous research has suggested that
an individual suffering from depressive symptoms tends
to have blood filled with cytokines.2 Therefore, it became
plausible that the presence of cytokines in depressed
individuals may result in inflammation in the body. Naomi
Eisenberger, Ph.D. from the University of California,
Los Angeles, showed that not only can depression lead
to inflammation, but inflammation can also lead to
depression.2 By injecting volunteers with non-depressive
symptoms with small doses of E. coli, Eisenberger was
able to trigger the immune system and cause a release
of cytokines. Eisenberger then tested her hypothesis by
setting up an experiment with two groups—one with
individuals injected with E. coli (the experimental group),
and the other not injected with E. coli (the control group).
The two groups played a computer game for cash prizes,
during which she had participants report their feelings and
mood. By examining the brain scans of the participants,
Eisenberger was able to see that the control group did
not receive as much pleasure playing the game as the
experimental group, similar to the anhedonia that does not
allow depressed individuals to feel pleasure.2 Also, those
injected with E.coli reported feelings of disconnect and
loneliness,2 which are symptoms similar to those seen in
depressed individuals.
Inflammation can also be caused by an individual’s
diet. Increased fat and sugar levels in diets suggest an
increase in inflammation and oxidative stress.2 Oxidative
stress refers to the damage done by free radicals due to
the inability of antioxidants to effectively remove them.
Oxidative stress can be worsened by inflammation and
may cause depression. It can kill neurons and make
detrimental changes to neural connections and signaling.
These changes in the brain may to lead to mental illness.
Nutrients and minerals like omega-3 fish oils, zinc, and
selenium serve as antioxidants.2 These antioxidants reduce
inflammation and can neutralize free radicals.
Another connection between mental health
and diet can be made through the hormone serotonin,
which affects sleep and mood. Low levels of serotonin
metabolites, the products of breaking down serotonin,
have been observed in cases where individuals have
committed suicide.3 A balance between the consumption
of protein and carbohydrates leads to the production of
tryptophan, an amino acid, and precursor to serotonin.
Thus, having a proper diet can contribute to suitable
serotonin production and metabolite formation.
Furthermore, serotonin is mainly produced in
the bacteria within the gut. Studies done on mice have
shown that altering the bacteria can cause changes in
mood. For example, shy mice that experienced a change in
the bacteria in their gut became adventurous. Likewise, in
humans, the various populations of bacteria in the gut can
be altered by the food a person consumes. A simple change
in an individual’s diet can alter the bacteria in their gut
and their serotonin levels, which may ultimately result in a
change in mood.4
Recent studies have further suggested an
unhealthy diet’s effect on mental health. Results of a
study done in Spain on former students, professionals,
and graduates of the University of Navarra showed
that adhering to a Mediterranean dietary pattern (MDP)
helped reduce the risk of developing depressive disorders.5
The study was conducted through questionnaires in
which participants rated their daily intake of food
for two years. The questionnaire measured how well
participants adhered to the MDP. The questionnaire
positively counted vegetables, fruits, nuts, cereal, legumes,
and fish. In contrast, the study negatively counted meat
and whole-fat dairy.5 Also taken into consideration were
alcohol consumption, sociodemographic characteristics,
medical history, and health-related habits. The results
showed that the individuals that adhered to the MDP
had more than a 30% reduction in the risk of depression
compared to individuals who did not adhere to the MDP.
One possible reason for the reduced risk of depression
observed in those adhering to the MDP could be due to
the high content of olive oil in their diet. Natural oils
such as olive oil contain monounsaturated fatty acids,
which have been shown to improve serotonin’s binding-
ability to its receptors. Moreover, the presence of
8
 NEWS

An Unhealthy Diet’s Depressive Effect on Mental Health

Marisol Flores

binding-ability to its receptors. Moreover, the presence of ome- REFERENCES

ga-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids helps with serotonin transport.5
1. Pearlstein, E. (Producer), & Kenner, R. (Director). 2009. Food, Inc [Mo-
Another study focused on the distinction between two
tion Picture]. United States: Magnolia Pictures.
dietary patterns: whole food (fruits, vegetables, and fish) and
2. Robson, D. (2014, August 26). Is fast food making us depressed? BBC.
processed food (meat, sweets, fried food, and high-fat dairy).
Retrieved November 1, 2014.
Results suggested that individuals who maintained a diet filled
3. Bernstein, D. (2012). Biological Aspects of psychology. In Psychology
with whole foods were less likely to self-report depression. The
(9th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
decrease in depression may be a result of the antioxidants pres-
Jacka FN, Kremer PJ, Berk M, de Silva-Sanigorski
ent in whole foods, which have been shown to combat inflamma-
4. Telis, G. (2014, March 24). Can what you eat affect your mental health?
tion and oxidative stress. It could also be attributed to the folate
The Washington Post. Retrieved November 1, 2014.
in vegetables which helps increase neurological pathways. 6
5. Sánchez-Villegas A, Delgado-Rodríguez M, Alonso A, et al. Association
Nevertheless, it seems that a diet filled with whole
of the mediterranean dietary pattern with the incidence of depression: The
foods positively affects one’s overall health.
Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra/University of Navarra Follow-up
Recent evidence supports the claim that diet has an effect on
(SUN) Cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009;66(10):1090-1098. doi:10.1001/
mental health; however, the use of dietary changes, as a means
archgenpsychiatry.2009.129.
for complete treatment of mental illnesses is not enough to 6. Akbaraly, T., Brunner, E., Ferrie, J., Marmot, M., Kivimaki, M., and
effectively manage many mental health concerns. 4
Singh-Manoux, A. Dietary pattern and depressive symptoms in middle age.
BJP November 2009 195:408-413; doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.108.058925

9
 NEWS

A Study Suggesting Major Breakthrough in Brain-to-Brain

Neurological Communication
Gaurav Agnihotri

Telepathy was a concept introduced by a philosopher
named Frederic W.H. Myers in 1882, and has since been
a common motif in many works of fiction.4 Fast-forward
132 years, and telepathy may become a reality. On March
28, 2014, two neuroscientists conducted an experiment in
which they suggested that communication between brains
was achievable. At the University of Strasbourg in France,
the two scientists utilized a cap-like instrument for EEG
(electroencephalography) recordings in order to conduct
their study. Both scientists exchanged simple greetings of
“hola” and “ciao,” while sitting 5,000 miles apart. One of
the researchers, Michel Berg, was in India, and the other
researcher, Alejandro Riera, was in France. The study claimed
to be the first scientifically documented telepathic conversation
in human history.1
Riera’s thoughts, which consisted of “vertical
and horizontal” motions, sent electric pulses to the EEG.1
According to the types of pulses received, the EEG converted
each pulse into a numerical value of 1 or 0. The combination
of numerical values created a code, which translated into
alphabetical letters. As Riera was also connected to a computer,
once his message of “hola” and “ciao” was completed after
thirty minutes of intense concentration, it was sent via email
to Berg.
Meanwhile, Berg, whose eyes and ears were covered,
was connected to a Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
device which converted the code of numerical values into
pulses of electricity.1 These pulses were then delivered to the
occipital lobe, the area of the brain where vision is controlled.
Berg envisioned “white flashes,” known as phosphenes,
whenever the pulses of electricity were sent.1 A numerical
value of 1 or 0 determined the type of pulse delivered. The
phosphenes were then translated back into numerical code
and the messages of “hola” and “ciao” were decoded. This
process took another thirty minutes.2 Overall, the process of
communicating two words took one hour to complete.
The difference between this experiment and previous
attempts at telepathy is that this experiment utilized “non-
invasive technology;” the exchange of words involved
conscious activity; and messages were sent and received by
human beings. This experiment was a major stepping-stone in
establishing the possibility of brain-to-brain communication
between human beings.2
According to Berg, there are numerous benefits
of telepathy. Although it might take many more years
to communicate complete thoughts, there are countless
advantages to developing this project. Through telepathy,
patients who cannot walk may have the ability to send
messages to their artificial limbs (such as a prosthetic leg)
communicating with the artificial limb the desired action
of the individual.1 Patients in a coma would be able to
utilize brain-to-brain communication to convey their needs
as well. In the U.S. army, soldiers could use telepathy to
communicate with their colleagues, and would not have to
worry about technological malfunctions or being intercepted
by adversaries.1 Additionally, the use of telephones could be
terminated once the process of telepathy is fully developed. If
the instruments utilized in the experiment conducted by Berg
and Riera were renovated into more user-friendly equipment,
telepathic instruments such as the EEG cap and Transcranial
Magnetic Simulator could potentially be an alternative to
telephones.
After being viewed in science fiction books and
movies, telepathy may slowly become a reality. Berg and Riera
have taken the first steps in order to display the great potential
that brain-to-brain communication could have for the world.
REFERENCES
1. Adams, G. (2014, September 8). Is this proof humans have Telepathic powers?
Two men, 4,600 miles apart, send messages to each other using just their minds.
Retrieved October 31, 2014.
2. Grau, C., Ginhoux, R., Riera, A., Nguyen, TL., Chauvat, H., et al. (2014, August
19) Conscious Brain-to-Brain Communication in Humans Using Non-Invasive
Technologies. PLoS ONE 9(8): e105225. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105225
3. Haas, A. S. (2011). The Interpretation of Telepathy-like Effects: A Novel
Electromagnetic and Synchronistic Version of the Psychoanalytic Model.
Neuroquantology, 9(1), 22-35.
4. Sanna, A. (2013). The Postmodern Evolution of Telepathy. Gothic Studies,
15(1), 66-75. doi:10.7227/GS.15.1.7.
10
 NEWS

The Inhibition of Melatonin Associated with Blue Light

Nabiha Shamshuddin

Currently, scientists have discovered that blue light, REFERENCES

which emits from electronic devices, such as cell phones and
laptops, hinders students from having restful sleep. Many 1. Blue light has a dark side. (2012). Harvard Health Letter. Retrieved November
students leave electronic devices with the lights on during the 17, 2014, from http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletters/harvard_health_
nighttime and blue light greatly impedes sleep. Blue light is letter/2012/may/blue-light-has-a-dark-side/
related to the inhibition of releasing melatonin, a hormone 2. Figueiro, M. G., Wood, B., Plitnick, B., & Rea, M.S. (2011). The impact of
associated with sleeping during nighttime. The pineal gland light from computer monitors on melatonin levels in college students. Neuro
in the brain is responsible for supplying melatonin a few Endocrinol Lett, 32(2), 158-63. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from http://www.
hours before sleep (according to one’s circadian rhythm), ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21552190.
thus reducing alertness and making one feel more “sleepy.” 3. Kim, M. (2014). Blue light from electronics disturbs sleep, especially for
Blue light, however, prevents the pineal gland from releasing teenagers. Retrieved November 17, 2014, from http://www.washingtonpost.
melatonin, which makes sleeping more difficult.3 Teenage com/national/health-science/blue-light-from-electronics-disturbs-sleep-
circadian rhythms are especially shifted, which makes them especially-for-teenagers/2014/08/29/3edd2726-27a7-11e4-958c-268a320a60ce_
more alert during late hours of the night. With the constant story.html.
use of electronic devices before sleeping, teenage sleepiness 4. Sharkey K. M., Carskadon, M.A., Figueiro, M.G., Zhu, Y., & Rea, M.S. (2011).
may be even more interrupted. Ultimately, this will cause Effects of an advanced sleep schedule and morning short wavelength light
teenagers to feel sleepier and more lethargic in the morning, exposure on circadian phase in young adults with late sleep schedules. Sleep Med,
and possibly affect their school performance and impair their 12(7), 685-92. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2011.01.016.
learning. The lack of proper sleep could also affect their
overall physical and mental health.1
A team led by Marian Figueiro conducted behavioral
intervention research on this subject. The researchers
investigated which technological devices emitted a blue
light that is intense enough to significantly impair sleep.
The researchers studied the effect of artificial light on
teenagers and adults and observed how the light affected
the levels of melatonin in the saliva samples of the subjects.
Figueiro demonstrated that teenagers have a much greater
sensitivity to blue light than adults.2 Teens exposed to small
amounts of light can suppress more melatonin compared to
adults. Though this study suggests that teenagers are more
significantly affected by blue light emission, it was discovered
that all melatonin levels were suppressed when the subjects
were exposed to artificial light. There are some limitations
to this research because the methods section of the study did
not indicate the level of intensity at which blue light impairs
human sleeping patterns.
Practical applications of this research include the use
of electronic devices that have the ability change to “warm-
colored” lights at night, which limits the amount of blue light
emitted. It is also recommended for individuals to reduce
brightness on electronic devices and move electronic devices
farther away from one’s eyes during periods of sleep. Also,
individuals should attempt to limit the usage of electronic
devices at least two hours before bedtime. Additional research
is required in order to study the effects of “warm-colored”
light on circadian rhythms.4 Also, further research regarding
the link between blue light emission and circadian rhythms
is important for the physical and mental health of many
individuals.
11
 NEWS
The Connection between Smartphones and Health
Sharmeen Razvi
There’s nothing better than the convenience of
shopping online, using an iPhone, or taking “selfies” and
instantly viewing them on social media outlets. Although
these devices nearly run our world, there is a fear that they
are starting to power down our minds. Perhaps our intimate
relationship with smartphones has come at a cost.
According to patient visits recorded at the
Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, doctors have noticed
a large influx of individuals complaining of problems that
hint toward excess smartphone usage. They have diagnosed
the new condition as Computer Vision Syndrome, which
is a mosaic of eye problems—consisting of blurry vision,
headaches, eye soreness, muscle strain, and dizziness—that
results from engaging in prolonged periods of eye contact
with a smartphone or other screened-devices.1 In addition to
this syndrome, doctors at the Infirmary also reported that “dry
eye” is a risk factor of excessive smart phone usage since the
blinking rate of 15 blinks per minute drops by half as people
stare at phone screens for long periods of time.1
In addition to affecting individuals physically,
smartphones seem to also have the ability to disturb us
mentally. In 2013, the Daegu School of Medicine in South
Korea reported that excessive smartphone users had more
psychopathologies and cognitive deficits than moderate
smartphone users.2 Just in case somatic discomfort and
cognitive deficits weren’t enough, high smartphone usage
has also been associated with lower academic performance
and GPA, higher anxiety, and overall life dissatisfaction in
students according to a research study conducted at Kent State
University in Ohio.3 Indeed, it seems like this “Apple” a day
may not be keeping the doctor away.
Diminished social skills are another emerging
concern linked to smartphone usage. Basic manners are
deteriorating as eye-to-screen contact is increasing and eye-
to-eye contact is decreasing. Not only is the constant urge to
check phones rude, but it is also starting to become a social
handicap for individuals. According to research conducted
at the University of California in Los Angeles, (UCLA),
increased smartphone usage in children and teenagers
can interfere with their ability to recognize and interpret
emotions.4 The UCLA psychology department reported these
findings based on results yielded from a study’s experimental
group—children who were separated from their smartphones
for a period of five days—and the control group—children
who were left in their usual environment with iPhones.4
The study concluded that children who were separated from
their devices had an easier time recognizing emotions from
facial expressions and voice tones when shown photographs
and videos in comparison to their counterparts who had a
much higher error rate. Moreover, data acquired from the
American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) regarded the use of
smartphones by children to be alarming. According to the
AAP, 54% of children interact with their smartphone devices
to text, 24% for instant messaging, and 22% for social media
sites. These all occur approximately at least ten times a day
on a daily basis.4 These staggering numbers indicate that
significant changes in social interactions are taking place.
Coupled with weak social skills, romantic
relationships may also be affected by smartphones. We now
have apps like Snapchat and Instagram to compete with for
the attention of our significant other. According to Jesse
Fox, Ph.D. at Ohio State University in Ohio, smartphones are
rapidly becoming a root source of friction between couples due
to the recent phenomenon known as “techno-incompatibility.”5
The idea is that because one does not know what the other
partner is doing on their phone, the smartphone becomes
the catalyst behind jealousy, emotional insecurity, distant
communication, and overall decreased romantic attraction.5
Despite the evidence of smartphones adversely
affecting our health and social interactions, some may argue
that smartphones are still a necessity of modern times.
Sending time-sensitive emails or having access to a GPS at
all times is a comfort many cannot forsake. Furthermore,
smartphones can provide health-related benefits if used
properly in moderation. For example, according to the
journal National Institute of Health, certain apps such as
MyMedSchedule and RxmindMe can be powerful tools, as
they allow patients and caregivers to monitor treatment and
drug intake necessary for healthy lifestyles.6 Thus, not all
interaction with the smartphone is detrimental.
In moderation, smartphones can be an extremely
beneficial asset to our society. The constant urge to check
status updates or take selfies, however, may bring unintended
negative consequences. We should learn to regulate our
smartphone usage not only for our social health, but for our
physical and mental health as well.
12
 NEWS

The Connection between Smartphones and Health

Sharmeen Razvi

REFERENCES
1. Tripp, M. (19 December 2013). The Harmful Effects of Smartphones. Boston
Magazine. http://www.bostonmagazine.com/health/blog/2013/12/19/smartphones-
bad-for-eyes/
2. Brauser, D. (23 May 2013) Smartphone ‘Addiction’ May Affect Adolescent Develop-
ment. Medscape Medical News. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/804666
3. Vincent, J. (9 December 2013). New Study Links Smartphone Use In Students
With Increased Anxiety And Bad Grades. The Independent. http://www.independent.
co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/new-study-links-smartphone-use-in-students-with-
increased-anxiety-and-bad-grades-8993945.html
4. Kellog, B. (27 August 2014). Study: Smartphones Stunting Students’ Growth. EAG
News. http://eagnews.org/study-smartphones-stunting-students-social-skills/
5. (14 February 2014). When Smartphones Ruin Romance. CBC News. http://www.
cbc.ca/news/technology/when-smartphones-ruin-romance-1.2536186
6. Dayer, L. (10 February 2014). Smartphone Medication Adherence Apps: Potential
Benefits to Patients and Providers. National Institute of Health Journal. http://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3919626/

13
 RESEARCH

Possible Future Advancements in HIV Treatment

Shuodan Zhang

HIV affects more than 1.1 million individuals living The “shock and kill” method that was discovered,
in the United States, and 16% of people affected in the U.S. are eradicated all traces of any HIV-1 in HIV-1 mice. Latent
unaware of their condition.1 Within the U.S. population, an strains, which are transmissible and do not immediately
average of 50,000 people are diagnosed with HIV each year.1 replicate upon incorporation in a host’s genome were also
Individuals who test positive for HIV can be asymptomatic. eradicated.3 Compared to antiretroviral therapy, in which
These individuals may possess acute fever, have persistently broadly neutralizing antibodies are combined with only a
enlarged lymph nodes at particular sites in the body for more single inducer, the “shock and kill” method, which combined
than a few months, and present other markers of HIV. 6 If left broadly neutralizing antibodies with three inducers, resulted in
untreated, HIV may develop into acquired immunodeficiency no significant virus levels in the treated-blood of mice after the
syndrome (AIDS), a chronic, life-threatening, last-stage treatment was stopped.3
manifestation of HIV. One of the greatest challenges of The results of these two separate studies suggest that
HIV is that the virus can quickly evolve and take the form of both potential vaccinations and the “shock and kill” method
different strains. may lead to future advances in HIV treatment.
Fortunately, researchers have discovered recent
breakthroughs in HIV research, including the synthesis of a
possible preventative vaccine and the “shock and kill” method. REFERENCES
In an effort to create a possible vaccine, researchers at the
1. Center for Disease Control. (2014). Basic Statistics. Retrieved November 21,
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) 2014, from http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/statistics.html
and the Scripps Research Institute found a new HIV vulnerable 2. Fikes, B. (2014). Powerful anti-HIV antibody found. UT San Diego. Retrieved
site within the past year.2 November 14, 2014, from http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2014/sep/03/hiv-
antibody-ward-scripps-nature/?#article-copy
Vulnerable sites are locations on HIV where
3. Halper-Stromberg, A., Lu C. L., Klein F., Horwitz, J. A., Bournazos, S.,
antibodies of a host can attach, preventing the HIV virus from Nogueira, L., … Nussenzweig, M. C. (2014). Broadly neutralizing antibodies and
infecting and replicating within the host cell. HIV has few viral inducers decrease rebound from HIV-1 latent reservoirs in humanized mice.
sites of vulnerability. It is especially important to find these Cell, 158(5), 989-99.
4. Huang, J., Kang, B. H., Pancera, M., Lee, J. H., Tong, T., Feng, Y., ...Connors, M.
sites, as they stay relatively homogenous across virus strains
(2014). Broad and potent HIV-1 neutralization by a human antibody that binds
and are only present on the actual viruses. A new vulnerable the gp41–gp120 interface. Nature, 515(7525), 138-142.
location was found by analysis of an HIV-specific monoclonal 5. McNeil, D. (2009). For First Time, AIDS Vaccine Shows Some Success. The
antibody, termed 3O522. This antibody is classified as an New York Times. Retrieved November 14, 2014, from http://www.nytimes.
com/2009/09/25/health/research/25aids.html?_r=1&
extremely potent antibody since only a select number of
6. Miedzinksi, L. (1992). Early clinical signs and symptoms of HIV infection:
antibodies can protect against many HIV strains at once.3 delaying progression to AIDS. Can Fam Physician, 38, 1401–1410.
3O522 has the impressive capability of neutralizing 62% of
181 pseudoviruses associated with HIV in the study.3
Researchers continue to search for alternate
vulnerable sites on HIV, especially the most efficient sites.
Researchers must develop a vaccine that will allow the host
immune system to respond and produce specific antibodies
that have the ability to combat HIV from infecting the host.
Future preventative vaccines should be able to stop HIV before
it begins to replicate inside the human body. A research study
done in 2009 in Thailand shows that HIV vaccines have great
potential. Although the study suggested only 31% effectiveness
against the most common HIV strain in Southeast Asia, it
is a significant finding of vaccine-effectiveness against HIV.5
HIV researchers are currently preparing for multiple vaccine
trials in the next two years.2
Another possible preventative method against
HIV is the “shock and kill” method. Scientists at Howard
Hughes Medical Institute in Chicago, Illinois and Rockefeller
University in New York, New York utilized mice as subjects in
their study in order to develop the method.
14
 RESEARCH

Hippocampal Neurogenesis Associated with Short-Term Memory Loss

Harsh Choksi

Researchers have discovered that neurogenesis, This discovery suggests that the degree of the loss of
which is the creation of new neurons, induces the loss of memory also depends on the strength of the memory.3
older memories. Human forgetfulness is considered to be After conducting this experiment, the researchers
either the loss of learned information, the inability to retrieve concluded that neurogenesis within the hippocampus creates a
learned information, or deterioration in the correspondence competition for synaptic connections between the new neurons
between the memory retrieved and the memory acquired.1 and the preexisting neurons. The newly-formed neurons were
Neurogenesis first begins when an embryo is at least four found to either coexist with the preexisting neurons or to
weeks old, in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus; the completely replace them. This phenomenon may explain why
process then continues on into adulthood, often slowing down short-term memory is only limited to seven items, plus or
as age increases.5 minus one.2 There is a constant battle between newly-formed
In order to find the relationship between the level neurons and preexisting ones to create neural pathways
of neurogenesis and the persistence of memory, researchers that can act as substrates for new learning. If neurons are
were challenged to find a method to measure neurogenesis continuously being generated, there has to be a trade-off
by conducting studies utilizing mice as subjects. A method between plasticity, which is the brain’s ability to incorporate
known as immunohistochemistry, which detects antigens in new information, and sustainability, which is the brain’s ability
the brain, was used as a method of measuring neurogenesis. to keep old memories.
This detection was made possible by the use of a retrovirus Therefore, the explanation for hippocampal
that expressed a green fluorescent protein, thus tagging all neurogenesis and its association with short-term memory loss
progenitor cells in the hippocampal area and their respective may suggest that powerful emotions are associated with the
progeny.1 corresponding memories 3
Researchers performed a series of experiments
to study the relationship between memory recall and the
degree of neurogenesis. The main experiment consisted of
two parts: the first section conditioned both adult and infant REFERENCES
mice to a fear stimulus, while the second part increased mice
1. Akers, K., Yiu, A., Cristofaro, A., Hsiang, H., Wheeler, A., Guskjolen, A., Josse-
neurogenesis levels by inducing physical activity.1 Fear was
lyn, S. (2014). Hippocampal neurogenesis regulates forgetting during adulthood
induced through a series of shocks so that afterward, when
and infancy. Science Magazine, 10(1126), 598-602.
the researchers manipulated the neurogenesis levels, the
2. Deng, W., Aimone, J., & Gage, F. (2010). New neurons and new memories:
mice could be tested again for how well they remembered the
How does adult hippocampal neurogenesis affect learning and memory? Nature
painful experience. The neurogenesis levels within the mice’s
Reviews Neuroscience, 11(2), 339-350.
hippocampi were manipulated by having them run on a wheel.
3. Eriksson, P., Perfilieva, E., Björk-Eriksson, T., Alborn, A., Nordborg, C., Peter-
The researchers found that the mice running on a wheel
son, D., & Gage, F. (1998). Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus. Nature
increased the large moss fiber terminals (LMT) as well as
Medicine, 4(1), 1313-1317.
Ki67+ cells within the dentate gyrus, implicating the birth of
4. Frankland, P., Köhler, S., & Josselyn, S. (n.d.). Hippocampal neurogenesis and
more synaptic connections and cells themselves.1
forgetting. Trends in Neurosciences, 497-503.
After six weeks of inducing exercise, the researchers
5. Weisz, V., & Argibay, P. (2012). Neurogenesis interferes with the retrieval of
tested the subsequent effect on the memory of the mice; this
remote memories: Forgetting in neurocomputational terms. Cognition, 125(1),
was done by administering a simulated “dummy” shock to the
13-25.
mice, which helped the mice recall the previously conditioned
fearful memory. The researchers observed that there was a
significant reduction in the fear-induced memory across both
groups of mice when the freezing behavior (changes in blood
pressure and the length of time in the “crouching position”) of
the mice to the dummy stimulus decreased exponentially over
time.1 The study suggested that high levels of hippocampal
neurogenesis deteriorate pre-established memories in the
dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. The researchers also
claimed that the stronger the initial fear-induced stimulus, the
more difficult it was to lose memory tracts.1

15
 RESEARCH
The Effect of Cocaine on the Cerebrovascular System
Jane Zhang
Cocaine is one of the most dangerous and addictive
drugs. One indicator of cocaine abuse is a stroke. During the 1980s,
cocaine abuse was associated with an increase in the number of
stroke patients.5 Stroke occurs when human blood supply to the
brain is interrupted or decreased. Blood deprivation to neuronal cells
results in the death of brain tissue. However, cocaine’s mechanism
in the body is unknown.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a procedure in
which high-resolution images are produced from the measurement
of waves. The waves are emitted by hydrogen atoms when they are
activated by radio-frequency waves in a magnetic field. In order to
conduct a study utilizing MRI technology, the subject is first placed
into a cylindrical MRI machine that generates a powerful magnetic
field. Under the influence of a magnetic field, the protons of
hydrogen atoms on the water molecules of the subject’s brain tissue
are activated by radio-frequency waves. Next, the MRI machine
emits radiofrequency energy waves. Absorbing the energy, the
activated protons tilt from their alignment. When the emission of
radio-frequency waves end, the protons release the energy absorbed
and bounce back into their former alignment. The released energy
from protons can then strike the sensors in the MRI machine and
change their voltages to produce signals. Different tissues contain
unique amounts of water and protons; thus, the quantity and the
direction of released energy from protons in brain tissues will vary.
An MRI machine records the radiofrequency energy reflected from
protons to map and distinguish all types of tissues such as gray
matter, white matter, blood vessels, bones, and abnormal tumors.1
Functional MRI (fMRI) expands the work of MRI
technology. fMRI constructs images that represent the increase in
oxygen flow in the blood to active areas of the brain. fMRI captures
different signals between oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood (the
more oxygen, the stronger the signal). When the neural activities
in certain areas of the brain increase or decrease, the oxygenated
blood flowing to those areas will increase or decrease. Therefore,
the different blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signals
recorded by fMRI can determine the blood flow and activities in
certain areas of the brain. Using fMRI, some studies have found
that individuals high on cocaine have decreased brain activity
or blood flow in some brain regions and increased brain activity
in other areas.1 However, fMRI has a limited spatial resolution:
typical MRI can only detect a spatial object ranging from several
millimeters to several centimeters. Therefore, it cannot provide
detailed hemodynamic information on what happens in small blood
vessels.1
To achieve high resolution imaging capability, researchers
have turned to a novel imaging technique called Optical Coherence
Tomography (OCT). In classic OCT, a light source emits a low-
coherence light wave to strike a beam splitter (a partial mirror).
Next, the beam splitter divides the light wave into two parts. One
of the waves travels to a reference mirror while the other wave
moves forward to the sample (e.g., brain tissue). Both lights are then
reflected back and can be combined and compared at the detector
to generate an image of the sample.3 Operating in this manner,
OCT provides a very high resolution that can measure up to a few
micrometers.
Similar to fMRI, which is a functional extension of
MRI, Optical Coherence Doppler Tomography is a functional
extension of regular Optical Coherence Tomography. The Doppler
effect states that there will be a change in the frequency of a wave
when it is reflected from a moving object. If the object is moving
away from the observer, the frequency will be lower; as the object
approaches the observer, the frequency will be higher. Due to the
fact that the change in frequency is dependent on the velocity
of the moving object, this scientific phenomenon can be used to
measure the velocity of blood flow by following moving objects,
such as red blood cells in the blood stream. Doppler measurements
have been successfully incorporated into prototype OCT imaging
systems. Consequently, Optical Coherence Doppler Tomography
cannot only provide qualitative vascular imaging (the vascular and
structural anatomy) with ultra-high resolution, but can also assess
quantitative blood flow.4
Recently, a group of researchers from Stony Brook
University in Stony Brook, New York and the U.S. National
Institutes of Health successfully utilized Optical Coherence
Doppler Tomography to visualize the effect of cocaine on cerebral
vascular systems at the capillary level. They discovered that cocaine
administration in mice induced significant vasoconstriction and a
drastic decrease in blood flow.6 The cocaine-induced change in the
cerebrovascular system could explain why cocaine may cause stroke
and death in abusers. This research may also provide researchers
and physicians with a better understanding of how the brain is
influenced by drug abuse.
REFERENCES
1. Folwer, J.S., Volkow, N.D., Kassed, C.A., Chang, L. (2007). Imaging the addicted
human brain. Sci Pract Perspect, 3(2), 4-16.
2. Klonoff, D.C., Andrews, B.T., Obana, W.G. (1989). Stroke associated with cocaine use.
Arch Neurol, 46(9), 989-993. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1989.00520450059019.
3. OCT Fundamentals. (2014, January 1). Retrieved October 31, 2014.
4. Ryan, S. (2012). Doppler imaging – assessment of blood flow. In Retina (5th ed.)
Philadelphia: Saunders.
5. Threadwell, S.D., Robinson, T.G. (2007). Cocaine use and stroke. Postgrad Med J,
83(980), 389–394. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.2006.055970.
6. You, J., Du, C., Volkow, N.D., Pan, Y. (2014). Optical coherence doppler tomography
for quantitative cerebral blood flow imaging. Biomedical Optics Express, 5(9), 3217-
3230, http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/BOE.5.003217.
7. You, J. and Pan, Y. (2014). Optical coherence doppler tomography for quantita-
tive cerebral blood flow imaging: 2014. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/
BOE.5.003217.
16
 RESEARCH

Changing the Diagnosis of Malaria

Marisol Flores
Malaria is a communicable disease that is spread by REFERENCES
anopheline (derived from the Anopheles genus) mosquitos
through blood parasites. Each year the disease kills 1. Alemu, A, Fuehrer, HP, Getnet, G, Kassu, A, Sisay, G, & Noedl, H. (2014).
approximately one million people worldwide. The majority of Comparison of giemsa microscopy with nested pcr for the diagnosis of malaria in
its victims live in developing countries.5 North Gondar, north-west Ethiopia. Malaria Journal, 13, 174. doi:10.1186/1475-
Currently, malaria is diagnosed through recognition 2875-13-174
of symptoms that include fever, chills, sweats, headaches, 2. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Malaria diagnosis.
nausea, and vomiting.3 Individuals with severe cases of Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/diagnosis_treatment/diagnosis.
malaria often show signs of confusion, anemia, or respiratory html
failure. If malaria is suspected in a patient, blood samples 3. Miller, LH, Ackerman, HC, Su, X, & Wellems, TE. (2013). Malaria biology and
are examined through microscopy. In the current diagnosis disease pathogenesis: insights for new treatments. Nature, 19, 156-7. doi:10.1038/
procedure, a drop of the patient’s blood is placed on a nm.3073
microscope slide to create a blood smear. The blood is then 4. Peng, WK, Kong, TF, Ng, CS, Chen, L, Huang, Y, Asgar, A, Bhagat, S, Nguyen,
stained with the Giemsa stain, which colors the nuclei of NT, Preiser, PR, & Han, J. (2014). Micromagnetic resonance relaxometry for
the patient’s cells. Human red blood cells do not contain rapid label-free malaria diagnosis. Nature, 20, 1069-74. doi:10.1038/nm.3622
nuclei, thus, cells that indicate a positive coloring suggest 5. Skolnik, Richard. (2012). Global Health, 101. Burlington, Massachusetts:
infection. However, Giemsa microscopy has limitations, which Jones& Bartlett.
include the inability to detect low parasite loads and varying
interpretations.1
In addition to Giemsa microscopy, a new method
of diagnosis has recently been developed. Researchers from
the Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology
(SMART) have found a way to use Magnetic Resonance
Relaxometry (MRR) to discover hemozoin, which is a waste
product from blood-feeding parasites.
Initially, the parasite enters the bloodstream and feeds
on hemoglobin, molecular oxygen carriers found in red blood
cells. The breakdown of hemoglobin then causes the release
of iron from the heme group; due to its relative toxicity, the
parasite then converts the iron into hemozoin. Hemozoin,
produced during all four stages of malaria, is a paramagnetic
crystallite, meaning that the substance is attracted to outside
magnetic forces. When an external magnetic force is induced,
hydrogen atoms tend to align their spins in the same direction.
Hemozoin will disrupt this alignment through a process
known as relaxing. An increased concentration (thus, parasitic
load) exponentially increases the amount of perturbation.
MRR then measures the disturbances that occur in the
alignment of hydrogen atoms when magnetic particles are
introduced.4
This new system prototype is less invasive and fairly
inexpensive; one single run of the test is available for less than
ten cents. Another benefit of the test is the decreased amount
of blood necessary for it—only 10 microliters, which is
approximately a finger prick’s worth, are needed for a working
sample.

17
 OPINIONS

The Negative Effects of E-cigarettes

Sam Dabah
Over the past few years, e-cigarettes have become all REFERENCES
the rage. Many people use them because they lack the adverse
effects of cigarettes and tobacco. E-cigarettes could very well 1. Wagstaff, K. (2014, April 24). Vaping 101: How Do E-Cigarettes Work? - NBC
be a better option than traditional cigarettes, but it is essential News. Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-
to be aware of the potential harm they may cause. news/vaping-101-how-do-e-cigarettes-work-n88786
Many people have started to use e-cigarettes because 2. Morgan, R. (n.d.). E-Cigarettes: Health and Safety Issues. Retrieved November 23,
advertising companies portray them as a healthier option 2014, from http://www.webmd.com/smoking-cessation/features/electronic-cigarettes
compared to traditional cigarettes. Although e-cigarettes may 3. University of Southern California. (2014, August 28). Retrieved November 23,
be advertised as a healthier choice, the smoke from e-cigarettes 2014, from http://pressroom.usc.edu/second-hand-e-cigarette-smoke-healthier-than-
is still potentially harmful to smokers. regular-cigarette-smoke-but-still-contains-some-toxic-elements/
E-cigarette smoke is not smoke from combustion, 4. . Nickel Compounds. (2013, October 18). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http://
as it is with cigarettes. What comes out of an e-cigarette is www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/nickel.html
actually vapor. E-cigarettes do not burn any material; instead, 5. Chromium Compounds. (2013, October 18). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from
e-cigarettes use a liquid known as e-liquid, which consists of http://www.epa.gov/ttnatw01/hlthef/chromium.html
nicotine, flavoring, and other chemicals such as polyethylene 6. U.S. State and Local Laws Regulating Use of Electronic Cigarettes. (2014, October
glycol and glycerin.1 A heating coil in the e-cigarette heats up 1). Retrieved November 23, 2014, from http://www.no-smoke.org/pdf/ecigslaws.pdf
the liquid to a boil, which then produces the vapor.2 According
to a study in 2004 at the University of Southern California
(USC) in California, e-cigarettes were shown to have ten
times fewer harmful particles than traditional cigarettes.3 The
study also suggested that e-cigarettes contain toxic metals,
such as chromium, nickel, lead, and zinc. Lead and zinc are
found in traditional cigarettes as well, but they are in smaller
concentrations in e-cigarettes than in traditional cigarettes.3
According to the Environmental Protection Agency, nickel and
chromium are carcinogenic metals.4,5
Previous research has suggested that secondhand
smoke from a traditional cigarette is harmful to nonsmokers.
Research must be conducted in order to determine if
e-cigarettes may be harmful to nonsmokers. E-cigarette use
in public places has recently become a concern to many people
because the effects for nonsmokers are unknown. E-cigarette
smoke is not as obvious to nonsmokers as traditional cigarette
smoke—the smell is very faint and less likely to induce
headaches and coughing in nonsmokers in the vicinity of
e-ciagrette smokers. However, the long-term effects of
e-cigarettes for both smokers and nonsmokers is uncertain.
Some states in the U.S. have banned e-cigarette use in public
places. The American Nonsmokers’ Rights Foundation
compiled a list in 2014 that displays all states in the U.S. that
have banned the usage of e-cigarettes.6
Future research on the toxicity of e-cigarettes is
important to determine the risks involved with smoking
e-cigarettes for both smokers and nonsmokers. It is possible
that e-cigarettes may be as harmful as traditional cigarettes.

18
 OPINIONS

The Importance of Dental Flossing Practices

Layal Dairi

Often, a trip to the dentist’s office is worrisome for REFERENCES

many people. Visiting the dentist’s office means trusting a
technician to poke and prod at your teeth while sitting in an 1. Berchier, C. E., Slot, D. E., Haps, S., & Van, G. A. (2008). The efficacy of dental floss
uncomfortable chair. This process can be stressful for many in addition to a toothbrush on plaque and parameters of gingival inflammation: A
people, and it usually includes questions about flossing habits. systematic review. Internation Journal of Dental Hygeine, 6(4), 265-279.
Flossing regularly is encouraged by the majority of dentists in 2. Hammond, C. (2014, May 27). Does flossing your teeth prevent tooth decay?
the United States, but flossing may not seem necessary to some Retrieved May 27, 2014, from http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20140527-does-
patients. Although individuals are advised to floss on a daily flossing-protect-your-teeth.
basis, many people do not floss regularly. 3. Sambunjak, D., Nickerson, J. W., Poklepovic, T., Johnson, T. M., Imai, P., Tugell, P., &
The idea of flossing regularly originates from Worthington, H. V. (2011). Flossing for the management of periodontal diseases and
Levi Spear Parmly, DDS, a dentist from New Orleans who dental carriers. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 12, CD008829.
in 1815 recommended that his patients use silk to clean the
spaces between their teeth. Currently, dentists continuously
encourage flossing, but only five percent of the population
actually follows the advice.1
Dentists encourage flossing because it prevents the
build-up of plaque, which is a sticky film of bacteria fueled by
the carbohydrates from food residue. If plaque is not removed,
then it will eventually enter the tooth’s surface, which leads to
cavities, gingivitis (inflammation of the gums), and possibly
tooth decay.1
The negative effects of plaque build-up on teeth
may lead to necessary additional dental work. A 26-year
longitudinal study conducted in Norway found that inflamed
gums are 46 times more likely to be removed.2 It seems evident
that the build-up of plaque leads to gum disease and that
flossing is an effective technique at removing plaque; however,
there is no causal, long-term evidence that flossing itself
will reduce the damage done to teeth over the course of an
individual’s lifetime.1
A study was conducted by Dario Sambunjak, DDS
to assess the benefits of flossing regularly. Twelve trials
were administered with two randomized groups; one group
only brushed their teeth (the control group), while the other
flossed in addition to brushing (the experimental group). After
analyzing the results, a small reduction in plaque was found.
Most dental experts argue that flossing is beneficial if
done correctly. An additional study on the benefits of flossing
discovered that three of the 29 participants involved in the
study damaged their gums within one month of the study.2
The results from this study suggest that flossing must be done
properly in order to prevent gum disease.
Many dental professionals agree that dental floss is
beneficial only if individuals floss properly. According to most
dentists, flossing is the most effective way of removing plaque
from teeth, and there seems to be no other method of reliably
removing plaque from teeth.

19
 OPINIONS

A Correlation between Brassieres and Breast Cancer?

Shreya Thakkar

Recently, researchers have contemplated the possible REFERENCES

connection between bra-wearing and breast cancer. A recent
study funded by the National Cancer Institute conducted by 1. Chen, L., Malone, K. E., Li, C. I. (2014). Bra wearing not associated with
Lu Chen, MPH, investigated the possible link between breast breast cancer risk: a population-based case-control study. Cancer Epidemiology,
cancer and bra-wearing. The study found no evidence that bra- Biomarkers & Prevention, 23(10), 2151-2185.
wearing increases a woman’s risk for breast cancer.1 2. Goldberg, C. (2014, September 5). So much for the killer bra: study finds no
The study discovered that factors such as the amount link with breast cancer. WBUR CommonHealth. Retrieved October 28, 2014,
of hours worn per day, and underwire versus no underwire, from http://commonhealth.wbur.org/2014/09/no-link-bra-breast-cancer
had no bearing on the study.1 Chen began the study based 3. Research finds no association between wearing a bra and breast cancer. (2014,
on speculation about the possible correlation rising on social September 5). American Association for Cancer Research. Retrieved October
media. 28, 2014, from http://www.aacr.org/Newsroom/Pages/News-Release-Detail.
Chen stated that the results of the study did not come aspx?ItemID=588#.VFUWlPnF9D1
as a surprise, but the study itself was beneficial to conduct.
Another study conducted to evaluate the risk of bra-wearing
and breast cancer included 454 female participants with
invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) and 590 subjects with invasive
lobular carcinoma (ILC)—all from Seattle, Washington. 469
women without breast cancer were controls for the study and
all participants were postmenopausal (ranging from age 55 to
age 74).1
The results of the study discovered no correlation
between women wearing bras and breast cancer. Other factors
associated with bra-wearing were assessed as well, including
pregnancy history, the average age at which the women started
wearing a bra, cup size, and band size.2
Participants were also questioned about their family,
reproductive history, demographics, whether their bra-wearing
tendencies ever changed, and how many days a week they
wore bras.
Although, these studies suggest no correlation
between bra-wearing and breast cancer, it is important to
explore many different possible causes of breast cancer.

20