Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Automation in Construction
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

BIM-based graph data model for automatic generative design of

modular buildings
Vincent J.L. Gan
Department of the Built Environment, National University of Singapore, Singapore

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: As volumetric modular construction is gaining attention worldwide, there is a growing interest in the repre­
Building information modelling sentation and model-based data exchange for modular buildings to optimise and communicate the design gen­
Computational design eration to prefabrication. This paper presents a Building Information Modelling (BIM)-based graph data model
Graph theory
for the theoretic representation of essential characteristics in modular buildings, intending to automate and
Industry foundation classes
Modular buildings
optimise the generative design for modular construction. The proposed new method involves the establishment
Spatial planning of Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) model view definition (MVD) to comprehensively describe the required
information for designing modular buildings. Following this, the IFC MVD is mapped to a graph data model,
which includes the explicit formulation of absent spatial attributes, topological relationships, geometries, and
semantics for volumetric modules. In compliance with the graph-theoretic representation, data transformation
algorithms are developed to convert the required information in BIM to the graph model for assorted information
query. Provided the extracted information, a prototype system is developed and examined via an illustrative
example focusing on the automatic generative design of modular buildings.

1. Introduction
A range of international initiatives has fostered the adoption of off-
site construction due to its higher efficiency and productivity [1,2].
Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction (PPVC) is one of the
modern off-site construction technologies which leverage free-standing
volumetric modules manufactured in fabrication facilities for on-site
installation [3]. It is becoming a common sight due to government
policies promoting greater automation in the building industry. When
moving towards modularity, there are new challenges earlier in the
design stage which are gaining more attention as the industry is pro­
moting environmental and social sustainability [4]. Modular buildings
rely very much on the upstream design stage in guaranteeing seamless
communication with the prefabrication and on-site installation.
Different types of volumetric modules need to be properly designed and
integrated, based on the existing building regulations (such as manda­
tory size requirements) for modular construction.
In this regard, Building Information Modelling (BIM) provides the
virtual representation of building geometries and semantics, which can
be utilised to support the design generation and optimisation for the
precast industry. BIM has been adopted in the construction of multi-
storey modular buildings [5], optimisation of module layout planning
[6], automatic generative design of building interior [7], and design for
manufacturing and assembly [8]. Provided BIM models, Sanchez and
Haas [9] presented a hierarchical liaison graph for finding disassembly
sequences of manufactured products, taking into account the physical
obstruction of building components. The disassembly model was lever­
aged in a semi-automated selective deconstruction method for multiple-
target disassembly sequence planning towards the adaptive reuse of
building components [10]. In the literature, BIM represents building
spatial and geometrical attributes for planning spaces per design hand­
books [11]. Then, a design compliance check is carried out with refer­
ence to code of practices, building regulations, and PPVC guidebooks [3]
regarding architectural design consideration, fire safety, etc. For
example, Sharafi et al. [12] presented a unified matrix method to
describe the spatial design of multi-story modular buildings as 3D
matrices arisen from combinatorial problems. The design structure
matrix decomposed buildings into smaller components (such as modular
units, connections, and bracing systems) to support the automatic search
of the best spatial design for modular buildings. In this regard, re­
searchers have also customised the design modelling process using a set
of modular coordination rules that were incorporated into BIM software
through object-level and process-level interventions [13]. The modular
coordination rules considered a dimensional coordination system for

E-mail address: vincent.gan@nus.edu.sg.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2021.104062
Received 27 May 2021; Received in revised form 19 October 2021; Accepted 21 November 2021
Available online 1 December 2021
0926-5805/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
V.J.L. Gan
sizing and placing building elements for reducing inconsistencies and
time spent in the modelling process. In some studies, available spaces
were defined as 3D orthogonal grid squares with specific locations and
dimensions, and then the spaces were moved and dimensioned freely
[14,15]. Alternatively, the spaces were expressed in mathematical terms
and therefore suitable for nature-inspired evolutionary algorithms to
carry out an algorithmic search of spatial organisation [16–18]. How­
ever, this process involves a large population of candidates that need to
be evaluated iteratively towards identifying the fitness solution [19–21],
it is therefore computationally very demanding and mathematically
complex.
Parametric modelling is used in large-scale design exploration, as it
enables the generation of flexible building models with pre-defined
parameters and numerical relationships between structural compo­
nents [22]. For example, Ding and Lam [23] parametrised building
design features using six key variables and proposed a Gradient Boosting
algorithm for fast early design support. To restrict the form-finding
process, geometrical and topological constraints were usually defined
and enforced during the design optimisation process. In contrast to pre-
defining the parametric model, Amann and Borrmann [24] embedded
the procedural knowledge into BIM with applications for flexible tran­
sition curve representation. Specifically, Industry Foundation Classes
(IFC), the open data schema of BIM [25], was used to represent the
architectural, engineering and construction data for design computa­
tion. Attempts have been made to utilise the hierarchical IFC in auto­
matic and optimal design generation. For instance, Geyer [26] used IFC
as a common data standard to represent components and carry out
component-oriented decomposition for multidisciplinary design opti­
misation. Alternatively, IFC was utilised to represent spaces and related
building elements for performance-based evaluation of evacuation [27].
Fire dynamics simulation and agent-based modelling were undertaken
to evaluate the building layout design under various fire scenarios. Lilis
et al. [28] introduced a Common Boundary Intersection Projection al­
gorithm to extract the geometric information of building entities from
IFC to automatically generate the building space boundary topology.
The previous studies indicate a growing interest in the development of
new data models for enhancing the representation and interoperability
of design information in the precast industry (e.g. IFC4Precast). Such
new development can create a universal basis for BIM information ex­
change, design planning, and process optimisation in modular buildings.
To this end, some researchers have proposed graph data models in
BIM, aiming to provide new prospects for modelling and management of
design solutions at the early stage [29]. Isaac et al. [30] presented the
synthesis of BIM with graph theory, wherein the interdependencies be­
tween building elements in BIM models (also referred to as the project
topology) were represented by networks, facilitating the application of
graph-theoretic algorithms to analyse the topology. Such graph-based
methodology was consolidated and proposed to decompose the design
into non-repetitive modules that can be preassembled off-site [31]. A
new clustering algorithm was developed to identify and define the
optimal modularisation in building design with the data from BIM tools.
Rausch et al. [32] demonstrated Monte Carlo simulation on the toler­
ance analysis of a prefabricated construction assembly for modular
structural systems. An assembly network was presented to define how
components can be geometrically related in the graph format, the results
of which were decomposed into core subassemblies for iterative opti­
misation that resulted in acceptable deviations at critical measurement
points. Regarding the representation of element interdependencies,
Khalili and Chua [33] proposed an IFC-based graph model to represent
the relationship between topological features on 3D elements. Specif­
ically, building components (e.g. beams and columns) in BIM were
converted to vertices in the graph model, while edges represented to­
pological relationships between the components (containment, inter­
section, etc.) [33]. In these studies, BIM provided the fundamental
geometric and/or topological attributes that were transformed into
network graphs for representing, generating, and analysing the design of
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Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
prefabricated (modular) buildings.
With the graph-theoretic representation, evolutionary algorithm and
machine learning were applied to discover new design options. In this
regard, evolutionary optimisation or generative modelling techniques
were focused on generating a diverse set of new spatial-geometric con­
figurations [14–18], while machine learning served to evaluate the
fitness of each candidate [34,35]. For example, Masouleh [34] proposed
a surrogate-based optimisation method, where an ant colony algorithm
iteratively evolved design scenarios and an active learning model eval­
uated the building thermal environment and energy efficiency. Other
studies also indicate machine learning as a viable approach to evaluate
and identify the optimal design [36–38]. Very recently, generative
adversarial networks (GAN) which involve two competing neural net­
works were deployed for optimal house layout generation [39,40]. The
generative model in GAN focused on searching new candidates and the
discriminative model evaluated them via an adversarial process. Nauata
et al. [40] proposed a novel graph-constrained GAN, whose generator
and discriminator were built with their design constraints encoded into
graph structures, for the generative design of new house layouts in
architectural works. The computational capacity of generative model­
ling was integrated with graph-constrained deep learning algorithms to
identify building spatial features whose presence was strongly related to
indoor human comfort [35]. In the literature, graph data models were
proposed to describe and manage building design information to support
the generation and optimisation of various design options.
However, the application of BIM and graph models in the automatic
generative design of modular buildings is still quite recent and yet
advanced. Firstly, although IFC has been utilised to deal with the ge­
ometry of 3D elements as well as the geometrical constraints and se­
mantics for spaces, it is still lacking in the aspect of modular buildings.
The existing IFC schema is not spatially rich for the space representation
of volumetric modules and provides limited support for representing the
topological relationships and geometries of precast components within
modular buildings, which are essential for design computation. In
addition, current practices normally separate modular building design
into two stages, which involve first establishing the configuration (e.g.
shape, geometry, and material layout) of individual modules, and then
combining different types of volumetric modules to create spaces in the
entire building [4,41]. Conventional graph data models did not explic­
itly formulate the spatial organisation of different modular units and the
configuration of individual modules, even though their relationships
were highly interactive. When developing rule-based building objects,
the relationships between precast components (such as wall panels,
windows, doors) can be modelled as parametrical constraints so that
these components can be more easily modified under building design
standards. Overall, the previous research suggests a persistent need for
the development of new data models in BIM, which describes the
essential characteristics and interrelated elements within volumetric
modular buildings, for the sake of creating and planning new design
options for modular construction.
Therefore, this study aims to develop a comprehensive BIM-based
graph data model for representing the essential characteristics and
interrelated elements in modular buildings, with the purpose of auto­
matically generating and planning design options for modular con­
struction. The proposed new method consists of three salient
components. Firstly, the IFC model view definition (MVD) is proposed to
provide a structured overview of the required information in the BIM
environment (such as new spatial attributes for volumetric modules).
Relationships between interrelated precast components are taken into
consideration as parametrical constraints for new entities to support the
automatic generative design in later stages. Following this, a graph data
model is proposed to explicitly formulate the essential characteristics
and their interdependencies in modular buildings. This involves a
comprehensive description of the spatial attributes for volumetric
modules as well as the topological relationships, geometries, and se­
mantics for various precast components in modular construction. After
V.J.L. Gan
Fig. 1. Proposed methodology framework.
that, data transformation algorithms are developed to convert the
required information in BIM to the graph model and compute necessary
model parameters in accordance with the IFC MVD. Provided the graph-
structured data, a prototype system is developed for the automatic
generative design of modular buildings.
This study creates added value and scientific contribution in the
following aspects. The graph data model provides a comprehensive and
transparent approach to describe the essential characteristics of modular
buildings. The graph data model explicitly formulates the spatial, to­
pological, and geometric characteristics that are essential for generating
design options in modular off-site construction. In practices, our
generative design algorithms or systems follow the formulation to
retrieve spatial, topological, and geometric information from BIM for
automatic 3D model generation and manipulation. Specifically, the al­
gorithms first map 3D spaces of the BIM model into a set of vertices in
adjacency or connectivity graphs. The topological, geometric, and se­
mantic information are then extracted and associated with corre­
sponding graph vertexes, resulting in a comprehensive description of
BIM as a relational graph. Provided the graph representation, our
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Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
generative design algorithms or systems parametrically manipulate the
spatial attributes of volumetric modules, generate the corresponding 3D
model in BIM, and evaluate the fitness of each candidate towards
identifying a population of optimal solutions within the pre-defined
constraints. The proposed new method establishes ways of creating
and analysing design options at the early stage, which improve the
planning of modular off-site construction in practices. The rest of the
paper is organised as follows. Section 2 presents the proposed new
methods, models, and algorithms. Section 3 presents an illustrative
example with a focus on the design of a modularised flat consisting of
different volumetric modules. Section 4 concludes the whole paper and
discusses the future work.
2. Methodology
Fig. 1 shows the methodology framework for developing the BIM-
based graph data model. The proposed framework consists of three
phases: (1) identification of information requirements in BIM including
IFC MVD, (2) graph data model in the aspect of modular buildings, and
 V.J.L. Gan
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Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Fig. 2. Proposed process map for designing and constructing modular buildings.
V.J.L. Gan Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Fig. 3. Proposed MVD structure for modular building class.

(3) transformation of graph-structured data for automatic generative stored in matrixes and/or relational databases for the ease of
design. information query.
(3) Lastly, data transformation algorithms are developed to convert
(1) The required information for designing modular buildings is the required information in BIM to the graph representation and
identified with reference to communications with practitioners as thereafter compute necessary model parameters in compliance
well as published building regulations (such as precast specifi­ with the IFC MVD. A prototype system can be built and examined
cations, document-based design guidebooks, code of practices, via an illustrative example focusing on the automatic generative
etc.). The information requirements shall include spatial, topo­ design of modular buildings.
logical, geometric, and semantic aspects, which are relevant to
the design and prefabrication of modular buildings. IFC MVD is
established to provide a structured overview of the required in­
2.1. Identification of information requirements in BIM
formation in the BIM environment taking into consideration the
existing MVD site. Relationships between interrelated precast
2.1.1. Required information for modular building design
components are taken into consideration as parametrical con­
Identification of information requirements starts by establishing a
straints for new entities.
process map which configures the tasks of different stakeholders and
(2) Following this, the graph data model is established to explicitly
links a course of products, resources, and data exchange requirements
formulate the spatial attributes for volumetric modules as well as
across various designing stages. The process map is proposed with
the topological relationships, geometries, and semantics for
reference to communications with industry practitioners as well as
various precast components in modular construction. In this re­
published guidebooks and building regulations which stipulate the
gard, spatial attributes are used to describe and modify the spatial
requirement for modular off-site design and construction [3,42]. Spe­
organisation in modular buildings. Topological, geometric, and
cifically, current practices normally separate modular building design
semantic information represents the detailed configuration of
into two stages, which involve first establishing the configuration of
volumetric modules such as the placement, dimension, and shape
individual modules in a “product library”, and then combining different
of various precast components. The graph-structured data can be
types of volumetric modules to create the floor plan of modularised flats

5
V.J.L. Gan
Fig. 4. Proposed MVD structure for volumetric modules.
and then the entire modular building. Moving on to next phase, the
engineers and contractors interact closely to determine the module de­
tails including the dimension, material layout, etc. The design is vali­
dated via early contractor and fabricator engagements for review before
the module prefabrication and assembly on sites. The process map de­
fines the necessary data exchange among stakeholders, providing the
basis for identifying the formal information requirements in the BIM
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Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
environment. With reference to the clarified information requirements,
a list of new entities and attributes are proposed for representing the
configuration of volumetric modules in MVD.
As shown in Fig. 2, the process map includes six phases which are
inception, conceptualisation, detailing, pre-construction, and construc­
tion. It covers stakeholders of seven disciplines including development
planning, architectural design, engineering design, construction
V.J.L. Gan
Fig. 5. Information model displaying the relationship between volumetric modules and cast-in-situ components.
management, off-site fabrication and transportation, and on-site as­
sembly. Since this paper has a focus on the design perspective, the
detailed information flow between conceptualisation and design plan­
ning is emphasised.
• At the inception phase, the developer initialises the whole project
and defines the client’s requirements, which are leveraged to explore
the building mass plan subject to specific site constraints. At the
conceptualisation phase, the developer identifies the design criteria
for space planning using modular construction. The design criteria
are sent to stakeholders of architectural design for spatial analysis to
determine the spatial organisation with a modular layout.
• At the detailing phase, the main design idea and consideration in
terms of the programmatic objectives of the project are consolidated.
This is done by defining and implementing the design criteria of
module configuration. Stakeholders of development planning and
architectural design identify the module detailing criteria and
configuration requirements such as functionality and dimension. The
information then flows to engineering design stakeholders for adding
in the necessary topologies, geometries, and semantics to create the
detailed 3D models.
• At the pre-construction phase, the stakeholders of engineering design
generate the whole building model with different types of volumetric
modules. The design is validated via early contractor engagement, in
which case draft drawings and 3D models are sent to contractors and
fabricators for review. Their feedbacks are assessed in a feasibility
study and sent to architectural design stakeholders for refining the
3D models.
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Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
• At the construction phase, the architectural and engineering designs
are finalised to generate the construction and shop drawings from the
refined models. Concerning the refined design documents, contrac­
tors develop the overall construction programme and coordinate
with fabricators and transporters to plan the production and logis­
tics. After the manufacturing and fabrication work is completed, the
volumetric modules are delivered to sites for assembly and
installation.
Provided the clarified information requirement, a list of new entities
and attributes are proposed in MVD to guide the exchanged BIM data for
automatic generative design.
2.1.2. IFC model view definition (MVD)
This subsection presents the new entities and attributes for MVD in
accordance with the information requirements in Section 2.1.1. As Fig. 3
shows, the MVD provides a structured overview of the required infor­
mation for modular building classes so that our graph model can follow
to explicitly formulate the essential characteristics and their in­
terdependencies in modular buildings. In compliance with the MVD, the
proposed new algorithms can automatically retrieve the essential
spatial, topological, and geometric information from BIM for 3D model
generation and manipulation. To avoid displaying redundant informa­
tion, the new addition and existing entities in Fig. 3 are differentiated by
blue and orange colours respectively, while optional entities are boun­
ded with dashed outlines.
Since the existing MVD has a focus on conventional cast-in-situ
construction, the class available does not include entities for
describing volumetric modules in the precast industry. Therefore, in the
V.J.L. Gan
Fig. 6. Two-stage decomposition of modular buildings.
proposed MVD, the designing aspects are expanded first by introducing
new entities related to the definition of structural form for modular
buildings. Modular buildings can be disaggregated into a finite number
of precast volumetric modules which comprise precast components
(such as framing elements, joints, and planar elements). As such, new
entities related to the definition of precast volumetric modules are
expanded and described in the MVD. Furthermore, cast-in-situ compo­
nents are sometimes required in the practical design to provide overall
stability and load resistance. For example, volumetric modules are
designed to resist compression while cast-in-situ components (such as
core or podium structures) provide lateral stability. With cast-in-situ
core structures, modules can be either clustered surrounding the cores
or connected to in-plane trusses placed within the corridors [43]. Thus,
some cast-in-situ components from the existing MVD site (such as beam,
column, wall, slab, and stair) [44] are added to provide a comprehensive
representation of the essential components in modular buildings. The
cast-in-situ components are also extended by adding new elements such
as core and podium structures which are used to enhance the overall
stability of modular buildings.
Fig. 4 demonstrates the MVD structure for representing the detailed
configuration of volumetric modules. It starts by identifying common
properties (such as unique identifier, name, module tag, type definition,
and functionality) which distinguish different modules. Owner and
history information is taken from the existing MVD site, which includes
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Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
identity information such as project number, drawing number, etc. Each
volumetric module contains a set of spatial attributes including its po­
sition, area, space boundary, adjacency and connectivity (with other
modules), which are related to the representation of spatial organisation
within modular buildings. Therefore, a new spatial definition entity is
introduced to define the necessary spatial attributes and express spatial
relationships between volumetric modules for space planning in later
stages.
The volumetric modules comprise several precast components (e.g.
framing elements, joints, and planar elements), which are defined as
new generic aggregation entities. The precast components comply with
certain topological relationships for the object placement. In this study,
relationships between precast components are taken into consideration
as topological arrangement rules (e.g. parametrical constraints) under a
new object placement entity. The topological arrangement between
precast components can then be interpreted as the object placement
relative to the grid. Furthermore, a new generic assignment entity is
introduced to represent geometries and semantics for precast compo­
nents. It involves the definition of dimension, material type, fabricator/
transporter, and shape representation to provide a complete description
of volumetric modules for construction. Specifically, the dimension,
geometrical constraint, and material type are added via a property
definition entity, while fabricator/transporter’s information is intro­
duced as a part of the semantics. The bounding box representation (B-
V.J.L. Gan Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

rep) method is taken from the existing MVD site to represent various
shapes of precast components.
In compliance with the proposed MVD, Fig. 5 demonstrates the
necessary entities and their interdependencies in modular building
design. The modular building class is represented by IfcModularBuilding,
and its basic attributes include the number of storeys, height aspect
ratio, and type of structural form, which are consistent with the MVD.
The composition of IfcModularBuilding includes cast-in-situ components
and volumetric modules. The former can be taken from the existing
IfcBuildingElement while the latter is defined as a new entity (IfcVolu­
metricModule). The absent component types need to be extended with
attributes in the same format. For example, cast-in-situ components are
expanded by introducing new entities (e.g. IfcCore and IfcPodium),
which are used with IfcBeam, IfcColumn, IfcWall, etc. to enhance the
overall stability of modular buildings.
At the volumetric module level, the spatial attributes (such as posi­
tion, area, adjacency, and connectivity) are defined following the MVD.
This enables spatial analysis and layout planning to be carried out with
the building level concept. IfcVolumetricModule is composed of several
basic compositions (IfcPrecastComponent). For example, IfcFramingEle­
ment comprises IfcPerimeterBeam, IfcCornerColumn, and IfcBrace. IfcJoint
can leverage either bolt connection with varying sizes or weld method in
different thicknesses. IfcPlanarElement comprises IfcPlanarCeiling, Ifc­
PlanarFloor and IfcPlanarWall. Their topological relationships, geome­
tries, and semantics are defined in Fig. 5 to provide a comprehensive
description of complete modules in construction. If framing elements are
designed for load resistance, planar elements can serve only as the Fig. 7. Graph representation of spatial attributes for volumetric modules.
partition and are defined as IfcNonStructrualStud. Alternatively, volu­
metric modules can be built solely with planar elements which provide number of volumetric modules M1, M2, …, Mk (∀k ∈ K). K is the total
both the load resistance and partition (e.g. IfcRCWallBoard). Of note is number of volumetric modules in the flat. Each volumetric module (Mk)
that planar elements can have one or several openings (such as doors or has its spatial attributes, topological relationships, geometries, and se­
open passages) which determine the connectivity between modules in mantics, which are described in the following subsections.
the spatial analysis. As such, IfcOpeningElement is introduced and asso­
ciated with IfcPlanarElement for calculating the connectivity. With 2.2.1. Representation of spatial attributes
reference to the IFC MVD, the graph data model can be established to This subsection presents the graph representation of spatial attri­
explicitly formulate the entities and attributes in mathematical terms for butes for the volumetric module (Mk). As discussed in the MVD, the
information retrieval and generative design. spatial attributes to be considered in the analysis include space position,
space area, adjacency and connectivity between modules which are
demonstrated in Fig. 7. The space position is characterised by the
2.2. Graph data model for modular buildings centroid coordinates (xMk, yMk) of the volumetric module (Mk) in BIM.
Likewise, AMk is defined to represent the space area of the volumetric
This section presents the graph data model according to the MVD. module. Specifically, AMk is enclosed by the space boundary of the
Decomposition of modular buildings into a combination of volumetric module and associated with the boundary length (LMk) and breadth
modules is the central task to construct the graph-theoretic representa­ (BMk). In the analysis, adjacency refers to two or more neighbouring
tion. To this end, we leverage a two-stage decomposition which involves modules that are next to each other with a shared wall or an interior
first decomposing the whole modular building into a number of modu­ opening (like a door). Connectivity refers to two adjacent modules that
larised flats and then disintegrating each modularised flat into volu­ are in direct contact with an interior opening such as a door, an open
metric modules (see Fig. 6). The first stage decomposition is formulated passage and so on.
in Eq. (1). As shown in Fig. 7, the adjacency and connectivity between volu­
⋃
W metric modules are represented by two labelled graphs, i.e. adjacency
Гφ = (1) ( IJ )
graph A(G) = (MK, EIJ) and connectivity graph C(G) = MK , É . MK is
{F1 , F2 , …, Fw }
w=1
defined as the total number of volumetric modules in BIM, and each
in which Гφ stands for the building floor plan, Fw refers to one of the volumetric module Mk (k ∈ K) represents a vertex in the graph. The space
modularised flats, W represents the total number of modularised flats for position of the vertex is determined by the centroid coordinates (xMk,
each floor. Eq. (1) expresses the floor plan of a modular building which yMk) of the module. The diameter of the vertex is computed in accor­
consists of one or more modularised flats F1, F2, …, Fw (∀w ∈ W). The dance with the space area (AMk), which reflects the relative importance
IJ
dimension of each modularised flat (Fw) is described by three variables of a module in the graph. EIJ and É refer to the sets of labelled edges in
including the characteristic length (hw), width (gw) and orientation (μw), the adjacency and connectivity graphs. Specifically, the labelled edges
as shown in Fig. 6 (b). Each flat comprises a number of volumetric in the adjacency graph are formulated as follows:
modules, as follows: ( )
Eij = M i , R, M j ∈ EIJ ∀i, j ∈ K (3)
⋃
K
{ }
Fw = M 1 , M 2 , …, M k (2) ⎡ ⎤
k=1
e11 ⋯ e1j
R=⎣ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎦ (4)
in which Mk refers to one of the volumetric modules that constitute the ei1 ⋯ eij
modularised flat (Fw). Specifically, each flat (Fw) consists of a finite

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V.J.L. Gan Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Fig. 8. Graph representation of topological relationships for precast components.

{ weightij is introduced in the next subsection. Otherwise, éij shall be equal

1∀M i has a shared wall or an interior opening with M j
eij =
0∀M i = M j or are not next to each other
In Eq. (3), Eij refers to one of the labelled edges (Eij ∈ EIJ), Mi and Mj
represent two volumetric modules (∀i, j ∈ K), R is the adjacency matrix
which stores the explicit adjacency information between modules (Mi
and Mj). Eq. (3) indicates that there exists a labelled edge Eij linking two
modules Mi and Mj. Their adjacency information is stored in R, which
consists of a set of values (eij) as shown in Eqs. (4)–(5). If Mi has a shared
wall or an interior opening with Mj, the value of eij in the adjacency
matrix (R) shall be equal to one, indicating that the two modules are
neighbouring and adjacent in BIM. Otherwise, eij shall be equal to zero,
indicating that the two modules are not next to each other. The
formulation can be further expanded with the following degree matrix
(D) to convey more spatial information in the graph for design
computing.
⎡ ⎤
d11 ⋯ d1j
D=⎣ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎦ (6)
di1 ⋯ dij
{ i j
degij ∀M = M
dij =
0 otherwise
However, the adjacency graph alone is not sufficient to interpret the
extent of connectedness between volumetric modules. Therefore, the
connectivity graph C(G) needs to be applied and its labelled edges (É )
are formulated as follows.
(5) to zero, indicating that the two modules are not directly connected.
Each volumetric module consists of a space boundary depicted as ϑk.
The graph representation A(G) or C(G) can then be extended to incor­
porate the space boundary information, as follows:
( ) ( )
(11)
IJ
A(G) = M K , EIJ ; ϑK or C(G) = M K , É ; ϑK
ϑk = [ϑ1 , ϑ2 , …, ϑs ]k ∀ϑk ∈ ϑK (12)
where ϑk refers to the space boundary of the volumetric module (Mk) in
BIM, which consists of boundary curves ϑ1, ϑ2, …, ϑs. Furthermore, ϑK
represents the whole set of space boundaries for different volumetric
modules in BIM. Likewise, the topological, geometric, and semantic
information can be described in matrix form and associated with cor­
responding vertexes in the graph. Such graph-theoretic representation is
very useful for retaining the spatial organisation and connectedness for
spatial planning in the later stage.
2.2.2. Representation of topological relationships
Each volumetric module (Mk) can be decomposed into several pre­
cast components. As shown in Fig. 8, a volumetric module consists of
(7)
three types of fundamental precast components including (1) framing
elements (such as precast beams and columns), (2) joints, and (3) planar
elements (e.g. precast wall panels and floor slabs) in accordance with
IJ certain topological arrangement rules.
⋃
P

( ) αp = PF ⊂PFrame (13)
(8)
ij IJ
É = M i , ŔM j
∈ É ∀i, j ∈ K p=1

⎡ ⎤ P′
é11 ⋯ é1j ⋃
βp′ = PJ ⊂PFrame (14)
Ŕ = ⎣ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎦ (9)
p′ =1
éi1 ⋯ éij
{ PF ∩ PJ = ∅and PF ∪ PJ ⊂PFrame (15)
weightij ∀M i is directly connected to M j
éij = (10)
0∀M i = M j or is not directly connected
⋃
P

ij γp ⫅PPlanar (16)
Eq. (8) indicates that there exists a labelled edge É linking two p=1

adjacent modules Mi and Mj (∀i, j ∈ K). Ŕ is the connectivity matrix that

stores the connectedness between two volumetric modules. The con­ PFrame ∪ PPlanar ⊂M k (17)
nectivity matrix (Ŕ) consists of a set of values (éij ) as shown in Eqs. (9)– In Eqs. (13)–(15), αp and βp represent one of the framing elements
′

(10). If Mi is directly connected to Mj with an interior opening (i.e. a door and joints, respectively. PF and PJ are the corresponding sets of framing
or an open passage), the value of éij in the connectivity matrix shall be elements and joints. PF and PJ constitute the frame of a volumetric
equal to a weighting factor (weightij) which implies the connectedness module which is defined as PFrame. In design practices, joints connect
between the two adjacent modules. The computational method of different types of framing elements and they generally do not cross and

10
V.J.L. Gan
Fig. 9. Process for information extraction and transformation into the graph data model.
intersect with each other. Therefore, the intersection of PF and PJ in Eq.
(15) shall be empty. Besides, this study considers planar elements of a
volumetric module, which are collectively described as PPlanar. It consists
of multiple types of planar elements (γ p ). Overall, the set of PFrame is used
in conjunction with PPlanar to form the detailed configuration of a
volumetric module in BIM.
The object placement (such as boundary curve, module orientation
and arrangement of precast components) is defined by users as topo­
logical arrangement rules, which are enforced in the design generation.
Eqs. (18)–(19) present the formulation of the topological arrangement
rules.
L = LFF ∪ LFP ∪ LPP (18)
⎧
⎨ LFF ⫅PFrame × PFrame
L ⫅P × PPlanar (19)
⎩ FP Frame
LPP ⫅PPlanar × PPlanar
where L stands for the set of topological arrangement rules defined by
users, which contain three rulesets LFF, LFP and LPP. LFF refers to the
ruleset applied for the placement of framing elements. It is defined as the
parametrical relationships or constraints between different framing el­
ements in BIM, which is expressed as the product of PFrame × PFrame.
Likewise, LFP represents the parametrical relationships between framing
and planar elements, and LPP stands for the arrangement rules among
planar elements. The graph representation A(G) or C(G) can be extended
by incorporating the ruleset, i.e. A(G) = (MK, EIJ; ϑK; LK). The formula­
tion indicates that planning and generating the spatial organisation of
volumetric modules must also comply with the topological relationships
(L) between different precast components.
2.2.3. Representation of geometric and semantic information
The graph representation can be further expanded with the geome­
tries and semantics for precast components. The dimension, material
type, prefabrication-related information, etc. of each precast component
can be encoded in the graph representation A(G) or C(G), as follows:
( )
A(G) = M K , EIJ ; ϑK ; LK ; T K,σ (20)
[ ]
Tk,σ = t1 , t2 , …, tk σ ∀k ∈ K (21)
11
Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
̂ u ≤ tk < Bu (k = 1, 2, …, K)
B (22)
k, σ
In Eqs. (20)–(22), T refers to a set of geometries and semantics for
different precast components that constitute the volumetric module
(Mk). σ represents a specific piece of the required geometric and se­
mantic information (such as length, width, height, and fabricator/
transporter). The geometries of precast components are subject to pre-
defined geometrical constraints including lower bounds ( B ̂ u ) and
upper bounds (Bu ). For example, the length, width, and height of precast
components must comply with code-stipulated requirements and
dimensional constraints. Such formulation allows new features to be
easily added to the graph data model for information retrieval and
computational analysis.
It should be noted that planar elements (such as wall panels) can be
decomposed into several faces which are related to the definition of
interior openings (such as doors or open passages) and the calculation of
connectivity between volumetric modules. Eq. (23) below presents the
mathematical formulation:
⋃
6
φτ ⊂γp (23)
τ=1
in which φτ represents one of the six faces that form the shell of a planar
element (γp ) such as a wall panel. Of note is that this study focuses on
modular building design in the residential sector where interior open­
ings (such as doors or open passages) are used as connecting elements to
integrate different volumetric modules. As a result, the face of a wall
element (usually on the elongated side) can be installed with an interior
opening, and its size determines the extent of connectivity between
volumetric modules. A geometrical analysis is carried out to compute
the connectivity, as follows:
ϕ(φτ )nij ≤ Q∀i, j ∈ K (24)
/
weightij = ϕ(φτ )nij ∑N ϕ(φ n ∙N − 1 (25)
τ )ij
n=1
where (φτ)ijn refers to the face of a wall element with an interior opening,
n represents the type of an interior opening. The opening connects two
volumetric modules Miand Mj where ∀ i, j ∈K. ϕ(φτ)ijn is the function to
V.J.L. Gan
Fig. 10. Proposed algorithms for automatic data transformation.
retrieve and compute the size of the interior opening, which is subject to
the size limit (Q). Eq. (25) calculates the extent of connectivity (weightij)
∑
between two volumetric modules Miand Mj. n=1Nϕ(φτ)ijn ∙ N− 1 refers
to the average size of all interior openings in BIM. As such, weightij is
calculated as the ratio of the size of an interior opening over the average
size of all openings in the 3D model, reflecting the extent of connect­
edness between two modules in comparison to other openings. A larger
weightijindicates more open space and stronger connectivity. The results
shall be assigned to éij in the connectivity matrix (Ŕ) as shown in Eqs.
(9)–(10). Zero means that connection does not exist between two
modules and therefore,
( )
(26)
IJ
M i , ŔM j ∈∕ É
The graph data model comprehensively describes the essential
characteristics and interrelated elements in modular buildings, which
can be leveraged to generate and optimise the possible design options.
The subsections below demonstrate the algorithms which transform BIM
into the graph representation for automatic generative design.
2.3. Data transformation for automatic generative design
2.3.1. Automatic transformation of graph-structured data
This subsection introduces the algorithms which automatically
extract and transform the required information in BIM to the graph
representation. Fig. 9 demonstrates the process of data transformation,
which starts by creating the 3D model in BIM and defining necessary
model entities and attributes. Following this, the algorithms convert the
required information in BIM to the graph representation and compute
necessary model parameters. For example, the space boundary for each
volumetric module is computed from the boundary curves of planar
elements (such as walls) in BIM. The data extracted from BIM include the
spatial attributes, topological relationships, geometrics, and semantics
for volumetric modules. Provided the extracted entities and attributes,
the algorithms automatically construct the graph data model in
compliance with the mathematical formulation in Section 2.2. The al­
gorithms utilise spatial attributes to generate the adjacency matrix,
12
Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
connectivity graph, etc. for modular buildings. The topological re­
lationships, as well as geometries and semantics of precast components,
are extracted and associated with the graph model to provide a
comprehensive expression of design information.
The BIM-based algorithms are implemented using Dynamo Studio
with Python scripting [45]. Fig. 10 shows the Pseudo-code of the pro­
posed algorithms and illustrates the automatic data transformation. The
algorithms first map the 3D spaces of a modular building into a set of
vertices in the adjacency and connectivity graphs and automatically
deduce their spatial relationships to a set of edges. Specifically, the al­
gorithms use the space position of each volumetric module, i.e. centroid
coordinates (xMk, yMk), to add the corresponding vertex to the adjacency
graph A(G) and connectivity graph C(G). Then, the algorithms calculate
the adjacency matrix (R) and create edges (Eij) between neighbouring
modules in A(G). Likewise, the algorithms compute weightij in the con­
nectivity matrix (Ŕ) for those neighbouring modules with interior
ij
openings and add the corresponding edges (É ) to C(G). In addition to
spatial attributes, each volumetric module (Mk) is composed of precast
components (i.e. framing elements, joints, and planar elements). The
topological relationships between precast components, as well as their
geometries and semantics, are extracted separately and associated with
corresponding graph vertexes, resulting in a comprehensive description
of BIM as a relational graph for assorted information query.
2.3.2. Automatic generative design
Apart from the algorithms which read and transform information
from BIM to the graph data model, this study also tests the graph rep­
resentation in the generative design of modular buildings. A prototype
system interfaced in BIM-authoring software, Autodesk Revit [46], is
developed using Dynamo Studio and Generative Design Tool that
harness the power of Revit’s programming environment to define visual
logic and relationships to automate the computational design. The sys­
tem complies with a generative formulation to automatically explore
new population of design alternates. Specifically, the prototype system
generates design alternates by modifying the spatial attributes of volu­
metric modules and then evaluate the fitness of each alternate towards
V.J.L. Gan Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Fig. 11. Prototype system interfaced in BIM-authoring software

identifying a population of optimal solutions within the selection
criteria. Its purpose is to automatically generate and spread design in the
search space to discover a set of desirable solutions, instead of fixing the
outcome to a single suboptimal option.
The optimal solution in this paper shall fall within a set of pre-
defined integer values of objective function ̃f, which is defined as the
total floor area of the volumetric modules. It is mainly related to three
spatial attributes, namely space position (xMk, yMk), space area (AMk), and
IJ
connectivity (É ) between modules. The explicit formulation is given, as
follows:

Fig. 12. 3D model and floor plan in BIM.

13
V.J.L. Gan Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Fig. 13. Input and output from the BIM-based algorithms.

Objective function: accordance with Eqs. (33)–(34) to reflect changes in the spatial orga­
( IJ ) ∑K nisation. The design generation starts by identifying the initial config­
̃f xMk , yMk , AMk , É := k=1
AMk →Z (27) uration of modular buildings, including the original space position,
{ } space area, and connectivity between modules. Then, during the ran­
(28) domisation process, a population of design alternates are generated
′
Fw →Fw = M 1 , M 2 , …, M k
randomly by varying the spatial attributes in accordance with the pre-
(29) defined constraints. The system then spreads design in the search
′
xMk = xMk + ΔxMk ∀M k ∈ M K
space. Provided the target fitness values for objective function ̃f (i.e.
(30) target floor areas) and a number of selection criteria (e.g. area re­
′
yMk = yMk + ΔyMk ∀M k ∈ M K
quirements for volumetric modules), the system iteratively filters solu­
(31) tions from the generated design alternates towards identifying a set of
′
AMk = AMk + ΔAMk ∀M k ∈ M K
⎧ options that fall within the pre-defined constraints and meet the selec­
⎪ ′
tion criteria. Finally, the system terminates and returns users with a
⎨ ̂x Mk ≤ xMk < xMk (k = 1, 2, …, K)
⎪
′
̂y Mk ≤ yMk < yMk (k = 1, 2, …, K) (32) population of optimal solutions that fall within the selection criteria.
⎪
⎪
⎩A ′ Fig. 11 displays the prototype system interfaced in BIM-authoring
̂ Mk ≤ A k < AMk (k = 1, 2, …, K)
M software, Autodesk Revit [46], using Dynamo Studio and Generative
( ) Design Tool. The setup tab allows users to adjust design variables and
(33)
′
A(G)→A(G) = M K , EIJ define constraints during the optimisation process. The outcome tab
consists of output graph diagrams that indicate the configuration of
( IJ )
(34) different generated design alternates in connectivity graphs. The detail
′
C(G)→C(G) = M K , É
of each generated design (such as total floor area, individual space, and
Eqs. (28)–(31) indicate that, for a given modular building, if the
connectedness between modules) can be viewed in the design detail
modularised flat (Fw) changes its configuration to Fw′ remaining the
interface. The design selection functionality indicates all the possible
same number of volumetric modules {M1, M2, …, Mk}, the space position
combinations of design variables. It can be used to restrict the variation
and space area need to be adjusted accordingly. The updated values of
of certain variables to sort customised solutions from a large population
spatial attributes (xMk′ , yMk′ , AMk′ ) shall fall within the pre-defined lower
of design alternates.
bounds and upper bounds, as depicted in Eq. (32). In addition, the ad­
jacency graph A(G) and connectivity graph C(G) shall be updated in

14
V.J.L. Gan Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Table 1
Design constraints for generative design.
Room Space position (mm)// Room Room Area (m2)// Total area = 81 Connectivity// Derived from adjacency matrix //
centre coordinate // //

Variable Initial Constraint Variable Initial Constraint Variable Constraint (illustration)

value value

1 Hall xM1, yM1 X= [0.9–1.1] AM1 5 [3–7] Room 2,Room 4, Connectivity between two adjacent rooms is represented by
− 5418 Room 10 a Boolean variable [0,1]. Some default values are pre-
Y= defined to guide the design variation.
− 227
2 LivingRm xM2, yM2 X= [0.9–1.1] AM2 20 [18–22] Room 1,Room 3,
− 1362 Room 4,Room 5,
Y= Room 6,Room 9
− 180
3 MasterRm xM3, yM3 X= [0.9–1.1] AM3 13 [11–15] Room 2,Room 4
− 1197
Y=
− 3033
4 Ensuite xM4, yM4 X= [0.9–1.1] AM4 5 [3–7] Room 1,Room 2,
− 5172 Room 3
Y=
− 3032
5 BedRm xM5, yM5 X = 521 [0.9–1.1] AM5 9 [7–11] Room 2,Room 7,
Y= Room 9
2626
6 BathRm xM6, yM6 X= [0.9–1.1] AM6 4 [3–5] Room 2,Room 8,
− 3586 Room 9,Room 10
Y=
2680
7 BedRm xM7, yM7 X = 508 [0.9–1.1] AM7 9 [7–11] Room 5,Room 9
Y=
5028
8 ReadingRm xM8, yM8 X= [0.9–1.1] AM8 4 [3–5] Room 6,Room 9,
− 3575 Room 10
Y=
5062
9 Corridor xM9, yM9 X= [0.9–1.1] AM9 5 [4–6] Room 2,Room 5,
− 2041 Room 6,Room 7,
Y= Room 8
3842
10 Kitchen xM10, X= [0.9–1.1] AM10 7 [5–9] Room 1,Room 6,
yM10 − 5448 Room 8
Y=
3660

3. Illustrative example 3.1. Transforming BIM to graph-structured data

The proposed algorithms and prototype system are demonstrated
through an illustrative example that focuses on a modularised flat con­
sisting of ten volumetric modules. Figs. 12 (a) and (b) display the 3D
model and floor plan in BIM. As shown in Fig. 12 (b), the characteristic
length and width are 8800 mm and 10,500 mm respectively, creating a
total floor area of 81m2. Every room in the 3D model represents a
volumetric module (except the corridor).
• The model consists of a 5m2 Hall (indicated as Room1) at the main
entrance, which connects to a 20m2 LivingRm (Room2) through an
open passage (1510 mm width ×2110 mm height). The Hall is also
connected to a 7m2 Kitchen (Room10) through a smaller open pas­
sage of 1010 × 2110 mm.
• At the southeast corner, there is a 13m2 MasterRm (Room3) with a
5m2 Ensuite (Room4). Moving upward, there is a similar configu­
ration in two rows, which are 9m2 BedRm (Room5) and 4m2 BathRm
(Room6) on opposite sides, as well as another 9m2 BedRm (Room7)
and 4m2 ReadingRm (Room8) in another row.
• There exists a 5m2 Corridor (Room9) connecting to LivingRm with
an open passage of 810 × 2110 mm. All doors are displayed in Fig. 12
(b) with the same size of 810 × 2110 mm.
The BIM-based algorithms are examined to transform the entities and
attributes in BIM to construct the graph data model and compute
necessary model parameters (such as boundary curves and connectivity
weights). As Fig. 13 (a) shows, the adjacency and connectivity graphs
are generated automatically based on the 3D model in BIM. The vertices
are placed concerning the space positions of rooms (xMk, yMk) that are
taken from BIM. The sizes of vertices are computed from space areas
(AMk) to reflect their relative importance in modular buildings. Each red
edge (Eij) refers to the adjacency between two neighbouring modules
with a common wall or an interior opening. For example, LivingRm
(Room2) has red edges connecting with Hall (Room1), MasterRm
(Room3), Ensuite (Room4), BedRm (Room5), BathRm (Room6), and
Corridor (Room9). The information is also stored in the adjacency ma­
trix, as shown in Fig. 13 (b).
ij
On top of this, each blue edge (É ) represents the connectivity of two
adjacent modules, where the extent of connectivity is computed by the
sizes of interior openings. Specifically, LivingRm is connected to Hall
through an open passage (1510 × 2110 mm) and connected to Corridor
with a smaller open passage (810 × 2110 mm). In addition, LivingRm is
connected to MasterRm and BathRm through doors (810 × 2110 mm).
As such, blue edges are added in the connectivity graph to link LivingRm
(Room2) with Hall (Room1), MasterRm (Room3), BathRm (Room6),
and Corridor (Room9), respectively. The extent of connectivity (weightij)
is computed using the given dimensions of open passages and doors, and

15
V.J.L. Gan Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Fig. 14. Selected solutions for Scenarios I and II.

16
V.J.L. Gan Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062

Fig. 15. Comparison of connectivity graphs for Scenarios I and II.

17
V.J.L. Gan
Fig. 16. Rationalised 3D models and floor plans for Scenarios I and II.
stored in the connectivity matrix, as shown in Fig. 13 (c).
3.2. Generative design using prototype system
Table 1 demonstrates the initial configuration of the 3D model,
including original space position, space area, and connectivity between
the ten volumetric modules. Subject to the allowable variation, 6000
design alternates are generated automatically by varying the space po­
sition and space area. In addition, the illustrative example follows
common design practices and architectural design rules to set criteria in
the system for placing new openings. For instance, LivingRm is the
central space that connects Hall, MasterRm and BathRm, and therefore
should be assigned doors or open passages in BIM to connect the volu­
metric modules. The prototype system is examined on a Core i7-8550U
CPU, which takes only five minutes to finish generating the design al­
ternates. Overall, the computational time for design generation is
omittable, and therefore the system is computationally inexpensive and
can be conveniently leveraged in the practical design. The main findings
are presented in Figs. 14-16. Two scenarios are considered to compare
the modular building design with different selection criteria.
As Fig. 14 (a) shows, the selection criteria for Scenario I include
preferences for a larger Hall, unchanged/smaller LivingRm, minimal
changes on other modules as well as better walkability between Hall,
LivingRm, and MasterRm. As such, the module size limits (i.e. constraint
for space area) are regulated between 6 and 7 m2 for Hall and 18-20 m2
18
Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
for LivingRm while other modules (except MasterRm, BathRm, Read­
ingRm, Kitchen) can remain unchanged. The scatter plot below displays
the search space as well as regions where desirable solutions can be
identified. The solutions spread in the search space because the
configuration (such as connectivity between volumetric modules) varies
substantially. Selected solutions are emphasised in a frame wherein light
colours indicate smaller LivingRm and vice versa.
Scenario II is defined with another set of selection criteria. As shown
in Fig. 14 (b), Scenario II prefers a larger Hall, unchanged/slightly larger
BedRms, larger BathRm and ReadingRm as well as enhanced walkability
within the entire flat. The module size limits are regulated between 6
and 7 m2 for Hall (same as Scenario I), 9-10 m2 for BedRms, and 4-5 m2
for BathRm and ReadingRm, respectively. In the scatter plot of Scenario
II, the desirable solutions that fall within the selection criteria are also
emphasised in a frame wherein dark colours indicate larger BathRm/
ReadingRm and vice versa.
Fig. 15 (a) and (b) shows the connectivity graphs and space areas for
ten possible design options of Scenario I, where Unit 9 shows the best
fitness with the selection criteria. Therefore, Unit 9 is rationalised in
BIM-authoring software for further analysis. Fig. 16 (a) and (b) dem­
onstrates the rationalised 3D model and floor plan, in which Hall at the
entrance is enlarged to 7m2 to provide occupants with additional spaces
for communal eating, pantry, and reception. LivingRm remains its size
unchanged, and therefore must be shifted to the east. To align with the
exterior wall of LivingRm, MasterRm is resized and enlarged to 14m2.
V.J.L. Gan
Interestingly, an additional door is placed by the prototype system to
connect Ensuite with Hall such that the walkability between Hall, Liv­
ingRm and MasterRm can be greatly enhanced. As a result, occupants
can bypass the MasterRm and walk directly outside through Ensuite. The
generated design is desirable as it satisfies all the selection criteria
without significantly impacting the layout of the entire modularised flat.
Fig. 15 (c) and (d) shows the connectivity graphs and space areas for
Scenario II, where Unit 10 exhibits the best fitness with the selection
criteria. As shown in Fig. 16 (c) and (d), the rationalised 3D model has a
large Hall with an additional door at Ensuite. The BathRm door is
replaced at Corridor, which provides more spaces for socialising and
relaxation activities in LivingRm. As compared with Scenario I, the sizes
of BedRms are simultaneously increased to 9m2, providing occupants
with additional spaces for accommodation. Of note is that the prototype
system generates a door between the two BedRms, which offers more
flexibility to reconfigure the indoor living environment. The door can be
opened to link the two BedRms to provide a larger living hub. Alterna­
tively, it can be closed or sealed to remain two independent zones for
privacy. BathRm and ReadingRm are also designed to larger sizes at
5m2. An extra door is placed to connect ReadingRm and Kitchen to
enhance the overall walkability of the entire flat. The findings imply that
design information in BIM can be properly integrated with the graph
data model for generating and investigating various design options at
the early planning stage. It establishes ways of creating and analysing
modular building design, providing the decision-support basis for
modular construction.
4. Conclusions
This paper presents a novel BIM-based graph data model intending to
automate the generative design of modular buildings. IFC MVD is
established to express the spatial attributes for volumetric modules, as
well as the topological relationships, geometries, and semantics for
precast components, which are required for designing modular build­
ings. The information requirements for designing modular buildings are
identified, which enhance the standardisation of design information in
precast areas. Data transformation algorithms are developed to convert
the required information in BIM to the graph data model and compute
necessary model parameters in accordance with the proposed MVD
structure. Apart from the algorithms which read and transform infor­
mation from BIM, a prototype system interfaced in BIM-authoring
software is developed to enable the generative design of modular
buildings. The prototype system can parametrically manipulate the
spatial attributes of volumetric modules, generate the 3D model in BIM,
and evaluate the fitness of each alternate towards identifying a set of
optimal solutions. The system is tested in the optimisation of a modu­
larised flat to examine its applicability for planning the spatial organi­
sation of modular off-site construction.
This study provides added value to the standardisation of design
information for modular buildings, which aligns with IFC4Precast in the
precast industry. The graph formulation opens a new way to characterise
building features, which can be more easily leveraged with computa­
tional methods (such as metaheuristic algorithm, machine learning) to
explore the optimal design solution. Future work for this study includes
the integration of the graph data model with deep learning algorithms
(such as graph convolutional net, generative adversarial net) to advance
the intelligent design in precast areas. Besides, the graph data model can
be expanded by integrating the computational capacity of evolutionary
algorithms for enhancing the robustness and optimality of design opti­
misation. Furthermore, our future work also considers expanding the
present BIM-based algorithms to automatically export and utilise IFC for
model-based data exchange and 3D model generation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
19
Automation in Construction 134 (2022) 104062
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This research is funded by NUS Start-up Grant (No. R-296-000-233-
133). Any opinions and findings are those of the authors, and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the grantor.
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