Tutorial Letter 501 (Study Guide)

ENG2612/501/0/2022
Tutorial Letter 501/0/2022
Applied English Language for Foundation

and Intermediate Phase Home Language
ENG2612
Year module
Department of English Studies
This tutorial letter serves as the Study Guide for this module.
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ENG2612/501/0/2022
CONTENTS
Page
1. Course Overview ..................................................................................3

2. Study Unit 1: Reading with a critical eye ...........................................5
3. Study Unit 2: An integrated approach to writing critically .............37
4. Study Unit 3: Reading and writing for educational purposes........71
5. Study Unit 4: Language and discourse for academic purposes …107
6 Study Unit 5: Writing critically ........................................................143
7 Study Unit 6: Writing with integrity ................................................177
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1. COURSE OVERVIEW
Welcome to ENG2612. This is an Applied English Language module that has been designed
particularly for Education students, who will using English as the medium of instruction for
Foundation and Intermediate Phase learners, we aim to use your foundational knowledge
and the skills you gained in your first-year English modules as the point of departure for this
module. This means that we will draw on this basic content knowledge of and competencies
in English to promote an integrated and multimodal approach to develop your critical reading
and writing skills. As this is an applied language studies module, the emphasis is on the
application of what you will learn about critical reading and writing processes to develop your
competencies in analysing a variety of literary and non-literary texts. As we come from a
range of cultural backgrounds, we will be engaging with a range of texts with different cultural
associations, as well as visual elements, to promote your analytical skills as discerning
readers and writers. The ultimate aim is to enhance your proficiency in English so that you
will be able to apply the competencies in and knowledge of language and literature you gain
from this module in order to teach effectively and with confidence.
The specific outcomes of the module are to:

• identify the different varieties of the English language used in different contexts for
different purposes;
• identify and explain the function of the core linguistic, literary, visual and structural
features in literary and non-literary texts;
• apply multimodal and multicultural reading strategies to interpret different texts for
specific purposes;
• apply the process of text analysis to inform the critical writing process; and
• apply critical writing skills selectively to write coherent text analyses with academic
integrity.
This Study Guide is divided into six units, each covering different aspects of critical reading
and writing for different purposes in multicultural educational and social contexts. You are
expected to interact closely with the two prescribed textbooks:
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Bailey, S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students 4th ed.
London: Routledge. ISBN 9780367001780
Leland, C., Lewison, M. & Harste, J. (2013). Teaching Children’s Literature: It’s
Critical! Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 9780367002350
Please do your best to complete the activities in each unit. In addition, we would also like
you to be active on the module site, and in particular to interact with your designated e-tutor,
who will be providing regular additional online support.
We have enjoyed compiling this module for you, and we hope that you will enjoy studying it,
and will become discerning critical readers and writers!
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2. STUDY UNIT 1
READING WITH A CRITICAL EYE
OUTCOMES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• justify the importance of reading critically;
• explain the concept of digging deeper into texts;
• appreciate the value of reading through different lenses;
• differentiate between the use and purpose of frames and stereotypes in different
texts;
• discuss the benefits and limitations of using language study to interpret texts;
• apply different reading strategies for different purposes; and
• read critically to explain the use of linguistic and structural features in various texts.
Please study this unit in conjunction with the following sections in your
prescribed textbooks by:
1. Leland et al. (2013)
• Language Study: Lingering in Text
2. Bailey (2015)
• Argument and Discussion
• Cause and Effect
• Cohesion
• Comparisons
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INTRODUCTION
In our everyday communication, we convey messages through the language we use in
various types of media. These messages significantly influence our decisions as democratic
consumers of what we read. If we wish to develop further as truly democratic citizens of
society, we need to develop the skills and competencies that will enable us to read critically.
Wallace (1995: 335) explains reading critically as the ability to “distinguish between facts
and opinions, to identify the intention of the author, to ask about missing information; in short,
to read with a suspicious eye". In this unit, we aim to help you improve your knowledge and
skills so that you can develop your competencies as critical readers.
We begin by examining the question of why it is imperative to read critically. To assist you
in this endeavour, we draw on the ideas in chapter 8 of Leland et al. (2013), who provide a
useful framework for reading critically using different lenses. We have incorporated extracts
from various texts and activities to provide meaningful opportunities for you to apply different
critical reading strategies to selected texts.
Why critical reading?

The skill of reading critically is vital not only for your current academic development as an
educator, but also for your personal growth. In this section, we set out the basics for critical
reading. We draw on the ideas of various writers cited in Leland et al. (2013) who justify why
reading critically is crucial for effective citizenship in the 21st century. Three important
principles, or lenses, which establish reading from a critical perspective are highlighted.
These three lenses are underpinned by the notion of “digging deeper” into texts (Leland et
al., 2013: 144). Let us look more closely at these lenses, as illustrated below.
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Recognise that
there are other
perspectives
Recognise
frames and
stereotypes
Use Language
Study to
unpack texts
Figure 1.1: Digging deeper into texts
Lens 1: Recognise that there is always another perspective

Writers within the tradition of critical reading argue that meaning is derived not only from
what is literally conveyed “in” a text, but also by what is “interpreted” by the readers as a
result of their “own background knowledge” This means that texts are “social spaces” and
therefore are “never neutral”. This suggests that apart from understanding the intended
meaning conveyed by the writer, as a reader you also are highly likely to interpret the text
from your own subjective perspective. If you are aware of how your views can be
manipulated through texts, you are able to challenge dominant interpretations. You should
also be able to recognise other ways of interpreting texts in addition to those based on the
realities of your own experiences. This knowledge will help you as a critical reader to avoid
being controlled by the way texts are written or by your own subjective interpretation, and to
look for the possible truths that really exist in the texts that you read.
Let us examine EXTRACT A.
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EXTRACT A
It is claimed that prisons are needed to isolate dangerous criminals from society, and to
provide punishment for wrongdoing. But while this may be true in a minority of cases, more
commonly prisons act as ‘universities of crime’, which serve to reinforce criminal behavior.
The majority of the prisoners are not dangerous and could be dealt with more effectively by
other means.
Bailey (2015: 88)
In this extract, the writer aims to convince the reader to accept the notion that prisons
strengthen criminal behaviour and, therefore, that prisons are not an effective means of
dealing with criminals. How does the writer achieve this? In referring to prisons as
“universities of crime”, he/she compares prisons to universities, suggesting that prisons
serve as training institutions that “reinforce criminal behavior” instead of preventing crime.
This implied comparison (analogy) is intended to strengthen his/her argument against the
imprisonment of criminals. It is vital for you as a critical reader to realise how the language
used in a text can persuade you, and how you may be influenced to either accept or reject
the writer’s perspective. We refer to the writer’s perspective as the position of the writer and
the influence the writer/text has on the reader as positioning.
Activity 1.1
1. How does the writer’s use of antonyms in EXTRACT A reinforce his/her argument
against imprisonment?
2. How does the phrase “more commonly” strengthen the writer’s argument even
further?
Feedback commentary
1. The writer uses antonyms such as “minority” and “majority” to indicate that the
number of prisoners that prisons punish effectively is very small when compared with
the number of prisoners who learn crime during their imprisonment. This supports
his/her argument that prisons breed crime instead of reforming prisoners.
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2. The writer uses degrees of comparison in “more commonly” to reinforce his/her

argument that prisons promote crime. According to the writer, this is unusual, but a
more frequent phenomenon in prisons, as opposed to what they have been set up to
do.
Now let us examine the title, Brains and Sex, of the text on page 49 of your prescribed book,
Academic Writing. We can see the strategic role that the title, Brains and Sex, plays in
drawing the reader into the article. An alternative title, such as Brains and Gender, gender
being a synonym for sex, may not have been as striking as a means of capturing the reader’s
attention. Therefore, the word “sex” is used as a language feature, referred to as a linguistic
device, to engage the reader’s attention. However, as you read the rest of the article, you
will realise that the title may have been slightly misleading, and that the writer in fact presents
a different perspective from what the title may have led you to believe. In fact, the article
discusses gender differences in terms of how men and women think and behave.
Activity 1.2
1. Comment on how the choice of words used in the following titles reflects the writer’s
perspective (position) concerning men and women.
1.1 Defending the Caveman (Play by Tim Plewman)
1.2 Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus (Book by John Gray)
Feedback commentary
1. Both titles focus on the different ways in which men and women are perceived. Plewman’s
use of “caveman” suggests a primitive view of the role of men, which he defends. Gray,
on the other hand, uses the planets Mars and Venus to convey the idea that men and
women behave differently. While “Defending the Caveman” is suggestive of the
playwright’s bias towards the “caveman” role of men, the second writer is more neutral.
He does not favour either of the genders. Nevertheless, this simplistic distinction
suggests stereotyping (Mars versus Venus – where Mars is associated with war and
Venus with love).
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Lens 2: Recognise frames and stereotypes

Various theorists support the argument that a critical reader should be able to recognise
frames and stereotypes. Texts impart certain identities to characters as the events in a story
unfold through the story line, descriptions, words and actions. Hence, as a text is read,
different images of the different characters are developed in the mind of the reader. This
usually fits with a frame or identity with which the reader is familiar. Leland et al. (2013: 147)
define frames as “mental structures that shape the way we see the world… the goals we
seek, the plans we make, the way we act”.
A reader will assign a particular identity kit to a character in a text, based on how that
character is presented in terms of the words, structure and visual elements used by the
writer. We refer to this as the writer’s discourse. An important point is that as a critical reader
you have a choice in terms of how you position yourself in reading the text: you can either
accept, reject or remain neutral about the frame or discourse provided in a text. According
to Janks (2010), we can read either “with a text” or “against a text”. Reading “with a text”
involves going along with the assumptions suggested by the writer. On the other hand,
reading “against a text” involves taking a critical stance and challenging the writer’s
assumptions (Janks, 2010).
One of the suggested ways of reading “against the text” is to question the depiction of a
character by examining the “frames in multiple texts” (Leland et al., 2013: 147). This critical
reading strategy can help you to examine the portrayal of a character from a cultural
perspective, and in doing so you can challenge possible stereotyping by the author.
Stereotyping is the practice of imposing a fixed idea of what we think people are, based on
characteristics such as race, gender, age and culture (Leland et al., 2013: 147).
Another way to challenge a stereotype is to form a “counter narrative” of the stereotype

presented. This requires you to examine closely how a writer develops different versions of
a character as portrayed in a text (Leland et al., 2013: 148). In adopting this strategy of
digging deeper into a text, you are engaged in critical reading. You attempt to find evidence
to support an alternative standpoint, acknowledging that there is no “right” perspective.
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Activity 1.3
Carefully read EXTRACT C below, which is taken from Fools and Other Short Stories, and
answer the questions that follow.
EXTRACT C
“Meneer”, he said, “I’m very disappointed. I’m afraid I’ll have to make a report to the
school board about this. Furthermore, I seem to remember that this is the day for oral
examinations; and so, the school programme was put aside for mindless subversion. That
too, the board will have to note.
“Oh, Meneer, I’m not persecuting you. I’m not. It’s just that…” He shrugged his
shoulders and threw his arms out. “I’ll see you later about this,” he said and walked out of
the classroom.
I went to the table and sat on it, facing the children, and swept my blinking eyes over
the whole class. They all stared at me as if expecting me to say something. How could they
understand what I now realise I felt very deeply: contempt? Three months after they had
fired me for rape, they sent a delegation to me in the middle of the night. It was autumn, and
the streets were full of fallen leaves. I heard footsteps crushing leaves right up to our front
door. I opened the door for them: four heavily clad respectable men on a civic mission.
Ndebele (1983: 219)
1. Identify the different characters mentioned in this extract.

2. What impression does the writer create of each of these characters?
3. Can you identify any stereotypes?
4. Do you read with or against the stereotypes? Justify your answer.
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Feedback commentary
1.
• A teacher
• The principal
• The learners
• The four respectable men
2. The teacher comes across as a victim of some serious allegation. He appears to have
transgressed some of the school rules. We know that he has not done his oral
assessments, but from the angry tone of the principal, the other transgression is more
serious as the principal expresses his intention of discussing this with the school board.
We learn later in the extract that the teacher was accused of rape.
The impression created of the principal is that he is frustrated, intolerant, impatient and
unforgiving of the teacher’s transgressions. The impression created of the learners is
that they are sympathetic to their teacher’s plight. While this scene depicts the authority
of the principal, it also reduces the teacher to a victim of abuse, because he is not
shown any respect in front of his learners.
3. The teacher is stereotyped as the helpless victim of the principal, who in turn is
stereotyped as an unforgiving and unsympathetic autocratic leader who goes strictly
by the rules. Collectively, these stereotypes are used to depict the stereotypical
relationship between irresponsible teachers and principals.
4. Reading with the text response: Reading with a text involves going along with the
assumptions about the teacher and principal as suggested by the author. Provide
evidence of teachers as victims of authority figures.
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Reading against the text response: Reading against a text involves taking a critical
stance and challenging the writer’s assumptions. One way to read against the text is
to question the depiction of the character of “Meneer” by examining the portrayal of
this character from a cultural perspective. This means that we use our social values
and beliefs, which are shaped by the context of our environment, to question the
sincerity of the principal in addressing the teacher as “Meneer”. While some readers
may see this as a sign of respect for the teacher, others may challenge the possible
stereotypical perspective that figures of authority (such as the principal) are justified in
punishing abusive and irresponsible teachers.
Lens 3: Use language study to unpack texts

Reading a text critically involves unpacking a text. Language study provides a valuable
means to help readers to do this (Leland et al., 2013: 150), and promotes critical reading. It
invites you to look for evidence that “privileges certain perspectives and messages” (Leland
et al., 2013: 150). Digging deeper into a text involves a scrutiny of the writer’s choice of
words (linguistic features) and the text structure. This means that as critical readers you are
expected to evaluate or comment on how the author uses these aspects of language to
position certain characters, and to what purpose he/she does so. Looking at texts critically
therefore includes an analysis of the power relationships embedded in the text. This is
referred to as critical discourse analysis.
Fairclough’s (1995) theory of critical discourse analysis is an ideal approach to unpacking

texts to reveal hidden messages. According to this theory, a critical reader should carefully
examine what value certain words in a text have, and try to determine whose interests or
purpose these words serve. It is also essential to be aware of an author’s word choices
(diction) as these relate to grammatical features (linguistic devices) and literary devices that
reveal the purpose and intentions that are embedded in a text. Wallace (2003) refers to the
work of prominent authors on critical thinking and critical discourse analysis to support the
argument that language is used either to validate or to question the discourses and
ideologies of dominant groups as presented by different authors. She considers critical
reading to be a way to foster “criticality” in readers: readers read with a critical eye, in other
words, with discernment.
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Activity 1.4
Refer to EXTRACT C again and answer the following questions, which will encourage you
to dig deeper into the text as a way of negotiating meaning.
1. Discuss how the writer uses specific language features to convey the relationship
between the principal and the teacher.
2. To what extent does the writer influence your perspective of their relationship?
Feedback commentary
1. When presenting the principal’s ideas, the writer uses words with negative
connotations such as “disappointed”, and “mindless subversion” to cast the teacher
in a negative light. To reinforce the oppression and abuse of the teacher by the
principal the writer uses the word “persecuting”. The language used to describe the
teacher’s physical response is intended to evoke sympathy in the learners and the
readers. The description of the teacher assuming a defeated stance, sitting down at
the table and blinking back tears inspires strong feelings of contempt and bitterness
towards the principal.
2. The manner in which the writer positions both characters in the scenario influences
us to empathise with the teacher and probably question the allegations made by the
principal. We feel anger towards the principal for harassing the teacher.
However, some readers may have a different response, and feel that they understand
the principal’s stance on the matter. They may perceive the teacher as deserving the
harassment, since he behaved irresponsibly (he is accused of rape and not
conducting the oral examination).
While we acknowledge the important role language study plays in our development as
critical readers, we are also aware of its inherent complexities and possible difficulties this
might present to you as a student teacher and the learners who will be in your charge. Leland
et al. (2013: 151) set out three main challenges and how each challenge can be overcome.
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1. Language study encourages readers to talk back to texts and challenge the
interpretations they and others make
Encouraging readers to “talk back” can be problematic on various levels. For parents and
teachers, it might seem that young people are being encouraged to be disrespectful and
disobedient because they are challenging respected traditional beliefs and views. This might
be seen as learners undermining the content and cultural wisdom that parents and teachers
have gained through their individual frames of reference such as experiences and education.
As students and future teachers, you are encouraged to “talk back” by analysing and
deconstructing text. This goes against the traditional lecturer–student relationship, which
positions the lecturer as the authority – the person providing the “right” answers (Leland et
al., 2013: 151). You may also find that language study, in some cases, may challenge your
own feelings and personal beliefs regarding things like religion, marriage, and gender. These
questions could leave you feeling insecure about your own views, perhaps making you
believe that you do not fit into the accepted culture of learning and teaching language.
However, you should take note of Kincheloe’s (2007) argument that our educational contexts
are shaped not only by our histories, but also by various invisible forces and interest groups.
Since “all educational spaces are unique and politically contested”, he believes that being
silent and compliant goes against being critical (Leland et al., 2013: 151).
2. Critical language study challenges the traditional focus on discrete skills

In this module, we encourage the kind of language study that is aimed at helping you to
understand how words function beyond a mechanistic application of grammar rules or
definitions of literary concepts. Words imply power and agency. In studying English as a
language, you are expected to take an active role in your own understanding of the use of
language in a wide range of texts.
3. Critical language study is not commonly found in existing curriculum materials

“Talking back” is largely about searching a text for alternative interpretations, negotiating
meaning before establishing your interpretation. Once again, this may cause uncertainty
and could be unnerving for you as a critical reader.
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Nevertheless, your “game plan” (Leland et al., 2013: 153) has to change. We have taken
into consideration the diversity of our students, and therefore we are opposed to a “one-
size-fits-all” approach. Specifically, our purpose is to encourage critical reading of literary
and non-literary texts to promote your language proficiency as critical readers (students) so
that you can transfer these skills to your learners when you teach.
Activity 1.5
Read EXTRACT D below, and answer the questions that follow.
EXTRACT D
Nature or nurture
Those who argue that intelligence is not in-born do a disservice to the truly bright individual
and hinder attempts to discover excellence. Many of us had intensive training on an
instrument such as the piano when we were children, but we obviously did not all turn out to
be a Beethoven or Mozart. We are all able to recognise brilliance when we see it. Proponents
of the view that intelligence can be nurtured are too ready to blame society or the education
system for not turning out more geniuses. They want us to believe that any of our children
could be a genius, which is unfair on parents and teachers alike.
Adapted from Cottrell (2005: 118)
1. What does the author in this extract want you to believe about intelligence?
2. How do the author’s word choices support his/her underlying messages and intention?
Feedback commentary
1. The extract misrepresents the opponent's arguments. The author's position is clearly
that levels of intelligence are innate (i.e. there from birth). The author challenges those
who argue against his/her position by stating that 'They want us to believe', and
'Proponents . . . are too ready to blame society'. No evidence is given to show that this
is what is believed by people who argue that intelligence can be nurtured. Other
reasons that people might have for believing that intelligence is not simply a question
of birth are not considered. For example, there is no consideration of research
evidence.
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2. The argument is trivialised by the focus on relatively rare cases of 'genius' rather than
on how intelligence operates for most people. Rather than presenting a well-reasoned
case, the author uses words such as “disservice”, “unfair treatment of teachers and
parents alike” and “are too ready to blame” to appeal to the emotions of the reader.
There is an appeal for complicity through assertions aimed at drawing in the audience
to make the “obvious” call to “recognise brilliance when we see it”. The author’s
references to potentially common experiences such as childhood piano lessons not
making us all “Mozarts or “Beethovens” is intended to prove his/her argument that
intelligence is inborn.
Now that we have discussed several relevant issues related to how critical perspectives can
empower you as a critical reader, read the useful suggestions made by Leland et al. (2013:
151) on how to unpack the hidden messages in texts.
Voices in a text
In reading, there is a tendency to focus on a single voice – that of the writer. Bazerman
(1995) alerts us to the other important voices that may have been incorporated in the
creation of the text and explains that these should not be overlooked. Writers can use other
voices either directly or indirectly. Other writers’ voices enter the text directly through
quotations, paraphrasing, or summarising. Other voices may also be indirectly written into
the text through background information, referred to as the context. The author’s perspective
is then created using multiple voices. A clear understanding of how the distinctive voices are
structured will help avoid confusion regarding the author’s perspective and the perspectives
of others.
Activity 1.6
What do the words “agency” and “voice” mean to you as a critical reader?
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Feedback commentary
The agency of a critical reader involves taking control of your learning, making choices in
your education, finding your unique voice and having the power to act. Agency involves the
initiative of the reader more than the knowledge that is transmitted to the learner from the
teacher, using the content of the curriculum and additional resources. In the past, our
schools adopted a ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach. A critical reader is expected to move from
being a passive recipient to being much more active in the learning process, and being
proactive in the decisions about learning. Therefore, the reader has greater agency when
he/she exercises greater autonomy and accountability. “Voice” from a critical reading
perspective involves the need to present a considered position or stance using the analytical
skills of critique and reasoning.
Reading texts interactively

Through your interaction with this unit, your prescribed textbooks and other relevant texts,
you should come to the realisation that reading critically is an active and interactive process.
From this perspective, it is clear that reading critically involves a two-way process, during
which you are expected to adopt an active rather than a passive role. You should make
sense of what you read by constructing meaning from the text using your knowledge of the
language, the subject and the world. Repeating, predicting and evaluating all form part of
the process of critical reading. MacLachlan and Reid (1994: 3–4) describe this interactive
process as “interpretive framing”, and see it as critical to meaning making. They propose the
following four framing modes:
Extra-textual framing
In order to understand texts, the reader draws on information that is external to the text. This
includes aspects such as the reader’s background knowledge and experience, also known
as schemata.
Intra-textual framing
The reader uses cues from the writing to understand the text. For example, the reader may
refer to headings and sub-headings or referential words such as "this" and "that".
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Inter-textual framing
The reader makes connections with other texts he/she is reading to facilitate an
understanding of the text in question.
Circum-textual framing
The reader attempts to gain an understanding of the text by using information from aspects
such as the cover, title, abstract, illustrations, visuals, and references and so on.
Reading for different purposes

The first section of this unit developed the idea that reading critically requires conscious
engagement in the form of digging deeper into texts, using multiple lenses. We
demonstrated that this conscious engagement is an active and interactive process. In the
next section, we direct your attention to the need to read purposefully, so that your
engagement with these texts becomes meaningful and relevant.
Critical reading emphasises the importance of reading a variety of texts. How you read a
particular text will depend largely on your purpose in reading it. This reinforces the fact that
different types of texts (genres) are written for different purposes – for example, an author
may intend to entertain, inform, persuade or advertise. Since each of these genres of writing
has particular characteristics, they need to be read in different ways.
Reading actively and interactively for different purposes

Reading actively is crucial to reading critically. These strategies include previewing,
skimming, scanning, summarising and paraphrasing (Bailey, 2015:49). Let us now discuss
each of these critical reading strategies in more detail.
Previewing
In using this reading strategy, you look over your reading material in order to become familiar
with the topic and organisation of the text before actually beginning to read it. This helps
make your reading an easier, faster and more effective learning experience.
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Skimming
In using this reading strategy, you attempt to gain an overview of the text by glancing over
it without reading for anything specific.
Scanning
When scanning, you do not read everything in the text, but scan through it in order to pinpoint
specific information, such as names, dates and illustrations.
Summarising
In summarising, your goal is to enhance your understanding of the text by condensing the
key elements into your own words.
Paraphrasing
This active reading strategy involves the process of re-stating and re-writing text in your own
words to convey an understanding of the reading. When reading you are compelled to pay
very close attention to the author's ideas to convey an accurate sense of the writer’s intended
meaning (Carter, 2014).
Carter (2014) argues that paraphrasing is effective for three main reasons:
1. Paraphrasing proves you have understood what you read.

If you cannot re-state an author’s ideas in your own words, this means that you do not have
a clear understanding of the text. You need to go back and read the text again.
2. Paraphrasing helps you to understand subtle relationships between ideas in

sentences.
Rewriting a text in your own words helps you to see how the author has arranged his/her
ideas and how they work together to convey the author’s point.
3. Paraphrasing helps you to remember and learn the new information about which
you are reading.
Paraphrasing requires the careful organisation of the information, allowing you to remember
and repeat what you have read. This makes paraphrasing material an efficient study
strategy.
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Activity 1.7
Using the above discussion points, summarise each of the following extracts to convey each
writer’s argument. Refer to Bailey (2015: 49) for guidelines on how to paraphrase.
EXTRACT E
Trainers should discourage sportspeople from taking performance enhancement drugs as
these can have serious effects upon their health. Some of these drugs have resulted in
distorted body shapes, skin conditions, and increased aggression. The long-term effects of
some of these drugs are unknown. On the other hand, some individuals with conditions such
as asthma need medication which contains those drugs. For them, taking the drugs may be
more beneficial than not taking them. Therefore, it would be wrong to ban performance
enhancement drugs altogether.
EXTRACT F
Reality TV is not delivering what the public wants. Too many programmes are cheaply
made, turning a camera on the experiences of ordinary people who are duped into wanting
their short period of fame. As a result, investment in quality programmes is declining. There
is much less variety on television. The promise of choice heralded by digital TV has not
materialised. Far from exercising choice, last night almost the whole nation switched on to
watch the final episode of the latest reality show. What has happened to television drama,
good comedy programmes and well-researched documentaries?
Feedback commentary
EXTRACT E
The author argues that drugs should be generally discouraged on health grounds, but should
be permitted on an individual basis for health reasons.
EXTRACT F
The author argues that reality TV is not giving the public what it wants, but then points out
that 'almost the whole nation' is watching it, which suggests that it is in fact popular.
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Questioning
As you engage with the text, you should ask questions to clarify meaning, promote your own
comprehension, and extend your understanding of a text. For example, in answering
questions 1 to 3 in activity 1.3, you were able to clarify your understanding of stereotyping.
Synthesising
Readers create their own perspectives and original insight by combining aspects of their
own knowledge with the ideas they have understood from the text. For example, in
answering question 4 in activity 1.3, you were expected to synthesise (create) your own
perspective (position) on the stereotypes presented in the given text.
Organising text graphically

Graphic organisation is considered a powerful strategy to facilitate your construction of
meaning during the reading process. It is a good idea to use outlines and concept maps.
This strategy helps you to visualise how the ideas that constitute a text fit together. It helps
you in deconstructing (unpacking) ideas and reconstructing the main points in a way that
makes sense to you. According to Bazerman (1995), working through the processes of
deconstruction and reconstruction can help you as the reader to identify the strengths and
weakness of the writer’s thought processes. The next activity is intended to encourage you
to look beyond the printed words when you analyse a text.
Activity 1.8
1. Complete the following table to compare the cover designs of the two prescribed
textbooks for this module.
FEATURES Teaching Children’s Academic Writing: A

(ASPECT) Literature: It’s Critical! Handbook for International
Students
TITLE
Word choice (diction)
Punctuation
AUTHOR/S &
PUBLISHERS
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FEATURES Teaching Children’s Academic Writing: A

Students
DESIGN/STRUCTURE
(Organisation of
information)
Printed words
Visuals
Font size/Type
Colour
ADDITIONAL
INFORMATION
2. Identify features in the cover design of each textbook that promote voice and agency from:
2.1 the writer’s perspective;
2.2 the reader’s perspective.
Remember that it is important to consider the target audience and purpose in your response.
Feedback commentary
1.
FEATURES (A)Teaching Children’s (B) Academic Writing: A
Students
TITLE Teaching Children’s Literature – Academic – content focus on
Word choice focus on how to teach literature formal scholarly writing
(diction) It’s Critical – ambiguity Handbook – practical exercises
Suggestive of focus on a critical International Students – user-
approach as well as a matter friendly and caters for all students
needing serious attention globally
Punctuation Only uppercase Upper case and lower case
Exclamation mark – eye-catching
and intriguing
AUTHOR/S & Multiple authors – male and Single male author
PUBLISHERS female
Routledge Routledge
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DESIGN/
STRUCTURE
(Organisation of Title – bold but intriguing and Title – bold and concise
information) open to interpretation Serious facial expressions
Printed words
Visuals Informal and formal attire Sitting at a desk

Younger children sitting on the Formal education context
floor; more relaxed Older children
More pictures of children,
only one with teacher
Font size/Type Uppercase only Different sizes in alignment with

formal academic writing style
Colour Use of different colours – Limited number of colours – more

depiction of a variety classroom controlled, formal context of
environments students studying
ADDITIONAL Implicitly conveyed and is open Explicitly stated:
INFORMATION to interpretation of the visuals ANSWER KEY INCLUDED
and ambiguous title Companion@website
Emphasis – independent, user-
friendly book for students
2.
2.1 The writers’ perspective
Responses should reflect commentary on at least two specific features mentioned in
Question1 to promote the contrasting views of the respective writers on:
• how academic writing should be taught/learnt;
• how literature should be taught.
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2.2 The reader’s perspective

Responses should reflect commentary on at least two specific features mentioned in
Question 1 to promote the contrasting/similar purpose and intention in prompting interest in
the target audience:
• all academic students at tertiary institutions;
• prospective teachers and teachers of English.
Refer to the e-tutor module site for a discussion on this activity.
Annotating
Annotating is an important critical reading strategy because it helps the reader to actively
engage with the text and comprehend on deeper levels. It involves the process of marking
up the text during the process of reading. This can be done in the margins of the text and/or
on the text itself. In the margins of the text questions could be posed, comments raised,
reactions noted and definitions or main ideas highlighted. Marking on the text itself could be
reserved for drawing attention to special uses of language, features of the writer’s style and
specific attention that needs to be given to certain words, places or people.
Activity 1.9
Use the key methods mentioned above to annotate Extract H below.
EXTRACT H
DO DIGITAL NATIVES EXIST?
Various writers have argued that people born near the end of the twentieth century (1985–
2000) and who have been using computers all their lives have different abilities and needs
to other people. Palfrey and Gasser (2008) refer to them as the ‘net generation’ and argue
that activities such as putting videos on YouTube are more natural for them than writing
essays. Similarly, Prensky (2001a) claims that the educational system needs to be revised
to cater for the preferences of these ‘digital natives’.
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But other researchers doubt that these claims can apply to a whole generation. Bennet,
Maton and Kervin (2008) argue that these young people comprise a whole range of abilities,
and that many of them only have a limited understanding of digital tools. They insist that the
so-called ‘digital native’ theory is a myth, and that it would be a mistake to reorganize the
educational system to cater for their supposed requirements.
Clearly, there are some young people who are very proficient in online technologies but
taking a global perspective many still grow up and are educated in a traditional manner.
Teaching methods are constantly being revised, but there is no clear evidence of a need to
radically change them.
Bailey (2015: 89)
Suggested approach to Activity 1.9

You should have marked up the text in the margins and/or on the text itself. Text questions
could be marked, comments raised, reactions noted and definitions or main ideas
highlighted. Marking on the text itself could be reserved for drawing attention to special uses
of language, features of the writer’s style and specific attention that needs to be given to
certain words, places or people.
This activity will be discussed in detail on the e-tutor site.
Reading purposefully is also described as a process of determining the central claims of the
text and subsequently assessing how they are developed or argued (Bailey, 2015: 89). The
following points, which break down this process, have been summarised from the ideas of
prominent writers within this tradition.
Context
The process of purposeful reading starts with the reader’s judgements regarding the
context of the writing. For example, the reader could try to identify the target audience for
which the text has been written, or the historical context of the text. These and other
aspects of context will contribute to the reader’s assessment of what is going on in the
text.
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Type of reasoning
When we are reading purposefully, it is useful to determine the type of reasoning the text
uses. This involves a careful examination of the concepts that are defined and how they
are used to convey the writer’s message and intention. It is also necessary at this stage
to identify the possible theory or theories the writer draws on to support the type of
reasoning used in the text.
Activity 1.10
Refer to EXTRACT I and answer the questions that follow.
EXTRACT I
This report researched whether a new sports centre should be constructed in region
X. Market research suggests that there is little popular demand for another sports
centre in the area. However, very few people in the region use sports facilities to
improve their health. The government is trying to encourage more personal
responsibility for health and fitness. A sports centre would be useful in promoting this
objective. People in the area are not aware of health issues and are not interested in
sport. There may be government subsidies available.
Cottrell (2005:64)
1. Identify the audience for which this article is intended.

2. Identify the historical context of this article.
3. How does the writer make use of the targeted audience and historical context to
support his argument?
Feedback commentary
1. Members of a certain community, whom the government is trying to encourage, to take
personal responsibility for their health and fitness
2. The government has noted and become concerned (perhaps from historical data on
the lifestyle and health of the community) that people in the area are not aware of
health issues and are not interested in sport.
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3. The writer opens the topic for debate, and then presents the research data as a context to
justify the building of a sports centre in the area. The writer then uses the historical context
of poor health in the area to convince the target audience that the building of a sports centre
is in the best interests of the targeted community. He/she also encourages interest by
mentioning the possibility of government subsidies to minimise any concerns the community
may have regarding financial implications.
Structure
In purposeful reading, a close examination of how the text is structured or organised is a
worthwhile activity. The goal here is to establish how the author has laid out the material. A
further scrutiny may be undertaken of how the author uses concepts, theories, or methods
to organise and interpret the ideas presented.
EXTRACT J below deals with the rights of smokers. In the extract, you will see that each of
the three paragraphs contains an intermediate conclusion, which is underlined. These
conclusions are numbered for the purposes of discussion and analysis. Note the strategic
way in which the author organises the ideas to tie in with the purpose of the writing:
• Conclusion (1) summarises reasons already introduced.
• Conclusions (2) and (3) are organised in such a way that they introduce a new set of
reasons.
EXTRACT J
Many know that cigarettes carry serious health risks, but these are risks that consenting
adults are willing to take. Most smokers plan to give up before the risk becomes extreme.
Adults should be allowed to make up their own mind about whether they smoke or not (1),
without warnings on cigarette packaging.
Smokers pay at least as much tax and insurance as anyone else (2). They also pay
additional taxes through levies on cigarettes and are often required to pay higher insurance.
Despite this, some medical practitioners refuse them health care. Smokers should have the
same rights to health care as any other taxpayer.
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They should also have the same access to public spaces (3). In some countries, it is
becoming almost impossible to find a place to smoke. Smokers are forced outside no matter
what the weather. They are becoming social pariahs where once smoking was the most
social of activities.
Evidence
Examining the evidence the text employs is the next step. A critical reader should consider
the kinds of evidence (examples, illustrations, comparisons, statistics) the author uses to
support his/her argument. A careful examination of the presentation of the evidence in its
context is necessary.
Evaluation of arguments/perspectives
Purposeful reading involves evaluation. At this stage, the reader is faced with the task of
forming a judgement about the writing. This involves assessing the strengths and
weaknesses of an argument. It is also vital at this point to examine the text for gaps or
inconsistencies in the argument and to determine whether the text could be interpreted
differently. As a critical reader, you are expected to assess whether the conclusions are
indeed warranted by the evidence presented; analyse the text for possible un-argued
assumptions and the possibility of a counter argument.
Activity 1.11
1. Refer to EXTRACT J
1.1 Identify examples of the different types of evidence the writer provides in each
paragraph.
1.2 Do you agree with the writer’s position in this extract? Explain why you either support
or do not support the writer.
Feedback commentary
1.1 Evidence
1.2 Smokers know that cigarettes carry serious health risks, but these are risks that
consenting adults are willing to take.
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• They also pay additional taxes through levies on cigarettes, and are often required
to pay higher insurance.
• Smokers are discriminated against, since they do not have the same access to
open social spaces as non-smokers.
1.2 Individual responses will vary. The important point to bear in mind is that the
argument should be substantiated by means of carefully selected supporting evidence that
leads the reader in a logical manner towards the key points. This should be done in a
manner that is clear and well structured, and makes sense.
Noting cohesion markers

Read Unit 2.3 on Cohesion in the prescribed textbook Academic Writing.
Your capacity to read critically can be improved by gaining an understanding of the role that
cohesion markers play in a text. Writers use discourse markers to signal a change in topic,
add information, provide support, or coherently transition between ideas (Weber & Stolle,
2011). It is necessary for your development as a critical reader to learn these cues or
markers. This will help you to see how important parts of the discourse are connected, how
the writer creates flow as well as how the writer directs the discourse – for example, a phrase
such as “at the end of the day” may signal the writer’s intention to close a conversation. A
phrase such as “this time” could signal the opening of a conversation, and “on the other
hand” signals the intention of the writer to present a counter point (Weber & Stolle, 2011).
Critical readers need to be aware of the important role of cohesion markers in a text.
Cohesion markers are important words and phrases that create relationships between
different sentences or between different parts of a sentence for the main purpose of directing
content. Examples of cohesion markers in terms of pronouns are “he”, “him”, “she”, “they”,
and “it”. Cohesion markers can also relate to conjunctions, for example, “hence”, “however”,
and “thus” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976).
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Your understanding of cohesion markers is important for some of the following reasons:
• They make it possible for you to follow the logic and sequence of ideas in a text
with ease.
• They serve as signals to the writer’s flow of thought.
• They serve to organise a piece of writing by indicating the type, purpose and
direction of forthcoming ideas.
All of these reasons show that their main role is to keep you, the reader, focused on the
specific plan of the writer (Hellman, 1995). Therefore, cohesion markers should be viewed
as 'signpost' words. Just as road signs help us to navigate the roadways, cohesion markers
are intended to make us aware of the writer’s approach in developing his/her argument and
to remind us about his/her previous and subsequent strategy/ies. When you engage critically
with a text, paying attention to the different types of cohesion markers and the intended
purposes can form part of your evaluation of a text. Some writers describe cohesion markers
as either explicit or implicit markers of text. In both roles, they prepare you for where the text
is about to go. In a sense, they help you to make decisions about your personal styles of
reading to apply to text.
Punctuation
Reading critically requires a solid understanding of punctuation. Punctuation is a system of
symbols which helps us to make sense of text. Punctuation marks are used to show where
sentences begin and end, where sentences are separated, where sentences are questions,
and so on. In a text, punctuation allows us to get a clear sense of the ideas as intended by
the author (Bazerman, 1995).
CONCLUSION
In this unit, you embarked on the first leg of your journey in this module by developing your
capacity as a critical reader. This journey is aimed at helping you to understand the ways in
which each text is a unique creation of a particular author. You were introduced to various
useful theories, processes and strategies that should encourage you to ask thought-
provoking questions that could help you to become more critical of how you read and
interpret texts. You should recognise that critical reading involves an active, interactive and
purposeful process: digging deeper into texts to gain clarity and understanding.
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REFERENCES
Bailey, S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students 4th ed. London:
Routledge.
Bazerman, C. (1995). The Informed Writer: Using Sources in the Disciplines 5th ed. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
Carter, C.E. (2014). Mindscapes: Critical Reading Skills and Strategies. Boston, MA:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Cottrell, S. (2005). The Study Skills Handbook 4th ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.
Hellman C. (1995). The notion of coherence in discourse. In: Rickheit, G. & Habel, C. (Eds.).
Focus and Coherence in Discourse Processing. Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 190–122.
Janks, H. (2010). Literacy and Power. New York and London: Routledge.
Leland, C., Lewison, M. & Harste, J. (2013). Teaching Children’s Literature: It’s Critical!
Abingdon: Routledge.
MacLachlan, G. & Reid, I. (1994). Framing and Interpretation. Melbourne: Melbourne

University Press.
Ndebele, N.S. (1983). Fools and other Short Stories. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
Wallace, C. (1995) Reading with a suspicious eye: Critical reading in the foreign language
classroom. In Cook, G. & Seidlhofer, B. (Eds.). Principles and Practice in Applied
Linguistics. Oxford: OUP, pp. 335–347.
Wallace, C. (2003). Critical Reading in Language Education. USA: Palgrave Macmillan.
Weber, R. & Stolle, K. (2011). Transitional devices. The Purdue OWL.
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/2/. Accessed 2018, January 15.
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GLOSSARY
Reading critically
An active and interactive process during which a reader constructs meaning from the
language and structures used in a text, using his/her knowledge of the subject and the world.
Framing
The use of mental structures to shape the way we see the world. This is an interactive
process of using our knowledge of the language, the subject and the world to make sense
of a text.
Stereotyping
The practice of labelling or imposing a fixed idea of what we think people are, according to
characteristics such as race, gender, age or culture.
Critical discourse analysis
An analysis of language used as a social practice beyond the printed word embedded in a
text or the spoken word in a context. The analysis of a text is a process of close engagement
with the writer’s choice of words and structure to establish deeper underlying meanings of a
text.
Discourse markers
Words that link ideas, sentences and paragraphs to connect and create a logical flow
between important ideas of the discourse. Since these words are linking devices, they are
referred to as cohesion markers. They are also used to signal a change in topic, add
information, and provide support.
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. Provide two reasons why it is important to read critically.

2. Identify and discuss the different lenses through which a critical reader should engage
with text. Explain the value of each lens.
3. Refer to the titles mentioned in activity 1.2. To whom do you think these titles would
appeal? Support your answer.
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4. Consider the following title and sub-title of a book by Steve Harvey.
ACT LIKE A Lady – THINK LIKE A MAN

WHAT MEN REALLY THINK ABOUT LOVE, RELATIONSHIPS,
INTIMACY AND COMMITMENT
4.1 How are the title and sub-title of this book suggestive of the historical context of the
book and its target audience?
4.2 Which of the titles mentioned in activity 1.2 and in this activity appeal to you, and why?
5. Use the table you completed in activity 1.8 to compare the value of each of the
prescribed textbooks for you as a student.
FEEDBACK
1. Reading critically improves a reader’s ability to:

• distinguish between facts and opinions;
• identify the intention of the author;
• question missing information;
• evaluate arguments.
2.
Lens 1: Recognise that there are other perspectives
You will be able to recognise other ways of interpreting texts instead of considering
just the realities of your own experiences. Using multiple lenses broadens a critical
reader’s knowledge of the content and encourages a more comprehensive and
informed interpretation that is more objective than subjective. Hence, the critical reader
will be able look for the possible truths in the claims made in a text.
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Lens 2: Recognise frames and stereotypes

Reading critically provides you with a choice in terms of how you position yourself,
having read the text. You can accept, reject or remain neutral about the discourse
contained in a text. You can read with a text, in which case you go along with the
assumptions suggested by the writer. On the other hand, you can read against a text
by taking a critical stance and challenging the writer’s assumptions.
Lens 3: Use language study to unpack texts

Reading critically offers you the tools to scrutinise the writer’s choice of words (linguistic
features) and structure. You can comment on or evaluate how the author uses aspects
of language to position certain characters, and to what purpose. Looking at texts
critically includes an analysis of the power relationships embedded in the text with
greater autonomy and accountability in expressing the voice of the individual critical
reader.
3. Defending the Caveman would appeal to both male and female audiences, as both men
and women would be interested in comparing their respective roles in relationships
with what seems to be a conservative perspective of male dominance. Alternatively, it
would appeal to male chauvinists, who need their egos stroked and to be seen as the
man of the house. Some women might want to see the play to have a good laugh and
mock this absurd “caveman” approach to the roles of men and women.
Both men and women who want to be recognised for their respective distinctive
different identities would be interested in reading this book. Perhaps reading this book
would give them insight into how to respect each other’s differences, without having to
claim superiority over the other.
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4.1 This book is written by a male author, and therefore both the title and the sub-title are
apt in reaching the targeted male readership, since it is about “What men really think
about stereotypical emotional issues such as love, relationships, intimacy and
commitment”. Implicit in the title is that men should be more gracious in the way they
treat women without giving up their male identity and still “think[ing] like a man”.
Therefore, this book is suggestive of a more progressive perspective in a modern and
contemporary historical context. (However, some people may argue that stereotypical
thinking is also suggested)
4.2 Responses will vary depending on individual perspectives on gender roles in society.
You would have needed to provide supporting evidence for your particular response.
5. Responses should be reflective of your particular needs as a student. However, the

relative value of each textbook would vary, depending on which of the multiple lenses
you chose to use in your evaluation:
• academic scholars
• socio-cultural identities
• professionals (educators)
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4. STUDY UNIT 2
AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO WRITING CRITICALLY
OUTCOMES
• define critical writing;
• differentiate between being critical and criticism;
• explain the centrality of assumptions in an argument;
• justify the need for informed positions versus baseless suppositions in academic
writing;
• explain the value of coherence in critical writing;
• demonstrate the complexities related to language and visual features in texts as a
way of knowing;
• make reference to a range of resources to support your critical writing; and
• write coherent and critical responses to texts written for different purposes.
Leland et al. (2013)
Bailey (2015)
• Background to Writing
• Finding Suitable Sources
• Developing Critical Approaches
• Cohesion
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INTRODUCTION
In Study Unit 1, we undertook an in-depth exploration of the importance of reading critically
and, how you can be empowered to read different texts for different purposes. Your ability
to access and apply information selectively and use English proficiently can enhance your
professional growth. We demonstrated how reading critically can enable you to overcome
bias or prejudice, and that it can therefore inform your perspective/s on a particular topic. In
this unit, we sustain this thread and focus specifically on what writing critically entails. We
now focus on sharpening your ability to analyse information and demonstrate how to
integrate diverse sources of knowledge meaningfully when you write critically.
Our goal is therefore to highlight the value of thinking clearly and systematically as you
explore the different ways in which you can improve the expression of your ideas. We begin
this journey by discussing a number of issues related to what it means to "be critical" in your
writing. We then direct your attention to the task of searching for content knowledge.
Integrated into these broad topics are activities, which focus more specifically on the
application of key principles of critical writing. The broad aim of the unit is to equip you with
the skills you need to become proficient, confident and motivated critical writers.
DEFINING CRITICAL WRITING

In this section, we aim to construct an understanding of what it means to write critically. In
order to do this, we need to start by examining four important concepts related to critical
writing. This requires us to distinguish between the following concepts:
a) being critical versus criticism;
b) argument versus assumptions;
c) informed positions versus baseless suppositions and
d) Coherence versus incoherence.
We have summarised these distinctions in figure 2.1.
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Sound and valid arguments

being critical criticism
argument assumptions
unjustifed writing
informed baseless
positions suppositions
coherence incoherence
Figure 2.1: Important distinctions in critical writing
Being critical versus criticism

In academic writing, the words “critical” and “criticism” are easily confused, but we need to
remember that they do not mean the same thing. In order to understand the difference, let
us examine the meaning of “criticism” as given in the Collins Concise English Dictionary and
base ourselves on two of the meanings listed.
Meaning 1: The act or instance of making an unfavourable or severe judgement,

comment, etc.
This meaning of “critical” has a predominantly negative association. This definition primarily
suggests searching for faults and flaws. From this perspective, criticism is often directed at
someone or something, and it therefore suggests a perspective that is driven mainly by
personal emotion.
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Meaning 2: The analysis or evaluation of a work of art, literature, etc.
Meaning 2 has a more positive association. Being critical in this sense involves being
analytical and evaluative. It is meaning 2 that we draw on primarily in critical reading and
writing. While a search for flaws and faults is a part of being analytical, being critical should
go beyond these basic negative strategies of finding the weak points in a text. Being critical
involves closely examining the persuasiveness of the arguments presented in a text in terms
of the evidence provided to support the arguments and the assumptions on which they are
based.
After reflecting on the ideas that we have just examined, and the ideas about reading
critically that we explored in unit 1, let us establish a basis for our role as critical writers.
Goatly (2000: 1) tells us that critical writers should be focused on “explaining how the world
and our relationships within it and to it are constructed through reading and writing".
Writing critically involves several important activities. These include:

• Thinking about something on your own, rather than accepting, without question, the
ideas presented to you by someone else.
• Identifying the fundamental assumptions about an idea.
• Examining an idea for possible biases or gaps.
• Making a personal judgement, which you can justify by supplying reasons and
evidence.
Activity 2.1
1. Read EXTRACT A, which is from a magazine article. Tabulate examples of words
and phrases with positive/negative connotations associated with school/schooling.
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EXTRACT A
How can we get the world’s poorest children into school? This is a difficult question with no
easy answer. In 1999 the UN adopted a set of goals called ‘Education for All’, but in many
countries, there has been little progress towards these aims. In Nigeria, for instance, the
number of children not going to school has hardly changed since then. It is estimated that
worldwide about 72m children never attend school, 45 per cent of whom are in sub-Saharan
Africa. Even when schools and teachers are provided, there’s no guarantee that teaching is
going on: World Bank research in India shows that a quarter of teachers don’t turn up on
any day. Several proposals have been made to improve matters. A British academic,
Professor Tooley, argues that low-cost private schools are more effective in delivering
education to the poor since parental pressure maintains good standards. State schools
could also relate pay to performance: research by Muralihadan and Sundararaman in India
found that this improved students’ test performance far more significantly than spending the
same money on teaching materials.
Bailey (2015: 22)
Feedback commentary
POSITIVE CONNOTATIONS NEGATIVE CONNOTATIONS

low-cost private schools are more children not going to schools
effective
Education for All Little progress towards these aims
schools and teachers are provided a quarter of teachers don’t turn up on any given
day
good standards no guarantee that teaching is going on
Several proposals …made to hardly changed
improve matters
Argument versus assumptions

Let us turn next to clarifying the concepts of argument and assumptions. These concepts
are often misunderstood in academic writing.
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What is an assumption?
An assumption is a belief we have about something, which we accept as being true, and
which we generally do not question. We use our assumptions to interpret the world around
us. We discussed assumptions about reading “with a text” and “against a text” in unit 1. You
will recall that in activity 1.2 and activity 1.9 (question 4) you were required to explain the
different types of assumptions. We explained that reading “with a text” involves going along
with the assumptions suggested by the author. On the other hand, reading “against a text”
involves taking a critical stance and challenging the writer’s assumptions (Janks, 2010). We
also explained how this helps you to examine the portrayal of a character from a cultural
perspective and in that way challenge possible stereotyping by the author.
Activity 2.2
Explain the assumptions underpinning the statements below.
1. Women are better at multi-tasking, and so they should take on more work.
2. Children who are disciplined at home perform better academically.
Feedback commentary
1. The assumption is that if women can complete multiple tasks successfully, they will
have more free time. Therefore, more work should be given to them.
2. The assumption is that academic performance depends heavily or completely on the
way the behaviour of children is regulated in the home. It ignores other contributory
factors.
An assumption may be either stated or unstated. If an assumption is stated, it generally

relates to a judgement the author believes to be true about an issue. The author usually
makes no attempt to provide proof of this judgement. Authors make assumptions about the
content, their audience, and themselves. It is important for you, as a critical reader, to detect
the writer’s assumptions, as these can influence your thinking and evaluation of the inherent
ideas and arguments.
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If an assumption is unstated, the premise/basis of an argument is usually omitted. In a

sense, an unstated premise is a missing premise. The examples below illustrate the
dynamics of an unstated premise.
Nyiko has a university degree. He should be able to get a decent job.

The unstated assumption here is that a university degree is a strong qualifier for a good job.
George sent Thandi a bunch of roses. George must really like Thandi.
The unstated assumption is that giving someone roses is indicative of one’s love for them.
What is an argument?
According to the Collins Co-build Dictionary, an argument is a “statement or set of
statements that you use in order to try to convince people that your opinion about something
is correct.” This definition conveys the idea that an argument attempts to establish a certain
claim. This means that an argument is usually based on a statement or premise, which
works towards establishing a conclusion. An argument can be explicit, in the sense that the
point or idea proposed is obvious. An implicit argument, on the other hand, presents its
proposition in an indirect or hidden way.
The following are examples of explicit arguments (Spears, 1999: 277).
1. The countries of the world should unite to ban human cloning.

2. Juveniles who commit violent crimes should be tried as adults.
The following is an example of an implied argument (Spears, 1999: 277).
Deciding to buy a computer was the best decision I ever made. My son's attitude toward
school has turned completely around, and his grades have improved, too.
(Implied argument: Buying a computer will improve a child's learning.)
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The main purpose of all arguments is to convince an audience about the truth of something.
More often than not, arguments are based on assumptions. As a critical writer, you need to
acknowledge that assumptions are not bad, but are instead fundamental to reasoning. The
point is that you need to be careful about how you use these assumptions to prove your
argument (reasoning).
As a critical writer, you should aim to achieve two goals: to present a valid argument, and to
present a sound argument. Your argument may be regarded as valid if its premises lead
logically to its conclusion. A sound argument is a convincing one, and all the premises are
accepted as being true. As a critical writer, you should therefore be clear about your
assumptions. Always test their validity before you use them as the basis of your arguments.
Activity 2.3
In EXTRACT B, which deals with global warming, the writer has made certain assumptions
about the background knowledge of the audience.
EXTRACT B
The conventional view that global warming is caused by a rise in carbon dioxide levels has
been criticised on a number of grounds. Some critics claim that the recent period of warming
is part of a natural cycle of temperature fluctuations, which have been recorded over the
past few thousand years. They point out that Europe experienced a warm period about 800
years ago which was unrelated to CO2 levels. Other critics doubt the reliability of the basic
temperature data and maintain that the apparent rise in temperatures is caused by the
growth of cities, regarded as ‘heat islands’. In addition, some claim that the warming is
caused by a reduction in cloud cover, allowing more sunlight to reach the earth’s surface.
This effect, they believe, is the result of solar activity or sunspots, which are known to
fluctuate on an 11-year cycle. As a result of these doubts, sceptics argue that there is no
need to attempt to reduce the industrial activity that causes carbon dioxide to be produced.
Bailey (2015: 62)
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1. Identify the writer’s stated and unstated assumptions about the audience.
2. What are the implications of these assumptions that the writer makes about the
audience?
3. How do the unstated assumptions influence your evaluation of the writer’s argument?
Feedback commentary
1. The writer makes unstated assumptions about the readers' knowledge of the concept
of global warming. The writer states the impending dangers of global warming and
assumes that the readers will accept the opinions presented as true. The writer
assumes the role of expert on the topic of global warming and makes the assumption
that none of the readers knows as much about the topic as he/she does.
2. The writer either overestimates the audience's knowledge, or gives the audience too
little credit.
3. Students who are not knowledgeable about global warming may respond as follows: If
the writer does not explain enough, the audience will be lost and unable to appreciate
the argument.
Students who are knowledgeable about global warming may respond as follows: If the
writer explains too much, the audience may feel that the writer is “talking down" to them
and feel insulted. The writer needs to strike a balance between too much and too little.
Closely tied to assumptions is the way that a writer backs up his/her arguments. As a critical
reader and writer, you are expected to consider how an argument is supported by the
assumptions made. Let us discuss this further by considering the next two concepts related
to how you position yourself as a critical writer.
Informed positions versus baseless suppositions

A common problem in academic writing is the tendency of writers to back up their arguments
with baseless suppositions rather than informed positions. Let us examine these concepts
more closely.
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A baseless supposition is an unsubstantiated, unsupported or unjustified postulation or set

of ideas put forward to support an argument. This obviously leads to a weak, insubstantial
argument. An informed position, on the other hand, is more likely to lead to a sound and
valid argument. This position is reached when the writer is able to show the relevance of
evidence he/she has gathered to the idea, proposal, thesis or claim. Presenting an informed
argument means that you know what the major points of your argument are and that you
are able to pair these with evidence from relevant areas. In other words, you are clear about
your supposed position on an issue and you are aware of what you are trying to argue.
Your aim as a critical writer is to state an informed position in a coherent manner. To be able
to do this, you need to understand the difference between a coherent and an incoherent
argument.
Coherence versus incoherence

Achieving coherence in academic writing is not always a straightforward task. Stated very
simply, a coherent argument is one that makes sense at the most basic level. However, on
a deeper level, a coherent argument should show consistency between the argument
proposed and the evidence presented. In other words, the chain of reasoning should be
clear (Goatly, 2000).
An incoherent argument, on the other hand, is based on faulty premises. These include
contradictory, illogical or weak evidence, making the argument baseless or unjustified and
unsubstantiated (Goatly, 2000).
An essential strategy for achieving coherence in an argument is to establish a flow in your

writing. This relates to the smoothness with which your writing moves from one idea in a text
to the next. Creating flow requires establishing a clear connection of ideas so that the reader
may easily follow the writer’s thoughts in a given text. In Study Unit 1, we discussed the use
of a number of discourse markers as logical connectors.
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Activity 2.4
Read EXTRACT C carefully.
EXTRACT C
Research has shown that caffeine does indeed reduce sleepiness and can lead to
better academic performance since students can spend more time studying. Despite
its effectiveness in counteracting sleepiness, caffeine can have a negative impact on
subsequent sleep, which for many students may already be compromised.
Specifically, caffeinated beverages consumed near bedtime at night can prolong sleep
onset and reduce sleep efficiency and depth, thus affecting both sleep quality and
duration. Most of the research on how caffeine affects sleepiness/alertness has
focused on coffee or no-doze pills. However, a new kind of caffeinated drink has
become increasingly popular, namely functional energy drinks (FEDs). FEDs are
marketed as products that can improve both mental and physical performance. In
addition to containing caffeine, FEDs have other active ingredients such as taurine,
glucose, and glucoronolactone. Exactly how these ingredients together affect
alertness remains unclear.
Adapted from Goatly (2000: 21)
1. Identify the discourse markers used by the writer.

2. Explain whether these discourse markers are effective as logical connectors in creating
flow in the writing.
Feedback commentary
1. Despite
Specifically
However
In addition
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2. Yes, they are effective. The discourse markers join and connect related ideas in the
extract in an effective way. There are sequential (time), reason and purpose, and
adversative (opposition, contrast and/or unexpected result) relationships. Within each
category, the words used to link the ideas or clauses are used differently, with different
grammar and punctuation. Discourse markers create cohesion by serving as the 'glue'
to bind together a piece of writing, making the different parts of the text 'stick together'.
Without sufficient discourse markers in a piece of writing, a text would not seem
logically constructed, and the connections between the different sentences and
paragraphs would not be clear.
Another technique you could use to show progression of your argument involves positioning
old information strategically in relation to new information. In EXTRACT B, we see how,
through the early positioning of relevant “old” information, the writer is able to establish a
content connection through backward referencing. The subsequent use of the pronoun
“they” as a forward content link establishes the context. A chain-like structure is established
to link one sentence to the next.
Activity 2.5
Read EXTRACT D below.
EXTRACT D
It has long been documented that individuals in an organisation may voluntarily carry out
tasks that are not part of their regular job duties. 1.1 , they may go beyond
the call of duty to help co-workers, prevent problems, or volunteer to stay late when not
expected to do so. This behavior is intended to help others in the organisation or the
organisation itself and is often referred to as organisational citizenship behavior (OCB).
1.2 it is recognised that OCB is important for an organisation to effectively
function; there is debate among researchers as to how OCB can be encouraged and
rewarded. This debate is further complicated when considering the role of OCB in
multinational corporations pursuing global diversity. Most OCB research has focused on
Western cultures; 1.3 , whether these research findings can be extended to
other cultures is not clear, 1.4 suggesting a need to investigate OCB as it
exists in other cultures, particularly those described as “collectivist.”
Swales and Feak (2012:32)
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1. Supply suitable discourse markers (these may be words or phrases) to enhance

coherence in EXTRACT D. Look carefully at the punctuation to help you make an
appropriate choice.
2. Once you have made your choices, justify your choice of discourse markers.
3. Do you think that using an old-to-new pattern of information flow alone is adequate as
a way to make a text coherent?
Feedback commentary
1.1 Indeed
1.2 Although
1.3 but
1.4 thereby/hence
2. These discourse markers are used to create cohesion within the text and prepare
the reader to follow the general arguments to indicate elaboration, opposition,
contrast or demonstrate a cause–effect relationship. “Indeed” is used to elaborate
on “not part of their regular job” and to establish a logical flow of ideas with “beyond
the call of duty” in the second sentence. The comma after “function” separates the
subordinate argument (subordinate clause) from the writer’s argument (main
clause). The use of either “thereby” or “hence” shows the logic between the general
arguments and the writer’s concluding counter-argument.
3. Yes. Using an old-to-new pattern of information improves text coherence for the
following reasons:
• “Old” or given information is familiar to the reader. Old information may also be
part of readers’ general knowledge of a topic.

• By contrast, “new” information tends to be unfamiliar to the reader.
If a writer follows this pattern, a sentence can incorporate highly complex ideas
without losing clarity or flow.
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A TREASURE HUNT FOR KNOWLEDGE

In this section, we examine various aspects that you should consider when you gather
knowledge in order to construct the content during the critical writing process. We first
discuss the complexities related to language as a way of knowing. We then reflect on the
benefits of an immersion into different resources during the writing process. Through these
discussions, we intend to demonstrate how you can search for relevant information and then
write critically for academic purposes.
Ways of knowing
It is widely accepted that all knowledge emanates from a source. An important question that
has intrigued researchers is how that knowledge appears. The theory of “ways of knowing”
provides a perspective of the ways in which knowledge becomes evident to us (Goulder &
Mitchell, 2013). This theory presents a framework of eight different ways of knowing. Refer
to Figure 2.1.
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Language
Sense
Perception
Emotion
Reason
Ways of Imagination
Knowing
Faith
Intuition
Memory
Figure 2.1: Different ways of knowing
In the discussion that follows, we look carefully at each of these. The aim here is to show
you how the different ways of knowing should inform or shape your perspective/s as critical
writers when you analyse texts for academic purposes.
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Language
How is language a way of knowing? An important question to ask here is how language
shapes what we know. Language, which is made up of a set of signs, each with an
associated meaning or associated meanings, serves as the main means of human
communication. Language plays further important roles, serving as the means by which we
evaluate, confirm, and justify our claims about knowledge.
Language is an important part of daily life, so we need to be aware of how it could be
potentially problematic. Language could be tricky because our interpretations of the “signs”
of language may not be the same. The meaning of what is said could be affected by silences
and omissions, pace, tone of voice, and bodily movement. These factors could, in turn be
influenced by social or cultural contexts. In unit 1, we spoke about the different lenses with
which we read. Lens 1, in particular, acknowledges that there is always another perspective.
There we spoke about how meaning is derived from the readers’ interpretations arising from
their own background knowledge. We highlighted the importance of recognising other ways
of interpreting language instead of considering just the realities of your own experiences.
We noted how this would help you as a critical reader to resist being controlled by your own
subjective interpretation and to look for the possible truths that really exist in the language.
The issues related to language and knowledge require your conscious scrutiny. This kind of
critical analysis will help you to see how language can influence thought processes when
you write from different perspectives for different purposes.
Sense perception
Our perceptions of what we read are also influenced by our five main senses: we
subconsciously rely on them by trusting what we see, feel, hear, smell and taste. For
example, the use of colour in a movie could influence how we perceive the characters, the
plot and the context. If parts of a film are set against a background of dark and dull colours,
this might evoke sadness or fear. On the other hand, when parts of a film are set against a
background of bright colours, this may evoke happiness and positive feelings. Given that
our sensory perceptions are driven by our subjective emotions, an important question to ask
is whether these perceptions are a reliable means of interpretation.
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Emotion versus reason

As a way of knowing, emotion shapes our perceptions of experiences. In order to gain a
better understanding of emotion as a way of knowing, we need to see how it differs from
reason. Emotion is believed to be instinctive and subjective; reason involves conscious and
careful thought about something. Arguments based on emotions are often masked with
uncertainty, while arguments based on reason seem to give us certainty by providing
justification for our claims. These claims can be checked by rules of logic and internal
consistency.
Imagination
How does imagination help us to gain knowledge? We use imagination to create mental
images of things. Imagination stimulates us to create new knowledge. Many scientific
discoveries have been made possible through imagination. Problem solving is also often an
outcome of creative imagination. The entertainment and advertising industries thrive on the
power of imagination. We are constantly exposed to the imaginary worlds presented in films,
certain television programmes, (computer) games and literature. From this perspective,
imagination helps us to understand the plight of others through empathy. Imagination as a
way of knowing is a significant feature of indigenous knowledge communities. Many
societies use songs, dance and storytelling to represent and pass on their indigenous
knowledge. These are examples of where imagination plays an invaluable role in the
creation of knowledge. Imagination serves as a way of knowing by helping us to make sense
of the world and to explain the reasons for our existence. Imagination becomes a way of
knowing, whether we see ourselves as creative or not.
Faith
How do we come to know through faith? The term “faith” often relates to religious faith, but
it can also refer to trust. For example, how do we come to trust the great philosophers such
as Plato and Aristotle as credible sources of knowledge? On what basis do we accept their
theories about life as true? Although faith is regarded as a way of knowing by some, others
argue that knowing through “faith” is not reliable because it is not evidence-based. In the
light of this point, as future teachers, you need to create opportunities for a critical discussion
of faith as a way of knowing.
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Intuition
Intuition refers to the knowledge you have about something which comes to you instinctively
– in other words, how you come to know through your own personal sense of awareness
that something is right or wrong. For most people, intuition is something that is impossible
to justify. The brain appears to draw on experiences and cues from the environment to make
a decision. However, this decision happens so fast that the reaction is believed to happen
at an unconscious level.
Memory
How do we come to know by what we remember? It is common knowledge that much of our
knowledge is stored in our memories through our experiences. Memory as a way of knowing
relates to how we retain information and reconstruct past experiences. Think of your
experiences as being encoded into your memory. Each time you recall that memory, you re-
encode it. You should remember that you are, in fact accessing the previously encoded
memory. This explains why memories are not always reliable. It is critical to note that your
experiences affect how you interpret your new experiences. Memory is therefore a huge part
of how you gain knowledge at any particular time.
Activity 2.6
1. Some people feel that we should not view the ways of knowing individually, in other
words, independently of one another.
Analyse the knowledge claim below and explain how your interaction with each of the ways
of knowing listed can influence your own construction of knowledge about the table. Use the
table as a guide.
The first row serves as an example.
This table is old and blue.
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Language I need to be able to understand the words “old”, “table” and “blue”.
Sense perception
Memory
Faith
Imagination
Intuition
Emotion
Reason
Feedback commentary
Language I need to be able to understand the meaning of the words

“old”, “table” and “blue”.
Sense perception I need to use my sense of sight to recognise the colour blue, that the
table is not new, and that it is in fact a table.
Memory I need a conceptual system based on reason to realise that a table
is something that could possibly be blue.
Faith I need to trust in my knowledge of tables, the colour blue, and the
concept of “oldness” to accept what I see as true.
Imagination I need to form a mental representation of an old blue table as
opposed to a stereotypical old brown table.
Intuition I will probably instinctively assess the credibility of a table being old
and blue based on my knowledge or experiences.
Emotion What are my instinctive feelings and attitude towards this old blue
table? How do my personal feelings influence how I interpret the
statement ‘The table is old and blue’, from my own social and cultural
experiences? For example, I might associate the colour blue with
peacefulness or sadness. How do they help me in forming an
understanding of the world around me?
Reason I need to come to a logical conclusion that the table is of a certain
age by the texture, strength and characteristics of the wood.
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There is strong consensus in the literature that language and thought interact in meaningful
ways. Two important writers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, developed an
interesting theory about the relationship between language, thought, and culture. They
suggest that the language an individual speaks determines the way that person will interpret
the world around him/her. They propose that language not only voices ideas, but also
shapes them. Language from this perspective is omnipresent and vital to our survival in
society. This theory suggests that speakers of different languages perceive the world
differently, and that their cognitive development is different as a result. For example, a joke
in one language may not have the same humorous effect in another language. In a nutshell,
different languages have different influences on the thinking and behaviour of their speakers.
Immersion into different resources

We have repeatedly pointed out that, in developing an argument, a critical writer has a key
responsibility to support his/her point of view or argument with concrete evidence. As a
critical writer, your goal is to engage deeply with (immerse yourself in) different sources to
find explanations, examples, other points of view, and so on.
There are two principles to bear in mind with regard to exploring sources to support your
writing (Cottrell, 2013). These are:
• Draw on more than one source in developing your argument.
• Evaluate and analyse the information from different sources.
Draw on more than one source in developing your argument

Your responsibility as a critical writer involves a careful consideration of evidence to
articulate your argument and present your conclusions. If you do not provide evidence to
support your argument, you risk your argument being viewed as unsubstantiated, shallow
and weak. It is also not advisable to draw on just a single source to support your ideas. This
is primarily because basing yourself on only one source exposes you to only one point of
view, whereas in examining multiple sources you form a richer base of ideas and
perspectives for your writing. This helps you to position your own argument in a more
balanced and convincing way.
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Evaluate and analyse the information from different sources

We highlighted above that a critical writer needs to evaluate and analyse information from
different sources. However, if you refer to the work of different writers in a “patchwork”
fashion, without undertaking an analysis of the information from these sources, you have
not considered the strengths and weaknesses of these ideas, and you have merely accepted
them as true (University of Leicester, 2009). For instance, if your writing simply reflects that
A says this, B says that, and C says something else, you have not expressed your viewpoint
on each of the writer’s perspective. Through your analysis and evaluation of the ideas from
multiple sources, you introduce depth and critical understanding into your writing. This helps
to enhance the validity and soundness of your own position or argument.
What kinds of evidence should you be immersed in?

• Facts are the most common type of evidence in academic writing. Facts include
names, places, numbers, statistics, and other specific details.
• Opinions from authorities are also forms of evidence. Here we are looking at the
opinions given by experts in the field.
• Quotes can be used to support an argument. However, they should not be over-used.
Always ensure that the quote comes from a credible source.
• Anecdotes are further useful forms of evidence. Anecdotes are stories that illustrate
an idea or argument. However, these lack the authority of expert opinion.
• Examples can serve as an important basis for providing clarification. They serve to
support the thesis.
Activity 2.7
Read EXTRACT E, which is taken from a news article written by Nation Nyoka.
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EXTRACT E
Principal, teachers implicated in high school sex video removed - Lesufi
Nation Nyoka
Johannesburg - Gauteng Education MEC Panyaza Lesufi says three officials and teachers
implicated in videos and pictures of a sexual nature at Reiger Park NR2 High School on the
East Rand were removed on Tuesday, along with the principal.
The principal resigned in October 2017, and his last day was on January 15, Lesufi
confirmed. He had taught at the school for 15 years.
Lesufi, who gave a media briefing at the Reiger Park School on Tuesday, said they were
alerted to the videos and pictures when they received an anonymous message with a series
of pictures from a parent who asked the department to
intervene. The school would be provided with stand-in teachers so that classes were not
affected, Lesufi added.
The police's Lieutenant-Colonel Heila Niemand said that no criminal charges had been
opened yet, as they were still in the early stages of investigating the matter. Niemand said
that investigations had shown them that the videos were taken three years ago.
Adapted from: https://www.news24.com/SouthAfrica/News/principal-teachers-implicated-

in-high-school-sex-video-removed-lesufi-20180130 Accessed 2018, January 20.
1. Using this article and at least two other sources of information, present your views on
authority figures in education and the abuse of children. Your answer should:
• be about 300 words in length;
• include the different kinds of evidence presented to support the claims made; and
• discuss the validity of the evidence presented.
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Feedback commentary
You should evaluate (critically assess) the validity and credibility of contextual details as well
as the facts and opinions by authorities to authenticate the report. This should be done by
citing from the text as well as by providing supporting evidence. Responses should cite and
discuss the following points with close reference to the text:
• the validity of the evidence presented is questionable because the incident took place
three years previously;
• the evidence may not have currency;
• the vague source of the evidence because of the anonymous person who reported the
matter;
• the concrete evidence in the series of pictures from a parent.
For more discussion on this activity, refer to the e-tutor site.
Searching for relevant information

In writing critically, you have the important responsibility of making sure that the material you
use is trustworthy. Avoid wasting time on outdated or unreliable sources of information. We
expect you to assess your sources critically. Internet sources are abundant and easily
available. However, you need to evaluate the credibility of any site from which you obtain
information. Alexander and Tate (1999) provide a useful framework of six criteria for
evaluating any web site. You can also adapt and apply these criteria when you search for
other sources of information for your own critical writing in general. What follows is an
adapted version of this framework:
1. Authority Who is responsible for the content of the page?

Can you determine the legitimacy of the organisation, group,
company or individual?
What are the author's qualifications for writing on a particular topic?
Is the information from the sources known to be reliable?
2. Accuracy Can the facts be verified by another source?

Is the information free of grammatical, spelling, and other
typographical errors?
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3. Objectivity Does the content appear to contain any evidence of bias?

Is there a link to a sponsoring organisation or company?
Is there any advertising on the page?
4. Currency Are there dates on the page to indicate when the page was written,
or when the page was last revised?
5. Coverage Are the topics successfully dealt with, with clearly presented
arguments and adequate support to substantiate them?
Does the work update other sources, substantiate other materials
you have read, or add new information?
6. Appearance Do the links work?
A careful evaluation involves your reasons, motivation or justification as to why the

conclusions offered by other writers should be either accepted or treated with caution. Once
you have evaluated and analysed a variety of sources, you should be able to present a
strong chain of reasoning. Your conclusions, based on the evidence, should naturally follow.
Let us briefly evaluate the following two internet texts, EXTRACTS F and G, dealing with
deforestation, and determine which is more reliable.
EXTRACT F
We are destroying the last of our vital natural resources, just as we are starting to wake up
to how precious they are. Rainforests once covered 14 per cent of the land now it’s down to
a mere 6 per cent. Scientists predict that the rest could disappear in less than 40 years.
Thousands of acres are cut down each second with dire consequences for the countries
involved and the planet as a whole.
Scientists estimate that we lose 50,000 species every year, many species every second,
including 137 plant types (not even species but whole groups of plant
species), and as these plants disappear before science can record them, so does the
chance to gain helpful knowledge and possible medicines.
Adapted from Bailey (2015: 20)
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EXTRACT G
The scale of human pressures on ecosystems everywhere has increased enormously in the
past few decades. Since 1980, the global economy has tripled in size and the world
population has increased by 30 per cent. Consumption of everything on the planet has risen
– at a cost to our ecosystems. In 2001, The World Resources Institute estimated that the
demand for rice, wheat, and corn is expected to grow by 40 per cent by 2020, increasing
irrigation water demands by 50 per cent or more. They further reported that the demand for
wood could double by the year 2050; unfortunately, it is still the tropical forests that supply
the bulk of the world’s demand for wood.
Adapted from Bailey (2015: 20)
The repeated use of “we” in EXTRACT F suggests an inclusive, personal style. The statistics
are not supported with reliable sources (references). This source is not a reliable academic
source. By contrast, EXTRACT G demonstrates accuracy; the language is semi-formal, and
a source is provided. It appears to be more reliable than EXTRACT F.
Activity 2.8
You are writing an essay on expanding educational provision in developing countries, titled:
‘Improving literacy in sub-Saharan Africa.’ You find the following article (EXTRACT H) in a
recent magazine. Read it critically and decide how you could use it in your essay.
EXTRACT H
How can we get the world’s poorest children into school? This is a difficult question with no
easy answer. In 1999, the UN adopted a set of goals called ‘Education for All’, but in many
countries, there has been little progress towards these aims. In Nigeria, for instance, the
number of children not going to school has hardly changed since then. It is estimated that
worldwide about 72m children never attend school, 45 per cent of whom are in sub-Saharan
Africa. Even when schools and teachers are provided, there’s no guarantee that teaching is
going on: World Bank research in India shows that a quarter of teachers don’t turn up on
any day. Several proposals have been made to improve matters. A British academic,
Professor Tooley, argues that low-cost private schools are more effective in delivering
education to the poor since parental pressure maintains good standards.
Bailey (2015: 22)
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Feedback commentary
Yes, it is highly likely that the above article will be valuable. Many of the issues dealt with in
the article relate directly to the topic of expanding educational provision in order to improve
literacy in developing countries. The suggestion of “low-cost private schools” is a reasonable
suggestion, which could be either supported or counter-argued in the essay.
WRITING WITH A PURPOSE

Any writer should have specific purposes that he/she hopes to achieve by any piece of work.
Writers need to be aware of the purpose for which they are writing so that they can control
or design their ideas to achieve that purpose. As a critical writer, you should be aware of
your purpose in writing. This will guide your evaluation of how effectively you achieved your
goals. The key purposes for writing are generally to inform, persuade, describe or entertain.
We have already established that as a critical writer you can work to achieve different
purposes. The illustration below (figure 2.3) provides a visual representation of Bazerman’s
ideas (Bazerman, 1995: 110). Always bear in mind that a piece of writing could serve several
purposes – for example, Trevor Noah’s satirical portrayal of a political candidate may
influence your vote as well as entertain you.
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ENTERTAINMENT
SCHOLARLY THE CONDUCTING

INQUIRY OF BUSINESS AND
GOVERNMENT
Purposes
of
Writing
TRANSMISSION OF SUPPORT FOR A
KNOWLEDGE TO A COMMUNITY OF
WIDER AUDIENCE COMMON BELIEFS
INSTIGATION OF
PUBLIC THOUGHT
AND ACTION
Figure 2.3: The purposes of writing
The purposes of academic writing relate to scholarly enquiry. As summarised in Bailey

(2015: 3), your main purposes should be to:
• “report on a piece of research the writer has conducted;
• answer a question the writer has been given or chosen;
• discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view;
• synthesise research done by others on a topic”.
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Purpose and technique

When writing critically, you are expected to analyse different texts and present your
perspectives/position/arguments for academic purposes. You can start fulfilling these
expectations by connecting your purpose in writing to your technique. Technique refers to
the style of writing. In Study Unit 1, we looked at the important role that purpose plays in the
critical reading of texts. In that unit, we explored ways to look through a range of texts
carefully for clues that the writer leaves us. As a critical writer, you need to leave clues that
will enable your reader to identify the purpose of your writing. These clues can be overt
statements, which specifically state the purpose of your writing. For example, you could state
the purpose of a piece of writing in the introduction or preface. The purpose could also be
indirect, or it could be in a more subtle or suggestive form.
Audience also plays a part in your purpose. The purpose of your writing will depend largely
on the recipients of your messages. How well you understand your audience will therefore
have a significant impact on the content of your writing. The purpose of writing also has a
lot to do with organisation: different writing formats or structures reflect specific purposes. In
critical writing, it is advisable to use particular formats that create expectations on the part
of the reader. In addition, the reader should be clear about the type of English the writer is
using: for instance, how formal is the tone? The answer to these questions may affect the
way a student uses the sources of information available.
Activity 2.9
Refer to EXTRACTS I and J below. Determine whether the purpose of each of the extracts
is to inform, amuse, persuade or entertain. Justify your response by considering the
structural and language features.
EXTRACT I
The lower you are in the office hierarchy, the more disgusting your sandwiches. You can
safely assume that a chicken and banana man is not a main board director. Some people,
generally those in accounts, have had the same sandwich for the past 30 years. People like
to prove how busy they are by eating their sandwich at their desk. But this is counter-
productive, because every time you take a mouthful the phone rings, and you’ll only get to
finish that last mouthful just before you go home.
Bailey (2003:12)
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EXTRACT J
Writing for publication can be both profitable and enjoyable. It’s open to everyone, because
you don’t need any qualifications. In Britain there is a huge demand for new materials, with
thousands of newspapers and magazines published every week. In addition, there are TV
and radio programmes, the theatre and films. Given this situation, there are many openings
for new writers. But the director of one of the UK’s main writing colleges, the Writing
Academy, advises: ‘to enter this market successfully you must have good training’.
Bailey (2003:12)
Feedback commentary
EXTRACT I uses a light-hearted context to capture the attention of office workers who use
work as an excuse for their unhealthy office-eating habits. The writer uses informal emotive
words such as ‘disgusting’ ‘mouthful’, ‘chicken and banana man’ and the pronoun ‘you’ to
establish an informal conversational tone with the target audience. However, the
seriousness of the matter is suggested in the somewhat sarcastic and warning tone implicit
in ‘counter-productive’ in the last sentence.
EXTRACT J is intended to inform the reader about publications and to give information about
the ‘openings for new writers’. The second writer aims to encourage and persuade those
interested in publishing articles by mentioning the ‘huge demand’ for a wider variety of
creative sources of information such as ‘TV and radio programmes, theatre and films’. The
language style, or register, in EXTRACT J is more formal and objective in keeping with the
context of the formal writing expected in the publication of articles. However, the use of
abbreviations such as ‘TV’ and ‘UK’ and the contraction ‘It’s’ are typical of informal style and
register. The use of formal and informal language is perhaps a hint at an expected new style
of writing that requires ‘good training’, citing the advice of ‘the Writing Academy’.
Writing and reading critically are mutually reinforcing processes. A critical writer engages
the reader with the text beyond the words and ideas: a critical reader keeps a discerning
eye on what the writer is doing in terms of the purpose of the text, the design features and
techniques used to fulfil that purpose. In a sense, a critical reader actively reconstructs the
writer’s components of the writing, remaining vigilant and constantly evaluating them.
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CONCLUSION
From the discussions and activities in units 1 and 2, it is clear that critical reading and writing
go hand in hand. It follows that the more critically you engage in reading, the more critically
you write. This unit has elaborated on the skill of digging more deeply into your reading and
then using that reading to develop your writing skills. The activities in this unit have given
you practice (skills) in gaining control over the knowledge you acquire through reading
widely. This knowledge and skills set can then help you formulate and express your own
thoughts. Writing critically will help you read more deeply and precisely, respond to and think
about, and analyse and evaluate what you read. In learning to write critically, you develop
your own conclusions and perspectives (ideas) based on research. This unit has been aimed
at equipping you to engage more meaningfully in all the “written conversations”, or
discourses, that you will come across in your personal and professional life.
REFERENCES
Alexander, J.E. and Tate, M.A. (1999). Web Wisdom: How to Evaluate and Create
Information Quality on the Web. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bailey, S. (2003). Academic Writing: A Practical Guide for Students. London: Routledge.
London: Routledge.
Bazerman, C. (1995). The Informed Writer: Using Sources in the Disciplines 5th ed.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Cottrell, S. (2013). The Study Skills Handbook 4th ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
Goatly, A. (2000). Critical Reading and Writing: An Introductory Coursebook. London:

Routledge.
Goulder, G. and Mitchell, D. (2013). Theory of Knowledge.net: Ways of Knowing.

Retrieved from http://www.theoryofknowledge.net/ways-of-knowing/ Accessed
2018, February 12.
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Leland, C., Lewison, M. & Harste, J. (2013). Teaching Children’s Literature: It’s Critical!
Spears, D. (1999). Developing Critical Reading Skills. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Swales,
J.M. & Feak, C.B. (2012). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Leland, C.,
Lewison, M. & Harste, J. (2013). Teaching Children’s Literature: It’s Critical!
Essential Skills and Tasks. 3rd ed. Michigan ELT. Retrieved from
http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=2173936 Accessed 2017,
November 17.
University of Leicester (2009). What is Critical Writing? Retrieved from

http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/writing/writing-resources/critical-writing
Accessed 2017, November 17.
GLOSSARY
Writing critically
This involves closely examining the persuasiveness of the arguments presented in a text in
terms of the evidence provided to support the arguments and the sources on which they are
based.
Assumption
An assumption is a belief we have about something, which we accept to be true, and
generally do not question.
Argument
An argument attempts to establish a certain claim. It is usually based on a statement or
premise, which works towards establishing a conclusion.
Informed position
This position is reached when the writer is able to show the relevance of evidence he/she
has gathered to his/her idea, proposal, thesis or claim.
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Coherence
Coherence in writing shows consistency between the argument proposed and the evidence
presented. In other words, a clear chain of reasoning is present.
1. Write a paragraph on a set of general strategies that need to be borne in mind for
critical writing.
2. Discuss the value of making reference to different resources to support your critical
writing.
3. Read the following extract from the online film review of the film, Fools. Making close
reference to the specific language features in EXTRACT K, discuss the writer’s views
of this film.
EXTRACT K
Lack of subtitles did not increase my understanding.
'Fools' has one of the most gratuitous scenes in the first few opening minutes I can recall; a
young black couple making love on a train complete with clichéd stock shots of pistons
pumping and orgasmic amounts of white steam being squirted into the black night air. The
film, post orgasmically, rather lost its way for half an hour before getting back to the plot
which then made its way unevenly along for the rest of the film.
One of the most telling and powerful scenes toward the end involved a big, fat, white Boer
farmer whose old car is accidentally hit by a rock thrown by the headmaster who was trying
to clear a trouble maker off his grounds during a school picnic. The Boer gets out and
demands in front of the whole school what the hell is going on. The headmaster, who up to
now has been a dominant and authoritarian figure, is suddenly very submissive towards the
angry Boer and cowers in fear.
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0123075/reviews Date Accessed: 2018, January 27.
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FEEDBACK
1. A critical writer should bear in mind the importance of presenting an informed position
and purpose in a coherent manner. The writer should work towards two goals:
establishing the validity and establishing the soundness of his/her argument. In
presenting a valid argument, the writer should ensure that the premises provided
logically lead to its conclusion. In presenting a sound argument, the writer needs to be
convincing by supporting his/her point of view or argument with concrete evidence.
The writer should be clear about his/her assumptions and should always test their
validity before using them as the basis of his/her arguments. The writer’s goal is to
engage deeply with different sources to find explanations, examples, other points of
view, and so on.
2. Critical writing involves expressing an opinion or making a statement. To establish the

credibility of your opinion you need to support what you say with evidence from various
resources. Facts are the most common type of evidence in academic writing. Facts
include names, places, numbers, statistics, and other specific details. Opinions from
authorities are also forms of evidence. Quotes can be used to support an argument.
Anecdotes are further useful forms of evidence. Examples can serve the important
purpose of providing clarification and supporting the thesis. Evidence from various
resources lends credence to your point of view. If you do not provide evidence to
support your argument, you risk your argument being viewed as unsubstantiated,
shallow and weak.
3. Your responses should have focused on the following:

• Title – negative review
• Ellipsis, suggestive of dwindling interest in the film
• The first paragraph provides graphic details of a “black couple making love on a
train”. The reviewer’s disappointment in the opening scene is conveyed through
the detailed description of the setting, which is suggestive of the physical act of
lovemaking as purely “gratuitous”. His/her disappointment and dwindling interest
are emphasised through the sarcasm in “rather lost its way for half an hour before
getting back to the plot”.
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• The second paragraph opens with a more positive comment on the concluding
scene of the film. “One of the most telling and powerful scenes” sets a more
serious tone in the description of the headmaster, “a dominant and authoritative”
figure, being reduced to a “submissive” figure who “cowers in fear” when faced
with the “angry Boer”. The word “cowers,” set in contrast to the description “big,
fat, white Boer farmer” highlights the racial divide caused by white supremacy.
• The writer’s final impression of the film contradicts his first impression of “The lack
of subtitles did not increase my understanding …” This statement suggests that
the film was hard to follow and the lack of subtitles aggravated the writer’s inability
to understand what was going on. The sarcastic tone highlights his/her negative
opinion of the film.
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4. STUDY UNIT 3
READING AND WRITING FOR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES
OUTCOMES
• explain the interdependence between reading and writing;
• distinguish between multilingualism, multiculturalism and inter-culturalism in the
context of education;
• explain and apply the key criteria in establishing your role as a multicultural
student/teacher; and,
• apply the principles of focused studies as an inquiry into the world in the context of
reading and writing.
prescribed textbook by:
• Inquiry into the world through focused studies

• Multimodal responses to literature
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INTRODUCTION
As an open distance education institution, Unisa has students from a wide range of ethnic,
racial, national and linguistic backgrounds. As a student studying at the second year level,
you need to understand the diverse cultural groups present both within your own country
and globally, because your educational context can be described as intercultural. According
to Lynch-Brown et al. (2011), in such a context, diverse cultural perspectives should be
interwoven throughout the curriculum.
In this unit, we guide you through practical methods of reading and writing diverse texts in
an educational context that is multicultural, multilingual and intercultural. The primary aim of
this unit is to expand your understanding of how the language that is used in multicultural
literature can enhance and influence your interpretation of your world and the world of
others.
In the previous two units, your attention was drawn to the significance of becoming critical
readers and writers. You were also made aware of how your critical reading skills can inform
your critical writing skills.
What is the relationship between reading and writing?

What came first – the plant or the seed? The
I relationship between reading and writing is just like that
did between the plant and the seed: which one came first is
not as important as the fact that without one, the other
cannot exist. Your proficiency and literacy development
in English are dependent on how well you understand
No, I
did!!! this interconnection between reading and writing. As
was pointed out in the previous units, reading affects
your writing, and writing affects your reading.
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Having emphasised the interconnectedness of reading and writing, let us focus on why we
read and write. For many of you, academic reading and writing may still be new and in many
ways a challenge, and may even constitute a completely new and different approach in
comparison with your reading and writing at school. This is because the types and forms of
thinking, reading and writing are quite different from what was expected of you at school.
Take some time to reflect on your reading and writing experiences now that you are a
student studying at the second level.
Activity 3.1: Reflection

1. How are reading and writing at university different from the reading and writing you did
when you were at school? What has changed? How did you adapt?
2. What useful reading and writing skills that you learnt at school are you now putting into
practice at university?
3. Why did you read and write at school? Why do you read and write at university?
Feedback commentary
Your personal responses to these three questions will vary. Below are some points to
consider in evaluating your responses either in your study groups or on the e-tutor
discussion forum.
1. State and justify:

- the differences, providing supporting evidence
- the similarities, providing supporting evidence
2. Skimming and scanning for useful information:

- Researching information to incorporate into your writing
- Planning and editing drafts
Provide examples of how the resources you read at school improved your reading
and writing skills.
Provide examples of the different genres you wrote at school, for example, essays,
letters, reports and notes.
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3. Explain why you read and write at university.

- to learn new knowledge;
- to study and pass assignments and examinations;
- to develop critical reading and writing skills.
According to Sleeker and Grant (1987, cited in Lynch-Brown et al., 2011), in a multicultural
educational context, a student should read and write in order to do the following:
• Make a commitment to taking action to create a more just and equitable world.
• Understand your own personal and cultural identity.
• Analyse and comment on the inequities and injustices experienced by specific
cultural groups.
• Connect with universal experiences that cut across cultures.
• Value the unique perspectives of diverse cultural groups.
MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT
Another purpose of this unit is to guide and encourage you to apply your critical reading and
writing skills even further through your understanding of key concepts such as
multiculturalism, multilingualism, multicultural education, and a culturally responsive
curriculum. In this way, we intend to foster critical reading and writing skills with the potential
to promote your identity as a multicultural responsive student.
We will now briefly discuss the concepts that have been italicised in the introduction.
However, please note that our definitions of these concepts will relate to your role as a critical
reader and writer in the context of education.
• multiculturalism: the presence of several cultural or ethnic groups within an institution.

• multilingualism: the use of more than two languages by either an individual person or
a group or community of speakers.
• multicultural education: any form of education or teaching that is inclusive of the use of
multiple literature sources that support a wide range of values, attitudes, beliefs and
cultural perspectives. This means that no particular culture is either privileged or
marginalised in the teaching of the curriculum content.
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• multicultural literature: a range of texts, irrespective of genre, that is representative and

inclusive of different cultures. For example, local writers should not be categorised as
the minority or considered insignificant in relation to global, dominant Euro-American
writers. Multicultural literature plays an essential role in familiarising readers with the
lives of people of their own and other cultures and countries.
• culturally responsive curriculum: a curriculum that encourages teachers and students

to understand the importance of respecting different languages, cultures and life
experiences. The content and teaching practices of such a curriculum are both
expansive and inclusive. It is sensitive to the multiple cultural and linguistic
perspectives of a diverse community of educators and learners.
Our next step in this unit is to encourage you to make your reading experiences meaningful
in a multicultural context. We will be drawing on your cultural knowledge and experiences to
make your reading and writing more relevant and effective (Gay, 2000).
Let us now explore what it means for you to read and write in a more culturally responsive
manner. We hope that you will be able to transfer the styles and writing structures in the
various extracts in this unit to your own writing. Here are a few suggestions, adapted from
Lynch-Brown et al. (2011).
Find ways of knowing how the course content and reading materials are relevant to
your lives.
As prospective teachers and students, you should be alert to how the texts you are required
to read in this module can enhance your proficiency in English in both your academic and
professional lives. We recognise that our students come from ethnically and globally diverse
backgrounds, so we aim to expose you to multicultural literature and encourage you to
interact with it.
Activity 3.2
Read EXTRACT A (taken from the poem, Sometimes when it Rains by Gcina Mhlope) and
EXTRACT B (taken from the lyric, Purple Rain by Prince) and answer the questions that
follow.
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EXTRACT A EXTRACT B
... Sometimes when it rains I never meant to cause you any sorrow
Rains for days without break I never meant to cause you any pain
I think of mothers I only wanted to one time see you laughing
Who give birth in squatter camps I only wanted to see you
Under plastic shelters Laughing in the purple rain
At the mercy of cold angry winds...
Purple rain, purple rain
Purple rain, purple rain
Strauss and Moller (2012: 70) Purple rain, purple rain
I only wanted to see you
Bathing in the purple rain...
http://songmeanings.com/songs/view/65436/#
comments Accessed 2018, February 2.
1. In each of the texts, are there any connotative words that fall into the categories of
positives and negatives? Present your answer in the form of a table.
2. How do the writer’s word choices in each text support their respective underlying
message/s?
3. To which text do you relate more? Provide reasons for your answer.
4. One of the interpretations of “Purple Rain” is that the song expresses a desire for
someone that can never be satisfied; specifically that it is about loving someone who
is in love with someone else. Do you agree with this interpretation? Quote from the
lyrics to substantiate your answer.
Feedback commentary
1.
EXTRACT A EXTRACT B
POSITIVE NEGATIVE POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Mothers who give without break laughing sorrow
birth
purple rain pain
squatter camps bathing
plastic shelters
Mercy of cold
angry winds
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2. In EXTRACT A, word choices such as “without break”, “plastic shelters”, and “squatter
camps” convey misery connected with the rain, which is seen as a destructive force of
nature. “Mothers who give birth” (thus the positive, life-giving force) are at the “mercy
of cold angry winds”. In EXTRACT B, word choices such as “laughing”, “bathing” and
“purple” highlight that through all difficulties; the rain will restore the natural beauty of
everything. People will rejoice and be happy because rain can take away the “pain”
and “sorrow”.
3. You would have had to decide which text you related to more, and provide a frame of
reference or interpretive stance as logical and justified reasons for your choice.
4. Yes. The writer seems to experience some sort of regret, as suggested in the lines “I
never meant to cause you any sorrow/ I never meant to cause you any pain/ I only
wanted to one time see you laughing”. His lover has probably moved on with his/her
life, or he/she is in love with someone else.
OR
No. His loved one has passed on. He is traumatised, as seen in the repetition of the
words “purple rain,” where he is reminiscing about happy times. He realises that he will
not see him/her again, but sings, “I only wanted to see you” in the hopes of their
reuniting one day.
This activity will be discussed further on the e-tutor site. You should also be able to
engage with other sources of literature beyond the context of the selected texts
provided.
Even when there is a strong sense of cultural homogeneity (a community with a strong sense
of group and national identity and little or no ethnic or racial diversity), you should be able to
interact with literature that is reflective of the diversity of the world at large.
Activity 3.3
Conduct research on the book entitled The Colour Purple. In the book, does the colour
purple have the same connotations as it has in the song lyric Purple Rain?
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Feedback commentary
Purple in The Colour Purple represents all the good things in the world that God creates for
all to enjoy. In the song lyric, purple is also seen as being something good in the world: “I
only wanted to see you/ Laughing in the purple rain”.
This activity will be discussed further on the e-tutor site.
Choose your reading and writing material selectively

An effective method for using the relationship between reading and writing to promote your
own levels of literacy is to choose your reading and writing experiences. Take ownership of
and be accountable for what you read and write for different purposes in this module. For
example, generally speaking, you should ask questions. For example, which of the official
study materials for this module should you read first, and why? Will you read the same study
materials for Assignment 01 and Assignment 02?
Activity 3.4
1. Choose a colour that has significance in your life. Then write a poem, rap song, lyric or
prose piece based on your feelings about or response to this colour. Your writing
should be a maximum of 100 words in length.
Feedback commentary
This question gave you the opportunity for creativity and originality in your individual
responses, which would have depended on your frame of reference. You should have:
• written about a specific colour and explained its significance in your life;
• employed the correct format of the genre you selected.
• created an original, creative title;
• created an original creative writing piece to reflect your perspective on the selected
colour ;
• included appropriate language/literary devices, bearing in mind your target audience
and purpose; and
• kept to the word count of 100 words.
There will be further discussions on this activity on the e-tutor site.
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Conference about your reading and writing experiences as often as possible.

You need to know how to harness your reading and writing skills in such a way that they
complement each other. Discussions with your e-tutors will give you an opportunity to learn
about and express your individual reading and writing interests. Your e-tutor may even
suggest other references to help you overcome some of the difficulties you may encounter
in this module. Interacting with your fellow students, lecturers and e-tutors will give you a
better understanding of the module.
These strategies are crucial to your understanding of what is expected of you in the activities
that follow and within the module itself. Do your best to read extensively so that you can
become a better writer. Reading a variety of genres will expose you to different texts and
language structures, and you may find yourself incorporating these into your own style of
writing. Reading widely equips you with background knowledge that you can use in your
own stories and writing.
Activity 3.5
Read EXTRACT C, a narrative written by the author of this unit, and answer the questions
that follow.
EXTRACT C
He reappeared. Divya looked at him vacantly. She watched him creep forward over the
silvery black rocks that were adjacent to her. She looked up at him, willing him with her
steady gaze to draw nearer. “Why did you return?” Divya retorted, “You do know that things
between us aren’t going to work out; our families, our communities, the society and the world
will be against us”.
“I don’t care Divya, I love you! I don’t care what the world thinks. All that matters is you and
I! Please Divya!” cried Thando, desperately grabbing Divya’s shoulder, searching into her
deep brown eyes wildly...madly for some hope, some sort of affirmation. Ominous dark
clouds mixed together, creating a gloomy dome over the Earth, sealing Divya and Thando
in its grey atmosphere.
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1. Would this narrative be more appealing to you in an educational or social context? Why
so you say so?
2. What, do you think, influenced the author to write this narrative?
3. Reflect on your understanding of the key elements of prose writing and narrative style.
Do you think the author read extensively before writing the above extract? Justify your
answer.
4. Write two paragraphs: one that would precede and one that would follow the narrative
above. Each paragraph should be about 120 words in length.
Feedback commentary
Responses to these questions will vary. What is provided are merely possible responses or
points to be considered in evaluating your responses either in your study groups or on the
e-tutor site.
1. Possible responses:
It would appeal to me in a social context, since it deals with relationships.

OR
It would appeal to me in an educational context where equality, race, and life
orientation are being studied.
(Provide an explanation to justify the context identified.)
2. Possible responses:
The writer probably enjoys writing about themes relating to love.

OR
The writer has probably been through a break-up, and is writing from personal
experience.
OR
The writer is interested in issues of equality and race in South Africa.
(Any logical but well-supported response is acceptable.)
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3. Yes, he/she uses creative language, as we see in the description: “Ominous dark
clouds mixed together, creating a gloomy dome over the Earth,” which would in all
probability be inspired by reading creative pieces. The writer’s use of direct speech
and exclamation marks demonstrates knowledge of using the first person narrative to
authenticate the context and emotions of the characters. This narrative style also
creates vivid images in the reader’s mind when this piece is read.
4. Your paragraphs should have been:

• written in a narrative style;
• creative, including detailed imagery and linguistic devices;
• written in the context of the extract.
Language can be used as a tool to explore emotions in the texts that you read. Emotions
refer to feelings and mood. The emotions conveyed in a text reflect the writer’s attitude – we
refer to this attitude as the writer’s tone. The tone of a piece of writing could be joyful, serious,
humorous, threatening, sad, informal, formal, optimistic or pessimistic. Let us look at some
aspects of tone from the texts we have read thus far in this unit.
EXTRACT Example Tone

I think of mothers Sad, critical, miserable,
A Who give birth in squatter camps
Under plastic shelters melancholic, compassionate
I only wanted to one time see you

Regretful, apologetic,
B laughing
I only wanted to see you repentant, sorry
Laughing in the purple rain
Ominous dark clouds mixed together, Gloomy, depressing,
C
creating a gloomy dome over the Earth miserable, threatening
Activity 3.6
Read EXTRACT D, a ChiSena prayer to Chauta (God) from Southern Malawi. A leader
leads the prayer, with people responding in chorus. Then answer the questions that follow.
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EXTRACT D
Chauta we beseech you, we beseech you!
You have refused us rain, we beseech you!
Lanu Give us rain today, we beseech you!
We are concerned, we beseech you!
Have mercy on us, we beseech you!
Do not abandon us your children, we beseech you!
Do not harden your heart against us, we beseech you!
Send us rain, we beseech you!
Schoffeleers (1968)
1. Identify the tone of the writer in the text above. Quote words/phrases to support your
answer.
2. Comment on the use of repetition used throughout the prayer. Explain how this
linguistic feature helps the text in achieving its purpose.
3. Compare EXTRACT D with EXTRACT A “Sometimes when it rains” (activity 3.1).
Discuss how the connotations of the word “rain” differ in the two extracts.
Feedback commentary
1. The tone is one of desperation and anxiety.
The words “Give”, “today” and “beseech” convey the urgency of their desperate plea,
which is reinforced by the exclamation marks.
2. The words “we beseech you!” recur at the end of every line in the prayer to reinforce
the people’s desperation and the dire need for rain, because they have been
experiencing a drought.
3. In EXTRACT A, rain is portrayed as a negative force. The words “At the mercy of cold
angry winds” conveys the helplessness of the mothers in the face of the uncontrollable
destructive impact of the rain. Similarly, in EXTRACT D, the Malawian people are at
the mercy of the uncontrollable power of Chauta and his power to control rain.
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However, in EXTRACT D, rain is seen in a positive light, as something that would save
the people’s lives, unlike in EXTRACT A, where rain is perceived as a negative force
that would destroy lives.
For a more detailed discussion of this question, refer to the activities on the e-
tutor site.
We hope that by now you have realised that the role of literature and language studies in
the curriculum should not be trivialised, as this field of study documents the history, stories
and voices of people. These perspectives are seldom included in textbooks and in the
curriculum. Let us assess the extent to which your studies in English literature and language
support you in identifying and considering multiple perspectives on complex social issues.
In the previous unit, you learnt that when we read, we read the world critically by asking,
“What is?” and “Who benefits?” instead of simply accepting things as they are (Freire, 1970).
When you read and write, you also need to examine why these social problems exist and
who benefits from keeping these social inequities in place, and through asking questions
like “What if?” you take action for social change. When you ask these questions, you develop
what is known as critical consciousness about the world in which you find yourself and the
ways in which power plays out in our relationships and society.
Activity 3.7
Read EXTRACT E, taken from “An African Thunderstorm” by David Rubadiri, and answer
the questions that follow.
EXTRACT E
Pregnant clouds
Ride stately on its back
Gathering to perch on hills
Like dark sinister wings;
The Wind whistles by
And trees bend to let it pass.
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In the village
Screams of delighted children
Toss and turn
In the din of whirling wind,
Women–
Babies clinging on their backs–
Dart about
In and out
Madly
The Wind whistles by
Whilst trees bend to let it pass.
Clothes wave like tattered flags

Flying off
To expose dangling breasts
As jagged blinding flashes
Rumble, tremble, and crack
Amidst the smell of fired smoke
And the pelting march of the storm.
https://allpoetry.com/poem10501969-An-African-Thunderstorm-by-David-Rubadiri Accessed
2018, January 29.
1. Describe the scene (context) reflected in this extract.

2. Comment on the significance of repetition in the poem.
3. What are your impressions of the manner in which women are depicted in this poem?
Support your answer by making close references to the extract.
4. With reference to specific literary and linguistic features of the poem, discuss the poet’s
intention regarding the suggested power relations in society. (Hint: Who is in power?
Who is silenced?)
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Feedback commentary
1. The poem captures the looming arrival of a fierce storm. The wind is described as a
mighty and threatening force, unpredictable in its direction. The strength of the wind
seems to suggest that something bad is about to happen, as hinted at by “the pelting
march of the storm”.
2. The repetition of “The Wind whistles by/ Whilst trees bend to let it pass” in the
concluding lines of stanzas one and two highlights the contrast between the ease with
which the wind unleashes its power and the submissive nature of the trees, which
“bend to let it pass”.
3. The women are terrified as they run for safety and shelter. They “Dart about/In and out/
Madly”. “Dart” suggests a sudden and rapid movement of panic. “Madly” implies that
the mothers run in a disorderly and hysterical manner before the storm hits.
4. It seems as if the wind is the most powerful element of nature. It is dominant – it drags
the clouds along. “Pregnant” is suggestive of the feminine attributes of the clouds, while
“Ride stately” suggests the masculine power of the wind. The writer portrays the
women as defenceless and powerless, as suggested in “Dart about/ In and out/ Madly”.
The women are silenced; they have no control over the storm.
For a more detailed feedback on this question, refer to the e-tutor site.
INTERPRETING THE MULTICULTURAL CONTEXT THROUGH DIFFERENT LENSES

It is important for you to be exposed to and engaged with culturally different sources of
literature. This is an acknowledgement that we possess multiple identities as these relate to
gender, social class, family structure, age, religion, language, ethnicity and nationality. If we
expose ourselves to a wide variety of reading and writing processes, we will broaden our
understanding of culture as ways of living and being in the world that influence our actions,
beliefs and values. This understanding supports us in being sensitive to and appreciating
other cultural perspectives.
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Activity 3.8
The focus of Heather Rock’s case study on page 109 of the prescribed textbook by Leland
et al. (2013) was on how and why historical events are told differently in various texts. Refer
to this case study and answer the following questions:
1. How has Heather enabled her students to use different lenses in the study of
Columbus?
2. Would you regard the students as being silenced or as being in power? Substantiate
your answer.
3. How critically conscious would you say Heather’s students are? Explain your answer.
Feedback commentary
1. The students consulted a variety of sources that included picture books, biographies
and primary resources wherever possible, textbooks and other texts, newspaper
articles, song lyrics, books, photos, music, videos and artefacts.
2. The students are empowered. They are intrinsically motivated to keep digging into the
history of Columbus by using different resources, with the help of their teacher, to
uncover the truth by expressing their individual perspectives.
3. They are critically conscious, as they are regarded as being inquirers into parts of
history that even many adults do not know about.
What are the benefits of focused studies in a multicultural curriculum?

Now that you are aware of the importance of focusing attention on a wide variety of reading
and writing processes, we turn our attention to focused studies. Focused studies are usually
inquiries into a broad theme or topic that has the potential to interest students. Leland et al.
(2013) identify three principles and criteria to be guided by when you read and write critically
about different texts. We have summarised these principles in the tables that follow.
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Principle 1:
Focused studies open up new possibilities for inquiry
Formulate focusing Keep mini-inquiry Focus on meaningful reading and
questions. You are books in which you write writing activities that you might
encouraged to have down questions as they engage in during the focused study.
multiple perspectives arise in the focused
on new areas of study.
exploration and critical
issues.
Activities such as Organise and share the Participate in small groups to
journal entries, knowledge you have pursue specific sub-enquiries, such
discussions and acquired from the as discussion and e-tutor forums on
watching videos may prescribed textbooks, the module site.
initiate experiences. Study Guide and tutorial
letters.
When you engage Question everyday When you put your perspectives of
with conceptually assumptions and inquiry together (e.g. in assignments
related texts and explore critical issues. and tutorials), you bring your
media, they create an This will take you reading and writing experiences
opportunity for beyond the university together, which may influence the
providing alternative walls and encourage you larger community.
perspectives and to open up to social,
drawing complex political and community
connections. issues.
Refer to the case study of the Grade 8 educator, Carol, in Leland et al. (2013: 113). She
describes her work of planning and implementing author studies by discussing student
choices, initiating experiences, student- and educator-generated invitations, multimodal
publications and culminating experiences. This is similar to the procedures outlined above in
focused studies, but here the focus is on the author. The responses of her students below
demonstrate that author studies have the potential to transform student identities.
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“We got to choose what “Discussions were “I got help in

we wanted to read.” fun, too. .. ” understanding the story
better at discussions.”
“Your group decides when you “We also write and pick pieces we
will meet to discuss how far you want to publish.”
will have to read.”
In the table that follows, the relevance of author study inquiries is summarised for you.
Principle 2:
Author studies connect students with writers
The “allure of authors” During author studies, You would find a connection with
helps you discover a you are encouraged to an author when you are able to
passion for books, ask “deep probing “connect” with an author’s style,
creates bonds between questions” about the way the common themes, which
readers and authors, the author writes, such he/she writes about and the
and allows you to follow as: illustrations that accompany the
your passions. Whose voices are writing.
heard?
Whose values are
perpetuated?
Who is being left out?
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Principle 3:
Genre studies encourage digging deeply
Genre studies allow us to dig deeper into texts. When we devote a lecture or tutorial to
a particular genre, we start figuring out how that genre works and begin to ask critical
questions. You too can become experts and even experiment with writing a particular
genre. When you are able to ask your own critical questions, you will be exploring genres
that focus on what is important to you.
EXAMPLES OF GENRES THAT COULD STIMULATE YOUR CRITICAL INQUIRY:

➔ Fantasy and science fiction
➔ Mystery
➔ Graphic novels and picture books
➔ Historical fiction
➔ Informational texts
➔ Folktales, fables, and fairy tales
➔ Diaries and memoirs
➔ Realistic fiction
➔ Biographies and autobiographies
Please read pages 117 to 118 of Leland et al. (2013) for a deeper understanding of how
genre studies can improve your critical reading and writing experiences before completing
activity 3.9.
Activity 3.9
Read EXTRACT F from I am Malala, and answer the questions that follow.
EXTRACT F
‘Who is Malala?’ he demanded.
No one said anything, but several of the girls looked at me. I was the only girl with my face
not covered.
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That’s when he lifted up a black pistol. I later learned it was a Colt 45. Some of the girls
screamed. Moniba tells me I squeezed her hand.
My friends say he fired three shots, one after another. The first went through my left eye
socket and out under my left shoulder. I slumped forward onto Moniba, blood coming from
my left ear, so the other two bullets hit the girls next
to me. One bullet went into Shazia’s left hand. The third went through her left shoulder and
into the upper right arm of Kainat Riaz.
My friends later told me the gunman’s hand was shaking as he fired.
By the time we got to the hospital, my long hair and Moniba’s lap were full of blood.
Who is Malala? I am Malala and this is my story.
Yousafzai (2013: 6)
1. Identify the genre of the text from which the above extract is taken.
2. Formulate four critical questions that would prompt “an inquiry into the world”.
3. Use these questions to interview another student. Write up the interview as a dialogue.
4. Analyse this interview to compare this student’s perspective with your perspective.
Please refer to Reading for different purposes in unit 1 in planning your answer to this
question.
5. Would you like to read more writing by this author? Why/Why not?
Feedback commentary
The questions in this activity are used as prompts to use develop an “inquiry into the world”
of Malala. It is aimed at giving you an opportunity to practise and apply your critical reading
skills and understanding of the structure of an interview, using the principles of focused
studies. We would then like you to expand or revise your interpretation of the texts in the
form of a text analyst. What follows are suggested answers and points you should have
considered in completing this activity.
1. Autobiography
2. Possible questions:
• Who is Malala?
• What is Malala’s story?
• With what do Muslim girls normally cover their faces?
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• Why was Malala’s face not covered?

• Why is she the victim?
• Why did the gunman shoot her more than once?
3. You should have included the interviewed student’s responses to the questions in the
dialogue. You needed to pay attention to the structure of the dialogue.
4. Individual responses should:
• identify similarities and/or differences in the two perspectives of Malala’s world;
• be an objective comparison of the two personal responses;
• use transition words to compare the two responses;
• selectively use information from units 1 and 2 to complement the analysis of the
two perspectives.
5. (Your own personal response with an explanation.)
• You should have referred closely to the text, by quoting words/lines, in
substantiating your response.
• You needed to give reasons why you would/would not want to read more writing
by this author.
Activity 3.10
1. Read the poem “New Crayons” on page 116 of your prescribed textbook by Leland et
al. (2013), and answer the questions that follow:
1.1 Which words or linguistic features in this poem attract your attention?
How do these words help you in your literal interpretation of the poem?
1.2 Write down three critical questions you should ask yourself as part of “an inquiry into
the world”.
1.3 Using your responses to questions 1.1 and 1.2 as a foundation, discuss how the poet
uses words as linguistic and literary features to convey meaning.
1.4 Do you relate to this poem? Why/Why not?
1.5 Discuss why you would/would not want to read more poems by this poet.
2. Read the two definitions of poetry according to Lisa’s students on page 117. Write a
poem to describe your perspective on poetry.
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Feedback commentary
1.1 Words that attract attention: wait, breathlessly, poised, leap, rainbows, flowers,
thousand smiling suns.
These words attract attention because collectively they create a positive impression of
the crayons being vibrant and alive. The crayons are described as having the ability to
jump onto paper and create rainbows and suns.
1.2 Possible questions:

• What is the literal interpretation of crayons, as depicted in this poem?
• Why are “New Crayons” capitalised?
• Does the poet make any comparisons?
• Can any of the words used be identified as literary devices?
1.3 Pointers to consider:

• Use of nouns such as “crayons,” “boxes,” “rainbows” and “suns”
• Use of verbs such as “wait” and “leap”
• Use of adjectives such as “thousand smiling” and “poised” and the adverb
“breathlessly”
• “New Crayons wait breathlessly in boxes” – The “New Crayons” are personified to
project the excitement of beginner writers. These emotions are further reinforced in the
alliteration of the explosive sound in “breathlessly…boxes”
• “Points poised” – crayons personified as writers waiting in anticipation, ready to begin
writing. The alliteration is suggestive of the writers’ focused attention.
• “Leap into rainbows” and “smiling suns” – personification conveys brightness and
suggests an implied comparison with hopeful writers
1.4 (Your own personal response.)

Yes or No.
You needed to refer closely to the poem, by quoting words/lines, in substantiating
your response.
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1.5 (Your own personal response.)

You needed to refer closely to the poem, by quoting words/lines, in substantiating
your response.
You needed to explain why you would/would not want to read more work by this
poet.
2. (Your own personal response.)

Your poem should:
• follow the correct format;
• be an original, creative text expressing your perspective on poetry; and
• include language devices for effect.
Who is a multicultural student?

Now that we have discussed the key aspects of a multicultural curriculum to be considered
when you read and write critically, let us consider your role as a multicultural student. Focus,
genre and author studies provide a way of reaching all students, especially reluctant,
struggling or marginalised readers and writers. You should note that this type of curriculum
does not separate the more proficient readers from the less proficient ones, as schools often
do. Instead, all students are allowed to read and contribute independently and collectively.
When you are given a book dealing with a topic of particular interest to you, a focused study
can provide you with the clues you need to read beyond your expectations. ‘Buddy reading’
works really well for students who are drawn to informational texts.
As multicultural students, you need to be aware of your own cultural identity and consider
points of view that go beyond your own. Multicultural literature that includes literary, non-
literary and visual texts provides a window onto ethnic and global cultures through in-depth
inquiries into particular cultures and call for the integration of multiple cultural perspectives
within the educational context.
Activity 3.11
Lynch-Brown et al. (2011: 214) mention the book Little Woman Warrior who came Home by
Evangeline Parsons-Yazzie. EXTRACT G is a synopsis (summary) of the novel.
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EXTRACT G
Dzanibaa' is alone when U.S. troops swoop down on her family's hogan. Before she can run
to safety, a soldier grabs her and puts her on his horse. She is taken to Fort Canby, and
from there is forced to walk to Bosque Redondo. For four long years, Dzanibaa' and her
family endure incredible hardship and sacrifice. Nevertheless, this time of trial gives
Dzanibaa' a profound sense of herself as a Navajo and of the importance of her culture.
http://www.colorincolorado.org/book/little-woman-warrior-who-came-home-story-navajo-long-walk
Accessed 2017, December 14.
1. Challenge yourself to go beyond any stereotypes you may have. Identify the values
and beliefs that the Navajo culture shares with other cultures in general, and your
culture in particular. You should also consider the diversity of views and lives that are
integral to every cultural group.
2. As a multicultural student, you should be able to ask critical, thought-provoking

questions, such as who benefits in the novel. Also, consider perspectives on those who
are marginalised: Native Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans, among
others. Which other cultures would you consider as belonging to this group?
Feedback commentary
1. Family is protection and security against the world.
• Navajos believe themselves to be interdependent; they rely on each other for survival.
• Many cultures in South Africa and around the world share the same values as the
Navajos.
2. You could have listed the Aboriginal community in Australia, Hispanics, black South
Africans, and the Khoisan.
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By reading multicultural literature, we learn about, understand, appreciate and ultimately

accept those who are different from ourselves. By doing this, we break the cycles of
prejudice and oppression that exist among people of different cultures. When we are
exposed to multicultural literature, we begin to recognise similarities and differences across
cultures. Using different sources of multicultural literature helps in building bridges and
crossing borders between people of different nationalities and cultures. As multicultural
students, you should reflect on the diversity of cultural experiences through the texts that
you select to read. In doing so, you open yourself to an exploration of broader ethnic and
global cultures. In Lynch-Brown et al. (2011), a collection of picture books on families is
mentioned.
Activity 3.12
Read EXTRACT H, which is adapted from the book, Families by Ann Morris, and answer
the questions that follow.
EXTRACT H
Some children live with their mothers and fathers. Others have stepparents or live with just
one parent. Still others live with grandparents or foster parents who chose them specially.
But, all children all around the world are part of families – big and small, loving, sharing, and
caring for one another.
https://www.harpercollins.com/9780688171988/families/ Accessed 2017, December 12.
1. What does this extract suggest about parenting relationships from a global
perspective?
2. Write a paragraph of about 100 words in which you express your perspective on
parenting. Choose a suitable title for your paragraph. (Hint: Bear your target audience
and purpose in mind.)
Feedback commentary
1. This extract suggests that across the world, parenting is not restricted solely to the
biological/birth parents.
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2. (Your own response.)

Make sure that you have:
• written one paragraph of about 100 words;
• written about your own perspective on parenting;
• created a suitable but original title for your paragraph;
• stated the purpose clearly; and
• written with a particular audience in mind.
By informing yourself and adopting a multicultural perspective through critical literacy, you
will find yourself embracing the four dimensions that characterise a social justice curriculum
(Lewison et al., 2008).
Disrupting the commonplace by Considering multiple perspectives that

looking at the everyday through may be contradictory or offer
new lenses that challenge alternative interpretations of history or
current issues.
Taking action and promoting social

Focusing on socio-political issues to
justice by taking a stand against
examine societal systems and unequal
oppression and acting to create
power relationships so as to get at the
change.
root causes of the problem.
Figure 3.1: The four dimensions of a critical literacy curriculum
Activity 3.13
Read EXTRACT I, taken from the book The Joining by Peter Slingsby. In this extract,
Phumzile mentions skin colour as one aspect of racism.
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EXTRACT I
Phumzile had told him that he didn’t think that Rick liked him much, and maybe it was
because he was black. Jeremy thought about that for a while. He got on well with Rick
himself, even though he wasn’t so sure about him anymore. Rick obviously thought that he
was white. Rick didn’t know that his aunt and his mother were nearly as dark as Christina.
He supposed that maybe if Rick didn’t like black kids, Phumzile would notice more easily
than he would. It was all very
confusing. Jeremy sighed. People are so complicated, he thought. Always fighting or arguing
or disagreeing.
Slingsby (1996: 3)
1. With reference to the story above, complete the following blocks by filling in the four
dimensions of critical literacy according to the perspective of a multicultural student.
2. To what extent can you identify with EXTRACT I? Give reasons for your answer.
Feedback commentary
1.
How does Jeremy challenge What other perspectives are
assumptions? involved in this extract?
Jeremy realises that people can Phumzile thought that Rick did
be very negative; they are often not like him much because he
fighting, arguing or disagreeing. was black.
How does Jeremy take action or What socio-political issues are at

promote change? play here? How does one get to
When Jeremy sighed and the root cause of the problem?
realised that people are very Jeremy thought about this
complicated. (racial) issue for a while. Jeremy
started questioning his own
relationship with Rick.
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2.
(Your own personal response.) You should have:
• stated whether you identify or do not identify with the extract;
• discussed why you identify or do not identify with the extract;
• referred closely to the text in answering this question; and
• quoted from the text to substantiate your answer.
A multicultural student thrives on a curriculum that focuses on working with others. By

working in groups, you come to appreciate that thinking together is a very valuable strategy.
Refer to your prescribed textbook by Leland et al. (2013) to see the full response given by
a particular student. EXTRACT J is an extract from the student’s response.
EXTRACT J
My group and I spent many hours on this project but it did not feel like a burden since the
subject matter was one that really interests me. I learned several things along the way. I
learned that the focusing questions are not questions directed to be answered in one
simplistic way. In the beginning of the project I was creating questions that addressed only
one concern and had one answer. I also learned that it is ok to make mistakes along the
way. I also challenged myself to come up with ideas that were creative and interesting. After
the completion of this focused study, I learned that this process of choice and not explicit
direction is actually quite effective and a strong motivator for the student to work hard.
Leland et al. (2013: 119)
From this student’s response, you can gather that the students are exposed to and taught
about poetry, fiction and other genres. This is one way of appealing to their diverse interests
and inviting them into the fascinating world of reading and writing. When you appreciate a
topic by digging deeper into texts, you are more likely to clearly visualise and acknowledge
the splendour of one literary text, the differences and similarities between others, and the
multiple perspectives they may offer (Hansen & Vasquez 2002 cited in Leland et al., 2013).
In this section, we have talked about the fact that multicultural learning is learning that
incorporates and explores the rich diversity of perspectives reflected in our diverse world.
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This learning takes place when differences among students are both appreciated and
explored. Multicultural learning acknowledges and overcomes boundaries created by ability,
age, class, gender, nationality, race, religion, sexual orientation and other personal, social,
political and cultural identities so that you can value the versatile dimensions of knowledge
production (ways of knowing).
Training and guidance is important in order for people to become active listeners, readers
and writers. In our multicultural context, you can learn how to recognise and tackle the
uneasiness arising from working across boundaries, learn how to respond to diversity, and
grow academically and personally. The group dynamics among the individuals within the
group play a significant role in making multicultural learning both achievable and successful.
Your e-tutor discussions, for example, are structured to encourage you to be polite but
enquiring, resourceful, meaningful, engaged and transformational. This space has been
created so that you can correct any inaccuracies, misconceptions, errors, hasty
generalisations and prejudice with integrity and reliability. Through habitual and meaningful
interactions, you should be persuaded to reflect on and discover the implications of diversity
and empowerment. As a multicultural student, you need to be equipped with sustainable
life-long learning experiences in a multicultural world.
CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have focused on reading and writing for educational purposes in a
multicultural context. Our focus has been on the relationship between reading and writing,
the reasons why we read and write, interpreting the multicultural context through different
lenses and establishing an understanding of what it means to be a multicultural student. The
analysis throughout this study unit has demonstrated, among other significant things, that
reading and writing are interdependent and that our educational context is a rich, diverse
and multicultural landscape. As students and prospective teachers, you need to appreciate
the purpose this module serves in your professional and academic development. You should
then come to understand and appreciate what your role as a multicultural
student/prospective teacher is, and empower yourself in the language you use in reading
and writing critically. This will be discussed in Study Units 5 and 6.
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REFERENCES
All Poetry (n.d.). An African Thunderstorm. Retrieved from

http://allpoetry.com/poem/10501969-An-African-Thunderstorm-by-David-Rubadiri.
Accessed 2018, January 29.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: The Seabury Press.
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research and Practice. New
York: Teachers College Press.
Govender, P. (2017, March 24). “Baby steps to decolonise schools” in Mail and Guardian.
Retrieved from https://mg.co.za/article/2017-03-24-00-baby-steps-to-decolonise-
schools. Accessed 2017, November 5.
Harper Collins (n.d.). Families. Retrieved from

https://www.harpercollins.com/9780688171988/families. Accessed 2017, December
12.
Leland, C., Lewison, M., & Harste, J. (2013). Teaching Children’s Literature: It’s Critical!
New York: Routledge.
Lynch-Brown, C., Short, K.G., & Tomlinson, C.M. (2011). Essentials of Children’s
Literature. Seventh edition. Pearson.
NACOSA (2018). End It Now! Together in Response to GBV and HIV. Report from the
national GBV conference: October 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.aids.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/End-it-Now-Conference-
Report-Feb-2018-1.pdf. Accessed 2018, April 6.
Parsons-Yazzie, E. (n.d.). Little Woman Warrior Who Came Home: A Story of the Navajo
Long Walk.
Retrieved from http://www.colorincolorado.org/book/little-woman-warrior-who-came-

home-story-navajo-long-walk. Accessed 2017, December 14.
Schoffeleers, J.M. (1968). Symbolic and Social Aspects of Spirit Worship among the
Mang’Anja. Doctoral thesis, Oxford University.
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Slingsby, P. (1996). The Joining. South Africa: Tafelberg.
Song Meanings (n.d.). Prince – Purple Rain. Retrieved from

http://songmeanings.com/songs/view/65436/#comments. Accessed 2018, February
2.
Strauss, C.H.B. & Moller, E. (2012). Solutions for all Home Language Grade 6 Learner’s
Book. Northlands, Gauteng: Macmillan South Africa.
Yousafzai, M. (2013). I am Malala: The Girl who Stood up for Education and was Shot by
the Taliban. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.
GLOSSARY
Multicultural
This is a reference to the recognition of and sensitivity to diverse cultural or ethnic beliefs,
values and practices.
Culturally responsive curriculum

The content and teaching practices of such a curriculum accommodate and are sensitive to
multiple cultural and linguistic perspectives.
Focused study
This refers to strategies used to enquire into a particular topic, author or genre with the aim
of encouraging the use of multiple perspectives and critical thinking.
Literary features
These are concepts and terms in literature, such as genre, plot, metaphor and
personification.
Linguistic devices
These are language features or grammatical structures such as verbs, nouns and
punctuation.
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Question 1
Read EXTRACT K, which is taken from a newspaper article. Then answer the questions
that follow. In formulating your responses, apply the skills and sensitivities you have
acquired as a multicultural student.
EXTRACT K
... Said Govender: “We have done so much to decolonise history but we don’t feel our job is
done. Our history is divided into South African history with an equal emphasis on European
history and international history. As part of the decolonisation process, some of the critical
questions we could be raising would be whether we should move away from focusing on
European history and move towards Asia.”
Plans to decolonise the curriculum, which have been earmarked for implementation between
2020 and 2030, include:
• The introduction of Kiswahili as an optional language for study after school hours;
• The introduction of indigenous knowledge systems and practices;
• Extending the policy of teaching pupils in their mother tongue from grades 1 to 3 to grades
4 to 6; and
• Making history compulsory at schools.
He said issues up for discussion on English literature included whether the emphasis on
Shakespeare should continue at schools. “For how long will we continue using the drama
that comes from England when you do have dramatic works by local writers?”
There could also be the option of allowing schools to continue studying Shakespeare’s plays
as well as a choice of studying a play by a local writer or a writer from Africa. “We haven’t
taken any decision but these are up for discussion that [has] to be considered in the future.”
Language remains central to any shifts in the basic education curriculum. Govender told
Parliament that teaching students in their mother tongue was important, adding: “The
[department of basic education] is approaching it responsibly where pilots are underway and
material is being tested …”
Retrieved from https://mg.co.za/article/2017-03-24-00-baby-steps-to-decolonise-schools.
Accessed 2017, November 20.
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1.1 Do you think that decolonising the South African curriculum would better promote
multicultural learning and education? Substantiate your answer.
1.2 What are your views on completely removing Shakespeare from our South African
curriculum? (Hints: Do you feel Shakespeare adds value to the lives of our students?
How does studying Shakespeare compare with studying other contemporary or African
writers? Suggest alternative literature sources to replace Shakespeare in the
curriculum.)
1.3 Comment on the intended plan of action in EXTRACT K. Would you add to the plan,
or remove any part of it? Justify your answer fully.
Question 2
Read EXTRACT L and answer the questions that follow:
EXTRACT L
South Africa is known as the ‘rape capital’ of the world, a view supported by the statistics on
reported rape, unreported rape and conviction rates. Up to half of all women in South Africa
will be raped in their lifetimes and more than a third of men admit to having raped at least
once. The proportion of adult men from the general population who have raped is estimated
at 28 – 36% while 7 – 9% have participated in multiple-perpetrator rape.
While transformation of attitudes, behaviour and systems is essential to reduce GBV

[Gender-Based Violence] and sexual violence, the current level of sexual violence is so high
and the conviction rate so low – at around 7% – that urgent measures are needed to ensure
that perpetrators are apprehended and effectively prosecuted. There are many barriers to
justice for the survivors of rape and sexual violence, including a lack of an efficient forensic
resting system and delays and blockages in the criminal justice system …
She thanked the Global Fund for the support which has made this conference possible and
the delegates for being there to prove that the end to GBV and HIV can be achieved … The
programme director thanked Phumelele for her beautiful opening remarks and commented
that all need to denounce victim blaming. The remarks set the tone for the morning’s
discussions.
NACOSA (2018: 11)
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2.1 Of which genre is this text an example?

2.2 Discuss the context of this text.
2.3 Who is the intended audience?
2.4 Comment on the style of writing in this text.
2.5 With close reference to the extract, discuss power relations in society. (Hint: Who is
in power? Who is silenced?)
2.6 What feelings and attitudes does this text evoke in you? Give reasons for your
answer.
2.7 Refer to the following statement made in the extract. Write down two critical questions
you would pose to the criminal justice system in light of the context above.
“There are many barriers to justice for the survivors of rape and sexual violence, including
a lack of an efficient forensic testing system and delays and blockages in the criminal justice
system.”
FEEDBACK ON SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.1 (Yes or no with substantiation.)

Yes, decolonising the curriculum by allowing students to study African authors and works
would place students in a better situation to understand and to identify with the author and
the relevant themes.
OR
No, students need to obtain a world perspective, and so the curriculum should not be solely
African based; if we offered an exclusively African-based curriculum we would be
disadvantaging those of our students who would like to achieve global recognition.
1.2 (Your own perspective.)

Against Shakespeare:
• We should remove Shakespeare from our curriculum, as plays are meant to be
watched and enjoyed, and not studied the way we study them.
• We are killing Shakespeare. Shakespeare himself never wanted his plays to be
studied; they were supposed to be watched, enjoyed and appreciated.
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• South African learners do not identify with the language in which these plays are
written. African literature deals with different themes and morals from Shakespearean
literature. (You can compare these themes.)
• Instead of studying Shakespeare, South Africans could study other African
plays/novels/short stories, as they are more relevant.
For Shakespeare:
• All of Shakespeare’s plays have relevant story lines and themes that apply to our lives
today. The themes are universal.
• Shakespeare's characters are full of depth and complexity. Shakespeare had a
wonderful way of exploring his characters and describing their emotions.
• If there is one thing Shakespeare is still very well known for, it is his powerful use of
language, and many of his famous quotes are still in use today.
• Studying Shakespeare encourages us to grow our reading skills and to think more
deeply about contemporary socio-political issues.
1.3 (Your own personal response)

• Explain what the intended plan is and whether you agree or disagree with it.
• What would you add or remove from the plan? You needed to support your answer
by providing practical examples.
Question 2
2.1 It is a newspaper article/report.
2.2 This report was presented at a conference in the hope that HIV and GBV will be
minimised.
2.3 Global stakeholders who share the same concerns.
2.4 The style is factual and realistic, and the message conveyed is alarming. There is
supporting evidence in the form of shocking statistics and authentic sources that are
intended to convince the reader to take these issues and plans of action seriously.
Words such as “rape capital”, “will be raped” and “lifetime” convey the disturbing fact
that GBV and HIV will continue to occur, while “urgent measures” highlight that HIV
and GBV are serious issues. The intention is to create awareness and prompt a
proactive response to bringing an end to these issues.
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2.5 Despite our country having been a democracy for more than two decades, it is still
shocking that “half of all women in South Africa will be raped in their lifetimes”. From
the statement, it seems as if women continue to be silenced, and to have no power.
The fact that “a third of men admit to having raped at least once” and “7 – 9% [of men]
have participated in multiple-perpetrator rape” is a matter of serious concern. Men
appear to have the upper hand and to have power and control over women.
2.6 I find it shocking and appalling that South Africa is regarded as the ‘rape capital’ of the
world. The rape statistics is very disturbing and something needs to be done about
this, especially since rape occurs so frequently.
(Responses may vary: some of you may have responded differently on the grounds of being
unaffected and justifying your position through counter-arguments and supporting
evidence.)
2.7 (Your own critical questions)

Examples:
• Which of your expectations about gender, sexuality and power promote rape culture,
and how can you begin to change them?
• Where do you notice the trivialisation of GBV or the minimisation of actions, beliefs,
and values that eventually contributes to this problem?
• Are we desensitised to the reality of sexual violence in our community?
• Are survivors of sexual violence stigmatised or even discouraged from speaking out?
• Which of our generally accepted social roles, behaviours and group dynamics
encourage rape?
• How can we assist rape victims who are unwilling to report and seek support?
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5. STUDY UNIT 4
LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS FOR ACADEMIC
PURPOSES
OUTCOMES
• analyse the language used in different texts to discuss audience, register and
purpose;
• engage in multiple ways of interpreting texts; and
• use appropriate language in formal writing and informal writing contexts.
1. Leland et al. (2013)

• Literature Response Strategies
• Multimodal Response to Literature
2. Bailey (2015)
• Literature Reviews and Book Reviews
• Writing longer Essays
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INTRODUCTION
In Study Unit 1, you were shown how to apply different reading strategies selectively for
different purposes, and in Study Units 2 and 3 we focused on how to write critically using
multiple lenses (perspectives) on reading and writing for educational purposes respectively.
In this unit, we will explore the use of multimodal creative strategies to critically analyse
different texts and establish the writer’s style, purpose and audience. We offer practical
approaches to practising and further developing your linguistic competencies as critical
writers for academic purposes. This unit is aimed at applying your language awareness and
appropriate critical reading and writing skills further, with particular focus on discourse
analysis in the context of a range of texts.
Since our society is interacting more and more on various social media platforms, we will
further explore the appropriateness and relevance of the varieties of language for specific
purposes. It is an undeniable fact that the use of symbols (icons and emoticons), short
message service (SMS) language, contractions and abbreviations has dominated the way
we communicate and socialise on Facebook, Twitter and WhatsApp, to mention just a few.
We use this context as a point of departure in this unit to focus on the use of formal English.
We intend to promote your role as a multicultural text analyst as well as your understanding
of what it means to conform to required acceptable standards of English when you write for
academic purposes.
The concepts that have been italicised in the introduction have been explained for you in the
glossary at the end of this unit. Note that we consider these concepts in light of your role as
a text analyst in the context of education.
LANGUAGE AND ANALYSIS FOR INTEGRATED UNDERSTANDING

As your lecturers, we want you to go beyond being proficient code breakers, meaning text
makers and text users, and to become text analysts. As text analysts, you not only acquire
social and personal meaning from texts, but you also examine how different writers position
you as readers for different purposes.
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We will extend our discussions in the previous units by exploring the four resources model
developed by Freebody and Luke (1990), cited in Leland et al. (2013). Freebody and Luke
(1990) state that successful readers need to adopt four roles in order to comprehend a text.
To be a successful critical text analyst, you need to be all of the following:
A code breaker
To be an effective code breaker, you must be able to decode or interpret the literal and
symbolic significance of all the features embedded in a text. In other words, you must
critically examine how the printed words, visuals and structure are used as complementary
strategies to convey the intended meaning in a text.
A text participant
In addition to using your background and personal experiences to interact with and relate to
a text, you also need to take into consideration other individuals who would be engaging
with the text. For example, in situations where you are not familiar with the context of a text,
you should be guided by the support given by your e-tutor or lecturer. A student from the
city and a student from a rural area would have two very different understandings of a
narrative that is set on a farm. The difficulties to overcome might include assumed
knowledge, the lack of relevant background knowledge (schemata), new expressions,
terminology and slang. By taking on the roles of the various text participants, you can
establish a deeper understanding that extends beyond your limited and basic grasp of the
text.
A text user
Being conscious of the writer’s intention and your purpose in reading a text is essential to
being an effective text user. Let us explore your role as a text user by taking the reading of
a recipe as an example. A recipe can be read in a variety of ways. As an experienced baker,
you may just browse through (scan) a recipe book to find a recipe that you may require, and
then simply skim through the list of ingredients or glance at the pictures before you start
baking.
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On the other hand, if you are using a recipe to bake (for instance) chocolate biscuits for the
first time, you will read and follow the instructions carefully and accurately and in the correct
sequence. Then, once you have mastered the recipe, you might start to become more
adventurous and creative and explore other ways of adapting the original recipe, perhaps
by adding nuts to your biscuit dough.
Similarly, in analysing a text, you should begin by considering a few basic critical questions
to guide you through the process of interpreting texts critically. These include:
• What is the purpose of this text, and why am I reading it?

• What features has the writer used to shape the composition of this text?
• What am I expected to do with the information I derive from reading this text?
• What choices or alternatives should I consider after reading this text?
A text analyst
Critical thinking, identifying prejudice and analytical thinking form the basis of the text analyst
role. As a text analyst, you should ask questions such as:
• Who wrote this text, and why?
• What information has been left out of the text?
• Whose perspective has been omitted?
• How has the text been structured to position me as the reader?
Activity 4.1
Here is an opportunity to practise your skills as a text analyst. Read EXTRACT A, and
answer the following critical questions to establish your understanding of the four resources
model.
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EXTRACT A
The case of the missing cookies
by Arden Davidson
I’m taking my parents to court

To prove I’m an innocent kid.
The judge will most surely agree
That they’re wrong about what I did.
Just because all my fingers were sticky

And chocolate was on my face,
Doesn’t mean I stole those cookies.
So there! I rest my case.

What’s that you say, you need more proof?
I have an alibi.
When the cookies got stolen, I was outside.

Now I ask you, why would I lie?
Strauss and Moller (2012: 55)
1. Whose voices are represented, and whose voices are omitted in this text?
2. Why is the child’s identity given prominence in this text?
3. Whose stories are privileged and whose are marginalised in the text?
4. What position does the writer assume that you as an adult reader would take?
5. Do you think he makes the same assumption about the position children would take
when they read this text? Give reasons for your answer.
6. Write down at least five questions you would ask yourself as a text analyst, using the
four resources model.
Feedback commentary
1. The child’s voice is represented, and the voices of the child’s parents are missing.
2. In reality, children’s rights and the right to be heard in a situation like this are often
ignored. However, in this poem, the roles of the parents and the child are reversed.
3. The child’s claim that he/she did not eat the cookies is privileged.
The parents’ story about the child eating the cookies is marginalised.
4. The writer assumes that we would support the child.
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5. The writer probably assumes that children would know that the child is not telling the
truth because they probably make up similar stories themselves. When children read
the lines, “Just because all my fingers were sticky/ And chocolate was on my face” they
would recognise that these are some of the excuses they would probably use.
Alternatively, child readers may support the child in the poem because they can identify
with being accused by adults without concrete evidence, purely because they are
children and adults always think they are right.
6. Possible questions:
What are my assumptions about the parents and the child?
How would parents react to this poem?
Why did the writer write this text?
How does the poet convey his intention?
Whom do I support in this poem?
How has this poem influenced my views of children and parents?
What should you do with this text in the context of your purpose in reading it?
In order to deepen and enrich your reading experience, you need to devote adequate time
to reading intensively and extensively so that you derive enjoyment as you expand your
knowledge and competencies. In order for this to be possible, Leland et al. (2013) propose
multiple ways in which to respond to texts. For example, in activity 4.1, as well in the previous
units, we encouraged you to respond mainly in writing. However, we now move on to
discussing other ways of making sense of what you read in more practical and creative ways
with the potential to refine your skills as a text analyst. The main aim of this section is to
stimulate and broaden your critical thinking skills through providing multiple perspectives
that are based on other ways of knowing and analysing texts. This section is inclusive of
affective responses situated in the context of education in particular, and education as part
of your socio-political lives in general. Below we have summarised some of the literature
response strategies mentioned in Leland et al. (2013: 179–183).
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EXAMPLES OF MULTIMODAL RESPONSE STRATEGIES
Art trading cards

The use of art trading cards created by students to express a social issue is a way of getting
students to express their thoughts visually instead of using words. According to Leland et al.
(2013), alternative means of communicating such as pictures, symbols and hybrid literacies
like art, poetry, music or dance (hip-hop) are creative ways in which students can express
their interpretation of what they see and read.
Graffiti boards and walls of fame

Another productive way of making new connections and building new understandings of
texts is the use of graffiti boards and walls of fame. These techniques may help you to
identify what is already known about a topic. They could also be used to show any
misconceptions you may have. You may also be motivated to consider a variety of other
ideas and either affirm or question what has already been learnt. In this way, you can share
your knowledge with others and open up your work to multiple interpretations and the
perspectives of other students.
Activity 4.2
Refer to the example and discussion of art trading cards on pages 126 to 127 and graffiti
boards on page 186 of Leland et al. (2013) before attempting this activity.
1. Draw a picture to represent your interpretation of the poem, “The Case of the Missing
Cookies”, in activity 4.1.
Feedback commentary
1. Possible visuals could have included stern and angry parents, a child’s innocent face
smeared with chocolate, a courtroom, and graffiti dealing with children’s rights.
For further elaboration on this activity, refer to the e-tutor site.
Creating big books

Big books are oversized, easy-to-read books that you can create yourself (Leland et al.,
2013: 182). Many of you are just beginning to practise your skills as text analysts, and so
you may need some support in asking critical questions. Creating your own big book to break
down words, phrases and theories and perspectives may be of help here.
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Read more about this in Leland et al. (2013). Big books encourage you to use your
knowledge of language and the contextual clues in the articles and stories you read to
connect and predict concepts and ideas in alternative creative ways.
If each of us had to read one story and to create a big book out of it, the result would be
multiple perspectives on the story when we analysed our finished product. This would be
evident in the pictures we draw and the words we choose to use.
Literature circles
Reading instruction can be improved in literature circles, where participants allow
themselves time to talk to other readers and relate to what they have read into a text
according to their backgrounds and real-life experiences. By doing this, as a participant your
focus is on stimulating an inquiring mind, rather than on answering prescribed questions in
a mechanistic way. You can engage in informed and balanced discussions in areas that are
important to you. This should increase the possibility of reading for enjoyment and digging
deeper into books (Harste et al., 1988 cited in Leland et al., 2013). In forming literature
circles, group members can fulfil one or more of the following roles:
• Discussion leader – keeps the group focused on the big idea of the story
• Questioner – asks questions and keeps the discussion going
• Wordsmith – identifies the important words and phrases in the story and checks the
meaning of the words
• Connector – connects events in the stories to real-life experiences
• Story mapper – draws pictures and sketches to help the group keep track of characters
and visualise events in the story
A disadvantage of group roles is that individual members may tend to serve personal
interests in fulfilling their individual roles at the expense of the interests of the group as a
whole. This can be time consuming if the ground rules and timelines are not clearly defined
at the outset. In some cases members may prefer to work in pairs and focus on partner
reading. During partner reading, or ‘buddy reading’, the partners have the opportunity to
discuss what has been read. In many instances, as a student you may find it easier to share
your thoughts with one other person rather than with a whole group.
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Literature logs
Keeping a literature logs involves recording your thoughts, feelings, images and ideas in the
form of words and sketches. This is not only a representation of what you know, but also an
expansion of that knowing. Literature logs can be useful in preparing you for your
discussions in literature circles. Instead of just summarising a story, you can write down
reactions, connections and questions. You can record your entries in multiple ways, for
instance by means of webs, sketches, charts, favourite quotes, diagrams and written
reflections.
Leland et al. (2013) refer to the use of alternative and different ways of responding to texts
as multimodal responses. Engaging in appropriate multimodal responses to texts can
influence how you position yourself as a critical reader and text analyst.
In Study Unit 1, you were introduced to critical discourse analysis as developed by

Fairclough. Here, however, we will focus on discourse analysis, which is the study of spoken
and written languages. The discourse analysis strategies developed by Gee (1999) can be
used with all students. They provide a way for students to start paying attention to language,
the work it does in the world, and how it can shape perceptions. We could start by applying
these strategies to a basic text such as a greeting card, and then move on to picture books,
poems, advertisements and other kinds of texts.
Let us explore further and reinforce your understanding of how to analyse the discourse of
a text. In order to attempt the next activity, you need to understand concepts such as situated
meanings, social languages, cultural models and discourses. Gee (1999) explains these as
follows:
• Situated meanings are images, patterns, ideas and words that we understand through
communicative social interaction. For example, if someone says, “Real love does not
require work”, in this sentence, the situated meaning of the word ‘work’ would be effort.
On the other hand, in “Our jobs can become boring if we do the same work every day”,
the situated meaning of the word ‘work’ would be tasks. The word ‘work’ has different
connotative meanings in different contexts.
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• Social language refers to the language that is used by a particular group of people with
emphasis on communicating a message. Reflect on the following example of a
student’s explanation as to why her homework was not done:
“I go visit my uncle. He sick. He got something bad with his heart. My aunt drive my
mother and me. We bring uncle some food. When I get home mam, it's too late finish
homework.”
The student’s social language may be effective in communicating her message: her
excuse for not doing her homework was that it was too late by the time she had visited
her uncle, who was sick. Embedded in this message are social contextual clues that
are intended to justify why the homework was not done. However, the student’s social
language conveys another message: she needs help with her grammatically flawed
sentences. One way of using this social contextual clue in assisting such a student
would be to ask where you think this student’s social language comes from.
• Cultural models are beliefs, and the cultural groups in which we find ourselves inculcate
beliefs and attitudes in us. For example, many of us have grown up associating the
colour pink with girls and blue with boys. This belief stems from our traditional and
conservative cultural beliefs and attitudes about gender within our own cultural
community. A boy being dressed in pink or a girl in blue would not affect others having
values and perspectives that are more contemporary.
• Discourses are a reference to the inclusion of the unspoken or unwritten associated

meanings we make with the spoken or written words. For example, consider the
following newspaper headline:
“Teachers facing fist threats.”
To uncover the unspoken discourses or meaning, we need to ask ourselves, “Whose

interests are being served by this choice of words?” or “What is suggested about the
predicament of teachers?”
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Activity 4.3
Refer to the discourse analysis questions on pages 184 and 185 of Leland et al. (2013) to
study the text on the inside of a greeting card given below. Then answer the questions set.
Today is the oldest you’ve Happy Birthday!!!
ever been Stay young at heart
and you
the youngest you’ll old soul!
ever be again Best wishes …
1. What are the situated meanings of the card?

2. What are the implied social languages of the card?
3. What are the cultural models of the card?
4. Analyse the discourse in the card by looking at the situated meanings, social
languages, and cultural models together. What would the person whose birthday it is
say if he/she had a voice in this text?
Feedback commentary
1. “Today”, “oldest”, ”youngest”, “ever”, ”Happy Birthday”, “Stay”, “Best wishes”
All these words suggest that it is someone’s birthday and that the sender of the card
is wishing that person all the best. The informal font and the wording “today is the
oldest you’ve ever been” implies that sender is making the day of celebration light-
hearted and humorous.
2. Points to consider:
• The noun “Today” is the central word on the first page of the card. This
emphasises that today is a special day.
• The adjectives “oldest and “youngest”; “young” and “old” are antonyms. These
adjectives work together to convey the reality of aging on a birthday, while at the
same time providing a reminder about the importance of living in the present.
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• The adjective “Happy” supports the wish that the recipient will have an enjoyable
birthday.
• These words are printed on a card that can be purchased for anyone who is going
to celebrate a birthday. Although it is written in English, it is a universally
acceptable message that would appeal to most people.
• The language is universal and would be acceptable to most people.
3. It wishes someone who is celebrating another year of life a happy birthday.

You would have to believe in celebrating birthdays as a way of affirming someone. The
pictures [not shown] and the meaning behind the text add to the sentiment of the card.
The use of punctuation marks like the ellipsis and the exclamation marks add to the
celebratory feel.
4. This card can only be given to someone on his or her birthday, and not on any other
day. From studying the light-hearted humour on the first page of the card, we can
assume that this card is given by a friend or someone close to the person whose
birthday it is. The sender views birthdays as a celebration of a person’s life, but also
gives a gentle reminder that the recipient is getting older, and not younger – the
message is that we need to live in the moment, and we need to realise that we will
never recover the time that has passed. The voice that is represented is that of the
sender of the greeting. The recipient’s voice is missing. It is a courtesy wish to
somebody on his or her birthday, and writing a message on a card to the person makes
the occasion more special and makes the recipient feel more valued. The recipient’s
response would probably be “Thank you very much. I really appreciate your
remembering this date and your funny, but kind words”.
Refer to the e-tutor site for further discussion on these questions.
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Activity 4.4
1. Revise your understanding of the following literary terminology. Match column A with
Column B. Write down the correct number in the space provided.
Column A Answer Column B

a. Genre 1. The place or surroundings where an event
takes place.
b. Setting 2. The persons who act or take part in a
story.
c. Plot 3. The main topic or message in a piece of
writing, e.g. friendship.
d. Characters 4. The main events that take place in a story,
devised and presented in a sequence.
e. Theme 5. A type of written or spoken discourse that
is classified based on the structure and
content of a text.
Feedback commentary
Column A Answer Column B
A type of written or spoken discourse that is
a. Genre 5 classified based on the structure and content of
a text.
The place or surroundings where an event
b. Setting 1
takes place.
The main events that take place in a story,
c. Plot 4
devised and presented in a sequence.
d. Characters 2 The persons who act or take part in a story.
The main topic or message in a piece of
e. Theme 3
writing, e.g. friendship.
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Read the section on emancipatory fairy tales on page 185 of Leland et al. (2013), and
complete the following diagram:
Write down the name of one fairy Whose story is being told in this
tale you know: fairy tale?
Who or what has been left out of

the narration of this story?
Briefly explain which of these elements you would change

if you had to rewrite the story for children or adults of
today.
Feedback commentary
The results of activity 4.5 may turn out to be either hilarious or serious, but the important
thing is that the purpose of this activity is to identify and challenge some of the larger
(universal) systems of meaning that are taken for granted in our society.
(Individual responses would vary. This would depend on the individual’s perspective of the
selected fairy tale.)
For further discussion on your responses to this activity, refer to your e-tutor site.
In Study Unit 1, we also discussed how you position yourself in relation to interpretive
framing (MacLachan & Reid, 1994). David Bleich (1994), a reading response theorist, refers
to the different interpretive stances you can take as a text analyst (Leland et al., 2013: 187).
Note that some of these overlap with those identified by MacLachlan and Reid (1994).
According to Bleich (1994, cited in Leland et al., 2013: 187), as a reader, you have a
preferred way of responding to texts and do not consider other possible stances.
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Activity 4.6
Refer to page 187 of Leland et al. (2013) to help you with this activity.
EXAMPLE Interpretive stance

When students compare what is written about a
person, for example, Columbus, and point out actual
events and stereotypes that help us see issues beyond
the text.
When students use other texts, such as Othello, to
make sense of the theme of tragedy in Macbeth.
Focusing on the lived experience of the novel The Kite
Runner by Khaled Hosseini, experiencing the emotions
and associations associated with reading the novel.
When a student responds by making connections, for
example, by comparing the situation of a character in
the novel with real-life experiences and prior events.
When students start asking questions and discussing
universal truths or messages that go beyond the text.
For example: What is true strength? What is true love?
Is a family still relevant in the modern world?
When the student asks questions like “Why did the

author write this text?” “How does this text work?”
1. Fill in the interpretive stance in the spaces provided.

2. Which stance/s do you normally use when reading a text?
3. Now that you are aware of the different stances you can use to analyse texts, explain
how you broadened your perspective and insight into EXTRACT A by using alternative
ways of knowing.
Feedback commentary
Your responses to these questions will be discussed on the e-tutor site.
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Read EXTRACT B, taken from The Elephants and the Moon, and answer the questions that
follow.
EXTRACT B
Grandpa’s eyes twinkled: “Would you like to know how the elephant became scared of the
moon?”
“Many years ago, on the African plains, there was a drought. Water was very scarce. One
day, they found a huge pool of water.
“When the elephants went to and from the pool each day, they trampled and killed many
hares. The hares came up with an idea since they feared none of them would be left soon.
“The leader of the hares went to the elephants and said he was the ambassador of the
moon. He told the elephants that the pool belonged to the moon.
“The elephants were told that the moon was very angry they were drinking there. The hare
told them to come back at night since they were in disbelief.
“That night the elephants came to drink. They put their heads in the water and saw the moon
rippling and shaking with rage!!!
“They ran away and never came back.”
Strauss and Moller (2012: 28)
1. EXTRACT B is an example of a myth. Explain what a myth is.

2. Leland et al. (2013) discuss how to chart your conversation about the story told in this
myth. Use the questions below to guide you.
• What did you like about this story?
• What did you dislike about the story?
• Draw patterns, puzzles or illustrations to reflect your interpretation of this myth.
• What problems, issues or difficulties do you have in connection with this
mythical story?
3. Compare your conversation chart with another student’s by sharing your perspectives
on this story. After you have compared responses, reflect on this activity. What new
insights do you have regarding the role that discussion plays in the reading and
interpretation process? Share your reflection.
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Feedback commentary
A traditional story, especially one concerning the early history of a people or explaining some
natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events.
Since individual responses to questions 2 and 3 will vary, refer to your e-tutor site for
further elaboration.
APPROPRIATENESS AND RELEVANCE OF LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

Now that we have demonstrated how you can use language, art and cultural values to
explore multiple perspectives and extend your meaning-making potential as a text analyst,
let us briefly discuss how technology has diversified our language and communication
processes. Texting using SMS language, for example, has given rise to its own grammatical
codes of communication. These codes have become acceptable in social media contexts,
but they cannot be accepted in formal writing contexts.
Is texting ruining our formal writing skills for academic purposes, or can it make us more
critical of our writing and communicative skills? Do you enjoy using emoticons? Why do you
use or not use them?
Consider the following example:

John said goodbye to his sister, since he was moving to another part of the country.
He texted her:
She replied:
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What is your interpretation of the feelings expressed by John and his sister? Since there are
no words to support his sister’s response, is there a chance that John could misinterpret that
response? Clearly, emoticons can be ambiguous and misleading in terms of the assumptions
we make about the identities and attitudes of the people with whom we communicate.
Like the emoticon, the use of other social media verbal codes such as ‘unfriend’, ‘like’,
‘status’, ‘wall’, ‘selfie’ and ‘hashtag’ has influenced the way many of us communicate in both
informal and formal contexts.
Activity 4.8
Read the following blogs in EXTRACT C, which reflect a range of views on the use of
emoticons and other grammatical structures in academic essays.
EXTRACT C
How acceptable is it to use emoticons in essay writing?
Elizma King, works at a high school in Alberton, Johannesburg.

Answered December 31, 2017
I personally think that it depends on the essay. You don’t want to use emoticons in an essay
because you need to express your passions and show it to others. There are also different
types of assignments. Some essays are reflective which ask for your opinion on something
and so your emoticons are fine for it. Usually, no, but it depends on the assignment really.
Loraine B Delio, 40 years of experience in graduate admissions and undergraduate

backgrounds.
Answered January 1, 2018
Totally not appropriate. Emoticons are to overcome an inability to express yourself. Short
answers make tone difficult to interpret. If you're using them in an essay, you're essentially
saying “I don't have the necessary vocabulary skills to say what I propose, and I'm too lazy
to go through a thesaurus to find the correct word”. It brings to mind images of the movie
“Dumb and Dumber”, with essays about dim-wits. This is university, not Facebook (where
even I use emoticons).
Allysha Pen, Pastry Chef

Answered January 18, 2018
It isn't ok. It should never be ok. It should never be ok to use slang when writing
assignments or examinations in university. Papers need to be written in the proper dialect,
not in some unsophisticated shorthand. Jeez...that’s a freaking nasty idea. I shudder to
think...
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Ben Ecktert, English Professor, South Africa

Answered April 20, 2018
Please don't ever, ever use emoticons in a university essay, at least not in my classes. It
makes you look like a kid. At any level it would possibly be instantly failed.
Younger professors usually don't mind the unusual emoticon.
Simone Haze, 51 yrs of experience in taking it easy

Answered June 23, 2018
This would be an unfailing way of convincing your lecturer that you are a complete idiot.
“Okay-ness”: IT’S NOT OKAY!
“Conclusion”: DON’T do this!
1. In what ways are bloggers King and Delio similar in their style of writing when
compared with the other bloggers? (Hint: Look at formal versus informal language;
objective versus subjective style; tone and purpose.)
2. Identify and cite examples of linguistic (grammatical) features that the bloggers use
that are unacceptable in academic writing.
Feedback commentary
1. King and Delio’s responses are casual and conversational. This is suggested by the use
of contractions such as ‘don’t’, ‘you’re’ and ‘I’m,’ and personal pronouns such as ‘I’ and
‘you’. However, although King starts the blog by saying, “I personally think that it
depends on the essay”, the rest of the blog is presented in a balanced and objective
argument. Delio is more objective in her response when she says, “Short answers
make tone difficult to interpret”; her tone is firm and determined when she says, “Totally
not appropriate,” and she comes across as being matter-of-fact.
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2.
GRAMMATICAL FEATURE EXAMPLES
Contractions “You don’t want to use emoticons in an essay”
Your own opinion “I personally think”

“ Usually, no, but it depends on the assignment.”
Fragmented sentences “Totally not appropriate.”
Colloquial language “Jeez … that a freaking nasty idea.”
“Okay-ness: IT’S NOT OKAY!”
“Conclusion: DON’T do this!”
Activity 4.9
Very often, we receive e-mails from our students that are inappropriately written. Read an
example of such an e-mail in EXTRACT D.
EXTRACT D
Hi Prof Mayer!
We are writing our English exam tomorrow and I am in state of panic! I don’t feel prepared.
I think that we weren’t prepared for the exams. We have received our assignment marks for
assignment 2 last week - this is just not fair. If we’ve received it earlier, I think we would be
better prepared.
If I fail this module, I know that it is not my fault, but it is cos of the poor organisation on your
side. Maybe, when i repeat the module next semester, i will get a lecturer who is much more
organised than u were.
Jim Reed (15245258)
1. To what extent is the student’s complaint justified? Support your answer.

2. Comment critically on the appropriateness and effectiveness of the content and the
language used in resolving the student’s problem.
3. Rewrite the e-mail above so that it reads more formally and professionally to achieve
the intended purpose.
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Feedback commentary
1. This e-mail is justified; it is not fair that students received their assignment a week
before the examination, as this gives them little time to prepare themselves. However,
the tone of the e-mail is inappropriate, and would probably be offensive to the lecturer.
2. The tone may come across as being rude and impolite: “Maybe, when i repeat the
module next semester, i will get a lecturer who is much more organised than u were.”
This tone is inappropriate since it is insulting, and the student needs assistance in
resolving the problem. In addition, the relationship between a student and lecturer is
formal, so the e-mail should be written in formal English. Statements such as “i will get
a lecturer who is much more organised than u were” are unacceptable. Both the tone
and content are inappropriate, and therefore the student is at risk of not being taken
seriously.
3.
Dear Prof Mayer
I hope this email finds you well. We are writing our English (ENN1504) examination
tomorrow and I would like to inform you that most students are not prepared for the
examination.
We received our assignment marks for Assignment 2 last week and this has placed us in an
unfair predicament regarding the limited examination preparation time. If we had received
feedback from our assignments timeously, I believe we would be in a better position to write
and pass the examination.
It would be appreciated if the issue of the delayed return of marked assignments could be
investigated and given due consideration in the marking of the upcoming examination.
Yours faithfully
Jim Reed
Student Number 1524548
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We have demonstrated the importance of writing language-appropriate texts in both formal

and informal contexts. The next step is to develop your writing skills further when you write
as a text analyst for academic purposes.
Activity 4.10
Review Study Unit 2 before you continue reading this unit. Then read pages 216 to 222 of
Bailey (2015).
1. Identify at least five additional criteria you should consider when you are planning
essays for academic purposes.
Feedback commentary
The following criteria should be considered:
1. Study the title and construct the first outline. Look for and evaluate suitable sources.
2. Reading and note making. Keep a record of all sources used.
3. Paraphrasing and summarising of relevant content. Modify the outline.
4. Write the draft essay (introduction, body and conclusion).
5. Edit and proofread the draft essay, making sure presentation is clear and accurate.
6. Compile your list of references.
Linguistic skills
In writing for academic purposes, students are often limited in terms of linguistic proficiency
and editing skills. Let us discuss how you can overcome problems of this kind.
• Avoid colloquialisms or slang terminology such as 'sort of' or 'basically'. Instead use
‘somewhat’ or ‘primarily’.
• Write words out in full instead of contracting them. For example, instead of writing
‘can’t’ or ‘isn't,’ you should write ‘cannot’ or ‘is not’. Avoid abbreviations such as TV and
SA, and instead write the words or names out in full – in this case, television and South
Africa. If you are going to use an acronym, write the words out in full at first mention
and follow this with the acronym in brackets, for example, University of South Africa
(Unisa). Thereafter, the acronym is acceptable.
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• Avoid clichés in academic writing. These are phrases such as ‘at the end of the day’
or ‘in the nick of time’. Instead, you should write ‘finally’ or ‘at the critical moment’.
• Avoid overuse of first person pronouns (I, we, my, our). Rather use impersonal
constructions such as:
It is believed that …
It can be argued that …
Activity 4.11
1. Suggest substitutes for the following statements to avoid the use of personal pronouns.
1.1 In this essay, I will discuss the prime differences between the English and French legal
systems.
1.2 I have divided my story into seven sections.
1.3 I will conclude by proposing that all drugs should be banned.
1.4 The opinion of the present writer in this essay is that he feels that the importance of
the kingdom should be increased.
1.5 In the final part of the essay, we will look at the reasons for public panic over the H1N1
virus.
Feedback commentary
1.1 In this essay, the prime differences between the English and French legal systems will
be discussed.
1.2 This story has been divided into seven sections.
1.3 This essay will conclude with the proposal that all drugs should be banned.
1.4 It is suggested that the importance of the kingdom should be increased.
1.5 In the final part of the essay, the reasons for public panic over the H1N1 virus will be
analysed.
• Use the passive instead of the active voice – for instance, instead of writing ‘We
conducted tests,’ rather write ‘Tests were conducted’. The passive voice is frequently
used in academic writing, as it is seen as more impersonal, and consequently more
objective. Most verbs can be used in either an active or a passive form, although
deciding which form to use in your writing can be difficult.
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The active voice is typically more direct and easier to interpret than the passive voice. Use
of the active voice suggests that the subject is in control of the relevant action.
EXAMPLE
The teacher marked the books.
In this sentence, the teacher (the subject) marked (the verb) the books (the object).
EXAMPLE
The chef prepared dinner.
The chef (the subject) prepared (the verb) dinner (the object).
In these examples, it is apparent who is performing the action. However, sometimes you
may want to highlight what is happening rather than who is performing the action. To do
this, you could use the passive voice.
The passive voice is more formal and objective than the active voice, but because it is not
often used in everyday speech, it can seem excessively complex and can be difficult to
interpret. In a sentence that is written in the passive voice, the subject either appears at the
end of the sentence or is left out completely.
EXAMPLE
The books were marked by the teacher.
Here the books (the object) were marked (the verb) by the teacher (the subject).
EXAMPLE
Dinner was prepared by the chef.
Here dinner (the object) was prepared (the verb) by the chef (the subject).
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The passive voice is sometimes used to deliberately deflect attention from a person or group
who should take responsibility for something.
EXAMPLE
Action should be taken against defaulters.
What the writer really means is, “The council should take action against defaulters”.
However, by not mentioning a subject explicitly, the writer avoids the question of who in fact
is responsible.
• Use verbs (often with ‘it’ as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose.
• Use ‘attitudinal signals’ such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely, unexpectedly.
These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal
language.
• Use verbs such as would, could, may and might, which have the potential to ‘soften’
what you are saying.
• Use qualifying adverbs or adverbial phrases such as some, several, numerous, a
minority of, a few, and the majority, to avoid making overgeneralisations.
• Ambiguity in language refers to the possibility of misinterpretation because the words
we use or the structure of our sentences is open to different meanings. Often the
intended meaning is not obvious to the reader because of features such as pronouns
and homophones (words that may sound alike but have different meanings) or poorly
structured sentences. Conversation is replete with vague, ambiguous words like “this”,
“these”, “his”, “it”, “they”, and so forth. The meaning of these words in conversation is
usually clear from the context. For example, when a student starts a paragraph in an
assignment with the following:
This is understood quite well.
The use of “this” and “well” are vague and open to many possible interpretations. Often an
ambiguous “this” or “well” can be disambiguated by adding a noun that specifies precisely
the type of object or idea to which you are referring.
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For instance, the following sentence is much clearer:
This argument is better understood than the previous one.
Activity 4.12
1. There are examples of ambiguity in EXTRACT E. Rewrite the paragraph, eliminating
the ambiguity.
EXTRACT E
One of Sihle’s favourite things was the view of the Nelson Mandela Bridge. He would
sometimes walk there early in the morning when it was still very dark in order to see
Johannesburg in first light. Often he would see others there who were strolling and
enjoying this as well. He was somewhere near Braamfontein when someone came up
behind him. She had very blonde hair and was quite beautiful and she pushed him
roughly, as she was jogging by. He fell, painfully, on his side, and so the woman stopped,
and was jogging in place as she asked if he was fine. So, he wondered, what am I going
to say now?
Feedback commentary (The main revisions are in bold print.)
One of Sihle’s favourite sights was the view of the Nelson Mandela Bridge. Every
morning, he would walk early to the bridge, when it was still very dark in order to see
Johannesburg at first light. Often, he would see other people there who were strolling
and enjoying the beauty of the bridge and Johannesburg. Sihle was somewhere near
Braamfontein
when a lady jogged behind him. The lady had very blonde hair and was quite beautiful.
She pushed Sihle aside roughly as she jogged by. Sihle
fell painfullyon his side,and so the woman stopped jogging. Instead, she asked if he was
fine. So, he wondered, what am I going to say now?
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Spell checkers are smart, but they are unable to distinguish misused words such as
homonyms, homophones and malapropisms. (Please look up the meaning of these linguistic
features and find examples of them.) The misuse of such words probably accounts for the
most common spelling errors in word-processed texts. Even if you are tired and use the spell
checker to correct all your other spelling errors, make sure that you know the difference
between words in the following table:
• affect, effect • new, knew

• it's, its
• discrete, discreet • illicit, elicit
• their, there,
• forth, fourth • complement,
they're
• past, passed compliment
• whether, weather
• roll, role • extent, extend
• to, too, two
• lead, led • obtain, attain
• site, cite, sight
• course, coarse • pair, pare
• waste, waist
• throughout, • personal, personnel
• whole, hole
through out • suit, suite
• fare, fair
• seem, seam • principal, principle
• great, grate
• maybe, may be • bear, bare
• practice, practise
• kerb, curb • stationary, stationery
Consider the examples of ambiguity in the following sentence. The ambiguous words have
been underlined for your convenience:
Arguably, the principle theme of lies and manipulation in Othello effects the dynamics of
weather there love (Othello and Desdemona’s) is able two withstand Iago’s malice.
The correct sentence would be:

Arguably, the principal theme of lies and manipulation in Othello affects the dynamics of
whether their love (Othello and Desdemona’s) is able to withstand Iago’s malice.
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Structure
As a student studying at the second level, you must pay attention to the structure of your
writing. The way you structure your writing adds to its coherence and cohesiveness. The
following points have been formulated as guidelines to help you check whether your writing
is well structured:
• Identify one key point (topic sentence) per paragraph.
• Divide your writing into paragraphs with clearly defined topic sentences that do not
overlap and become repetitive.
• Keep your sentences to a reasonable length (generally not more than 20 words). Long
sentences can be difficult to follow and this may detract from the logical development
of the topic sentence to support your viewpoint (perspective).
• Use connecting words and phrases to make your writing cohesive and easy to follow.
In previous units, you have come across signalling, transition and signposting words.
These can be used to indicate the relationship between your ideas and arguments
explicitly.
Post-writing skills
• Check your grammar and spelling carefully by editing your work.
• Avoid repetition.
• Avoid redundancy.
Not only is it necessary to focus on your word choice, voice and language; in formal,
academic writing, you must also pay attention to the tone of your writing. You should be
using appropriate vocabulary to achieve your tone. As a writer, you should make sure that
you are using the correct tone for specific audiences. The tone of an essay may be solemn,
sarcastic, informative, humorous or critical, to name just a few. Refer to Activity 3.5 in Study
Unit 3 for examples of tone.
Important factors in determining the tone of your writing are your audience and purpose. To
identify your audience, ask yourself who will read your essay. To establish your purpose,
ask yourself why you are writing this essay. There are three main purposes for writing:
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• If you are trying to influence your reader to do or believe something, then you are trying
to persuade your reader.
• If your aim is to teach your reader or tell them something, then you are trying to inform
your reader.
• If you are trying to amuse your reader, then your purpose is to entertain them.
Finally, once you have decided on the purpose of your essay, you should be able to write a
clear and brief thesis statement. The thesis statement is the sentence in the introduction to
your essay that sets out the main idea of your whole essay. If each paragraph in your essay
relates back to your thesis statement, then your whole essay will be well structured.
Activity 4.13
Refer to EXTRACT F and answer the set questions.
EXTRACT F
Nuclear energy has, however, become the subject of considerable debate, with its
proponents claiming that it is beneficial for the environment, since its production does not
create carbon dioxide, which can lead to global warming. However, its opponents argue that
it can damage the environment by creating radioactive waste. It is also linked to diseases in
humans, and there is the additional fear that it may be abused by terrorists in future...
This essay attempts to assess the risks of using nuclear power, in comparison with other
sources of energy. The main arguments for employing nuclear
energy are first considered, followed by an examination of safety issues around the source
of power, including the safety and security concerns connected with nuclear waste.
Bailey (2015: 218)
1. The above extract is the introduction to an essay. Identify the thesis statement, tone,
audience and purpose.
2. Underline the signpost words in the introduction above. What is the function of these
words in this essay?
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Feedback commentary
1. Thesis statement: First, the main arguments for employing nuclear energy are
considered, followed by an examination of safety issues relating to the source of
power, including the safety and security concerns connected with nuclear waste.
Tone: formal, impersonal, objective
Audience: students/scientific audience/environmentalists
Purpose: to assess the risks of using nuclear power
2. however
since
and
in comparison with
first
followed by
These words help the reader to follow the writer’s argument.
CONCLUSION
This unit aimed to provide you with the necessary skills and knowledge to develop your
academic English proficiency and skills and to become a critical text analyst. In this unit, we
have discussed and experimented with practical examples of language and its analysis for
academic purposes. We have focused on different text types and different ways of analysing
these texts. We have also demonstrated how language in social media is used for different
purposes, its appropriateness and its relevance. In doing so, we have discussed a critical
pragmatic approach to language analysis while also encouraging you to think about why
these conventions exist. Finally, in this unit we went on to distinguish between formal and
informal styles of writing. We hope that this unit acts as a scaffold to equip you with concepts,
strategies, language awareness and the relevant and appropriate knowledge to develop
your competencies as text analysts and writers for academic purposes.
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REFERENCES
Bailey, S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students 4th ed. London:
Routledge.
Freebody, P., & Luke, A. (1990). Literacies Programs: Debates and Demands in Cultural
Context. Prospect: An Australian Journal of TESOL, Vol. 5 (7), 7–16.
Gee, J.P. (1999). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method. London and
MacLachlan, G. & Reid, I. (1994). Framing and Interpretation. Melbourne: Melbourne

University Press.
Strauss, C.H.B. & Moller, E. (2002). Solutions for All English Home Language Grade 6
Learner’s Book. South Africa: Macmillan.
GLOSSARY
Multimodal responses
The use of alternative creative and artistic ways that can complement the written
interpretation of texts.
Text analyst
A person who critically examines the language and structure of texts and the visuals in texts
to interpret meaning.
Situated meanings
The use of the social context in which the communication takes place to interpret the
connotative meanings of visuals, patterns, ideas and words. The same word can have
different connotative meanings in different contexts.
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Social language
The language that is used by a particular group of people, with emphasis on communicating
a message rather than on grammatical correctness.
Question 1
1. Replace the following phrasal verbs with a single, more formal word.
1.1 The locals could not put up with the visitors from the town.
1.2 The decline was brought about by low-priced imports.
1.3 The school is thinking about installing CCTV.
1.4 Sales are likely to drop off in the last quarter.
1.5 He went on speaking for over two hours.
2. Rewrite the following sentences for academic purposes, correcting any errors in
grammar, style and register and rephrasing where necessary.
2.1 Congratulations!
2.2 There are a lot of people who don’t realise how lucky their.
2.3 But the rate of unemployment is exceptionally high.
2.4 So the people that motivated me are my family and friends.
2.5 I will discuss the benefits of using social media.
3. Refer to the blog written by Loraine B Delio in EXTRACT C. Rewrite her perspective
on the use of emoticons in essays in formal academic language.
Question 2
It is generally apt to use a combination of passive and active forms within academic writing.
Read the following extract from a book review taken from your prescribed textbook by Bailey,
and answer the questions that follow.
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EXTRACT G
This book has eight chapters. The editor writes the introductory and concluding chapters,
which hold the volume together. The first briefly contains the adoptive comparative approach
and methodological challenges faced in producing this study. Montero then goes on to argue
that the EU and the US offer two contrasting models of western modernity. The final chapter
argues that the process of constructing the EU has led to convergence, not divergence,
between the EU and the US. In between, are six sectoral chapters; of particular interest is
the third, by Kuhl, which argues that the quality of the democratic experience is in decline
on both sides of the Atlantic.
Bailey (2015: 214)
1. Is this extract written in the active or passive voice? Write down and explain two
examples.
2. Is this an example of formal or informal writing? How do you know this?
Question 3
1. Write your own introduction to an essay on the following topic:
“Texting language improves the creativity of students’ writing.”
2. Create an art trading card or a graffiti board to reflect your perspective on the topic
above.
Question 4
Refer to EXTRACT H, taken from the sample literature review from your prescribed textbook
by Bailey (2015: 212), and answer the questions that follow.
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EXTRACT H
CONTENT AND PROCESS THEORIES
The various theories of motivation are usually divided into content theories and process
theories. The former attempt to ‘develop an understanding of fundamental human needs’
(Cooper et al., 1992: 20). Among the most significant are Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
theory, McClellan’s achievement theory and Herzberg’s two-factor theory. The process
theories deal with the actual methods of motivating workers, and include the work of Vroom,
Locke and Adams.
Content Theories
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory was first published in 1943 and envisages a pyramid of
needs on five levels, each of which has to be satisfied before moving up to the next level.
The first level is physiological needs such as food and drink, followed by security, love,
esteem and self-fulfilment (Rollinson, 2005: 195–196). This theory was later revised by
Alderfer, who reduced the needs to three: existence, relatedness and growth, and re-named
it the ERG theory. In addition, he suggested that all three needs should be addressed
simultaneously (Steers et al., 2004: 381). McClelland had a slightly different emphasis when
he argued that individuals were primarily motivated by three principal needs: for
achievement, affiliation and power (Mullins, 2006: 199).
Mullins (2006: 199)
1. Quote three examples of different linguistic features used as cohesive devices in this
extract. Discuss the purpose of each as a linking device.
2. Summarise the difference between the theories of motivation proposed by Maslow,

Alderfer and McClelland, using appropriate linking devices.
3. Discuss one of the multimodal responses you would use to gain a deeper
understanding of the theories of motivation.
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SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Question 1
1.1 tolerate
1.2 caused
1.3 considering
1.4 decline
1.5 continued
2.1 Congratulations on your recent promotion.

2.2 Many people do not realise how fortunate they are.
2.3 However, the rate of unemployment has been increasing at the exceptionally high
rate of ten per cent per annum.
2.4 The people who motivated me include family members and friends.
2.5 The benefits of using social media will be discussed.
3. You should do a self-assessment of your response.

The rewritten blog must not contain any contractions, slang, impolite language or
informal language. The sentences should be grammatically correct (in other words,
punctuation, tense and spelling must be correct). The tone should be formal.
Question 2
1. Active voice: “The book has eight chapters” (subject is stated before the verb, and object
follows).
Passive voice: “The introductory and concluding chapters, which hold the volume
together, are written by the editor” (object is stated before the verb, and subject follows).
2. It is formal, demonstrating the key features of presenting a logical, well-structured

paragraph, for instance the development of a main idea, grammatically correct
sentences, and appropriate linking devices such as, “The final chapter argues…”
However, the use of incorrect punctuation may be considered as informal and therefore
discordant.
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Question 3
1.
It is a fact that the more students write, the more they improve their creative abilities
(Johnson, 1994). This essay argues that the power of text messaging has positively
reshaped the way in which students write. In this essay, it will firstly be argued that text
language improves the creativity of students’ writing. Secondly, the use of text language in
improving students’ confidence in writing will be discussed. Through an analysis of
qualitative responses in personal interviews with students and lecturers, it will be argued
that using texting language does enhance students’ creativity in writing.
2. Individual responses should use appropriate visual/s (words to support visuals may be
acceptable). Images should be reflective of positive OR negative perspectives.
Your responses will be discussed in detail on the e-tutor site.
Question 4
1. “The first level” – Announces the first level of Maslow’s theory
“followed by security” – Announces the other levels of Maslow’s theory.
“This theory” – Refers back to Maslow’s theory to avoid repetition.
“In addition, he suggested” – Provides more information about Alderfer’s
theory.
2. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory consists of five levels of needs. However, Alderfer
revised Maslow’s theory by reducing the needs to three levels. In contrast, McClelland
argues that human beings are motivated by three principal needs.
3. Individual responses should reflect originality and creativity to demonstrate focus on

the use of appropriate pictures, signs and symbols to reflect a clearly defined
perspective. On the graffiti board, words and visuals should complement each other.
The structure and layout of the visuals would be equally important.
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6 STUDY UNIT 5
WRITING CRITICALLY
OUTCOMES
• recognise and justify the value of owning your ideas;
• analyse a topic to establish key aspects and instructional verbs;
• establish and support your position in an argument;
• use words and phrases to link your ideas;
• apply strategies selectively to develop your argument;
• incorporate other perspectives in presenting a balanced argument;
• write appropriate introductions and conclusions;
• write coherent and logical arguments.
Bailey (2015)
• Background to Writing
• Finding Suitable Sources
• Developing Critical Approaches
• Cohesion
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INTRODUCTION
Most of us encounter a wide range of genres of writing daily, which is why it is so important
to be able to think and respond critically. In the previous units, we demonstrated the different
strategies you as a critical reader and writer could use in a multicultural context. In this unit,
we focus on how to use your critical reading and writing skills for academic purposes. Our
discussions in this unit are intended to improve your confidence further as you write critical
essays that require you to convey your perspective based on credible sources of information.
TAKING OWNERSHIP OF YOUR IDEAS

In the academic context in the past, the value of writing was emphasised mainly for testing
student learning. From this perspective, students engaged in activities in which they
manipulated information to convey ideas, and the benefits of writing were considered to lie
in the fact that students constructed knowledge. In constructing knowledge they developed
themselves, and, in turn, experienced the pleasure of authorship.
The value of academic writing in the present day is perceived completely differently.
Currently writing goes beyond the construction of knowledge. As we have demonstrated in
the previous units, writing has valuable social functions in the sense that it involves the
application of different skills. Therefore, you are expected to develop and use these skills in
unique and individual ways. The words you use, whether written, recorded or digitally
presented, belong to you, the writer. Be aware that these new contexts in which you are
expected to write highlight the importance of owning your ideas.
To support the notion of owning your ideas in writing, let us examine another perspective.
The processes of writing and reading are similar to speaking and listening in that, as a writer,
you voice (speak about) your perspective/s, and the reader pays attention (listens) to what
you have to say. As you may recall, in units 1 and 2 we referred to the importance of your
“voice” in positioning your arguments. A useful way to start owning your ideas is to think of
ways to bring your identity into your writing. Seligmann (2012) cites Dideon (1976), who
states that “In many ways, writing is the act of saying ‘I,’ of imposing oneself on other people,
of saying listen to me, see it my way, change your mind” (Seligmann, 2012: 257).The point
we are making here is that owning your ideas is about reflecting your identity in your writing.
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Allowing your identity to come through your writing involves projecting your voice into your
writing. We are not necessarily suggesting that you should write exactly as you speak, but
rather that your voice should come through in your individual approach to a topic. This
involves the unique way you develop a topic and the distinctive and substantial details you
provide to support your point of view.
TAKING OWNERSHIP OF YOUR WORDS

In order to own your ideas, you need to own your words. Writing can be seen as a system
of structures, which begins with words. You first connect words to form sentences. You then
connect these sentences to form paragraphs, which you connect further to form an essay.
A useful way of thinking about each level is that it has its own unique set of “blueprints” or a
design, which you create. Since words form the basic design (or blueprint) of your ideas,
they must be chosen carefully, bearing in mind the audience and purpose of your writing.
The texts you write are more than just words strung together. We have learnt from previous
study units that writing is closely connected to thinking critically about what you read. What
you have written is critically read and analysed. Therefore, your unique choice of words
should give your writing a sense of empowerment in conveying your intention.
The points that we have raised indicate that writing involves a sequence of choices that you
have to make. To begin with, you choose a topic or establish a perspective. Next, you
choose your approach, select the sources of information (evidence) that you think support
your perspective best, and then decide how to structure your ideas to frame your thesis
statement or perspective. When you are ready to write, your next task involves making
choices about the words you think work best to communicate your message and intention
accurately. In making these choices, ensure that your message is conveyed to your reader/s
clearly and concisely. This means that in choosing your words, you should avoid wordiness,
vagueness and awkwardness. We discussed some of these strategies in units 2 and 4.
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Activity 5.1
Read EXTRACT A, which has been taken from an online article by Dönges (2009: 14–15),
and respond to the questions which follow.
EXTRACT A
No one doubts that the words we write or speak are an expression of our inner thoughts and
personalities. But beyond the meaningful content of language, a wealth of unique insights
into an author’s mind are hidden in the style of a text — in such elements as how often
certain words and word categories are used, regardless of context.
It is how an author expresses his or her thoughts that reveals character, asserts social
psychologist James W. Pennebaker of the University of Texas at Austin. When people try
to present themselves a certain way, they tend to select what they think are appropriate
nouns and verbs, but they are unlikely to control their use of articles and pronouns. These
small words create the style of a text, which is less subject to conscious manipulation.
Pennebaker’s statistical analyses have shown that these small words may hint at the healing
progress of patients and give us insight into the personalities and changing ideals of public
figures, from political candidates to terrorists.
Dönges (2009: 14–15)
1. Identify some of the ways mentioned in EXTRACT A in which words can convey a
writer’s identity.
2. Reflect on your response in activity 1.2 in unit 1. Identify words and phrases that
provide hints about your identity as the writer to a reader.
Feedback commentary
According to Dönges, a writer’s identity can be revealed in his/her style of writing. This
includes how often certain words and word categories are used as well as the types of
articles and pronouns selected in the writing.
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Responses to Question 2 will vary and depend on the individual comments made on the two
writers’ perspectives. While some of you would consider yourselves to be conservative and
conformist in your writing, others may reveal your identity as feminist or liberal writers in the
texts you create. We wanted you to quote words or phrases used in your response to activity
1.2 in unit 1 to support your identity as a writer.
Further discussions on this activity will be held on the e-tutor site.
UNDERSTANDING THE TOPIC

The first important step in critical writing is to understand the topic. A common strategy is to
first conduct a topic analysis. This will help you to identify those aspects that you need to
cover in your essay. In identifying the key aspects required, you will be able to develop an
outline of your essay. An analysis of the topic should provide you with clues as to how you
should approach and carry out key aspects of the task.
The following is a useful four-step action plan that you can adapt and incorporate into your
own writing style.
1. Begin by carefully reading the topic;

2. Underline keywords;
3. Explain the topic in your own words; then
4. Outline/plan your essay structure.
Let us discuss the four-step plan further on the basis of an example:
Topic
Academic qualifications are of little practical benefit in the real world – Discuss.
Step 1
The main topic is “academic qualifications”.
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Step 2
Here the key words are “discuss”, “little practical benefit” and “real world”. “Discuss” is an
instruction. You are expected to examine the benefits and drawbacks of academic
qualifications.
The words “little practical benefit” suggest that academic qualifications have insignificant or
limited value or use in our everyday lives. “Real world” refers to actual life experiences.
Step 3
You need to establish your perspective by evaluating the positives and negatives of
academic qualifications in real life.
Step 4
Here you need to consider what to discuss in the three main parts of the essay structure,
namely the
• Introduction,
• main body and
• conclusion.
What follows is a possible plan (adapted from Bailey, 2003: 7) for the topic:
Introduction variety of different qualifications

different methods of assessment
Benefits international standards for professions, e.g. the medical profession
students have the opportunity to study the latest theories
qualifications lead to better salaries and promotion
Drawbacks many successful people don’t have qualifications
many qualified people do not have jobs
Conclusion Qualifications are useful, but do not guarantee successs
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As this is a discussion essay, how you present the advantages and drawbacks of academic
qualifications would depend on your conclusion. You could present the advantages of
academic qualifications first, followed by the disadvantages, or you could structure this
section differently.
Activity 5.2
1. Underline the key words in the following essay questions and consider what you are
expected to do in each case.
1.1 Define information technology (IT) and outline its main applications in medicine.
1.2 Compare and contrast the language used in the following news headlines taken from
News24. (Hint: you should relate your comments to the intended target audience and
purpose of the article.)
Why the listeriosis outbreak is 'just the

tip of the iceberg'
Tiger Brands could lose R50 million a month, every month, if

nobody wants to eat polony again – on top of R802 million in
possible listeriosis costs
UPDATE: Listeriosis death toll rises to 60

Feedback commentary
This question is aimed at developing your skills in analysing questions to establish the main
aspects of the question that you should focus on in your response. In underlining the key
words in the question, you would be identifying the main aspects of the topic of your essay.
Note that you should also underline instructional key verbs that guide you on how you should
focus on the different aspects of the topic. You should also decide how much importance to
give to each of these underlined aspects in your essay. For example, for question 1.1 it
would be appropriate to devote 10% of your essay to the definition and 90% to outlining the
application of IT in medicine (Bailey, 2015: 34).
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Define - explain what information technology is

Outline – identify and describe the main features of information technology that are
applied in medicine
In Question 1.2, underlining the following keywords would have helped you to establish the
focal aspects of the question as follows:
• Language – main topic
• news headlines – specifies the context of language use
• audience – who is the target audience?
• purpose – why were these headlines written?
• Compare and contrast – examine the similarities and differences in the language,
audience and purpose in the given newspaper headlines
• Relate your comments – Show how the examples of language used in the
headlines are either effective or ineffective in influencing the target audience and
in achieving the intended purpose
Following the suggested approach to the analysis of a question is crucial to ensuring that
your essay is relevant and focused.
For further discussions on this activity, refer to the e-tutor module site.
ESTABLISHING YOUR STANDPOINT

How successful you are as a critical writer depends on how you present your argument. The
first step is for you to take a particular position on the topic. Reflect your position clearly in
a thesis statement. Your thesis statement is usually presented in your introduction. It is
written as a statement in which you make a claim about a topic. In a persuasive essay, your
thesis statement establishes your personal standpoint. Your thesis statement should also
serve as the principal organising idea for you as the writer. This means that it should help
you to structure your arguments based on evidence to support your claim. These
arguments should form the paragraphs in the body of your essay. Therefore, your thesis
statement should serve a two-fold purpose for the reader: the claim you make as a writer
should inform your reader of your position or perspective on the topic and provide a
‘roadmap’ suggesting the direction the essay will take.
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Read the following example, in which the writing task is presented first, followed by the thesis
statement, which is presented below it in bold.
Writing Task
Educators often discuss whether high school sports have a positive influence on students.
Some educators think high school sports do have a positive influence because the lessons
learned from athletic competition add to the lessons learned in the classroom. Other
educators think high school sports do not have a positive influence because the emphasis
on sports often overshadows student achievement in other areas. In your opinion, do high
school sports have a positive influence on students? (JP Schools, 2017)
Thesis statement:
High school sports unquestionably have a positive influence on high school students
because they teach social skills, reinforce time-management skills, provide exercise
and show the benefits of hard work.
Activity 5.3
Write a thesis statement for the following writing task:
Should cell phones be banned in schools?
Feedback commentary
Cell phones have a negative impact on learning, and as a result, they should be prohibited
for various reasons.
OR
Cell phones are necessary for communication between learners and their families.
LINKING YOUR IDEAS FOR COHERENCE

As a critical writer, you should always aim for coherence in your writing. This involves linking
your ideas so that your arguments flow logically. A variety of linguistic (language) devices
can be used to link your ideas. Among these are transition words, which signal to the reader
the direction the argument is taking.
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What follows is a discussion of the ways in which you can use different words and phrases
to link your arguments by:
• introducing your line of reasoning;

• reinforcing a line of reasoning;
• strengthening your argument;
• introducing alternative arguments;
• allowing for comparison and contrast; or
• expressing results and consequences.
Let us examine more closely how each of these strategies functions by using examples of
appropriate words and phrases.
INTRODUCING YOUR LINE OF REASONING

As a writer, you need to signal to your reader that you are introducing your line of reasoning.
The following are examples of words you can use to indicate that you are opening your
argument.
first; to begin with; at the outset; initially
EXAMPLES
• To begin with, the various aspects of critical reading will be outlined.
• At the outset, a brief history of the context of educational change in South Africa will be
discussed.
• Initially, it was believed that assessment served the primary purpose of testing what
students had learnt.
Reinforcing a line of reasoning

The following words can be used to support and develop your angle of reasoning.
also; in addition; besides; too; furthermore; moreover
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EXAMPLE
• In addition to a discussion of the benefits of face-to-face lectures, the value of online
activities will be presented.
Adding similar reasons

The following are examples of words that may be used to add reasons similar to those
already presented.
similarly; equally; likewise; in the same way
EXAMPLE
In the same way that we explore the benefits of exercise, we will focus on the value of a healthy
diet.
Adding different reasons

The following are examples of words that may be used when a writer wishes to add new
and different reasons.
in addition; besides; as well as; not only; but also
EXAMPLE
Not only can exercise help you to lose weight, it is also believed to relieve stress.
Strengthening your argument

The following are examples of words that may be used when a writer wishes to add to the
line of reasoning to make a more convincing case.
furthermore; moreover
EXAMPLE
The company is likely to hire applicants who show strong analytical skills. Furthermore,
creativity and initiative will be taken into account.
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Introducing alternative arguments

The following are examples of words that may be used when you critically evaluate other
perspectives or points of view.
alternatively; others argue that; it might be argued that; conversely; on the contrary
EXAMPLE
While there is a compelling argument for the use of smart devices by students in the
classroom, others argue that it may be a source of distraction.
Disproving alternative arguments

The following are examples of words that may be used when you disprove other
perspectives or indicate their weaknesses.
however; on the other hand; nonetheless; notwithstanding this
EXAMPLE
There is a strong global drive towards online learning. However, students in a number of countries
do not have access to the internet.
Contrasting and contradicting

The following are examples of words that may be used when a writer wishes to contrast
one line of reasoning with another.
conversely; contrastingly; by contrast; on the one hand
EXAMPLE
There is a strong body of support for the use of social media platforms for teaching and
learning in first world countries. Conversely, the use of social media as a teaching and
learning tool is discouraged in developing countries.
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Expressing results and consequences

The following are examples of words that may be used when you state the consequences
of the evidence presented.
as a result; consequently; hence; thus
EXAMPLE
The group of students did not complete their assignments. As a result, they were not permitted to
write the examination.
Words used to signpost conclusions

The following are examples of words that may be used when a writer wishes to lead
the reader towards the conclusion.
therefore; thus; we can see; it is clearly evident that
EXAMPLE
In view of the points discussed earlier, we can see how beneficial community engagement is
for both the teaching and learning processes.
Activity 5.4
The topic for this task remains:
1. Use appropriate linking words (excluding those used in the examples) to:
a. introduce your argument;
b. reinforce your line of reasoning;
c. add different reasons;
a. strengthen your argument;
b. disprove alternative arguments;
c. contrast and contradict ideas;
d. express results and consequences;
e. signpost your conclusion.
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2. Examine an article related to your field of interest. Identify the linking words the writer
uses to:
a) introduce the main argument;
b) sustain the argument and
c) conclude the argument.
3. Carefully read EXTRACT B. Insert signal words to signpost the development of the
argument.
EXTRACT B
Globalisation appears to be inevitable but there is disagreement about whether this is a
positive development. There are those who argue that increased contact between countries
leads to better understanding and reduces the likelihood of future wars. They see benefits
to democracy and human rights from information being widely available electronically, so
that different nations can compare conditions in their country with those elsewhere. Some
see globalisation as a destructive force. They argue that it leads to less powerful peoples
losing their indigenous languages as the languages of more powerful countries are used
internationally for business and politics. They argue that globalisation often means big
business buying up resources and land in poorer countries, distorting local economies and
draining their resources. Although there are some potential benefits to globalisation, some
controls are needed to protect poorer economies from exploitation.
Cottrell (2011: 181)
Feedback commentary
1.
a. Introduce your argument: At the outset
b. Reinforce your line of reasoning: Furthermore
c. Add different reasons: Besides
d. Strengthen your argument: Moreover
e. Disprove alternative arguments: However
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f. Contrast and contradict ideas: Conversely

g. Express results and consequences: As a result
h. Signpost your conclusion: Therefore
NB: Answers may vary.
4. Responses will vary according to the article selected.
5.
EXTRACT B
Globalisation appears to be inevitable but there is disagreement about whether this is a
positive development. On the one hand, there are those who argue that increased
contact between countries leads to better understanding and reduces the likelihood of
future wars. They see benefits to democracy and human rights from information being
widely available electronically, so that different nations can compare conditions in their
country with those elsewhere. On the other hand, others see globalisation as a
destructive force. They argue that it leads to less powerful peoples losing their indigenous
languages as the languages of more powerful countries are used internationally for
business and politics. In addition, they argue that globalisation often means big business
buying up resources and land in poorer countries, distorting local economies and draining
their resources. Although there are some potential benefits to globalisation, some controls
are needed to protect poorer economies from exploitation.
SUPPORTING YOUR POSITION

One of your key responsibilities in academic writing is to present sound arguments. In order
to create a sound argument, you need to provide evidence to support your reasoning.
Mayberry (2002: 8), cited in Seligmann (2012: 257), states the value of supporting one’s
position in an argument: “Without adequate support, a claim remains merely an opinion; with
appropriate support, it becomes a credible conclusion”. In simple terms, this means that it is
imperative that you provide solid reasons to support your arguments.
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The table below illustrates the two main sources of information: primary or secondary, which you
can provide in support of your argument (Seligmann, 2012: 258).
Type of source Manner in which obtained Examples of sources

Primary sources Based on your own personal Interviews, experiments, surveys,
research personal experience, anecdotes
Secondary sources Based on the work others Books, periodicals, websites,
have done in order to news reports
contribute to research and the
body of knowledge
We will discuss how you would acknowledge these sources of information in unit 6. Once
again, as a critical writer, you should be mindful of the credibility of different sources of
information you use to support your argument. Let us dig deeper into what this means to you
as a critical writer.
Regardless of the kind of source we use, its credibility is paramount (Seligmann, 2012). When
considering the issue of sources, you will encounter two main types of evidence: reputable
sources, and everything else. A reputable source is considered to have credibility. This means
that it is likely to contain accurate information. Another characteristic is that it stems from
expertise, which is research-based. Furthermore, it is likely to be acknowledged in the
academic discipline as an authority. The most reliable sources are articles published in
reputable journals, because in order to be regarded as worthy of publication, they have to
pass through a strict peer review process conducted by academics who are experts in the
field. Be on your guard against predatory journals, which are not reputable sources of
information.
The skill of being able to distinguish between fact and opinion is also central to the ability to
support your position (Seligmann, 2012). A fact is defined in Seligmann (2012: 258) as
“something that can be proved empirically and that is supported with evidence that can be
verified (proven true)”. Statistics and quotations fall into this category. Opinions are defined
in Seligmann (2012: 258) as “statements of evaluation, judgement, belief or feeling”.
Opinions cannot be proved true or false because they are rooted in personal views.
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Activity 5.5
Study the following statements about education. Decide which statements are facts and
which are opinions.
1. Education is a continuing process from birth to death.

2. Teachers no longer have any authority in the classroom.
3. Children who grow up in large families are more sociable.
4. A school certificate is an essential requirement for any kind of employment in all
industrialised countries.
5. Children learn more from their peers than they do from their parents or teachers.
Adapted from Seligmann (2012: 259)
Feedback commentary
1. Education is a continuing process from birth to death. (Opinion)
2. Teachers no longer have any authority in the classroom. (Opinion)
3. Children who grow up in large families are more sociable. (Opinion)
4. A school certificate is an essential requirement for any kind of employment in all
industrialised countries. (Fact)
5. Children learn more from their peers than they do from their parents or teachers.
(Opinion)
The next step is to decide which evidence is valid and can be used in support of the
argument you make. The four main commonly recognised factors that you should bear in
mind when examining the credibility of the sources of information you use as evidence are
illustrated in figure 5.1 below.
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Sound Evidence
Relevant Valid Current Reliable
Figure 5.1: Factors to consider when providing evidence
Relevance
Be aware that a potential reader will probably evaluate your ideas. The reader will therefore
consider two important things:
• Is your evident relevant to your topic?
• How does your evidence substantiate your reasoning? Remember that your evidence
should support and not contradict your conclusion.
Validity
This means that the evidence has to be authentic. Here you should investigate whether the
person who claims credit for it in fact produced the material. If evidence is not authentic,
complete or based on sound reasoning, it may not be valid. The reader will therefore
consider two important things:
• Is your evidence authentic and valid?
• Is your evidence authentic, complete and based on sound reasons?
Currency
Your main question here is whether the evidence presented is still relevant at the time of
your writing. Consider whether the source of information has been recently published,
whether it has been updated, or whether it is outdated. Checking the currency of a
source helps you to ensure that you are keeping track of possible new research that
might have appeared.
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The reader will therefore consider two important things:

• Is the information presented relevant?
• Does the evidence consider recent research?
Reliability
This relates to whether the evident can be trusted. It is necessary to ascertain whether
the source of the evidence is a trustworthy person or a recognised expert. Also, consider
whether the evident has stability across time. The reader will therefore consider two
important things:
• How reliable is the evidence?
• Is the source of the evidence trustworthy?
From our discussions thus far, you should have come to the realisation that selecting the
best evidence is an important part of writing critically. What follows is a set of further
questions that can help you to assess the credibility of a source:
• Is the source of the evidence dependable? For example, does the evidence come from
a journal or a book, rather than the newspaper?
• Is there a clear trail of reasoning?
• What supporting evidence is provided in this source?
• Does it include a list of references?
As a critical writer, you should be well aware of your responsibility to acknowledge the
sources you use in your writing by citing them correctly. This is something we will be
speaking about in detail in unit 6. For the present, however, here is a list of the main reasons
for citing sources.
• You need to show your reader that you have investigated the ideas of authorities or
experts to support your argument.
• You need to show that you are a responsible scholar by giving credit to or
acknowledging the ideas of other writers.
• You need to avoid plagiarism by acknowledging the words and ideas of other authors.
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• You need to provide readers with the option of locating the sources you have consulted
and acknowledged in your writing. Your reader will be able to follow your trail of sources
only if you have cited them accurately by means of footnotes, a bibliography or a
reference list.
Activity 5.6
Read EXTRACTS C and D. Ascertain whether the evidence and reasons are relevant to
the conclusion.
EXTRACT C
Ice Age
Winters are getting colder. Opinion polls show that most people think there is a new Ice
Age on the way. Therefore, we need to take measures to ensure that fuel resources are
managed so that nobody is left to suffer from extreme cold during forthcoming winters.
EXTRACT D
Mr Charlton was given information, in confidence, that the price of shares in MKP2 Oils
would rise suddenly if new of the new promotion reached the press before the share price
was adjusted. Mr Charlton bought 50,000 shares in MKP2 Oils and leaked news of the
promotion to the press. As a result, he made ten million pounds personal profit. We can
conclude that Mr Charlton abused the trust of the company and cheated it financially.
Feedback commentary
In EXTRACT C, the statement that winters are getting colder is relevant to the conclusion
about managing fuel resources. However, no evidence is given to substantiate this
statement. The evidence from polls takes the form of opinions, not facts, and this is not a
reliable source to support the conclusion. An opinion remains just an opinion, even if it is
held by many people. The validity of an argument or evidence should not be based solely
on opinions, even if they are in the majority.
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In EXTRACT D, Mr Charlton is accused of betraying the confidentiality agreement. Statistics

such as the number of shares and profit made by Mr Charlton before the price adjustment
was made public are provided to support the argument that his action abused the trust of
the company. He acted out of self-interest at the company's expense.
INCORPORATING OTHER PERSPECTIVES

Now that we have established that as a critical writer you need to provide credible evidence
to support your arguments, we can go on to discuss another of your responsibilities as a
critical writer: in addition to providing other perspectives, you also need to rebut them
(Seligmann, 2012). In other words, you need to develop counter arguments. First, we need
to examine the term ‘rebut’, to understand fully the concept of counter arguments. When you
rebut an argument, you provide reasons to reject other possible perspectives because they
are not sound arguments. You would adopt this approach as part of being critical and
showing the reader that you have explored all other arguments that have the potential to
discredit your perspective of the argument. When you analyse other perspectives you are
indicating that you have a broad and balanced understanding of the topic. This approach
also establishes your credibility as a scholarly writer.
Conceding and refuting an argument are also part of counter argumentation. When you
concede, you are agreeing with the argument. When you refute an argument, you are
disagreeing with it. You should also be aware that when you present an argument, you also
make claims regarding certain issues. It is the responsibility of any critical writer to accept
that your claims are subject to a rebuttal from your readers. Therefore, as a critical writer,
you are required to “identify the central position in an argument, support that position with
reasonable, relevant and concrete evidence, and admit the possibility of alternative points
of view” (Seligmann, 2012: 267).
We have adapted some of the phrases Seligmann (2012: 267) proposes to concede or
refute arguments:
Broadly speaking, Bailey’s claim may be valid. However, it can be argued that…
While it is true that …, nonetheless …
Even though some of the arguments are …
Of course, there are arguments for … Even so …
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While the first point may be true, it can be stated that …

While conceding to … one can argue …
The author’s arguments are persuasive …
The validity of these claims is questionable. First, let us examine …
Note how the main arguments are presented in EXTRACT E that follows.
EXTRACT E
The use of collaborative small-group work has attracted a lot of research interest in education in
recent years. Learners take responsibility for their own learning in a co-operative, problem-solving
environment in which each member is required to make his or her contribution to the group. The role
of the teacher is that of a facilitator, providing support, but not steering the learners towards pre-
prepared outcomes. Research findings suggest that there are several advantages to co-operative
work. Along with involving learners in enhancing learning, working together in groups can foster
positive relations between learners and help them improve their social interaction. It also helps
learners develop their communication skills. In addition, learners who work together co-operatively
are likely to build team skills that will be crucial for their success in later life.
Seligmann (2012: 268)
Activity 5.7
Identify the counter arguments in EXTRACT F, which is a continuation of EXTRACT E.
EXTRACT F
Critics, however, warn that unless group activities are well organised and monitored, they can
become problematic. Not all children have the necessary social skills to interact positively with their
peers. In addition, critics argue that group activity is much more time-consuming and can encourage
rowdy behaviour. There is also no way of assessing whether or not all members of the group are
participating in the learning process. A natural leader may dominate and control the group's activities,
resulting in the majority of work being done by one person. Alternately, there are children who use
group activity to cop out or fool around and make little or no contribution to the group. These
criticisms are valid and group work thus needs to be carefully planned and structured if it is to be
effective. In class, activities need to be carefully explained, and the goals and desired outcomes
clearly stated.
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Feedback commentary
Note that when you write an academic essay, you make an argument: you propose a thesis
and offer some reasoning, using evidence that suggests why the thesis is true. When you
counter-argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis or some aspect of your
reasoning.
The counter argument is that not all children have the necessary social skills to interact
positively with their peers. Since group activity is more time-consuming and can encourage
rowdy behaviour, there is also no way of assessing whether or not all members of the group
are participating in the learning process. Another counter argument provided is that some
children often fool around and make little or no contribution to the group.
Another responsibility when incorporating other perspectives is to avoid bias and to aim to
be objective (Seligmann, 2012). If an idea surfaces from our personal feelings, it is likely to
be subjective, and therefore biased. Our ideas should stem from rational thought. According
to Seligmann (2012), bias could be present when a writer:
• misrepresents the ideas of others;

• oversimplifies an issue;
• presents a point as factual, when it is in fact emotionally loaded with favourable or
unfavourable associations;
• distorts information;
• presents incomplete information; or
• misleads the reader with information presented.
DEVELOPING YOUR IDEAS

Critical writing is all about presenting a convincing argument to your readers. A convincing
argument provides sound reasoning, uses relevant evidence, compares and evaluates
alternative arguments, weighs up conflicting evidence, and forms judgements based on
evidence provided. It is clear that you not only have to think carefully about how you select
your evidence, but also that you have to use language skilfully to convey your judgements
of ideas.
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In this section, we provide you with a set of strategies to develop your critical
arguments/perspectives more effectively. These strategies are illustrated in figure 5.2 below.
A detailed discussion on each strategy follows.
•Set the scene for the • Use strategic words

reader and phrases to
•Establish your signpost your
standpoint argument
•Consider how much
detail to provide
The writer's
perspective/
Purpose and
argument audience
Sources of
information and Language
structure
•Aim for a balance
of detailed analysis
and evidence •Watch punctuation
•Use transition and grammar
markers to connect •Avoid jargon
ideas •Aim to be logical and
•Use strategic well structured
discourse markers to
show the sequence
of your ideas
Figure 5.2. Argument development
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The writer’s perspective/argument

Setting the scene for your reader is vital in any form of writing. Skilful writing involves more
than simply providing reasons for your argument. The circumstances that produce the
argument are also important considerations. Aspects such as the reader’s background
information (schemata), their needs and expectations, and what they will already know are
vital. These aspects will give you a better sense of the kind of evidence optimally needed to
convince a particular type of audience.
An important consideration in critical writing is how much detail to provide in order to support
your argument. If you present too much detail, it is possible that the main argument will
become obscured. A possible outcome is that your reader may lose interest in keeping track
of your points, and see the argument as weak. On the other hand, if you present too little
detail, you may be suggesting that you do not have enough concrete evidence to support
your case. Strong critical writing should reflect a balance of thorough analysis and evidence.
It is also important to spend time thinking about the best order or sequence in which you
present your information. Carefully consider what information should be read first by the
audience to obtain the intended sense of the argument. When you decide on a particular
sequence, read and re-read your writing to determine the best order. This ensures the clarity
of your ideas. More important, check whether the reader would be able to follow the line of
reasoning.
Purpose and audience

When you speak, you use various forms of body language to communicate your messages.
The audience uses these non-verbal cues such as your tone, pitch, pace, gestures and
expressions, to make sense of the message you are conveying. The situation is different
when it comes to writing: readers have to be oriented to your messages in different ways.
Therefore, it is vital for you to be aware of your potential readers and the kinds of cues
they need in order to make sense of your written messages. Therefore, first set the
context of your argument, then develop a clear line of reasoning and use strategic words and
phrases to signpost your argument to the reader.
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Language
Good critical writing prioritises clarity. If your aim is to convince the reader, the style of writing
you adopt should help your reader understand your point easily. If you write long,
complicated or poorly punctuated sentences, your reader will have difficulty following your
argument. Try as far as possible to stick to the facts and avoid emotional content, flowery
language and jargon. If you need to use technical language, keep it simple and avoid
overwhelming your reader with complexity. You may recall from our discussions in unit 1 that
different people may interpret your work differently. Be aware that your work may convey
unintended messages. A skilful writer checks through their writing several times, looking for
any awkward phrases that could lead to an incorrect interpretation by readers. Critical writing
therefore demands that you follow the process of re-drafting and continuous editing so that
the final piece is clear, logical and well structured.
Structuring your argument

A key objective in academic writing is to lead your readers effortlessly through your
argument. One of the ways to achieve this objective is to ‘signpost’ your argument for the
reader. This involves using strategic words, discourse markers and phrases to guide the
reader through the argument. In a sense, you use these kinds of words and phrases to link
points with previous or subsequent ideas. In other words, success in your writing will hinge
on how you have sequenced your ideas. However, good signposting is not only about
sequencing your ideas in a way that helps the reader to follow your specific line of reasoning.
It is also about how your use of discourse markers guides the reader through your argument.
You want your readers to follow your argument, so plan your writing in such a way that your
most important points stand out clearly. You also need to make it easier for your readers to
connect points to arrive at a full understanding of the main argument. You will recall from
earlier discussions that discourse markers aid cohesion and coherence.
Activity 5.8
Read EXTRACT G critically.
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EXTRACT G
My first teacher, Joseph Calmon, was a Frenchman and schooled entirely in France,
receiving his Ph.D. at a French university. Being European, Calmon knew more about the
subject matter than many other historians and gave obscure, but very interesting, pieces of
information not readily available to the average American or non-European historian. For
example, his detailed descriptions of Napoleon's influence on the French people provided
me with a great insight into Napoleon and his motivations. Unfortunately, his perspective of
European history was not in the least bit unbiased, nor did he attempt to separate his obvious
French favouritism from his presentation of a thorough and overall history. This was the case
when Calmon proudly gave full credit for the entire Enlightenment to the various French
philosophers of the time. The class really should have been retitled, "The French Impression
of European History." Calmon was indeed a very patriotic and conservative Frenchman who
would let it be known just how the French saw other European countries and nations in other
parts of the world.
Discuss whether the writing is free of bias. Support your answer by making close reference
to specific aspects of the extract.
Feedback commentary
Responses should focus on the writer’s opinion of Mr Calmon as a History teacher. He states
his opinion of Mr Calmon, which is based on his personal experience as one of Mr Calmon’s
students. He uses personal pronouns such “my” and “me” to show that his opinion is biased.
However, he gives credibility to his opinion by stating Mr Calmon’s academic qualification
(Ph.D.), and describing him as a knowledgeable “European” who made his history lessons
“interesting” and provided “great insight” through his “detailed descriptions”.
On the other hand, “obscure” in the first paragraph, and “Unfortunately” as the opening word
of the second paragraph prepare us for the writer’s view that Mr Calmon was biased in his
teaching. The repetition of the pronoun “his”, the statement that the lesson “should have
been retitled, ‘The French Impression of European History’" and the observation “nor did he
attempt to separate his obvious French favouritism” collectively support the writer’s
argument that Mr Calmon was biased.
This question will be discussed further on the e-tutor site.
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SUMMING UP YOUR POSITION

Signalling to your reader that your argument is drawing to a close is another key duty of a
critical writer. Some of the suggestions offered by key writers in the field of academic writing
are:
• Conclude by summarising the central idea in your essay.
• Re-state the principal idea that you presented in your introduction. Express this in
different words from those used in the introduction.
• Avoid adding further arguments or new ideas after you have indicated your intention
to wrap up.
The following transition phrases can be used to signal the closure of arguments presented
in a critical essay:
• From the arguments presented…

• It is evident that…
• For these reasons, ...
Activity 5.9
Read EXTRACT H, which is taken from an essay related to learning disabilities, and then
answer the questions that follow.
EXTRACT H
In sum, dyslexia is a real disability, which affects every aspect of a person's life. It is not
some marginal disability that applies to anyone who has trouble with names or who
demonstrates poor spelling or penmanship. Nor is having a learning disability simply
reversing letters or having trouble with reading because you see things backward, as the
myth goes. In fact, dyslexics do require certain aids, whether these involve extra time on
tests, tutoring, or books on tape, in order to be able to compensate for their disability.
1. List words or phrases that the writer uses to signal the conclusion of his/her arguments
at the end of the essay.
2. Explain the method of wrapping up (concluding) that this particular writer has chosen.
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3. Evaluate the effectiveness of the writer’s strategy in the concluding paragraph.
Feedback commentary
1. In sum, Nor, In fact
2. The writer summarises the main points and re-states his/her thesis statement.
3. This style is effective because it provides a final chance for the writer to persuade the
readers of his/her point of view. This style conveys a sense of completeness and
closure as well as a sense of the larger significance of the topic and its implications.
CONCLUSION
In this unit, we drew attention to the value and benefits of writing critically, and considered
various facets of this activity. The first of these entailed recognising and justifying the value
of owning ideas. We then looked at how to analyse a topic and establish key aspects and
instructional verbs. Another aspect we examined was that of establishing a standpoint in an
argument as well as applying strategies selectively to develop an argument. We also paid
attention to the strategies involved in presenting a balanced argument and writing appropriate
introductions and conclusions. We concluded the unit with a discussion of how to write
coherent and logical arguments. As you engage with these aspects, bear in mind that
learning to write critically is a developmental process. Through your ongoing engagement
with the ideas in this unit, you are more likely to be able to incorporate them into your current
skills set.
REFERENCES
Bailey, S. (2003). Academic Writing: A Practical Guide for Students. London: Routledge.
London: Routledge.
Cottrell, S. (2011). Critical Thinking Skills: Developing Effective Analysis and Argument.
Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Dönges, J. (2009). You are what you say. Scientific American Mind, 20, 14–
15.https://www.nature.com/scientificamericanmind/journal/v20/n4/pdf/scientificameri
canmind0709-14.pdf. Accessed 2017, November 20.
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JP Schools. (2017). Online worksheet. Retrieved from gretnamiddle.jpschools.org/wp-

content/uploads/.../Thesis-Statements-Practice-1.doc Accessed 2018, November
17.
Seligmann, J. (2012). Academic Literacy for Education Students. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press Southern Africa.
GLOSSARY
Credibility
A reputable source is considered to have credibility. This means that it is likely to convey
accurate information and emerge from expertise that is research based.
Opinions
These are personal statements of evaluation, judgement, belief or feeling. Opinions cannot
be proved true or false, because they are rooted in personal views.
Rebuttal
This refers to providing reasons to reject another possible perspective because it is not a
sound argument.
Counter argument
This is a claim against an argument.
A convincing argument
This is an argument that reflects sound reasoning, draws on relevant evidence, compares
and evaluates alternative arguments, weighs up conflicting evidence, and leads to
judgements based on evidence provided.
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Question 1
Write an essay in which you establish and support your position in an argument on the
following topic:
Trace the development towards transformation in primary education in South Africa.

Illustrate some of the issues currently facing this sector.
Question 2
Read EXTRACT I below critically. Discuss whether the writing is free of bias or not. Support
your answer by making close reference to specific aspects of the extract.
EXTRACT I
There has been considerable discussion recently about the benefits of omega-3 fatty
acids in the diet. It is claimed that these reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and
may even combat obesity. Consequently, food producers have added omega-3s to
products ranging from margarine to soft drinks in an attempt to make their products
appear healthier and hence increase sales.
However, consumers may be unaware that there are two types of omega-3s. The
best (long-chain fatty acids) are derived from fish, but others (short-chain fatty acids)
come from cheaper sources such as soya. This latter group have not been shown to
produce the health benefits linked to the long-chain variety. According to Tamura et
al. (2009), positive results may only be obtained either by eating oily fish three times
a week, or by taking daily supplements containing 500mg of eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Bailey (2015: 6)
Question 3
You have been tasked to write an essay on tourism marketing. Compare EXTRACT J and
EXTRACT K in terms of their value as credible sources to support your arguments.
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EXTRACT J
To promote tourism and market destination, it is important to study the tourists’
attitude, behaviour and demand. The studies of Levitt (1986) and Kotler and
Armstrong (1994) suggest that an understanding of consumer behaviour may help
with the marketing and planning process in tourism marketing. The research of
consumer behaviour is the key to the underpinning of all marketing activity, which is
carried out to develop, promote and sell tourism products (Swarbrooke and Horner,
1999; Asad, 2005). Therefore, the study of consumer behaviour has become
necessary for the sake of tourism marketing.
Bailey (2015: 10)
EXTRACT K
The romance of travel has always fascinated me, and our recent trip to Thailand lived
up to expectations. We flew from Dubai and after a comfortable flight arrived in
Bangkok just as the sun was rising. Our stay in the city lasted only a couple of days
before we set off for the hill country around Chang Mai, where we were planning to
visit some of the indigenous tribes who live in this mountainous region. When we
arrived the weather was rather disappointing, but after a day, the heavy rain gave
way to sparkling clear sunshine.
Bailey (2015: 10)
Feedback on self- assessment questions

Question 1
Each of you will have written something different. However, you should have begun with an
introduction in which you laid the foundation of your argument concerning transformation in
primary education in South Africa. This would have involved presenting a sentence that
attracts the reader’s attention, providing background information, and then presenting a
thesis statement in which your position on the topic and a reason for the chosen stance is
given.
In the body of the essay, you would have developed your argument about transformation in
primary education in South Africa. In each body paragraph, you should have presented
points of evidence to back up the claim/s made in the introduction. You should have provided
supporting evidence for each claim made. Evidence should have come from reliable
sources. In the body, you needed to state any opponents’ views and then offer a rebuttal.
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In the conclusion, you needed to accomplish two important tasks. The first was to restate
the importance of transformation in primary education in South Africa. Similar to what was
done in the introduction, you should have restated why this topic is critical. In the final part
of the conclusion, you should have encouraged the target audience to reflect on the
ramifications of your argument.
Question 2
Recognising bias takes practice. The article does not contain evidence of bias:
• The writer does not use emotionally charged (overly positive or overly negative)
language about the topic. The language comes across as objective.
• The writer uses very specific and concise language in dealing with the subject (“long-
chain fatty acids are derived from fish”). The writer does not add information and
evidence that seems unnecessary just to bolster his/her point.
• The writer does not omit important facts, and states facts clearly (“there are two types
of omega-3s”).
• The writer cites his/her sources comprehensively and accurately.
Responses should have integrated examples from the extract as supporting evidence of the
objective and unbiased style of writing.
Question 3
TEXT CREDIBILITY
J Yes, it summarises some relevant research and includes citations.
K No, the ideas are too general and personal. It does not include research.
There are no citations.
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7 STUDY UNIT 6
WRITING WITH INTEGRITY
OUTCOMES
• identify and use different sources of information selectively;
• critically evaluate different sources and acknowledge sources appropriately;
• distinguish between paraphrasing and plagiarism;
• write with academic integrity;
• use reference verbs appropriately;
• compile accurate reference lists that adhere to a particular referencing style.

• Challenging the Challengers
Bailey (2015)
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• References and Quotations
• Combining Sources
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INTRODUCTION
In the previous units, we discussed and engaged in activities involving critical reading and
writing strategies as a means to develop your analytical skills for different purposes. You
learnt how to apply various lenses to investigate texts in more depth; select sources of
information as a basis for presenting your own perspective; and apply critical reading
strategies to inform your critical writing style using appropriate language structures in a
culturally responsive manner. We encouraged you to take ownership of your academic
writing, with due and balanced consideration of other perspectives.
Given that you are expected to read a wide range of sources when you write your
assignments, Unisa, like all other academic institutions, has a strict plagiarism policy.1
During your studies, one of the many things you will have to do is adhere to policies related
to plagiarism and copyright. Therefore, it is vital that you understand the issues involved
when you draw on other sources in your writing and that you acknowledge these
appropriately.
The purpose of this unit is to give you an understanding of the terminology and techniques
related to referencing when you write for academic purposes. We intend to develop your
referencing skills set so that you are able to write confidently and with academic integrity.
What is a source, and why must we acknowledge our sources?

A source is any text that you consult to obtain ideas and information. Examples are books,
journal articles, web pages, and newspaper articles (Bailey, 2015: 30). If you summarise or
refer to the work of another person, you need to acknowledge his/her work correctly. Why
do you have to acknowledge your sources? You must do this to avoid plagiarism. In simple
terms, plagiarism is the action of taking ideas or words from another source and passing
them off as your own original work – in other words, not giving credit or acknowledgement
to the author/s or creators of the sources that you used.
1 Toaccess the Unisa policy relating to copyright infringement and plagiarism, which was drafted in 2005, visit
http://www.unisa.ac.za/static/corporate_web/Content/Apply%20for%20admission/Documents/Policy_copyri
ght_infringement_plagiarism_16November2005.pdf
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Here are some important points to bear in mind:

• You have a duty to respect the intellectual property rights of the originators or creators
of the ideas and works that you consult and draw on, and you do this by acknowledging
them.
• You can support your own perspective by referring to other sources to strengthen your
argument.
• Your lecturer will be inclined to give credit for the scholarly manner in which you have
read, understood and acknowledged your source materials.
• You will be creating a research trail for others to use.
Not acknowledging your sources would make you guilty of plagiarism. This has serious legal
implications for you as a student. This also calls into question your integrity if you have
signed the declaration form, which is compulsory when you submit your assignments.
Activity 1: Some common terms in writing with integrity

Read the chapter entitled References and Quotations in Bailey (2015: 25–58). Choose terms
from the terminology bank below and match them with the definitions in the table which
follows.
Terminology bank:
Paraphrase, Sources of references, Citation, Reference style and citation style,
Plagiarism, Quotation, Bibliography, Reference list.
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Feedback commentary
Term Definition
This refers to a list of sources at the end of your work, which you
have read but have not cited.
This is an acknowledgement within your written text (in-text
reference) that a source has been used. These citations appear in
your assignment itself. For example, Johnson (2018:58) is an
indication that you consulted page 58 of a source by Johnson
which was published in 2018.
This type of citation is included in the text of your assignment.
Restating the words or ideas contained in a source, with
acknowledgement of the author, in a way that is significantly
different from the original words, but where the meaning and ideas
are the same.
Using material from a source without acknowledging the author.
This is regarded as theft, and is a crime.
Use of the exact words as they appear in the original source or
text, enclosed in quotation marks.
This is a list that you would include at the end of your work,
reflecting all the sources you have cited in your assignment.
This is a reference to the format or structure followed in
acknowledging your use of information (words, concepts and
ideas) from another source. For example, at Unisa we use the
Harvard system of referencing.
This refers to any sources of information by other writers that you
consult in completing your assignments. These can be books,
journal articles, magazines, newspaper articles or web pages.
There is a particular way of referencing each of these sources.
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Term Definition
This refers to a list of sources at the end of your work, which you
Bibliography
have read but have not cited.
This is an acknowledgement within your written text (in-text
reference) that a source has been used. These citations appear in
Citation your assignment itself. For example, Johnson (2018:58) is an
indication that you consulted page 58 of a source by Johnson
which was published in 2018.
In-text citation This type of citation is included in the text of your assignment.
Restating the words or ideas contained in a source, with
acknowledgement of the author, in a way that is significantly
Paraphrase
different from the original words, but where the meaning and ideas
are the same.
Using material from a source without acknowledging the author.
Plagiarism
This is regarded as theft, and is a crime.
Use of the exact words as they appear in the original source or
Quotation
text, enclosed in quotation marks.
This is a list that you would include at the end of your work,
Reference list
reflecting all the sources you have cited in your assignment.
This is a reference to the format or structure followed in
Reference style acknowledging your use of information (words, concepts and
or citation style ideas) from another source. For example, at Unisa we use the
Harvard system of referencing.
This refers to any sources of information by other writers that you
consult in completing your assignments. These can be books,
References
journal articles, magazines, newspaper articles or web pages.
There is a particular way of referencing each of these sources.
To test how well you understand the concept of plagiarism, please complete the exercises
on degrees of plagiarism on pages 26 and 27 of Bailey (2015).
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What does not require referencing?

It is very easy to commit plagiarism accidentally. For this reason, we must reference anything
that is not common knowledge. However, things that do not require referencing are:
• commonly known facts, such as ‘South Africa has nine provinces’
• your own opinion/perspective
How should you reference your sources of information?

The two basic rules to follow when you refer to other sources of information are:
• Every author that you cite in your assignment must be included in your reference list
at the end.
• Every reference in your reference list must be cited at least once in your assignment.
There are two ways to acknowledge your in-text sources:

Citation by paraphrasing
EXAMPLE
Govender (2017, March 24), in the Mail and Guardian, asserts that South African learners
should be studying African plays and not plays that come from England.
Citation using a quotation

EXAMPLE
To quote Govender: “For how long will we continue using the drama that comes from
England when you do have dramatic works by local writers?” (Govender, 2017, March 24:
2).
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In-text citations consist of three elements:

Author Year Page number
Author’s surname followed The date of publication, If you have used a direct
by a comma, but no initials. given in brackets. If there is quote from a source, in the
no date of publication, use brackets with the date,
the abbreviation (n.d.) to state the number of the
indicate this. The date is page on which this
followed by a colon and a appears.
space.
Govender, 2017: 2
When you acknowledge the sources you have consulted in your reference list at the end of
your assignment, you must include the following details:
Author Initial/s Year Title Place of publication and Date

publisher accessed
EXAMPLE
Govender, P. (2017, March 24). “Baby steps to decolonise schools” in Mail and Guardian.
Retrieved from https://mg.co.za/article/2017-03-24-00-baby-steps-to-decolonise-
This reference to the source from which EXTRACT K in unit 3 is taken indicates that you
have read Govender in the Mail and Guardian and are discussing this author’s idea. By
providing this information at the end of your assignment, you give other researchers vital
information about where to find this article if they need clarity on the issue.
Activity 6.2
What are the differences in the manner in which Malala Yousafzai has been cited in the
following examples?
1. Malala states that she was shot with a black “Colt 45” pistol (Yousafzai, 2013: 6).
2. According to Malala (Yousafzai, 2013: 6), she was shot with a black “Colt 45” pistol.
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3. In Yousafzai (2013: 6), Malala pointed out that she was shot with a black “Colt 45”
pistol.
4. Malala was shot with a black pistol; a Colt 45 to be exact (Yousafzai, 2013).
5. According to Yousafzai (2013):
… That’s when he lifted up a black pistol. I later learned it was a Colt 45. Some
of the girls screamed. Moniba tells me I squeezed her hand. My friends say
he fired three shots, one after another. The first went through my left eye
socket and out under my left shoulder. I slumped forward onto Moniba, blood
coming from my left ear, so the other two bullets hit the girls next to me. One
bullet went into Shazia’s left hand. The third went through her left shoulder
and into the upper right arm of Kainat Riaz (2013: 6).
Feedback commentary
1. Here, Malala’s claim is reported as an objective, factual statement.
2. Here, ‘according to’ suggests that Malala’s statement is subjective evidence whose
reliability could be questioned.
3. ‘Pointed out’ suggests that in addition to other things, she was also shot with a black
pistol. Malala is providing the evidence to verify that she had been shot and was a
victim of the crime.
4. This highlights the details of the weapon used in the crime.
5. Again, the words ‘According to’ suggest that this is a personal, subjective
response. But, in this instance, the inclusion of the observations of other
witnesses supports Malala’s report.
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How to formulate different types of in-text citations
If you consult two or more works by different authors, list the

2 or
more authors alphabetically and separate them with semicolons. For
works by example:
different
authors Several studies (Bailey, 2005; Leland et al., 2013; Yousafzai,
→ 2013) have shown that...
2 or If you consult two or more works by the same author, list the
more author’s surname and the years of publication. For example:
works by
the
same It is argued in Leland (2008, 2013, 2018) that...
author
→
If you consult two or more works by the same author published in

the same year, list them alphabetically according to title in the
reference list, and insert the letters a, b, c, and so on after the
year of publication to distinguish between them. For example:
Recent articles (Naidoo 2016a, 2016b) have disputed...
2 or more Reference
works by
the same Naidoo, M., (2016b), ‘The commercialisation and
author commodification of theological education in Africa’, Call
published
in the for papers to host the Conference of the
same year Commercialisation and Commodification of Theological
→
Education in Africa, 14-16 September 2016, University of
Pretoria, Pretoria.
If you read a source that cites another author that you have not
read, mention both in your citation, for example:
A source
that cites Hobsbawm (1995, cited in Bailey, 2005) states that...
another Make sure that you acknowledge the source that you have read
author
→ in your reference list. In this case, it would be Bailey (2005).
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If you want to cite a source with four or more authors, use the
4 or more surname of the first author, followed by et al. However, in the

authors reference list you must list all the authors.
→
For example:
Leland et al. (2013) have argued that...
Activity 6.3
Read EXTRACT A, taken from The Purple Shall Govern, where the writer references The
Color Purple by Alice Walker (1982) in speaking directly to our newly elected president, Cyril
Ramaphosa, about leading by example.
EXTRACT A
Which brand will you choose? Purple fields are the hope that lifts Celie in The Color Purple.
Purple is the colour of the feminists who demanded equal pay and the right to vote at the
turn of the previous century. Purple is the colour of the One in Nine campaign that supported
Khwezi when the rest of South Africa condemned her. Purple is the colour of the Women’s
March after Trump took office, gaining ground with the #MeToo and #TimesUp campaigns
against sexual abuse. You wore a purple tie for Sona. Let’s paint South Africa purple!
Second, deal with your demons and lead by example. In Sona, you talked about the need
for moral and ethical leadership. Under Zuma, the dichotomy between a leader who
purported to support equality in his public life but failed to practise it in his private life left
patriarchy smiling.
https://mg.co.za/article/2018-02-23-00-cyril-the-purple-shall-govern. Accessed 2018,

February 25.
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1. Write a three-paragraph essay in which you convince the president of your hopes and
dreams for South Africa and the way forward in this country. You are expected to
include citations from EXTRACT A, Walker (1982) and any other useful sources you
would need in order to convince the president. Give your essay a title, and list the
references you have used at the end of the essay.
Feedback commentary
• Your answer needed to be in the form of an essay.
• You needed to formulate a catchy, original and persuasive title for your essay.
• Your essay should have consisted of an introductory paragraph setting out the
argument and a brief thesis statement, followed by some pointers on what to expect in
the rest of the essay – this is to set the tone, audience and purpose.
• You needed one body paragraph – this paragraph should have a clearly defined topic
sentence and supporting details with citations.
• The essay should have ended with an effective conclusion to re-affirm the main
argument of the essay in a convincing manner.
• The register and tone of the essay needed to be formal.
• You needed to include a reference list at the end of the essay.
For further discussions on this activity, refer to the e-tutor site.
How to compile a reference list

• Reference only those sources that you have cited in your assignment.
• Your reference list must start on a new page.
• All references must be listed alphabetically according to author surname.
• Include only the surname/s and initial/s of the author/s (e.g. Leland, C., Lewison, M.,
and Harste, J.).
• The place of publication must appear before the publisher, for example: New York:
HarperSanFrancisco.
• Do not number your references.
• The alignment of all entries in the list of references should be justified.
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• Leave a single blank line between the entries in the list of references for a neat
presentation.
• Each entry in the list of references must have a full stop at the end.
• Use bold or italics for the title of the book or article you have read.
• Do not arrange sources according to type or category.
• Your references should be hanging indented: the second and succeeding lines are
indented, for example:
Freebody, P., and Luke, A. (1990). Literacies Programs: Debates and Demands in
Cultural Context. Prospect: Australian Journal of TESOL, Vol. 5(7), 7–16.
Note that all the significant words in the titles have been capitalised. The entries in every
reference list must include author/s, year of publication, title of work, place of publication and
publisher. Refer to page 26 in Bailey (2015) to get a clear understanding of this.
You may refer to the Harvard referencing guide for a comprehensive list of how to reference
different types of sources. You will find this on the website:
http://openjournals.net/files/Ref/HARVARD2009%20Reference%20guide.pdf
Activity 6.4
1. Refer to activity 9 in unit 1, Do digital natives exist?, to see how the reference technique is
used. Do some research and identify other works by Prensky published in the same
year. List these publications in a reference list.
Feedback commentary
Prensky, M. (2001a). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants: Part 1. On the Horizon, Vol.
9 (5), pp. 1–6.
Prensky, M. (2001b). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants: Part 2. Do they really think
differently? On the Horizon, Vol. 9 (6), pp. 1–6.
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Activity 6.5
Critically read the reference list below and answer the questions set.
Salla, M 1996, 'There is no non-violent future', in Social Alternatives, vol.15, pp. 41 - 43.
Sharma, A 1987, 'Fearlessness (Abhaya) as a fundamental category in Gandhian thought

and Practice', in South Asia, vol.10, no.1, pp. 35-32.
Wajnryb, R 1990, ‘Teen suicide’, Grammar Dictation, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Cambridge Women’s Peace Collective 1984, My country is the whole world: an anthology
of women’s work on peace and war, Unwin Hyman, U.K.
Hanson, J. M. & Sinclair, K. E. (2008). ‘Social constructivist teaching methods in Australian

universities – reported uptake and perceived learning effects: A survey of
lecturers’, HERDSA, vol 27, no.3, pp. 169 – 186, viewed 30 December 2010, via Taylor
and Francis, via Online.
Klauser, H 1986 Writing on both sides of the brain, HarperSanFrancisco, New York.
Bondurant JV 1988, ‘Conquest of violence’, The Gandhian philosophy of conflict,

Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
Boyle, P 1998, 'Migrants don’t cost jobs', in The Bulletin, Dec 1998.
1. List five things that have been done incorrectly in this reference list.
2. Identify the different types of references mentioned in this reference list.
3. Arrange this reference list correctly in alphabetical order. Also, correct all the errors
you identified in question 1.
4. Explain the purpose of the italics and capital letters in each type of reference.
Feedback commentary
1.
• There are no brackets around the year of publication.
• There are no full stops after the year of publication.
• Some surnames are not followed by a comma.
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• There are no full stops after the initials in some of the entries.
• The place of publication is placed after the publisher, instead of before it.
• The online article is incorrectly referenced.
• Inverted commas should not be used for the title.
2.
Newspaper article
Boyle, P 1998, 'Migrants don’t cost jobs', in The Bulletin, December 1998.
Journal article
Salla, M 1996, 'There is no non-violent uture', in Social Alternatives, Vol.15, pp. 41 - 43.
Book
Klauser, H 1986 Writing on Both Sides of the Brain. HarperSanFrancisco, New York.
Online article
Hanson, J. M. & Sinclair, K. E. (2008). ‘Social constructivist teaching methods in Australian

universities – reported uptake and perceived learning effects: A survey of
lecturers’, HERDSA, Vol. 27, no.3, pp. 169 – 186, viewed 30 December 2010, via
Taylor and Francis, via Online.
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3.
Bondurant, J.V. (1988). Conquest of violence, The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict. New
Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Boyle, P. (1998). Migrants Don’t Cost Jobs, in The Bulletin, December 1998.
Cambridge Women’s Peace Collective (1984). My Country is the Whole World: An

Anthology of Women’s Work on Peace and War, U.K.: Unwin Hyman.
Hanson, J.M. & Sinclair, K.E. (2008). Social Constructivist Teaching Methods in Australian
Universities – Reported Uptake and Perceived Learning
Effects: A Survey of Lecturers. Retrieved from

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07294360802183754. Accessed
2019, December 5.
Klauser, H. (1986). Writing on Both Sides of the Brain. New York: HarperSanFrancisco.
Salla, M. (1996). There is no non-violent future. In Social Alternatives. Vol.15, pp. 41 - 43.
Sharma, A. (1987). Fearlessness (Abhaya) as a Fundamental Category in Gandhian

thought and Practice. South Asia, Vol.10, no.1, pp. 35-32.
Wajnryb, R. (1990). Teen Suicide. Grammar Dictation, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
4. The use of italics indicates the title of a book or journal. Capital letters are used in
surnames, initials, names of places and publishing companies (proper nouns) and for
the initial and significant words in a title. A capital letter is also used for the first word
after a colon in a title.
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How to use paraphrasing as a referencing technique

Now that we have discussed different types of reference list entries, we would like to give
you the opportunity to further practise your paraphrasing skills (discussed in unit 1) for the
purposes of referencing. When you paraphrase, you need to restate the author’s ideas in
your own words. In paraphrasing, you restate the meaning of the author’s ideas. You may
use some of the author’s key terms, but you must use mostly your own words and sentence
structure. Your in-text citation must consist of the author’s last name and the year of
publication.
A successful paraphrase includes more than one of the techniques we discuss below. If you
use only one of these techniques when paraphrasing, you have not paraphrased effectively
and you could be accused of plagiarism.
Activity 6.6
Paraphrase the six quotations below by following the instruction above each quotation.
1. Change the relevant pronouns and phrases.
Original: “I have met thousands of children now, and not even one time has a child
come up to me and said, ‘Ms Rowling, I’m so glad I’ve read these books because now
I want to be a witch’” – J.K. Rowling (ALA Banned Books Week Poster, 2005 cited in
Leland et al., 2013: 161).
2. Use synonyms.
Original: “Even more frustrating, says Booth, is labelling. [She notes that] It seems that
any book with an African-American character on the cover is quickly being labelled as
street-lit, regardless of the subject matter or the setting of the book. Meanwhile, books
about Caucasian characters in urban settings don’t get lumped into this genre”
(Whelan 2009a, cited in Leland et al., 2013: 174).
3. Find alternative words for numbers and number forms.
Original: “The American Library Association’s Frequently Challenged Books webpage

is one of the best and is easily found on any webpage” (ALA, 2011b, cited in Leland
et al., 2013: 174).
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4. Change the word order and direct speech.
Original: In Freedman and Johnson (2011, cited in Leland et al., 2003: 164), one
educator reported, “I would most definitely not use this book in my classroom, but it
sure has awakened me to the importance of censoring my own books before using
them in my classroom”.
5. Use different sentence structures for definitions.
Original: “But if you reject a book just because of the subject matter or you think that it
would cause some problems, then that’s self-censorship” (Whelan, 2009a cited in
Leland et al., 2013: 164).
6. Use different attribution signals.
Original: “That’s because there are many diverse ways the diseases could have
arrived,” veterinarian Max Walters stated in his latest book, Six Modern Plagues”
(Pollock, 2004: 32).
Feedback commentary
Note that the words have been underlined only to indicate the changes that should have
been made.
1. Paraphrase: J.K. Rowling said that she has met thousands of children, and not once
has a child come up to her to say, ‘Ms Rowling, I’m so glad I’ve read these books
because now I want to be a witch’ (ALA Banned Books Week Poster, 2005 cited in
Leland et al., 2013: 161).
2. Paraphrase: According to Booth, labelling is even more exasperating. Virtually any

book with an African-American character on the cover is instantly stereotyped as being
urban or street fiction, irrespective of the content or the context of the book. At the
same time, books about Caucasian characters in urban settings are not automatically
assumed to belong in this genre (Whelan, 2009a cited in Leland et al., 2013: 174).
3. Paraphrase: The American Library Association’s Frequently Challenged Books

webpage is regarded as being among the most highly ranked and is easily found on
most webpages (ALA, 2011b cited in Leland et al., 2013: 174).
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4. Paraphrase: One educator in Freedman and Johnson (2011 cited in Leland et al.,
2003: 164) reported that he would most definitely not use this book in his classroom,
but that it had awakened him to the importance of censoring his own books before
using them in his classroom.
5. Paraphrase: If you think that a book would cause problems or if you reject it just
because of the subject matter, this is regarded as self-censorship (Whelan, 2009a cited
in Leland et al., 2013: 164).
6. Paraphrase: In his latest book, Six Modern Plagues, veterinarian Max Walters stated
there are many different ways that the diseases could have arrived (Pollock, 2004: 32).
The title of Walters’ latest book is used before the subject of the sentence as an
attribution signal to introduce his statement.
ABBREVIATIONS THAT CAN BE USED IN CITATIONS AND REFERENCE LISTS

Generally, you are advised against using abbreviations in academic writing. However, the
table below provides a list of abbreviations that are acceptable when you reference your
different sources of information.
Edition of a book
ed.
EXAMPLE: Ethics and Principles 4th ed.
Editor(s)
When a book has been compiled by an editor or editors instead of an author or
Ed. or Eds. authors
EXAMPLE: Robinson, C.N. (Ed.). (1992).

This means ‘and others’
This is used in in-text citations when there are 4 or more authors. Note that et al. is
et al. written in italics.
EXAMPLE: (Leland et al., 2013)
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Ibidem
This means ‘taken from the same source’ (i.e. the same page) as the previous
citation.
ibid.
EXAMPLE:
South Africans are more likely to vote now than they were in the past (ibid.)
No date
For sources that do not have a date of publication, insert ‘n.d.’ (no date) after the
name of the author.
EXAMPLE:
n.d. In-text citation
(Southey, n.d.)
Reference list
Southey, R. (n.d.). The Life of Nelson. London, England: Blackie.
No page numbers
EXAMPLE:
Mathews’ use of... (2010, n. p.).
NOTE: In electronic sources without page numbers, use an approximate page

number (e.g. p. 3 of 9) or a paragraph number in the case of a short text (e.g.
para. 2).
n.p.
The ABS (2004, p. 1 of 4) defines residents as “economic entities (persons,
organisations or enterprises) which have a closer association with the territory of
Australia than with any other territory”.
OR
Flitten (2012, para. 1) reports that “Australia is about to confront the biting reality
of US military decline”.
Number
Use this abbreviation in your reference list when the resource incorporates a
number that represents the accession, order, catalogue, number, etc.
No. EXAMPLE:
Australian national accounts: National income, expenditure and product (Cat. No.
5206.0).
Dissertation Abstracts International. (University Microfilms No. 82-06, 181).
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Opere citato (this means ‘in the work cited’)
This is used to refer the reader to a previously cited source. It is used when two
footnotes referring to the same source are separated by another footnote referring
to a different source.
Op. cit.
EXAMPLE:
(9) Milan, R. (1997). Art of Latin Grammar, Academic: New York, p.23
(10) Wiki, G. (2000). Language and its uses, Blah Ltd.: London, p.217
(11) Milan, op. cit., p.5
Page(s)
These are included in the in-text citation. If one page number is being referred to,
use the abbreviation p. for page. If there are multiple pages, use the abbreviation
pp. for pages.
p. or pp. EXAMPLE:
According to Bailey (2015, pp. 26–60)
(Bailey, 2015, p. 30)
However, in this module we have made use of the colon before page references:
(Bailey, 2015: 30).
Paragraph
For electronic sources that do not contain page numbers, if possible use the
paragraph number, preceded by the abbreviation ‘para.’
para.
EXAMPLE:
(Mail and Guardian, 2017, para. 2)
Revised edition
Used in end-text referencing when the source is identified as being a revised
edition.
Rev. ed.
EXAMPLE:
Referencing guide 14th Rev. ed.
Translator(s)
Give the name of the translator or editor only in the reference list entry,
immediately following the title. In the case of translated works, cite the title in its
translated form, not in its original form.
Trans. EXAMPLE:
In-text citation:
(Genet, 1966: 61)
Reference list:
Genet, J. (1966). The Balcony 2nd ed. (B. Frechtman, Trans.). London, England:
Faber.
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Volume(s)
Include the volume number in the reference list if this information appears.
Vol. or Vols. EXAMPLE:
Freebody, P., and Luke, A. (1990). Literacies Programs: Debates and Demands in
Cultural Context. Prospect: Australian Journal of TESOL, Vol. 5(7), 7–16.
ACADEMIC REFERENCE VERBS

Bailey (2015) briefly discusses some useful reference verbs. The table below provides a
range of verbs you can use in your academic writing to avoid monotony. Before choosing a
verb, you need to read the source carefully and clearly understand the author’s claim/s.
When you have chosen a verb, ask yourself whether that is actually what the author
intended. In academic writing, you are expected to report the original writer’s work truthfully
and accurately.
Reporting something Reporting something Reporting the author’s

the author did the author said perspective
‘Weaker’ ‘Stronger’ ‘Weaker’ ‘Stronger’
observe, discover, comment, affirm, accept, argue, assert,

notice, demonstrate, describe, emphasise, believe, claim, contend,
find, report, describe, discuss, stress, consider, deny,
determine, discern, point out, maintain, view, see, recommend,
show, assess, study, note, stipulate, question, reject, advocate,
analyse, calculate, remark, explain, query, think, maintain,
examine, investigate, write conclude, suggest, conclude
identify, prove, clarify, propose,
establish, conclude identify suspect,
speculate
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If you are unsure about the exact meaning of any of the verbs in the table above, you should
consult a dictionary – preferably one that shows usage of the word. You can also consult
online dictionaries. For more information, click on this link:
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/
Activity 6.7
Complete the table by selecting an additional reference verb from the list of verbs provided.
comment, confirm, assume, verify, estimate, study, describe, challenge, maintain,

reject, demonstrate, believe, investigate, reason
Additional
Function Reference verbs
reference verb
Neutral meaning note, discuss
An author’s position on an argue, assert, doubt,

issue refute, support, emphasise,
(agreement/disagreement) recommend, suggest
consider, think, recognise

An author’s thoughts
show, illustrate, explain,

Show author is presenting
something indicate
Show author is proving establish, validate

something
examine, observe,
An author’s action analyse, find
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Feedback commentary
Additional
Function Reference verbs
reference verb
Neutral meaning note, discuss comment, maintain
argue, assert, doubt, confirm, verify,

An author’s position on an
refute, support, reject, believe
issue
(agreement/disagreement)
emphasise,
recommend, suggest
consider, think, assume, estimate,
An author’s thoughts recognise reason
show, illustrate, explain, study, describe,

Show author is presenting
something indicate
Show author is proving establish, validate challenge

something
examine, observe, investigate,

An author’s action analyse, find demonstrate
STRATEGIES FOR SELECTING YOUR INFORMATION WISELY

Sometimes, as you read a range of sources while preparing an assignment, you may
encounter conflicting views on a subject. It is very important that you sift through the
information to identify what is of value for your task. In units 1 to 4 of this guide we focused
on reading and writing with a critical eye. In the same way, when you select information that
you want to use in your assignments, you need to adopt a critical approach or stance.
According to Leland et al. (2013: 62), it is important to compare a range of perspectives to

show that you recognise different conflicting views on an issue. As you studied the previous
units in this Study Guide, you learnt that to write critically, you must first be able to read
critically and actively. Some students make pencil notes in the margins of their books or on
copies of articles as a way to highlight main points and ideas. Start all your reading by
adopting a questioning frame of mind.
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A critical analysis of texts involves reading with the following questions and strategies in
mind:
• Understand that there can be many diverse perspectives or ways of looking at a
particular topic. When you read, try to be aware of why the writers disagree or agree,
and what the different points of view mean.
• Do not just accept what writers and researchers state. Always question their ideas.
What evidence do they put forward? Is this evidence convincing?
• Are you able to detect any bias or hidden assumptions in a text? Are there any personal
views, beliefs and attitudes reflected in the text?
• What are the pros and cons of the theories or research that you are studying?
• Investigate the implications and significance of the ideas in the text. What outcomes
would follow from the perspectives being put forward?
Now that you are aware of some of the questions that you are expected to ask yourself when
you read with a critical eye, here is a list of critical questions that would enable you to write
critically:
• What is your main purpose in writing?

• Have you planned your argument clearly?
• Have you collected enough evidence to support your argument?
• Have you formulated an accurate list of references?
• Is your argument sensible and valid?
• Have you read extensively to gain a broad perspective on your argument?
• Have you expressed yourself clearly? Have you used examples to illustrate your
point?
• Have you been truthful in your claims?
• Have you answered the question?
• Is the evidence you are using appropriate? Is the evidence current?
• Did you dig deeper into the topic, or have you just skimmed the surface meaning?
• Have you structured the body of your argument effectively and provided the reader
with an appropriate introduction and conclusion?
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CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have demonstrated ways in which you can read and write with academic
integrity. We want you to be confident in the work you submit and to become critical students
who are able both to acknowledge other writers and to make original contributions. This is
known as ethical practice in academic writing. At Unisa we use the Harvard referencing
system, and it is vital that you familiarise yourself with its rules governing citations and
reference lists in order to avoid plagiarism. We have attempted to teach you the referencing
techniques that will enhance your competencies as critical readers and writers throughout
your academic career.
REFERENCES
London: Routledge.
De Beer, E., Jacobs, L., Moolman, A., & Zaaiman, R. (2016). #Feesmustfall and Beyond:
Towards a Sustainable National Student Loan Regulatory Framework – NWU View.
North West University.
Govender, P. (2017, March 24). Baby-Steps-to-Decolonise-Schools in Mail and Guardian.

Retrieved from: https://mg.co.za/article/2017-03-24-00-baby-steps-to-decolonise-
Langa, M. (2017). #Hashtag: An Analysis of the #FeesMustFall Movement at South African

Universities. Johannesburg: Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation.
Lowe M.C. (2018, February 23). “Cyril, The Purple shall Govern” in Mail and Guardian.
Retrieved from https://mg.co.za/article/2018-02-23-00-cyril-the-purple-shall-govern.
Accessed 2018, February 25.
Unisa (2005). Policy for Copyright Infringement and Plagiarism. South Africa: University of
South Africa.
Yousafzai, M. (2013). I am Malala: The Girl who Stood Up for Education and was Shot by
the Taliban. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company.
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GLOSSARY
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the use of another person’s work, thoughts and expressions without permission
or approval, and the incorporation of another person’s work and ideas without full
acknowledgement. Plagiarism is regarded as theft or fraud, and therefore has legal
implications. Any published or unpublished work, whether in document, printed or electronic
form, is protected by the plagiarism policy.
Copyright
Copyright is the exclusive legal right to own the explicit intellectual property as protected
work in accordance with the Copyright Act 98 of 1978. Any dishonest academic writing
practices by a student are unethical and an infringement of the economic, moral and ethical
rights of the holder of the copyright to the original work.
Sources
Sources include material such as dictionaries, encyclopaedias, newspaper articles, books,
journal articles, web pages and magazine articles. These are research tools that can help
you add credibility to your assignments. All sources must be referenced correctly to avoid
plagiarism.
Academic integrity
Academic integrity means having honesty and accountability in research. Therefore, all work
submitted in the form of assignments and research projects must be the product of the
student's own understanding and writing.
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Question 1
1. Read EXTRACTS B, C and D, and answer the questions that follow.
EXTRACT B
Overcoming poverty is not a task of charity [;] it is an act of justice. Like slavery and
apartheid, poverty is not natural. It is man-made and it can be overcome and eradicated by
the actions of human beings. Sometimes it falls on a generation to be great. You can be that
great generation. Let your greatness blossom.
Nelson Mandela cited in De Beer et al. (2016: 1)
EXTRACT C
Researching the #FeesMustFall movement
By Malose Langa
The #FeesMustFall movement, through its protests across all South African universities,
managed to raise public awareness about the shortage of funding for higher education. This
awareness would not have occurred if protests had not been organised. The state was put
under pressure and in response President Jacob Zuma announced a 0% fee increment for
the 2016 academic year. Since the protests, the government has also committed to putting
additional funding into the National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS) to financially
support university students. It could be argued that some of these changes would not have
happened if the students had not organised protests. It is evident that the protests served
as an effective tool of communication, but questions have been raised about the violent acts
associated with the protests…Von Holdt (2013) argues that our democracy is not only
physically violent but also symbolically violent, especially against the poorest of the poor
who live in abject poverty with no access to basic services. Protests for some students
represented their quest to restore their dignity through free, decolonised education.
Langa (2017: 10)
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EXTRACT D
#Feesmustfall and beyond: Towards a sustainable National Student Loan regulatory
framework – NWU view
By De Beer et al.
ANC Head of Policy Jeff Radebe urged the youth to take education seriously on 27 June
2016: “We have many opportunities that are available to young people in our country today.
What the youth of 1976 dreamed about for better education, the youth of 2016 must be
grateful for what is available to them now” (Goba, 2016). Therefore, and based on the
findings of this report, the following are suggested:
1. Transform discussions surrounding fee free higher education to subsidised higher
education;
2. Increase Government funding to universities to preserve and improve quality higher
education services;
3. Address leakages (corruption and inefficiencies) in the State budget and prioritise
economic growth to increase available Government funding; and
4. Effectively apply the already implemented National Student Financial Aid Scheme as a
means to a sustainable student fee regulatory framework with specific focus on collection of
loan amounts.
De Beer et al. (2016: 16)
1.1 What is the main argument made by each of these authors?
1.2 Discuss the strategy/evidence used by each author to support his/her perspective on
the topic.
1.3 What is your perspective on this topic?

1.4 Which of the authors will you challenge/use in presenting your argument?
Question 2
Study EXTRACTS B, C and D and write an academic essay in response to these differing
views on the ‘Fees must fall’ movement.
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ENG2612/501/0/2022
Remember to:
• Create your own title for the essay.

• Use the list of critical questions to help you to structure your critical essay.
• Use citations in your essay and create your own reference list at the end.
• Ensure that the language you use is appropriate and grammatically correct and
conveys your perspective by means of a balanced argument.
Feedback on self-assessment questions
Question 1
1.1 EXTRACT B – Poverty is created by human beings, and can be overcome.
EXTRACT C – The ‘Fees must fall’ protests were instrumental in effecting a 0% fee
increment for the 2016 academic year and steps towards additional funding for
students.
EXTRACT D – Although education has come long way in South Africa, we cannot
demand free education.
1.2 You needed to refer to the different strategies in supporting an argument, which are
discussed in Study Unit 2.
EXTRACT B – Nelson Mandela appeals to the greatness of the younger generation

through repetition of the word “great”. In comparing poverty with slavery and apartheid,
he appeals to their sense of obligation to take action against this socio-political
injustice, which is “man-made”. He also cites evidence from relevant authorities such
as NSFAS and President Jacob Zuma to make a convincing argument for such
protests to “restore [students’] dignity”.
EXTRACT C – The writer provides authentic statistics to validate the #FeesMustFall
movement and support the claim that “the protests served as an effective tool of
communication”.
EXTRACT D – This text draws on an authoritative figure such as the ANC Head of
Policy Jeff Radebe, who “urged the youth to take education seriously on 27 June
2016” and the findings of the report to argue for the proposed plan of action to achieve
transformation in education.
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ENG2612/501/0/2022
1.3 (Responses will vary depending on the student’s individual perspective.)
1.4 (Responses will vary depending on the student’s individual perspective.)
Question 2
(Responses will vary.)
Criteria:
• You needed to create your own original title, which captures and intrigues the
audience.
• You had to draft an introduction containing background information, your
position/argument and a thesis statement.
• Each of the paragraphs in the body of your essay needed to contain a topic sentence
and supporting details that link back to the introduction.
• The body paragraphs had to contain citations with corresponding entries in a correctly
structured reference list at the end of the essay.
• The essay needed a conclusion that related back to the introduction.
• The tone and register of your essay needed to be formal.
For further discussions on these questions, refer to your e-tutor site.
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Tutorial Letter 501 (Study Guide)

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ENG2612/501/0/2022

Tutorial Letter 501/0/2022

Applied English Language for Foundation

Department of English Studies

1. Course Overview ..................................................................................3

The specific outcomes of the module are to:

1. Leland et al. (2013)

• Language Study: Lingering in Text

Why critical reading?

Figure 1.1: Digging deeper into texts

Lens 1: Recognise that there is always another perspective

Let us examine EXTRACT A.

2. The writer uses degrees of comparison in “more commonly” to reinforce his/her

Lens 2: Recognise frames and stereotypes

Another way to challenge a stereotype is to form a “counter narrative” of the stereotype

1. Identify the different characters mentioned in this extract.

Lens 3: Use language study to unpack texts

Fairclough’s (1995) theory of critical discourse analysis is an ideal approach to unpacking

2. Critical language study challenges the traditional focus on discrete skills

3. Critical language study is not commonly found in existing curriculum materials

Reading texts interactively

Reading for different purposes

Reading actively and interactively for different purposes

1. Paraphrasing proves you have understood what you read.

2. Paraphrasing helps you to understand subtle relationships between ideas in

Organising text graphically

FEATURES Teaching Children’s Academic Writing: A

FEATURES Teaching Children’s Academic Writing: A

Visuals Informal and formal attire Sitting at a desk

Font size/Type Uppercase only Different sizes in alignment with

Colour Use of different colours – Limited number of colours – more

2.2 The reader’s perspective

Suggested approach to Activity 1.9

This activity will be discussed in detail on the e-tutor site.

1. Identify the audience for which this article is intended.

Noting cohesion markers

Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman.

MacLachlan, G. & Reid, I. (1994). Framing and Interpretation. Melbourne: Melbourne

Wallace, C. (2003). Critical Reading in Language Education. USA: Palgrave Macmillan.

Weber, R. & Stolle, K. (2011). Transitional devices. The Purdue OWL.

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/2/. Accessed 2018, January 15.

1. Provide two reasons why it is important to read critically.

4. Consider the following title and sub-title of a book by Steve Harvey.

ACT LIKE A Lady – THINK LIKE A MAN

1. Reading critically improves a reader’s ability to:

Lens 2: Recognise frames and stereotypes

Lens 3: Use language study to unpack texts

5. Responses should be reflective of your particular needs as a student. However, the

Leland et al. (2013)

• Language Study: Lingering in Text

DEFINING CRITICAL WRITING

We have summarised these distinctions in figure 2.1.

Sound and valid arguments

Figure 2.1: Important distinctions in critical writing

Being critical versus criticism

Meaning 1: The act or instance of making an unfavourable or severe judgement,

Meaning 2: The analysis or evaluation of a work of art, literature, etc.

Writing critically involves several important activities. These include:

POSITIVE CONNOTATIONS NEGATIVE CONNOTATIONS

Argument versus assumptions

An assumption may be either stated or unstated. If an assumption is stated, it generally

If an assumption is unstated, the premise/basis of an argument is usually omitted. In a

Nyiko has a university degree. He should be able to get a decent job.