Study Guide 2 Practical Manuals

PHYSICS
Study Guide 2 for
PHY1503
Physics Practical Work 1

Study Guide 2
Laboratory Experiments
Compiled by
H Cilliers
Revised by
I Basson
I Machi
EB Lombardi
Department of Physics
University of South Africa
Pretoria
© 2010 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
Page layout by the Department
PHY1503/2/2011
Page
INTRODUCTION (vii)
EXPERIMENTS ON MECHANICS
Experiment 1 Linear air track 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Energy and its conservation 2
1.3 Momentum and its conservation 4
1.4 Newton's Laws 5
1.5 The apparatus for studying motion in a straight line 6
1.6 Measuring velocities 8
1.7 Precautions when handling the apparatus 9
1.8 Levelling the air track 10
1.9 Experiment 1(a) Ð Analysis of the flatness of the air track 10
1.10 Experiment 1(b) Ð Determination of the coefficient of restitution 12
1.11 Experiment 1(c) Ð Collisions 13
1.12 Experiment 1(d) Ð Accelerated Motion 14
Assignment questions and problems 16
Experiment 2 Rotational motion 19

2.1 Introduction 20
2.2 Angular speed 21
2.3 Linear speed 21
2.4 Angular acceleration 21
2.5 Useful information 21
2.6 Experiment 2(a) Ð Angular acceleration 24
2.7 Experiment 2(b) Ð Conservation of energy 27
2.8 Experiment 2(c) Ð Rotational functional force or Frictional forgue 30
Experiment 3 Simple harmonic motion 35

3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Periodic motion 36
3.3 Simple harmonic motion 37
3.4 Things to try 42
3.5 Experiment 3(a) Ð Simple harmonic motion of mass hanging on an idealised
spring 45
3.6 Experiment 3(b) Ð Simple harmonic motion of a simple pendulum 48
^
CONTENTS
iii
Page
EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTROMAGNETISM
Experiment 4 Electrical measurements 56

4.1 Introduction 56
4.2 The conduction of electric current 57
4.3 Semiconductors 60
4.4 Apparatus 62
4.5 Experiment 4(a) Ð Ohmic behaviour: resistor 63
4.6 Experiment 4(b) Ð Nonohmic behaviour: diode 63
4.7 Experiment 4(c) Ð Construction of a potentiometer 64
4.8 Experiment 4(d) Ð The Wheatstone bridge 65
4.9 Experiment 4(e) Ð Construction of an ammeter 67
4.10 Experiment 4(f) Ð Construction of a voltmeter 72
Experiment 5 Charged particle in a uniform magnetic field 79

5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 The electron beam 80
5.3 The detection of electrons 82
5.4 The magnetic field of a pair of Helmholtz coils 82
5.5 The motion of charged particles in a magnetic field 84
5.6 Apparatus 86
5.7 Experiment 5(a) Ð Circular path of electrons 87
5.8 Experiment 5(b) Ð e=m of an electron 87
Experiment 6 Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor 90

6.1 Introduction 90
6.2 Magnetic force on a current-carrying wire 91
6.3 Apparatus 95
6.4 Experiment 6(a) Ð Dependence of magnetic force on electric current 97
6.5 Experiment 6(b) Ð Dependence of magnetic force on the length of the conductor 97
6.6 Experiment 6(c) Ð Dependence of magnetic force on the magnetic field strength 98
EXPERIMENTS ON OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS

Experiment 7 Physical Optics 103
7.1 Introduction 103
7.2 Diffraction by a single slit 106
7.3 Diffraction by a circular aperture 109
7.4 Diffraction by two identical parallel slits 109
7.5 Diffraction gratings 111
7.6 Electron diffraction 112
îv
CONTENTS
Page
7.7 Experiment 7(a) Ð Single slit diffraction 114
7.8 Experiment 7(b) Ð Diffraction pattern of blood cells 115
7.9 Experiment 7(c) Ð Diffraction by a grating 115
7.10 Experiment 7(d) Ð Electron diffraction 116
Experiment 8 The photoelectric effect 120

8.1 Introduction 120
8.2 The dual nature of light 121
8.3 Work function 121
8.4 Threshold frequency 122
8.5 Stopping potential 123
8.6 Experiment 8 Ð The photoelectric effect 124
Appendix A: Exponents and Logarthms 133

Appendix B: Greek alphabet 135
Appendix C: Physical constants and conversion factors 136
Appendix D: Microcomputers for data analysis 137
Appendix E: Information about the laboratory session 139
^
CONTENTS
v
Now that you have worked through the first study guide, and know what
performing experiments is all about, you must be growing impatient to get
your hands on some apparatus and actually do some experiments. We will refer
to this study guide as the laboratory manual and to Study Guide 1 just as the
study guide. This manual will provide you with information about the
experiments you will be performing once you get to the laboratory. In this
manual we discuss the background theory that applies to each experiment, as
well as the experiment itself. To help you familiarise yourself with the
experiments, we are now going to work through this manual in much the same
way we did for the study guide.
As for the study guide, we would like you to read this Introduction very
carefully before you start working. We know you are impatient to get going,
but once again the Introduction contains important information about the
module and the best way to use this manual, so please bear with me and read it!
1 TO RECAP..........
Module PHY103-8 forms the practical component of the first year physics
course at Unisa. The content of the module is divided into three parts, namely
Data processing and laboratory procedure, Home experiments and Laboratory
Experiments. The compulsory practical session at the main campus in Pretoria
in August forms the main activity of this module. Information about the
laboratory session was given in Appendix E in the study guide. For your
convenience Appendix E is also included in this manual on page 143. During
the first half of the year, you will be required to submit assignments.
Admission to the practical session is determined by your performance in these
assignments.
A schematic presentation of first the contents of the module is given on page

xii. The material concerning data processing and laboratory procedure is all
contained in the first study guide. On page xiii you can see a diagram of the
material included in this manual.
2 THE CONTENTS OF THIS MANUAL

Module PHY103-8 includes experiments based on the material covered in the
theoretical modules of the first year syllabus. We will be doing experiments
about
^ mechanics
^ electromagnetism
^ optics and modern physics
The discussion of each experiment has been divided into two sections, namely
^ Background theory
In this section we will discuss underlying principles and physical laws that
apply to the particular experiment. We have tried to make these discussions
^
INTRODUCTION
vii
as complete as possible, but we did not duplicate all the material covered in
the prescribed textbooks for the theoretical modules. The material
discussed as background theory for the experiments on mechanics is
treated in more detail in modules PHY101-5 and PHY105-A. The
background theory for the experiments on electromagnetism is covered
by modules PHY102-6 and PHY106-B and the theory for the experiments
on optics and modern physics forms part of module PHY104-9. If you
should find that you need more information than is provided in this
manual, you can consult your textbook for the relevant theoretical
module. If you are not registered for any of the theoretical modules and do
not have a first year textbook available, please do not go to the expense of
buying an additional textbook. Any textbook on first year physics will
provide the information you need. Use a book you already have, or take out
one from the Library.
^ Experiments
The experiments themselves are discussed in this section. The discussion
focuses on the apparatus to be used and the procedure to be followed for
each experiment. For each experiment we include a photograph and a
description of the apparatus. In the case of specialised apparatus, some
background theory concerning the principles that govern its operation
may also be given. We know it may feel strange to sit at home reading
about apparatus that you have not seen before, but this will help you to
recognise the apparatus and use it effectively once you get down to do
experiments.
The procedure for each experiment is given in a stepwise fashion, and

could also include additional background theory in some cases. Do not be
concerned if some of the instructions given do not make sense Ð
everything will become clear once you get to the laboratory!
3 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL

This manual is structured slightly differently from the study guide, and we will
give a brief description of the elements it includes. This manual serves a double
purpose. For the first part of the year, it serves to familiarise you with the
LABORATORY experiments, and during the laboratory session in August it will fulfil the role
MANUAL of a laboratory manual.
You should try to make this manual your own by making notes and interacting
with the text as you go along. This manual is structured around the
experiments that you will be performing during the practical session. The
material covered in each experiment differs in length, and you will therefore
have to determine your own pace when studying the material.
3.1 Learning objectives

At the beginning of each experiment, a number of learning objectives will be
listed. Because you are not able to perform the experiments yet, the learning
objectives in this manual are concerned only with the study material in the
background theory for each experiment. As you already know, it is a good
practice to turn back to the learning objectives when you have reached the end
of an experiment to check whether you have actually mastered them all.
^
viii
INTRODUCTION
When performing the experiments in the laboratory, you will be gaining a
number of practical skills that can be seen as the learning objectives of
laboratory work itself. These include
^ making careful observations of physical quantities for experimental

purposes
^ presenting experimentally obtained data and calculated results in an
ordered and concise way
^ interpreting experimental data
^ writing a scientific report
^ applying statistical techniques to experimental data
^ using a computer program to do a linear regression analysis
^ interpreting the results of a linear regression analysis to plot a straight line
graph
^ interpreting a straight line graph
^ drawing conclusions from your results
3.2 Activities
The discussion of each experiment is interspersed with activities that require
you to interact with the text by doing something. Sometimes you are required to
answer a few questions, sometimes you may have to complete a table and
sometimes you may have to solve a problem or do a calculation. An activity is
indicated by the icon shown below. It is very important that you do not skip
over the activities. By doing them, you can see immediately if there is
something that you do not understand, or that you should spend more time on.
This icon indicates an activity
3.3 Feedback
After each activity, we give feedback so that you can immediately see the
correct answer to the questions or calculations, or what the graph you were
asked to plot should look like. The feedback will always contain a complete
solution as well as an explanation, and you can regard the process of doing an
activity and reading the feedback as a conversation you are having with your
lecturer. However tempting it may be, it is not a good idea to look at the
feedback before you have done the activity yourself. Remember, you are not
writing a test, or taking part in a competition. It does not matter if your answer
is wrong! The only person who will know about it is yourself, and the reason
you are doing it is to learn something. The only way in which you can see
whether you are learning and understanding the material is to do the activity
yourself and then to check whether you were correct. Try it, and you will see
that it works!
3.4 Worked examples

There are a number of worked examples relating to some aspects of the theory
in this manual. It is a good idea to close the manual and work through a
worked example by yourself, and then to compare your solution with mine.
Worked examples will be indicated in the margin by the icon shown on the next
page.
^
INTRODUCTION
ix
This icon indicates a worked example
3.5 Margins and margin notes

Quite a large margin has been left next to the text in the page layout of this
manual. Please make use of it to make notes for yourself as you work through
the material. You will find that your own notes help a lot when you do revision
of the work.
In the margins you will also find some margin notes to guide you through the
text. Two types of margin notes were used. The first type is meant to point out
new concepts or terms when they are mentioned for the first time. You can see
an example of this in section 3 above, where the term ``laboratory manual'' is
used for the first time. The note in the margin is intended to help you find the
place in the text where the term ``laboratory manual'' occurs for the first time.
This type of margin note occurs throughout the text, and they will always be
written in uppercase letters to distinguish them from the second type of margin
note. We hope you find them useful!
The first type of The second type of margin note looks like the one we have used alongside.
margin note is They serve the purpose of referring you to a place in the text where something
discussed in the has already been discussed. The margin note alongside the text helps you to go
paragraph above. back to the point where the first type of margin note was first discussed. You
can think of the second type of margin note as a navigational aid. If you find
that you cannot remember exactly what was said in the discussion of a certain
concept or idea, these notes will help you find the experiment or page in the
text where it was discussed.
3.6 Appendixes
For your convenience we have repeated the appendixes that appear in the
study guide at the back of this manual. Appendix A deals with exponents and
logarithms, Appendix B gives the names and symbols of the Greek alphabet
and Appendix C contains the values of some important physical constants. In
Appendix D you will find some information about how you will be using a
microcomputer for data analysis during the practical session and in Appendix
E some very important information about the laboratory session is given.
3.7 Notation
The different notations used in different textbooks can be very confusing, so let
us explain the notation we will use right at the outset. In this module we will
always use the decimal point instead of the comma. We also use the notations
listed below, and we recommend that you use the same in your assignments,
reports and examination.
x : quantity x or magnitude x
x : average value of x
jxj : absolute value of x
~
x : vector x
j~
xj : magnitude of vector x
x^ : unit vector x
^x
INTRODUCTION
4 PLAN YOUR STUDIES
One of the most important factors that will determine your success in this
module is planning. Remember, you can only gain admission to the laboratory
session if you gain enough admission credits in the three assignments you have
to submit. You should plan your study programme in such a way that you
finish the required study material well ahead of the due date for each
assignment. By ``well ahead of the due date'', we mean that you should have
time to do revision of the material that you have already covered, and still have
time enough to complete the assignment and get it to us on time. Ideally, you
should complete each assignment at least two weeks before the due date to
allow for postal time and any possible delays.
To be able to plan your study programme, you should first of all see what the
due date for each assignment is and then have a look at the amount of study
material you have to complete for the assignment. You can then make an
estimate of how long you will need to
^ work through the material once

^ revise the material you have studied
^ answer the questions and solve the problems set for the assignment
5 IN CONCLUSION
During the laboratory session, you will have the opportunity to get your hands
on the various pieces of apparatus and do some experiments. We hope that this
will serve as an inspiration to do your best in the assignments. We will certainly
do our best to make the laboratory session a worthwhile and enjoyable
experience.
Finally we would like to repeat the invitation that we issued in the study guide
for you to contact us. We know that doing physics practicals by means of
distance education is tough. If you are experiencing difficulty with this module,
please do not give up before you have spoken to us. Remember, if we are
unaware of your problems, we can do nothing to help you.
We are looking forward to meeting you.
^
INTRODUCTION
xi
HOME LABORATORY
STUDY GUIDE EXPERIMENTS EXPERIMENTS
Study Unit 1
Experiments on Experiments on
What can you expect mechanics mechanics
from this module?
Topic 1
Experiments on Experiments on
Measurements electricity and magnetism electromagnetism
and errors
Topic 2
Experiments on
Interpretation optics and modern
of results physics
Topic 3
Graphs
Topic 4
Planning an experiment
and writing a report
^
xii
COURSE MAP
The material included in this laboratory manual
Experiment 1
Linear air track
EXPERIMENTS ON Experiment 2
MECHANICS Rotational motion
Experiment 3
Simple harmonic motion
Experiment 4
Electrical measurements
Experiment 5
EXPERIMENTS ON Charged particle in a
ELECTROMAGNETISM uniform magnetic
field
Experiment 6
Magnetic force on a
current-carrying
conductor
Experiment 7
EXPERIMENTS ON Physical optics
OPTICS AND
MODERN PHYSICS
Experiment 8
The photoelectric effect
STUDY MATERIAL INCLUDED IN MANUAL 2 ^

xiii
EXPERIMENTS ON MECHANICS
Each of the experiments on mechanics is preceded by a discussion of the
background theory that applies to the specific experiment. These discussions
contain sufficient theoretical material for the purpose of doing the experiment,
but if you should find that they do not provide you with all you want to know,
you could read up on some more of the relevant theory in any first year
textbook. It is also good academic practice not to limit oneself to just one
source of information. If you are registered for, or have completed the
PHY101-5 or PHY105-A module, you may want to have a look at the material
on mechanics in the textbooks for those modules. Any first year textbook on
physics will in fact contain the information you need. WE DO NOT EXPECT
YOU TO GO TO THE EXPENSE OF BUYING AN ADDITIONAL
TEXTBOOK. If you do not have a first year physics textbook available, you
can always borrow one from the Library if you feel the need to read up some
more about the theory.
one LINEAR AIR TRACK
A body in motion or at rest must be brought into that state of motion or rest
by the action of another body which in turn is brought into its state of motion
or rest by a third body, and so on ad infinitum.
Benedictus de Spinoza (1632±1677)
Learning objectives
After having studied the background theory for this experiment, you should be
able to
1. apply the following concepts in an experimental situation:

(a) kinetic energy
(b) potential energy
(c) conservative force
(d) momentum
(e) coefficient of restitution
(f) elastic collision
(g) inelastic collision
2. apply the following laws to the experiments you will be doing with the
linear air track:
(a) the law of conservation of energy
(b) the law of conservation of momentum
(c) Newton's laws
BACKGROUND THEORY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
As humans living on planet Earth, we deal with motion all day. We get up in
the mornings, get into a bus, a train, a car, or simply walk or cycle to school, to
university, to the shops, to work. On a special day we might go to a fun fair
and ride a roller coaster, or slide down a super tube at a water park. We watch
sportsmen and women throwing, hitting or kicking balls about. Our days are
filled with motion.
LINEAR AIR TRACK ^

1
Being human, we are not satisfied with merely watching passively. We want to
make new things happen, to expand the horizons of our experience. To do this,
we need to manipulate nature, and to do so effectively, we need to understand
nature. This experiment is intended to help you appreciate the physical
manifestation of the laws of nature which apply to objects moving in a straight
line. We will be looking especially at the motion of objects under the influence
of a gravitational field and at the phenomena of conservation of linear
momentum and conservation of energy. It may help you to assimilate the
meaning of these concepts better if you try to find analogies in ``real life'' for
the situations that you encounter in the laboratory experiments. For instance:
the interchange of potential energy and kinetic energy experienced by a glider
on an undulating air track is mirrored by a bunch of screaming people
careering up and down on a roller coaster. It takes some effort at first, but you
should really try to develop this ability to see ``textbook physics'' in action in
everyday life as a general habit. So, come along for the ride Ð we are sure you
will enjoy it!
1.2 ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION

Energy is a concept that holds both intense appeal and intense mystery. There
is much talk nowadays of the `ènergies'' residing in rocks, in the
configurations of the planets, in locations of the body, in colours, in thoughts
and many other spheres of existence. In physics we mean something very
specific when we talk about energy. Energy is a physical quantity that any
specific object contains in a certain amount. The amount of energy an object
possesses says something about the potential amount of work this object can
do. The amount of energy of an object can change and it can be accurately
measured. In this experiment we will be dealing with two forms of energy,
KINETIC ENERGY namely kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy, which we will simply
abbreviate to ``potential energy'' since it is the only type of potential energy we
POTENTIAL ENERGY will be dealing with.
1.2.1 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy that an object possesses because of its state of
motion. It gives a measure of the object's ability to do work because it is
moving. An object with a mass of m kilograms and a speed of v meters per
second has a kinetic energy given by
EK 12 mv2 : 1:1
1.2.2 Potential energy

Potential energy is the energy that an object has because of its position within a
gravitational field. Strictly speaking, we should call it relative potential energy,
since we are free to choose the point in this gravitational field where the
potential energy is zero and refer to all other objects relative to this point. For
instance, when dealing with objects close to the surface of the earth (like falling
balls, roller coasters and projectiles) we make the surface of the earth the point
of zero potential energy. Then the potential energy of an object with mass m
which is located at a height h above the surface of the earth, is given by
EP mgh 1:2
(where g describes the gravitational acceleration at the earth's surface).
^2
EXPERIMENT 1
1.2.3 The conservation of energy
Careful observation of the behaviour of nature gradually convinced scientists
that this physical quantity which we call energy has a very important property:
it is conserved. By this we mean that the energy residing in any particular object
cannot simply disappear (or be ``destroyed''), nor can it simply gain energy
`òut of thin air''. All our observations point towards one of the great
generalisations in physics, known as the law of conservation of energy, which
can be stated as follows:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it may be transformed from one

form to another, but the total energy content of the universe has a constant
value.
No new energy comes into the universe, and no energy leaves it. Objects in the
universe can only exchange their energies with each other. One particular form
of energy conservation which is relevant to the experiments we are going to
conduct, is the conservation of mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is MECHANICAL
defined as the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy: ENERGY
Mechanical energy EK EP : 1:3
The forces we see acting in nature can be broadly classified under two groups:
on the one hand the fundamental forces like gravity, the electromagnetic
interaction and the strong nuclear force, and on the other, complex forces like
friction. The fundamental forces have the important property that the
mechanical energy of an object which is subject only to such forces is
conserved. We therefore call such forces conservative forces. Gravity is a
conservative force, while friction is not. A body which moves because of the CONSERVATIVE
effect of gravity, but experiences no friction while moving, will keep the same FORCES
mechanical energy while moving. Any change in the kinetic energy of such an
object will be matched by an equal but opposite change in the potential energy
of the object, and vice versa, so that the sum of the two, namely the mechanical
energy, remains the same.
For this activity we need an object of which we know the mass. The first thing
we could find in our homes is a bar of toilet soap. It has a mass of 125 g
indicated on its wrapper. Place it on top of a desk, which has a height of 76 cm.
1. Calculate the potential energy of the bar of soap relative to the floor while
it is lying on the desk.
EP
ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION ^

3
2. If the bar of soap is pushed over the edge of the desk, it will drop to the
floor. What will the kinetic energy of the soap be as it reaches the floor?
(a) 0
(b) 93 100 J
(c) 0.93 J
(d) 9:31 106 J
3. Suppose now a jumbo-sized bar of soap which has a mass of 250 g is placed
on the desk. When the jumbo-sized soap is pushed over the edge of the
desk it will have
(a) half as much kinetic energy as the 125 g bar of soap
(b) twice as much kinetic energy as the 125 g bar of soap
(c) as much kinetic as the 125 g bar of soap
(d) four times as much kinetic energy as the 125 g bar of soap
. . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. The potential energy of the bar of soap relative to the floor is
EP mgh
0:125 kg 9:8 m sÿ2 0:76 m
0:93 J:
Comment:
Note that we converted the units to SI units before doing the
calculation. Also, the answer is given to two significant figures because
that is the number of significant figures in 9.8, the number with the
least significant digits.
2. The answer is (c): The kinetic energy of the soap will be 0.93 J when it
reaches the floor, because all its potential energy will have been
converted to kinetic energy.
3. The answer is (b): Twice as much kinetic energy as the 125 g bar of
soap. The 250 g bar of soap has twice as much potential energy at the
top of the table, and all of this is converted to kinetic energy as it
falls.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 MOMENTUM AND ITS CONSERVATION
1.3.1 Defining momentum

The momentum ~ p of a moving body is, roughly speaking, a measure of how
difficult it is to stop the body. Formally, it is defined as the product of a body's
mass and its velocity:
~
p m~
v: 1:4
It is important to note that momentum is a vector, that is it has magnitude as

well as direction.
^4
EXPERIMENT 1
1.3.2 The conservation of momentum
We have already taken note of the conservation of energy. Another very
important law of nature is the conservation of linear momentum. (Linear
momentum means momentum directed in a straight line Ð we also get angular
momentum, which is directed in a curved path.) Simply put, the law of
conservation of linear momentum states that the total linear momentum of an
isolated system is constant. (An isolated system is any collection of bodies ISOLATED SYSTEM
which only interact with one another and experience no force exerted on them
from the outside.) Friction is always counted as an external force acting on a
system of objects, so that one prerequisite for an isolated system is the absence
of frictional forces.
1.4 NEWTON'S LAWS

Newton's laws of motion are not restricted to motion in a straight line, of
course, but we need to refer to them before you can start the experiments.
Newton's first law states: NEWTON'S FIRST
Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line, LAW
unless it is compelled to change that state by a net force acting on it.
This means that any body that is not acted on by a resultant force, moves with
constant velocity (which can be zero) and zero acceleration. Remember,
constant velocity means at constant speed in the same direction.
Newton's second law is best encapsulated in the form of an equation: NEWTON'S

SECOND LAW
F~ m~
a 1:5
where F~ represents the resultant force acting on a body, m represents the

mass of the body, and ~ a represents the acceleration experienced by the body.
In words: When a resultant force acts on a body, the body will accelerate in
response to this force. The acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of
the resultant force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body, and
the direction of the acceleration is parallel to the direction of the resultant
force.
~AB on
Newton's third law of motion simply states that if body A exerts a force F NEWTON'S THIRD
~
body B, then body B simultaneously exerts a force FBA on body A, which has LAW
the same magnitude as F~AB but is directed in the opposite direction. Formally,
this can be stated as
~BA ÿF
F ~AB : 1:6
Think back to the bar of soap lying on the desk. Figure 1.1 shows the forces
acting on the bar of soap as it lies on the desk. Let the letter S refer to the soap,
D to the desk and E to the earth. The force F~SE is the weight of the soap, that
is the downward gravitational force exerted on the soap by the earth. Force
~SD is the upward force exerted on the soap by the desk.
F
NEWTON'S LAWS ^5
FIGURE 1.1: Forces acting on the bar of soap
~SE and F
1. Do the two forces F ~SD that act on the soap form an action-
reaction pair?
(a) Yes, because they are equal and opposite.
(b) No, because they are acting on the same body.
(c) Yes, because the soap is at rest.
(d) No, because F~SE is bigger than F ~SD .
2. What is the reaction force to the force F~SD exerted on the soap by the desk?
(a) The weight of the soap F ~SE
(b) The normal force N
(c) The frictional force f between the soap and the desk
(b) The force F~DS exerted on the desk by the soap
3. What is the reaction force to the weight of the soap F~SE ?

(a) The force F~DS exerted on the desk by the soap
(b) The normal force N
(c) The force F~ES exerted on the earth by the soap
(b) The frictional force f between the soap and the desk
. . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Answer 1(b): No, because they are acting on the same body. Even though
these forces are equal and opposite, they do not represent the mutual
interaction of two bodies; they are two different forces acting on the same
body.
2. Answer 2(d): The force F ~DS exerted on the desk by the soap
~
3. Answer 3(c): The force FES exerted on the earth by the soap
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 THE APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
1.5.1 The linear air track

The air track consists of a hard aluminium-alloy triangular tube P as illustrated in
Figure 1.2 A blower forces air through small holes on each side of the vertex of the
track. These air jets support the glider(s) Q and in this way almost frictionless
motion is achieved. The track is also equipped with levelling screws, a centimeter
scale R, spring bumpers S, and photogate timers T . We will discuss each of these
pieces of equipment in the discussion that follows.
^6
EXPERIMENT 1
T
S
Q P
R
FIGURE 1.2: Linear air track
1.5.2 Gliders
Metal gliders of different lengths and masses are available. The mass of each
glider is printed on the side. In Figure 1.3 you can see a glider with a mass of
500.23 g indicated on its side. (We will sometimes refer to the side of the glider
as its skirt.) Each glider has a spring bumper at both ends and a slot in which a
piece of metal plate can be inserted. This plate is called a flag and can be
oriented either horizontally or vertically. Flags of two different lengths (2.5 cm
and 10 cm) are available. In Figure 1.3 a flag of 2.5 cm is attached to the one
side of the glider and a flag of 10 cm to the other side.
FIGURE 1.3: Glider
1.5.3 Photogate Timers

A photogate timer is shown in Figure 1.4. A photogate is formed by shining a
narrow beam of light onto a photoelectric detector. (A photocell is simply an
electronic device which can detect when light is or is not falling onto it.)
THE APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE ^

7
FIGURE 1.4: Photogate timer
When the flag on a glider enters the region between a light source and a
photocell, the illumination on the photocell changes from light to dark and one
or more of the timers can be started or stopped. As soon as the flag leaves the
region between a light source and a photocell, one or more of the timers can be
started or stopped again. For all the experiments described here, the settings on
the timer can be used.
1. Timing mode: GATE

2. Memory: ON
3. Resolution: 0.1 ms
Remember to RESET the timer after each measurement. The timer can also be
used as a stopwatch by pressing the white button. It measures the time that the
white button is kept in.
1.6 MEASURING VELOCITIES

Why are we so interested in measuring times? In three of the four linear air
track experiments, the primary physical quantity we require is the velocity of
AVERAGE one or more gliders on the air track. The average velocity of an object is defined
VELOCITY as the displacement of the object divided by the time interval during which this
displacement occurred. If the velocity is changing during the time interval, and
we want to know the velocity at a particular point (or at a particular time), we
need to know the displacement s over an infinitesimally small time interval
t. As this is not practically feasible, we choose as short a time interval as
possible to determine the velocity v:
s
v
t
Try to answer the following questions: (You may have been asking them
yourself, by now!)
1. What do the photogate, timers and ``flags'' have to do with measuring

velocity?
2. Why do we not make the flag as short as is practically possible to measure
instantaneous velocities?
^8
EXPERIMENT 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . .
1. When a glider carrying a flag passes a photocell at some point along the
track, the flag takes a certain time to pass the cell, depending on the
velocity of the glider to which this flag is attached. Obviously, the time
taken for the flag to pass the photocell equals the time it takes the glider to
pass through a distance equal to the length of the flag. Make sure that you
understand this before you read further Ð if necessary, think it through
first.
OK?
For instance: If it takes a flag which is 2.5 cm long, 0.15 seconds to pass a
photocell, then the glider has taken 0.15 s to cover 2.5 cm. We can then
easily calculate the speed of the glider as
2:5 cm
v
0:15 s
16:67 cm sÿ1 :
Remember, there are flags of 2.5 cm as well as flags of 10 cm. Why is this?
Think back to the discussion on average and instantaneous velocity above.
If you really cannot answer this question, ask the lecturer presenting these
experiments for assistance during the laboratory session.
2. The reason for this is that the timers that we use to record times are only
accurate to 0.01 seconds. Therefore, the standard error in a time
measurement can be taken as approximately 0.001 s. If the flag is so
short that the actual time measured is 0.005 s, for instance, the error in this
measurement is
0:001
100 20%:
0:005
We are not prepared to perform experiments which have such a large
degree of uncertainty associated with them. We therefore choose flags
which are still long enough to limit the uncertainty in our measurements to
at most a few percent. When the velocity is constant, we want the flag to be
as long as possible, to keep the uncertainty (or `èrror'') in our
measurement as small as possible.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING THE APPARATUS

The most essential component which makes the air track useful is the air
cushion on which the gliders can travel with no friction (except a small amount
of air resistance). Anything which negatively affects this air cushion will
decrease the effectiveness of the air track. The actual air cushion is very thin.
Therefore, the surfaces of the gliders need to be kept smooth and clean, and the
shape of the glider skirts must also perfectly match the shape of the air track on
which they are moving. Most of the following precautions are intended to
preserve the effectiveness of the air cushion.
1. Be careful not to bump, jar or drop the gliders. Dropping a glider from a
height of a few centimeters will probably ruin it.
2. Do not slide gliders on the track while the air supply is turned off.
3. If you attach additional masses to a glider, be sure to add them
symmetrically. If the glider is lop-sided, it will rub on the track.
PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING THE APPARATUS ^ 9

4. Handle the photogate timers carefully. Make sure the gliders don't hit the
photogates!
5. Handle the air track carefully. Although it appears quite rigid, its use
makes it extremely sensitive to small changes in alignment. Bumping
against the track could easily affect its delicate alignment.
6. Do not put gliders onto the track unless the air supply is switched on, and
take all gliders off the track before the air supply is switched off.
1.8 LEVELLING THE AIR TRACK

It is easy to level a straight air track. Merely turn on the air supply and gently
place a glider on the track at any point. If the glider accelerates away from the
levelling screw at the one end of the track, use the screw to lower that end of
the track. If the glider moves toward the screw, then you should raise that end
of the track. Keep adjusting the levelling screw until a stationary glider remains
essentially stationary. You will find that a very slight turn of the screw makes
quite a difference to the motion of the glider. At the other end of the track
there are two additional setting screws. Do not adjust these screws.
Repeat this procedure at a few points along the track. If you find the task
difficult, ask your lecturer for assistance.
EXPERIMENTS
1.9 EXPERIMENT 1(a) ö ANALYSIS OF THE FLATNESS OF THE AIR
TRACK
The very low friction of a glider on an air track means that in most experiments
CONSERVATIVE the glider can be considered part of a conservative system, that is energy
SYSTEM considerations can be used reliably to characterise the system. Suppose the
track is horizontal and almost, but not quite flat as shown exaggeratedly in
Figure 1.5.
FIGURE 1.5: Exaggerated shape of the track
The glider leaves the one end with an initial velocity ~

vi . The energy equation of
the glider is
1 2 1 2
2 mv mgh 2 mvi 1:7
or
v2i ÿ v2
h 1:8
2g
where ~v is the velocity at a point with height h relative to that of the launching
position.
^
10
EXPERIMENT 1
Since a small change in the glider height h has a one-to-one correspondence
with an equivalent change in the value of v2 , the flatness of the air track can be
analysed by measuring the velocity ~v of the glider as a function of the distance
x from the starting point.
Each end of the air track is equipped with a U-shaped metal bracket V for
launching gliders. Figure 1.6 shows how a rubber band W is placed between a
pair of slots on the bracket arms. Stretch the rubber band until the two spring
bumpers (one on the glider and one at the end of the track) are lightly in contact.
If the glider is released, it is projected along the track with an initial velocity ~
vi . If
we want to obtain reproducible velocities, the rubber band must not be coiled up
and the two spring bumpers must always be brought gently into contact. Select a
rubber band that gives an initial velocity of less than 10 cm sÿ1 :
FIGURE 1.6: End of the air track
By using this launching mechanism and two photogate timers, the initial and
final velocities of the glider can be determined at a number of positions along
the track. The initial velocity is determined by using a photogate positioned
close to the initial position of the glider (Figure 1.6). Why should this
photogate not be too close to the glider?
1.9.1 Procedure
1. Determine the initial and final velocities of the glider five times for a
specific value of x:
2. Repeat the measurements for 50 cm intervals of x: You can either leave the
first photogate at the start of the track, or move both photogates down the
track, with a constant 50 cm interval between them. Which procedure
would be best?
3. Plot a graph of v2 as a function of x.
ANALYSIS OF THE FLATNESS OF THE AIR TRACK ^

11
4. Calculate the standard errors in the values of v2 and indicate the errors on
the graph.
5. Use the conservation of energy to calculate h as a function of x. Plot a
graph. Indicate the standard error on the h values.
1.10 EXPERIMENT 1(b) ö DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF

RESTITUTION
A useful number that can be used to characterise a rebound or collision is the
COEFFICIENT OF coefficient of restitution e. This number is defined as the ratio of the magnitude
RESTITUTION of the relative velocity after the collision to the magnitude of the relative
velocity before the collision. If the relative velocity has the same magnitude
before and after the collision, the collision is perfectly elastic and e 1. If the
relative velocity has a smaller magnitude than before, the collision is semi-
elastic and 0 < e < 1. If the relative velocity is zero after the collision, that is if
the two bodies stick together, it is completely inelastic and e 0. In this case
the two bodies move as a unit after the collision.
An air track is ideal for studying the coefficients of restitution, since friction is
negligible. Suppose a glider starts from rest a distance x1 from the lower end of
an air track tilted at an angle as shown in Figure 1.7.
According to the law of conservation of energy
1
mv21 mgh1
2
where ~
v1 is the velocity of the glider at the lower end of the track. If the velocity
immediately after the collision is ~ v2 in the opposite direction, energy
conservation yields
1
mv22 mgh2 :
2
FIGURE 1.7: Tilted air track
Since
h1 h2
sin
x1 x2
^
12
EXPERIMENT 1
it follows that
1
v1 2gx1 sin 2 1:9
and
1
v2 2gx2 sin 2 : 1:10
The coefficient of restitution is therefore given by

12
v2 x2
e : 1:11
v1 x1
1.10.1 Procedure
1. Tilt the track by placing a suitable object under the levelling screw. Note
that the value of is not required.
2. Determine values of x2 five times for each of seven different values of x1 :
3. Draw a straight line graph by using a linear regression analysis and
determine e from the slope of the graph.
4. Calculate se :
1.11 EXPERIMENT 1(c) ö COLLISIONS

The law of conservation of linear momentum states that the total linear
momentum of an isolated system is constant in magnitude and direction. The ISOLATED SYSTEM
term `ìsolated'' implies that no resultant external force is exerted on the system.
Consider a collision between two gliders a and b on the air track. Before the
collision the velocities of the gliders are ~va1 and ~
vb1 respectively and after the
collision they are ~va2 and ~vb2 respectively. Since no resultant external force is
exerted on the gliders, linear momentum is conserved. Therefore
ma~
va1 mb~
vb1 ma~
va2 mb~
vb2 : 1:12
This equation is valid whether the collision is elastic or inelastic. If the collision is
perfectly elastic the total kinetic energy of the system is also constant
1 2
2 ma va1 12 mb v2b1 12 ma v2a2 12 mb v2b2 : 1:13
If the collision is not perfectly elastic, the total kinetic energy after the collision
is less than the total kinetic energy before the collision.
The experimental setup is shown in Figure 1.8. Three timers T1 , T2 and T3 are
arranged on the air track with the distance between adjacent photocells not
more than 30 cm. (If you are using two of the larger gliders, you will have to
increase this distance to accommodate the flags. If you have done Experiment
1(a), you should consult the graph of h versus x to select the best section of the
track for this experiment.)
Glider a is given an initial velocity ~

va1 between timers T2 and T1 . Timer T1 is
started as soon as the illumination on the photogate changes from light to dark
and is stopped when the illumination changes from dark to light. From the
time registered on timer T1 and the length of the flag, ~va1 can be calculated.
The collision takes place between timers T1 and T3 . Glider b, which was
stationary before the collision ~vb1 0, moves through T3 and from the time
registered on timer T3 , ~ vb2 can be calculated. If the collision is
COLLISIONS ^
13
perfectly inelastic, the two gliders stick together after the collision and
~
vb2 ~va2 . If the collision is elastic, glider a moves towards timer T2 after the
collision and the final velocity ~ va2 is calculated from the time registered on
timer T2 . The mass of each glider is indicated on its side.
FIGURE 1.8: Arrangement of photocells for Experiment 1(c)
1.11.1 Procedure
1. Investigate three elastic collisions between two gliders with different masses.
2. Compare the total momentum (a vector) and kinetic energy (a scalar)
before a collision with the corresponding values after the collision.
3. Repeat the experiment with two identical gliders.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for inelastic collisions. An inelastic collision is obtained
by putting small pieces of ``Prestik'' on the bumpers of the gliders.
1.12 EXPERIMENT 1(d) ö ACCELERATED MOTION

If the air track makes an angle with the horizontal, a resultant force is exerted
on the glider as shown in Figure 1.9.
FIGURE 1.9: Forces on the glider
Two forces are exerted on the glider, namely the force m~

g exerted on the glider
~
by the earth, and the force N exerted by the air on the glider. The sum of the
forces perpendicular to the track is
~ ÿ m~
F~y N g cos
and since the glider is not accelerated in this direction (the track is assumed to
be perfectly straight), it follows from Newton's second law that
~y 0
F
^
14
EXPERIMENT 1
which implies that
~ m~
N g cos :
The sum of the forces along the surface of the track is
F~x m~
g sin
and according to Newton's second law the glider will have an acceleration ax
where
~x
a x F
m~
m~
g sin
so that
~
ax ~
g sin :
The motion of the glider is described by the equations
vx vox ax t
vox gt sin ; 1:14
1
x vox t ax t2
2
1
vox t gt2 sin x 1:15
and 2
v2x v2ox 2ax x

v2ox 2gx sin vx2 1:16
where vox is the magnitude of the velocity of the glider when t 0: Equations
(1.14), (3.5) and (1.16) are the standard equations of motion for the case of
uniform acceleration. They can easily be derived from the definitions of
displacement, velocity and acceleration.
The experimental arrangement is shown in Figure 1.10.
FIGURE 1.10: Experimental arrangement for Experiment 1(d)
The glider, with the narrow flag attached to it, starts from rest at position S.
From the time recorded on a timer T1 the instantaneous velocity of the glider
at R can be calculated. From the time recorded on timer T2 the instantaneous
velocity at Q can be calculated. The distance between R and Q can be read off
the centimetre scale. Use the third timer T3 as a stop watch to measure the
time of travel from from R to Q. (Press the white button on T3
ACCELERATED MOTION ^
15
when the LED on T1 shows red. Keep it down. Release the button when the
LED on T2 shows red.)
1.12.1 Procedure
1. Level the track and put the aluminium block under the setting screw.
2. Calculate from the thickness of the block and the distance between the
setting screws near the end of the glider.
3. Record at least seven sets of readings of vox , vx , x and t by changing the
position of photogate T2 and keeping S and R fixed.
4. Draw a graph of vx as a function of t and obtain vox and g from it.
5. Draw a graph of v2x versus x and obtain vox and g from it.
6. Draw a graph of x as a function of t and obtain an estimate of vox from it.
7. Compare the values of vox obtained from steps 4, 5, 6 and the direct
measurements.
8. Compare the values of g obtained from steps 4 and 5 with the generally
accepted value of 9.8 m sÿ2 :
You should do a linear regression analysis for all straight line graphs and
calculate the errors on all required values.
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
Questions on background theory

E1.1 With what force will the feet of a passenger weighing 500 N press
downward on an elevator floor when the elevator has the following
accelerations:
(a) 2 m sÿ2 upward?
(b) 2 m sÿ2 downward?
E1.2 A body of mass 25 kg rests on a frictionless horizontal plane and is

acted on by a horizontal force of 30 N.
(a) What acceleration is produced?
(b) How far will the body travel in 10 s?
(c) What will its velocity be at the end of 10 s?
E1.3 A man and a boy initially at rest on frictionless horizontal ice push
each other apart. Which skater will be further from the starting point
after a short time? Explain.
E1.4 A horse is pulling a heavy cart and the cart and the horse are both
being accelerated. Is the force of the cart on the horse equal and
opposite to the force of the horse on the cart? If your answer is ``yes'',
explain why these equal and opposite forces give rise to the ``net force''
that is necessary to cause acceleration. If your answer is ``no'', explain
whether Newton's third law is true while the cart is accelerating.
E1.5 A 0.006 kg bullet is fired horizontally into a 4 kg wooden block resting
on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of sliding friction between the
block and the surface is 0.25. The bullet remains embedded in the
block, which is observed to slide 0.35 m along the surface. What was
the velocity of the bullet?
^
16
EXPERIMENT 1
E1.6 An elevator and its load weigh a total of 12.2 kN. Find the tension in the
supporting cable when the elevator, originally moving downward at 10
m sÿ1 , is brought to rest with constant acceleration in a distance of 15 m?
E1.7 A man stands on an open truck which can run on frictionless
horizontal rails. The man and the truck are at rest. The man now walks
to the one end of the truck and stops. Describe the motion of the truck.
E1.8 On a frictionless table, a 4 kg block moving at 5 m sÿ1 to the right
collides with a 9 kg block moving at 1.6 m sÿ1 to the left.
(a) If the two blocks stick together, what is the final velocity?
(b) If the two blocks have a completely elastic head-on collision, what
are the final velocities?
(c) How much mechanical energy is converted into heat in the collision
described in part (a) of this problem?
E1.9 A body A with mass m1 moves at a velocity ~ va1 and collides elastically
with body B, mass m2 , which is stationary. Show that the magnitudes
of the velocities of A and B after the collision are given by:
va2 m2 ÿ m1 va1 = m1 m2
and
vb2 2m1 va1 = m1 m2 :
E1.10 A mass m1 is given an initial velocity v0 while mass m2 6 m1 is

initially at rest. After a semi-elastic collision the velocities are ~
v1 and ~
v2
respectively. Show that the ratio of final to initial kinetic energy is
given by
R m1 e2 m2 = m1 m2 :
Use this expression to show that kinetic energy is conserved only when
e 1:
Questions on Experiments
E1.11 Why does a glider move at constant velocity on a horizontal air track?
E1.12 Discuss the effect of friction on the results of Experiment 1(a).
E1.13 Describe the transfer of energy when the glider is launched using a
rubber band in Experiment 1(a).
E1.14 The following results were obtained for Experiment 1(a): The
photogates were moved down the track together so that they were
always separated by 50 cm.
x tA tB
(cm) (s) (s)
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
0 0.094 0.100 0.102 0.106 0.098 0.135 0.140 0.136 0.144 0.145
50 0.095 0.100 0.097 0.093 0.090 0.282 0.290 0.280 0.292 0.286
100 0.099 0.108 0.114 0.111 0.110 0.144 0.136 0.141 0.140 0.139
150 0.100 1.103 0.110 0.108 0.105 0.083 0.090 0.080 0.078 0.083
200 0.100 0.101 0.102 0.098 0.104 0.071 0.070 0.076 0.069 0.067
250 0.090 0.095 0.091 0.087 0.092 0.095 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.087
300 0.091 0.090 0.099 0.095 0.100 0.122 0.125 0.126 0.128 0.124
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS ^

17
The width of the flag is 2 cm.
(a) Determine the initial and final velocities of the glider at each value
of x, and calculate standard errors on these values.
(b) Draw all the graphs required for this experiment.
E1.15 Discuss the effect of friction on the results of Experiment 1(b).

E1.16 The following results were obtained for Experiment 1(b):
x1 x2
(cm) (cm)
10 6.4 6.3 6.5 6.6 6.2
50 32.4 33.3 30.7 32.0 31.0
70 44.0 44.8 45.6 44.0 43.1
100 65.2 66.3 62.0 63.8 64.2
150 97.0 98.1 94.0 97.3 95.0
200 130.0 133.1 128.5 129.9 130.4
250 158.0 163.3 163.8 160.3 159.9
Use linear regression to draw the required graph and calculate e and se .
E1.17 Consider two identical gliders on a horizontal air track. The one moves
towards the other one, which is stationary, and then they collide
elastically. By using conservation laws, determine what happens after
the collision. What would be the effect of a tilted track on the results?
Explain.
^
18
EXPERIMENT 1
two ROTATIONAL MOTION
I have yet to see any problem, however complicated, which when you look at
it the right way does not become still more complicated.
P Anderson
Learning objectives
able to
1. explain the concepts of
(a) rotational motion

(b) angular speed
(c) linear speed
(d) angular acceleration
2. explain how the angular acceleration of the rotating object is related to
(a) its linear speed

(b) its angular speed
(c) the radius of the circular path along which it is moving
(d) the force that causes the object to rotate
(e) the moment of inertia of the rotating object
3. explain the meaning of
(a) energy conservation

(b) the rotational frictional force
ROTATIONAL MOTION ^
19
BACKGROUND THEORY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This experimental work deals with the rotational motion of solid objects such
as discs, bars etc. These objects are composed of tiny objects or particles that
may rotate about any arbitrary axis. The path followed by such particles may
be circular as shown in Figure 2.1, which describes the position of a particle in
terms of the angle between a fixed radius of the circle and a radius from the
centre of the circle to the particle. We use three units to express the angle y :
degree, revolution, and radian.
FIGURE 2.1: Angle y gives the angular position of the mass at point B with respect to its initial
position at point A
You may not be familiar with the radian so here is an explanation. We define
an angle in radians by the following equation:
arc length
Angle in radians = ÐÐÐÐÐÐ
radius of arc
or
s
y =
r
where s and r are shown in Figure 2.1. Note that the radian is really not a
proper unit at all since it is merely the ratio of the two lengths. We nevertheless
use the terms y rad, or y8 to designate angular measurement in order to express
how we are measuring the angle. Do not expect these terms to behave as units
in equations. When y becomes very large and fills the whole circle, it subtends
an arc equal to the circumference 2pr which is equivalent to 2pr / r , or 2p rad.
We use this conversion factor, 2p rad : 3608, to convert any angle between
these two unit systems. For example, in this experiment 1rad : 608 is used for
timing. This simplifies the calculation of angular momentum of an object or a
particle moving in a circle.
Exercise
Try to do any experiment that may help you think about rotational motion.
For example, tie a piece of string to a key and swing it in a horizontal circle.
1. What do you feel as you swing the key around?

2. How does this sensation change when you increase the speed at which you
swing the key?
^
20
EXPERIMENT 2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . .
1. You will feel the string pulling on your finger Ð this means the string is
exerting a force on your finger.
2. The pull of the string becomes stronger, that is the pulling force becomes
greater.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 ANGULAR SPEED

The angular speed of an object in circular motion is defined as the angle swept
out per unit time by the radius connecting the object to the centre of the
circular path, and is measured in radians per second. Mathematical
representations of this quantity are found in the pages that follow.
2.3 LINEAR SPEED

The linear speed of an object is the distance covered per unit time. This is a
general definition Ð it holds for rectilinear motion as well as for curved or
circular motion, the reason being that speed is a scalar quantity.
2.4 ANGULAR ACCELERATION

The angular acceleration of an object is defined as the rate of change in angular
speed. Illustrative mathematical representations of this quantity are found in
the pages that follow.
2.5 USEFUL INFORMATION

Figure 2.2 illustrates some of the apparatus used in this experiment.
FIGURE 2.2: Rotational apparatus
USEFUL INFORMATION ^
21
Main platter: mass = 991 g, radius = 12.7 cm,
moment of inertia = 7.50 6 10±3 kgm2
Auxiliary platter: mass = 894 g, radius = 12.7 cm,
Steel bar: mass = 690 g, length = 22.23 cm, breadth = 5.1 cm,
Steel ring: mass = 701 g, outer radius = 6.4 cm, inner radius = 5.4 cm,
Step pulley: radii = (1.50 cm, 2.00 cm, 2.50 cm)
Make sure that you are familiar with all the information given below. This will
minimise the risk of interpreting and making conclusions about incorrect and
meaningless results. In some instances, the guidelines given below may not be
sufficient, which will mean that you have to make use of the ``Help'' tool in the
``DataStudio'' software, or ask the lecturer in charge of the experiment. At
first, you may find it difficult to conduct this experiment but subsequent
measurements should be conducted without any difficulty as you will be more
familiar with the procedure.
Before beginning the experiment, make sure that the base is levelled as
accurately as possible. Place the base on a flat table and place the bubble level
on the base. Centre the bubble in the bubble level by adjusting the ``levelling
supports'' on the base. Levelling the base is important as it ensures the
accuracy of your experiment results and prevents uneven wear on the bearings.
The string used to apply a torque to the platter should be kept parallel to the
platter. The interface should be switched on before executing the ``Data
Studio'' software. The on/off switch is at the back of the interface.
STEP 1: Interface and ``DataStudio'' software

. Make sure that the appropriate cables are connected to the interface, and
that the interface is switched on (see on/off button at the back).
. Start the software by double clicking on the ``DataStudio'' icon using the
left button of the ``mouse''. Click once on the ``Create Experiment''.
. You should now be seeing the interface and sensors. Scroll down the list of
sensors and choose the photogate. ``Click and drag'' the photogate sensor to
the appropriate channel of the interface (whichever of the two channels is
used).
STEP 2: Timing of the rotational motion

You should now `ìnstruct'' the computer to time the motion. The popular
timing modes are the pendulum, pulse and gate. In this experiment, we use the
gate mode, where the time durations t are measured during the interruption of
the photogate (see Figure 2.3). In Figure 2.3, the interrupting object is the
cardboard that subtends an angle y (= 1 rad) at the centre of the platter.
Therefore, t 1t rad.s±1 provides the simplest approach to measuring the
angular speed ! of the rotating object.
^
22
EXPERIMENT 2
One radian
sector
FIGURE 2.3: Timing of the rotational apparatus
The definition of timing using the gate mode in the ``DataStudio'' software is
best illustrated as follows:
. Click on Timers located above the interface, to open the Timer Setup
dialog, which is used to define a timing scheme, consisting of a user-
defined timing sequence.
. You may click on New, or proceed with the steps below.
. In Label, type any name of the Timer scheme (eg Gate Mode).
. In Timing Sequence Choices, select Blocked to begin the timing when the
photogate is interrupted.
. In Timing Sequence Choices, select Unblocked to end the timing when the
photogate is uninterrupted. Note that these selections should now appear
under Timing Sequence.
. Click on Done when finished. You should now see an entry in the Data
List of the Summary (see top left corner).
STEP 3: Data displays

. This experiment needs just ``two displays'' (see Table and Graph on the
extreme left of the dialog). Open these displays by ``double clicking'' on
each of them.
STEP 4: Starting/stopping the timing

. The ``start''/``stop'' button, which may be interrupted by clicking the
mouse, is located next to the top red digital figures.
. The ``start'' of the timing and the release of the hanging mass should
preferably happen simultaneously. The timing should be stopped when
necessary, for example, when the falling mass is about to hit the ground.
STEP 5: Data plotting and related information

. There are little icons at the top of the graph display. The function of each
icon may be obtained by positioning a mouse cursor on the icon without
clicking the mouse.
STEP 6: Data manipulation

. This experiment requires the plotting of the angular speed against the
elapsed time. In order to achieve this, the measured time durations should
be converted to angular speed. This is achieved by clicking on the
Calculate icon. This result appears in the dialog box, where 1/(Gate Mode)
can be constructed. For more information make use of the Help tool.
USEFUL INFORMATION ^
23
STEP 7: Curve fitting
. To fit any function, click on Curve Fit, and then on New (if necessary).
. When the first graph is completed, go to File. Select Open New Activity.
You will be asked whether you want to save the activity or not. I do not
really think it is necessary to save it.
. Repeat STEPS 1±7 for a new set of measurements.
EXPERIMENTS
2.6 EXPERIMENT 2(a) ö ANGULAR ACCELERATION
Aim: To determine the relationship between the angular acceleration of the
object and the
(i) point on the object where the force is applied

(ii) magnitude of the force that causes the acceleration
(iii) rotational inertia of the object
Apparatus: Base, main platter, spindle, auxiliary platter, steel ring and bar,
bubble level, smart pulley with table clamp, thread, mass hanger,
set of masses, photogate, computer and interface.
Background theory
In this section, we do not intend discussing the theory of rotational motion in
detail, but rather to introduce you to its basic concepts. It is for this reason that
we are only going to give you the equations that are relevant to these basic
concepts. At the end of this experiment you should have learnt how to obtain
the angular acceleration of an object from the slope (or gradient) of the graph
of y vs t. y is the angle swept by the rotating object in time t. Such angular
acceleration is given by
!

t t2 (2.1)
which may also be defined as
d? ! t/I (2.2)
where o is the angular speed of the rotating object, d? is the perpendicular
distance from the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force that
causes the acceleration, t is the torque of the object, and I is the moment of
inertia of the object (see Figure 2.4). The torque, t = Fd? , is defined as the
rate of change of the angular momentum of the object. Combining the above
expression of the torque with the expression a = t/I results in
Fd?
(2.3)
I
^
24
EXPERIMENT 2
FIGURE 2.4: The geometry of torque
which is another expression for the angular acceleration. In this experimental

work you will be investigating the validity of Equation 2.3, where two variables
are kept constant (during each measurement) as shown below.
/ d? , where the proportionality constant is FI

d
/ F , where the proportionality constant is I? (2.4)
/ 1I , where the proportionality constant is Fd?
Also note that you will be required to plot the graphs related to the above
expressions, where the experimental values of the proportionality constants
will have to be extracted and compared with the calculated values (from known
values of F, d? and I).
Smart pulley
Spindle Smart pulley clamp
Main platter Rubber band
Pulley
Universal
clamp
Hanging
mass
FIGURE 2.5: Illustration of the setup
Procedure and measurements

. Make sure that the apparatus is set up as shown in Figure 2.5, taking into
account that in our setup the Smart pulley is not used. The step pulley may
either face up or down, but it should face down when additional objects
have to be added to the main platter. Using the ``DataStudio'' software on
the computer, familiarise yourself with all the information applicable to
this experiment, as discussed in Section 2.5.
. Attach a piece of string about 2 m long to the step pulley of the main
ANGULAR ACCELERATION ^
25
platter and wind it up on the smallest of the three spindles. Record this
value in the table as shown in Table 2.1.
. Attach the mass holder to the other end of the string, and add masses to a
total of about 40 g. Record this value in the table as shown in Table 2.1.
. Release the mass and begin data capturing as described in Section 2.3.
. Fit the graph of t vs t, i.e. o vs t, and obtain the slope that gives the
angular acceleration a of the main platter. Record the value of a in the
table as shown in Table 2.1. The y-intercept is not useful in this case, as it
depends on the initial conditions only.
. Repeat the measurements using the same mass as above, but now with the
string on the medium and the large spindles, respectively. Record the
results in the table as shown in Table 2.1.
Tabel 2.1
Hanging mass _________ [kg] ? Force ____________ [N]
Description of the rotating object _______________________
Step pulley radius (d? ) Angular acceleration (a)

[m] [rad.s±2]
. Repeat the measurements using masses of about 80 g, 120 g and 160 g,

respectively, the main platter, and the smallest spindle. Record the values
and the results in the table as shown in Table 2.2.
Tabel 2.2
Step pulley radius _____________ [m]
Description of the rotating object _______________________
Mass (m) Force (F) Angular acceleration (a)

[kg] [N] [rad.s±2]
. Repeat the measurements using the main platter and steel ring, the main
platter and steel bar, and the main and auxiliary platters, respectively, using
a mass of about 200 g, and the smallest spindle. Record the values and the
results in the table as shown in Table 2.3.
^
26
EXPERIMENT 2
Table 2.3
Hanging mass _________ [kg] ? Force ______________ [N]
Description of the Moment of inertia Angular acceleration (a)

rotating object (I) [rad.s±2]
[kg.m2]
Data analysis and interpretation

(a) From Tables 2.1 and 2.2, plot the graphs of a vs d? and a vs m,
respectively.
(b) Do the plots in a) satisfy any of the relations in the set of equations 2.4?
Provide a detailed explanation of your answer.
(c) Use the graphs in a) to estimate the values of FI and dI? . Compare these
estimated values with those calculated from known values of d? , F and I.
Record the results in the table as shown in Table 2.4.
(d) Linearise the data in Table 2.3, and plot a linear graph. Why should the
data be linearised?
(e) From the results in d), estimate the value of d? F. What is the physical
meaning of this quantity? Compare the estimated value with that
calculated from d? and F. Record your results in the table as shown in
Table 2.4.
Table 2.4
F d? d? F
I I
[m±1s±2] [kg±1m±1] [Nm]
Experimental
Calculated
(f) Discuss and draw conclusions about the overall results obtained in this
experiment. In the discussion you should include the success and
shortcomings of the experiment.
2.7 EXPERIMENT 2(b) ö CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

(GRAVITATION e ROTATION)
Aim: To illustrate the concept of the conservation of energy, that is, that energy
can be neither destroyed nor created, but is converted from one form to
another.
Apparatus: Base, main platter, spindle, bubble level, smart pulley with table
clamp, thread, mass hanger, set of masses, metre stick, photogate,
computer and interface.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (GRAVITATION E ROTATION) ^

27
Background theory
In this experiment the falling mass (m) is used to apply a constant torque, that
is, the rate of change of momentum, to a rotating platter. As the mass falls, the
loss in the gravitational potential energy is gained as rotational kinetic energy
of the rotating platter plus the kinetic energy of the falling mass. Therefore, the
total energy of the system (ie the falling mass plus the rotating platter) is given
by
total energy = (KE)r + (KE)t + PE = constant (2.5)
or E = 12Io2 + 12 mv2 + mgh (2.6)
where the meanings of I and o are given in experiment 2(a), g is the

acceleration of gravity, and h and v are the height and the speed of the falling
mass. Subscripts r and t refer to the rotational and translational kinetic
energies, respectively. The relation between o and v is given by
v = ro (2.7)
where r is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the position
where the force is applied to the rotating object.

Note that the setup of this experiment is similar to that of experiment 2(a), with
the exception of the presence of additional features such as different heights of
the hanging mass (see Figure 2.6). For more instructions for the setup, refer to
experiment 2(a).
(a) Attach a piece of string about 1,5 m long to the step pulley of the main
platter. Attach the mass holder to the other end of the string so that the
falling mass does not hit the floor when the string is fully extended.
Add masses to the holder until the total mass is about 50 g. Record the
value in the table as shown in Table 2.5.
Figure 2.6: Equipment setup
^
28
EXPERIMENT 2
(b) Move the mass to the height h1 (see Figure 2.6) by winding the string on
the smallest spindle. Record these values in the table as shown in Table 2.5.
(c) Release the hanging mass and ``Start'' the ``DataStudio'' as described in
Section 2.5. Let the mass fall, reach the bottom and begin to rise again.
``Stop'' data capturing. Examine the data and note a point where the
maximum velocity is achieved. This corresponds with the point where the
gravitational potential energy reaches a minimum and the rotational
kinetic energy reaches a maximum. Record the maximum angular speed
omax in the table as shown in Table 2.5.
Let the mass hang with the string fully extended, and measure the height h2
(see Figure 2.6). Record the value in the table as shown in Table 2.5.
(d) Using the same h2, h1 and the step pulley, repeat the above measurements
three times. Record the results in the table as shown in Table 2.5.
(e) Repeat the above measurements using masses of about 100 g and 150 g,
respectively. Use the previous values of h1, h2 and the step pulley. Record
the results in two tables similar to Table 2.5.
Table 2.5
Step Pulley Radius _____________ [m]
Mass _____________ [kg]
Height h1 = ____________ [m]
Height h2 = ___________ [m]
omax
Trial
[rad.s±1]
1
2
3
4
Average

(a) From the averages of the measurements, calculate (RKE)max (maximum
rotational kinetic energy of the main platter), (KE)max (maximum kinetic
energy of the falling mass) and (GPE)max (maximum gravitational
potential energy of the falling mass). Record the values in the table as
shown in Table 2.6, where vmax = d? omax.
Table 2.6
(RKE)max (GPE)max (KE)max
Mass
[kg] 1 2 1 2
I! [mg(h1 -h2)] mvmax
2 max 2
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (GRAVITATION E ROTATION) ^

29
(b) How is the kinetic energy (KE) of the falling mass related to that of the
rotating object?
(c) Discuss the results in Table 2.6. In your discussion provide a clear
explanation for the conservation of energy in this experiment, and make
reference to any relevant mathematical expression.
(d) Is the energy conserved? If not, give the possible cause of the energy loss.
(e) Does changing the weight of a falling object have any influence on the
conservation of energy of the system? Explain your answer.
2.8 EXPERIMENT 2(c) ö ROTATIONAL FRICTIONAL FORCE OR

FRICTIONAL TORQUE
Aim: To measure the rotational frictional force of the rotating object.
Apparatus: Base, main platter, spindle, bubble level, smart pulley with table
clamp, thread, mass hanger, set of masses, metre stick.
Background theory
In any mechanical system there are usually unmeasured frictional forces. In
this experiment a falling mass is used to provide a torque that rotates the main
platter. The energy lost by the falling mass supplies the rotational kinetic
energy to the rotating platter. Then, as the mass is pulled back up by the
platter, the platter starts to slow down when its kinetic energy is transformed
back into the gravitational energy of the rising mass. However, the mass does
not rise all the way to its original height, because some energy has been lost as
a result of friction. The magnitude of such a frictional torque, defined as tf, can
be determined from the expression
tf y = GPE (2.8)
where the gravitational potential energy, GPE, and the angular arc, y, covered
by the rotating platter are given by
GPE = mg(h1 ± h2) (2.9)
and
d
(2.10)
d?
respectively. d? and d are the radius of the step pulley and the total distance
covered by the hanging mass, respectively. d is given by
d = [(h1 ± h0) + (h2 ± h0)] = h1 + h2 ± 2h0 (2.11)
where h0, h1, and h2 are positions of the hanging mass (see Figure 2.7). In
Figure 2.7, h1 is the initial height, followed by the maximum height h2 that is
reached when the string rewinds on the step pulley. h0 is the position of the
hanging mass above the floor when the string is fully extended.
^
30
EXPERIMENT 2
Figure 2.7: Equipment setup

Note that you do not need a computer or timing photogate in this experiment.
The smart pulley should be mounted on the table far enough from the
apparatus to keep the thread angle from the spindle to the pulley as small as
possible. If the angle is too great the thread will snap as the hanging mass is
pulled up.
(a) Attach a piece of the string to the step pulley of the main platter and wind
it up on the smallest spindle. The length of the string should be such that it
unwinds and rewinds without the hanging mass touching the floor at the
lowest point, that is, h0 (see Figure 2.7).
Fully extend the string and measure the height h0, and add masses to the
holder up to a total mass of about 100 g. Record these values in the table
as shown in Table 2.7.
Raise the mass to the starting height h1 by winding the string on the step
pulley. Measure this height and record its value in the table as shown in
Table 2.7.
Release the mass so that it falls, reaches its lowest point h0, and then rises
again to h2 (see Figure 2.7). Measure and record h2 in the table as shown in
Table 2.7.
Repeat the measurements twice, starting from the same height h1, and
record the values of h2 in the table as shown in Table 2.7.
(b) Repeat the measurements as in a), using masses of 150 g and 200 g,
respectively. Record the results in two separate tables similar to Table 2.7.
ROTATIONAL FRICTIONAL FORCE OR FRICTIONAL TORQUE ^

31
Table 2.7
Hanging mass _________________ [kg]
h0 = _________________________ [m]
Initial height h1 = _______________ [m]
TRIAL h2 [m]
1
2
3
Average

(a) Using Equations 2.8 to 2.11 and the average values of h2, calculate GPE, d,
y and hence the frictional torque tf. Record your calculations in the table
as shown in Table 2.8.
(b) Provide a detailed discussion on the results. In your discussion, most of the
emphasis should be on the frictional torque tf.
Table 2.8
_
Mass h 2 (average) GPE d y tf
[kg] [m] [J] [m] [rad.]
J
rad
QUESTIONS ON BACKGROUND THEORY

E2.1 How is the angular acceleration defined in this experiment?
E2.2 How is the angular acceleration of an object related to
(a) the force applied at a point on the object?
(b) the distance between the applied force and the rotational axis?
(c) the moment of inertia of an object?
E2.3 Explain how you would convert an angle from degrees to radians.
E2.4 What is meant by conservation of energy in this experiment? Give the
names of all types of energy that have an influence on this experiment.
E2.5 Speculate on the reasons for the energy not being conserved in this
experiment.
^
32
EXPERIMENT 2
E2.6 In your own words, define frictional torque and explain how it could
influence the outcome of the experiment.
E2.7 A child on a merry-go-round travels in a path with a radius of 3 m.
She completes 17 revolutions in 30 seconds. Calculate
(a) the linear speed of the child
(b) the angular speed
E2.8 Why do the earth, the moon and the sun not attract each other and
collapse into one object?
E2.9 The radius of hydrogen atom (Bohr radius) is 5.29 6 10±11 m.
(a) Determine the electrostatic force between the proton and the
electron.
(b) What is the angular speed of the electron?
(c) How many revolutions does the electron complete in 2 seconds?
Questions on experiments*
* For unspecified information on these questions refer to the main text of the experiments.
E2.10 Discuss three different ways in which the angular acceleration of an

object may be obtained in Experiment 2.2(a).
E2.11 In a rotational motion experiment, a student intended to obtain the
angular acceleration of the large horizontally rotating platter. The best
way to achieve this was to tie and wind a piece of string near the
rotating axis of the platter and hang the string over a frictionless
pulley. The hanging end of the string had a 165 g mass attached to it.
On releasing the falling mass, the results contained in the table were
obtained.
Time (s) Elapsed time per radian (s/rad.)
1.38 0.15
2.17 0.11
2.78 0.09
3.30 0.08
3.76 0.07
(a) Plot the graph of angular speed (o) vs time.

(b) Use linear regression analysis to fit the best straight line.
(c) What is the angular acceleration of the platter?
E2.12 Sibongile and Purity conducted experiments under three scenarios

explained below.
(a) Firstly, the use of a fixed hanging mass of 45 g for step pulleys
with radii 15 mm, 20 mm and 25 mm resulted in the angular
acceleration of 0.77 rad.s-2, 1.063 rad.s-2 and 1.350 rad.s-2,
respectively. Using this data and the graph, compare the
experimental and theoretical values of the moment of inertia of
an object (which is the main platter).
(b) Secondly, the use of a fixed step pulley of radius 15 mm for
hanging masses of 85 g, 125 g and 165 g resulted in the angular
accelerations of 1.54 rad.s-2, 2.33 rad.s-2 and 3.12 rad.s-2,
respectively. Using this data and the graph, compare the

33
experimental and theoretical values of the moment of inertia of an
object (which is the main platter).
(c) Lastly, the use of a fixed hanging mass of 205 g and step pulley
radius of 15 mm for various masses, that is (i) main platter plus
ring, (ii) main platter plus bar, and (iii) main platter plus auxiliary,
resulted in angular accelerations of 2.89 rad.s-2, 2.76 rad.s-2 and
1.96 rad.s-2, respectively. Provide a meaning for these results in
relation to the angular acceleration and the moment of inertia of
an object.
E2.13 After a number of attempts Koos obtained the average maximum

angular speed of 8.78 rad.s-1, 12.50 rad.s-1 and 15.29 rad.s-1 for masses
of 15 g, 105 g and 155 g, respectively. The step pulley was fixed at
15 mm, and the heights h1 and h2 were 750 mm and 77 mm,
respectively. Only the main platter was used. Make use of the above
information to calculate
(a) the maximum rotational kinetic energy of the main platter
(b) the maximum gravitational potential energy of the main platter
(c) the maximum translational kinetic energy
E2.14 Using the results in E2.13, investigate the conservation of energy. Is the
energy conserved? If not, provide a possible explanation.
E2.15 After a few trials, Sikhumbuzo obtained the average height h2 of
663 mm, 684 mm and 690 mm for masses of 105 g, 155 g and 205 g,
respectively. The step pulley was fixed at 15 mm, and the heights h0
and h1 were 77 mm and 750 mm, respectively. Only the main platter
was used. Make use of the above information to calculate the frictional
torque of the system.
^
34
EXPERIMENT 2
three SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
An intelligence knowing all forces acting in nature as well as the momentary

positions and velocities of all things of which the universe consists, would be
able to comprehend the motions of the largest bodies of the world and those
of the lightest atoms; to him nothing would be uncertain, both present and
future would be in his eyes.
Pierre de Laplace (1749±1827)
Learning objectives
When you have studied the background theory for this experiment, you should
be able to
1. explain the concepts of
(a) amplitude, period and frequency of vibration
(b) spring constant
(c) simple harmonic motion
2. identify the forces acting on a pendulum

3. explain the relationship between SHM and Hooke's law
4. given sufficient data determine the frequency of a mass-spring system, or a
pendulum
5. identify the restoring force in the case of a simple pendulum
6. explain why the motion of a simple pendulum is only approximately simple
harmonic
BACKGROUND THEORY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In physics we are, among other things, interested in the dynamic properties of
physical systems. So, velocities, accelerations and the associated energies are
the name of the game. In the vast plethora of different types of motion that we
routinely consider, there is one class of motion that occurs in a large number of
systems. This is called harmonic motion. The first among numerous examples
that immediately comes to mind is of course our planet's motion around the
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION ^

35
sun. No one can argue about the harmonic nature of this movement that
manifests itself as the different seasons. Another example of harmonic motion
from nature is the sea where the tides also exhibit the same phenomenon. If we
take all the different systems together and examine them closely, we come
across a subset of these systems that has an even more interesting
characteristic. The motion in these systems, apart from being harmonic, also
SIMPLE HARMONIC allows for a very simple mathematical description and is therefore called simple
MOTION harmonic motion (SHM). So, how do we define simple harmonic motion? If a
system is displaced from some equilibrium position and there arises a restoring
force that is linearly proportional to the magnitude of the displacement, we say
that the system exhibits simple harmonic motion.
Sometimes when we are trying to understand things, we benefit from looking

at the same thing from different angles, so let us phrase the above definition in
a slightly different way.
When a particle moves about a fixed point O in such a way that

(a) its acceleration vector always points at O, and
(b) the magnitude of the acceleration is proportional to the distance between
the particle and O, then the particle executes simple harmonic motion.
Physicists can never resist writing down formulas, so let us write down the
above definition in symbolic form. The acceleration ~
a of a particle that exhibits
simple harmonic motion has the form
!
~
a ÿ constant displacement: 3:1
Note that both the acceleration ~ a and the displacement are vectors, as
indicated by the arrows above them. The negative sign tells us that the
acceleration is in the opposite direction to the displacement.
3.2 PERIODIC MOTION

A toddler finds extreme excitement in all kinds of periodic motions. One of the
favourites is the playground swing, which, with the little fellow on the seat is a
good approximation to a simple pendulum. This is just what we need to define
the concepts of period and frequency that we are going to discuss later on. True
to our nature as physicists, we are tempted to start our discussion by saying,
``... now let us consider a spherical toddler on a rope acting as a simple
pendulum...''. The problem is that people may wonder where or how we got a
spherical toddler! So, let us rather consider a spherical ball hanging at the end
of a rope of negligible mass (see Figure 3.1).
FIGURE 3.1: A pendulum executes periodic motion
^
36
EXPERIMENT 3
With this figure and a little imagination we can define the period of such a PERIOD
pendulum as the time it takes to start from point A, swing through point B to
point C, and back to point A. The frequency is defined as the number of FREQUENCY
oscillations that the system completes in one unit of time. The amplitude of a
periodic motion is defined as the maximum magnitude of displacement from AMPLITUDE
the equilibrium position, that is the maximum value of j~ xj (or x for the sake of
simplicity). Exactly the same reasoning applies to the mass-spring system (see
Figure 3.2). A little question for you: What is the displacement in the case of a
pendulum? Stay tuned!
FIGURE 3.2: A mass-spring system executing periodic motion
Now that we have the terminology sorted out, let us start on the real stuff!
3.3 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

In the two parts of the Experiment 3, we are going to investigate the dynamic
behaviour of two systems that exhibit SHM. These are
^ a mass hanging on an idealised spring
^ the simple pendulum
The mathematical model describing the motion of the two systems is the same.
This, by the way, is one of the great things about nature Ð apparently different
systems share the same underlying mathematical models. This helps the
physicist make rapid progress since experience gained in the investigation of
one part of nature leads him or her on to tools that, with a little modification,
are also applicable in another. We want to encourage you to cultivate this
habit, not only in your study of physics but also in other fields. Always ask
yourself: ``How is what I am studying now the same as or different from what I
studied yesterday or last week?''.
So, what do we want to know? We want to be able to predict the time evolution
of the system under consideration. What does this mean? In simple English it
means: ``Where is the particle (or whatever we are am considering) after some

37
time?''. Or, the symmetric equivalent: it is here now, how long will it take to get
there (wherever ``there'' may be)?
Consider a particle Q moving with constant speed v0 in a circle of radius r that

is aligned symmetrically about the x-axis as in Figure 3.3. Suppose another
particle P is moving along the x-axis in such a manner that the line connecting
the two particles is always perpendicular to the x-axis. As Q describes the
circle, P oscillates to and fro along the x-axis.
"
"
3
ac cos y
y x^
"
" "
3 "
FIGURE 3.3: As Q moves around the circle of radius r with a constant

speed v0 , particle P executes simple harmonic motion
between ÿr and r
The motion of particle Q is the relevant movement in this discussion. While

thinking about this problem we came up with the following practical way of
seeing what needs to be seen: Imagine that you are in a dark room in which
there is a bicycle wheel mounted horizontally on a table, and you are
positioned such that your eyes are exactly in the plane formed by the wheel.
Also imagine that there is a shining light bulb mounted on the rim of the wheel.
The wheel is now set in motion and you observe the light. What would you see?
Well, you would see the light bulb moving from one side to the other
repetitively. This is the motion of the particle Q that we are about to discuss.
At this point, we can already write down a few things about particle Q. First,
since the motion is along a circle and the speed is constant, we can immediately
see that the period T is given by
2r
T : 3:2
v0
Let us think about particle P for a moment. What does particle P represent?
Can you work it out? Stop reading and think about it. Quickly close the
manual before you see the answer! YES, you are right! It is simply the x-
component xP of particle Q's displacement. We can even write down an
expression for it:
~
xP r cos ^
x
^
38
EXPERIMENT 3
where x^ is a unit vector indicating that the displacement is in the positive x-
direction (see Figure 3.3). But what does this mean? Well, it means that the
motion of particle P has exactly the same period as particle Q as it moves from
r to ÿr and back. We know that the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration
~
ac of particle Q is given by
v20
ac : 3:3
r
Since the motion of Q can also be described as having constant angular

We discussed angu-
velocity !, we have v0 r! so we can write equation (3.3) as
lar
velocity in the back-
ac !2 r: 3:4
ground theory for
Experiment 2.
From Figure 3.3, we can see that the acceleration of particle P , is simply the
xÿcomponent of a~c :
~
aP ÿac cos ^
x
where the negative sign indicates that xP is in the -x direction. Stop! Convince
yourself that for any angle , the acceleration of P will have the correct sign.
Works out neatly doesn't it? Elementary trigonometry enables us to complete
this one ± since x=r cos , we get
x
aP ÿac x^
r
2 x
ÿ! r x^ from equation 3:4
r
2
ÿ! x^ x
and we know that ! has a constant value. Now does this not look familiar?
No? Think again! Equation (3.1) has exactly the same form, but the constant is
now presented by !2 . The only difference is that we have now indicated the
direction of the displacement by using x^ instead of putting an arrow over the x.
This means that we have just proven that particle P performs simple harmonic
motion.
We need to emphasize here that no reference has been made to any specific
system (like a spring or pendulum). The above result is therefore a general
result. Any particular system's behaviour is contained in the constant in
equation (3.1). Once this is known, the period (and therefore frequency) of the
system can be calculated. We will do this for each specific system when we get
to the experiments with a mass hanging on a spring and the simple pendulum.
3.3.1 Functional representation of simple harmonic motion

Up to now we have concentrated on the temporal (time) aspect of simple
harmonic motion: we know how fast a system undergoing simple harmonic
motion moves as a function of its mass. One other important piece of
information is to be able to predict where the mass-object of a simple harmonic
motion system is at any point in time.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION ^39

In general, a system's position as a function of time can be a very complicated
function. But this is exactly where, as we briefly mentioned before, the simple in
the simple harmonic motion comes in. The functional description of the
position of a mass that is executing simple harmonic motion is indeed a very
simple one! Let us show you what we mean.
Think of an object that is executing simple harmonic motion in the x-

direction with amplitude x0 . The mathematical equation representing the
magnitude of the displacement of an object executing simple harmonic
motion is given by
x x0 cos : 3:5
It cannot get much simpler, can it? (All right, if x x0 but that doesn't
count!)
Written as it is, equation (3.5) lacks any time dependence, but if we remember
what !'s units are it suggests something. Can you remember? Yes, it is radians
per second. This means that if we multiply ! by time we will get pure radians.
In mathematical form it looks like this: !t. If we now substitute this into
equation (3.5), we get
x x0 cos !t
x0 cos 2ft
2t
x0 cos :
T
The last two expressions arose from using the definition of ! and f
respectively. But how does this relate to, for example, the mass-spring system?
The easiest way to see this relation is to do it practically (this is, after all a
practical course). In Figure 3.4 I drew you a sin curve.
sin y
FIGURE 3.4: Graph of sin versus
1. In Figure 3.5 a small piece of cardboard is sketched that you can copy. As
you can see, it must have a vertical slit with a width about 3 mm. Figure
3.6 shows you what to do with it: put it on the graph of the sin curve, and
then move it parallel to the x-axis in the direction indicated.
^
40
EXPERIMENT 3
FIGURE 3.5: Make yourself a piece of cardboard like the one in the sketch
sin y
FIGURE 3.6: Move the piece of cardboard over the sin curve as shown here
2. Figure 3.7 is a graph of a cos function. Repeat the same procedure as

before with this graph. Do you notice anything strange?
cos y
FIGURE 3.7: Graph of cos versus

41
3. Now let us try something else. Move the piece of cardboard over the curve
in Figure 3.8 as before. What do you see? Why?
sin 2y
y
FIGURE 3.8: ACTIVITY: Curve for step 3
. . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Through the slit you will see the ``particle'' moving up and down! It is
actually executing simple harmonic motion.
2. No, you will not see anything strange, but the particle starts from a
different position. This is a practical example of what we call ``the cosine
function being phase-shifted 90 with respect to the sine function''.
3. If you move the piece of cardboard with the slit at the same speed as
before, you will see that the ``particle'' now moves faster! If you inspect the
graph you will see that the value of ! is double that in Figure 3.4.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 THINGS TO TRY

Think about or try out the following:
^ Identify at least five cases of harmonic motion in and around an ordinary
automobile.
^ Pour some water into a bathtub or washbasin, put a wooden block in the
water, press down on it until it is partially submerged, then quickly
withdraw your hand. Try to determine the period with which it bobs up
and down.
^ Go to the nearest playground, ask a small child to sit on a swing and
determine the period of the swinging child. Now ask a child who weighs
either more or less than the first one to sit on the swing. How does it
influence your results? Be careful with this one ± it is not as simple as it
seems! Hint: What do you think is the influence of the position of the
bigger (smaller) child's centre of gravity? Could you consider this to be a
simple pendulum? Why?
^ Figure 3.9 shows a graph drawn to determine whether or not a car's shock
absorbers are due for replacement. The graph is obtained as follows. The
car is driven onto a mechanical device which induces a vertical vibration in
each of the wheels. The driving force is then removed and the shock
absorber is then supposed to completely damp the vibration. In the graph
the process is started at point A and eventually stops at point C.
^
42
EXPERIMENT 3
1. Identify a region where the system's movement approximately
represents simple harmonic motion.
2. What is the purpose of the increasing amplitude that starts roughly at
point B?
3. At what point is the driving force removed and the shock absorber
doing its job?
FIGURE 3.9: Graph drawn to test a shock absorber
^ This one is really neat! Now that we are authorities on one-dimensional

simple harmonic motion, let us promote ourselves to two dimensions. We
know that strictly speaking it is not in the syllabus, but why deprive you of
having some real fun? You should not experience any serious problems
since we are not going to go into any real detail here. I am just going to tell
you what to do and you can thank me later for all the fun you had!
THINGS TO TRY ^
43
As mentioned before, the x-coordinate of a particle experiencing SHM is
given by
x x0 cos !t:
Allow me to make one small modification to this equation:

x x0 cos !t :
All we did was to put an additional constant term in the argument of the cos-
function. Why? Well, it gives us a way to set the so-called initial conditions. In
other words we can use any point on the cos curve as our starting point. As a
matter of fact, if we choose ÿ=2, we get the sin function. But we do not
even want you to worry too much about this. If you are the worrying type, take
a pencil, paper and your pocket calculator, choose any values for x0 , ! and
and draw x as a function of t for a number of values of t. You will see that it is
the same old sin and cos stuff that you know.
Now comes the next step. Imagine that the particle simultaneously performs a
simple harmonic motion in the y-direction, in other words, in a direction
perpendicular to the one that represented by the x variable. We can now write
down exactly the same relation for the movement in the y-direction:
y y0 cos !t :
Finally, in order to complete the generalisation, we allow the values for ! and
to be different for the two directions. We denote those variables belonging to
the x-direction by the subscript x, and similarly for the y-direction. This brings
us to the final result which is
x x0 cos !x t x
for the x-direction and

y y0 cos !y t y
for the y-direction. And that is all that there is to it! By choosing the three
values x0 , !x and x for the x-direction, and the same for the y-direction, we
can, by allowing t to take on different values, determine the position of the
particle on a plane straight-away. How does it look? Well, let us consider a
simple case: Take x0 y0 1, !x !y 1, x 0 and y ÿ=2. What do
we get? Looks to me like
x cos t
and
y sin t;
which are simply the parametric equations of a circle! You don't believe me?
Take t in steps of say 0.1 from 0 to 3:2, each time plotting the coordinates x; y
and you will see that it is true. Now we can imagine you wriggling on your chair,
waiting for me to stop talking so that you can go and try some other values for
the six constants. Since quite a large number of students apparently have access
to personal computers, we took the time to write a very simple BASIC program
to investigate this on a personal computer (PC). The listing appears just after
this text. If you do not have access to a PC, wait until you come to the
^
44
EXPERIMENT 3
department in August for the laboratory session and ask us to use one of the
department's PCs. For the students close to the main campus, there is the
computer laboratory of the Science Faculty where you also have access to a
computer. If you do not want to wait so long, you can still do it by hand. Here
is the BASIC program listing:
DIM A1, omega1, phi1 AS DOUBLE ' first function parameters
DIM A2, omega2, phi2 AS DOUBLE ' second function parameters
DIM t, tmax, dt AS DOUBLE ' time values
DIM pi AS DOUBLE
DIM mx, cx, my, cy, x, y AS DOUBLE'gradients/intercepts to go to
'screen coordinates
DIM i, j, iold, jold AS INTEGER 'pixel position (i,j) (iold,jold)
pi = 3.1415
INPUT ``Give A1, omega1, phi1 (separated by commas): ``, A1, omega1, phi1
INPUT ``Give A2, omega2, phi2 (separated by commas): ``, A2, omega2, phi2
INPUT ``Give max value for t:'', tmax
INPUT ``Give increment for t:'', dt
SCREEN 12
mx = 400! / (2! * A1) 'use a 400x400 screen (change this
cx = mx * A1 'if your screen does not support
my = -400! / (2! * A2) 'a 640x480 resolution
cy = -my * A2
t=0
x = A1 * SIN(omega1 * t + phi1) 'calculate the (x,y) values for the
y = A2 * SIN(omega2 * t + phi2) 'initial value of theta
iold = INT(mx * x + cx) 'transform to screen coordinates
jold = INT(my * y + cy)
DO WHILE (t < tmax)
x = A1 * SIN(omega1 * t + phi1)
y = A2 * SIN(omega2 * t + phi2)
i = INT(mx * x + cx)
j = INT(my * y + cy)
LINE (iold, jold)-(i, j), 6
iold = i
jold = j
t = t + dt
LOOP
END
EXPERIMENTS
3.5 EXPERIMENT 3(a) ö SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION OF A MASS

HANGING ON AN IDEALISED SPRING
In the preceding paragraphs, we have talked about the theory behind systems
that perform simple harmonic motion. We said that the constant k in the
derived formula is to be determined by the particular system under
consideration. The first system that we are going to consider is extremely
simple, as you will see.
By an idealised spring we mean one which may be assumed to be of negligible IDEALISED SPRING
mass, that there are no forces tending to decrease the motion of the spring
(dissipative forces) and that the restoring force exerted by the spring is strictly
proportional to the extension or contraction of the spring. These assumptions
are never completely justified in practice, but for a light spring in which the
extensions are kept small, the errors introduced are small. By a light spring we LIGHT SPRING
mean one whose mass is small compared with the mass hung on its lower end.
A small oscillation is one that is small compared with the length of the spring. SMALL OSCILLATION
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION OF A MASS HANGING ON AN IDEALISED SPRING ^

45
EQUILIBRIUM A body is in equilibrium when there is no resultant force acting on it. This in
accordance with Newton's first law, which implies that when a body is at rest
We discussed or is moving with a constant speed in a straight line, the vector sum of all
Newton's first law forces acting on it must be zero, that is
in the background P
theory for F~ 0: 3:6
Experiment 1.
Consider a spring (Figure 3.10(a)) with natural length `, with its upper end
fixed. If an object with mass m is attached to the spring (Figure 3.10(b)), it will
reach equilibrium with the spring extended by `. The upward force exerted by
the spring on the object is therefore equal to the weight of the object. Since
~ k`^
P y
where k is the spring constant, and y^ indicates the positive y-direction, it

follows that
P~ ÿ mg^
y 0: 3:7
y^
FIGURE 3.10: A mass m hanging on a spring with natural length `
Suppose the object is a distance y above the equilibrium position in Figure

3.10(c). The elongation of the spring is ` ÿ y, the upward force on the object
is k ` ÿ y^
y and the resultant force on the object is therefore
~ k ` ÿ y^
F y ÿ mg^
y
ÿky^
y:
Turn to the back- The resulting force is therefore proportional to the displacement of the object
ground theory for from the equilibrium position, and using Newton's second law, the acceleration
Experiment 1 to re- can be written as
fresh your memory ~
a ÿm k y y^: 3:8
about Newton's
second law.
^46
EXPERIMENT 3
The acceleration is proportional to and in the opposite direction from the
displacement. So, now you realise why I said that this one is simple Ð for the
spring, the expression for the acceleration turns out to have exactly the same
form as that of our system independent expression in equation (3.1).
If it is brought into motion, the object will oscillate with an angular frequency
q
! m k: 3:9
Important
Do you see that gravity does not play a role once the new equilibrium
(Figure 3.10(b)) is reached? It is cancelled by the spring elongation. This
is why equation (3.9) does not have any dependence on g!
3.5.1 Procedure
The apparatus for this experiment is shown in Figure 3.11. It consists of a
spring with a mass at its end, which is suspended from a clamp on a stand with
a calibrated ruler to measure the elongation. You will also be supplied with a
stop watch to measure the period of the simple harmonic motion.
FIGURE 3.11: The apparatus for investigating the simple harmonic

motion executed by a mass hanging on an idealised spring
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION OF A MASS HANGING ON AN IDEALISED SPRING ^

47
1. A number of known masses are supplied. Determine the elongation of the
spring ` for each mass.
2. Determine the spring constant from the slope of a suitable graph. (Make
sure that the sign of the slope of the graph is correct.)
3. Determine the period of oscillation of the spring-mass system for each of
the known masses.
4. Draw a suitable straight line graph and determine the spring constant from
the slope of this graph.
5. Compare the values of k obtained from steps 2 and 4 and draw a
conclusion.
6. Do a linear regression analysis and determine sk :
3.6 EXPERIMENT 3(b) ö SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION OF A SIMPLE

PENDULUM
SIMPLE As our second example for simple harmonic motion we consider the simple
PENDULUM pendulum. Galileo Galilei was first inspired to investigate the simple pendulum
when he observed the motion of a sanctuary lamp hanging from the ceiling of a
church. The lamp was accidentally set in motion when the sacristan (a church
official) lit it. Galileo noticed that although the arc through which it swung
gradually became smaller, it took the same time to complete each swing.
To get your thoughts going about the motion of a pendulum, think of some
swings in a childrens playground (Figure 3.12). First, consider one of the
swings moving to and fro after it has been given a push without anybody
sitting on it. Now think of the swing still moving to and fro after someone has
given it an initial push, but with a child sitting on it. Would you expect the
period of the motion to change in any way now that someone is sitting on the
swing?
FIGURE 3.12: Swings in a children's playground
Now consider swings A and B in Figure 3.12. The chains to which the seats are
attached are the same length for both swings. If the one swing is pulled back
further than the other and they are both let go at the same moment to set them
in motion, would they take the same time to return to the position from which
they have been released? Sometimes there is a swing with longer chains to bring
the seat closer to the ground for smaller children, like swing C in Figure 3.12. If
swings B and C were both pulled back by the same distance and released at the
same moment, how would their periods compare? If there is a playground in
your neighbourhood, you could go and check your answers there! If not, they
will be answered by the results of your experiments.
Let us turn to the physical principles that apply to the motion of a simple
pendulum. A simple pendulum is defined as a particle of mass m suspended
from a point C by a string of length L and of negligible mass (see Figure 3.13).
^
48
EXPERIMENT 3
If the particle is pulled aside to a position B so that the string makes an angle
with the vertical AC and the particle is then released, the pendulum will
oscillate between A and the symmetric position D:
t^
r^
FIGURE 3.13: The simple pendulum
Consider a rectangular system of axes as indicated in Figure 3.13. Note that the
particle, with mass m, is at the origin of the system of axes. The system of axes
rotates with the particle .
The forces acting on the particle when the string makes an angle with the
vertical are T~ exerted by the string on the particle and m~ g exerted by the earth
on the particle. The force m~ g can be resolved into two components, namely
ÿmgcos r^ parallel to the string and a component ÿmgsin t^ along the
direction of instantaneous motion of the particle, that is perpendicular to the
string. Here r^ is a radial unit vector and t^ a tangential unit vector
The component ÿmgsint^ produces the tangential acceleration a~t of the mass. TANGENTIAL
Therefore ACCELERATION
at ÿmg sin t^
m~
or
a~t ÿg sin t^:
If is small and measured in radians, sin ' and
a~t ' ÿg t^:
In terms of the arc length OA s L, the expression for the tangential
acceleration becomes
gs ^
a~t ' ÿ t:
L
The acceleration of the particle along the circle is therefore directly

proportional to the displacement along the circle measured from O. The
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION OF A SIMPLE PENDULUM ^

49
motion is therefore approximately simple harmonic about O as centre with the
constant in equation (3.1) given by
mg
k :
L
This allows us to write the value of the angular frequency ! as

r
g
! :
L
Since the period of the motion T 2=!, we can immediately write down the
result
s
L
T 2 : 3:10
g
It should be pointed out that the particle also experiences a centripetal

acceleration ~
ac , given by
v2
~
ac r^
L
which is directed towards the centre of the circular motion, that is the point C
in Figure 3.13. If we refer to the figure we see that the force that produces the
centripetal acceleration is (T~ ÿ mg cos ^
r). Hence the application of Newton's
second law yields
mv2
mac
L
T ÿ mg cos :
3.6.1 The energy of the pendulum bob

In the background theory for Experiment 1, we learnt that, according to the
law of conservation of energy, energy can never be created or destroyed; it can
only be converted from one form to another. Let us have a brief look at the
way in which the law of conservation of energy applies to the motion of a
simple pendulum.
When we say that energy can be converted from one form to another, we are
also referring to the fact that energy exists in many different forms. Examples
We defined kinetic of these forms of energy are mechanical energy, electric energy and thermal
energy and potential energy. In the case of the simple pendulum, two specific forms of mechanical
energy in the back- energy come into play. They are kinetic energy and gravitational potential
ground theory for energy.
Experiment 1.
Now let us look at the simple pendulum and the energy of the bob while it is
swinging. First consider the pendulum hanging at rest as shown in Figure 3.14.
We will take this position of the bob as the reference level at which the
potential energy of the bob is zero, so we define h as being zero at this level.
^
50
EXPERIMENT 3
FIGURE 3.14: A simple pendulum hanging at rest
At any point along its path we can assign both kinetic and potential energy to
the bob. The kinetic energy will depend on its velocity at that point, and the
potential energy will depend on how high the bob has risen above the reference
level where h = 0. If the bob has risen to a height h, and the velocity of the bob
is ~
v, the total mechanical energy of the system at that point is
E EK EP
1
mv2 mgh: 3:11
2
FIGURE 3.15: The pendulum bob lifted through an angle to a height h
Suppose the bob is lifted to a height h, with the gut making an angle with the
original vertical position, as shown in Figure 3.15. At this point it has potential
energy mgh, but no kinetic energy (see Figure 3.16(a)). If it is released, it gains
kinetic energy, while at the same time losing potential energy as it moves
downward (Figure 3.16(b)). At the very bottom of its swing, where h = 0, the
potential energy is therefore also zero (Figure 3.16(c)). As the bob swings
upward towards the other side again, it gains in potential energy, but loses in
kinetic energy (Figure 3.16(d)) until it stops for a moment at the highest point
of the swing where the velocity, and thus the kinetic energy, is zero (Figure
3.16(e)). Once the bob continues on its next swing, potential energy is again
converted to kinetic energy, and so the process carries on.
FIGURE 3.16: Transformation of energy during a pendulum's swing
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION OF A SIMPLE PENDULUM ^

51
If the pendulum is left to swing on its own, the law of conservation of energy
applies to the system, which means that the total energy will remain constant.
In the absence of friction, this can be expressed as
EK EP constant: 3:12
In practice there is always a certain amount of energy expended to overcome

air friction, but this does not mean that any energy is lost. It has simply been
converted into another form of energy. This form of energy is called heat and it
is directly related to the molecular kinetic energy of the molecules or atoms
that make up a material. In the case of air friction, therefore, the kinetic energy
of the air molecules will increase as the energy of the pendulum decreases. The
total amount of energy will, however, remain constant.
3.6.2 Procedure
The apparatus for this experiment consists of the same stand we used for
Experiment 3(a), to which a string with a mass at its end is tied to form a
simple pendulum.
1. Determine the period of the pendulum as a function of its length. You have
to decide how many oscillations are required for each length of the
pendulum.
2. Draw a suitable straight line graph.
3. Determine g and sg by doing a linear regression analysis.

E3.1 A student wants to determine the dependence of T on L in the formula

for the period of a simple pendulum. He assumes that T kLn and
measures T for different lengths of the pendulum. Describe the graph
the student should draw to find n:
E3.2 Answer the following questions with reference to the simple pendulum:
(a) Where is the speed a maximum?
(b) Where is the acceleration a maximum?
(c) Where is the kinetic energy a maximum? What is the value of the
potential energy at this position in terms of the maximum speed?
(d) Is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies a constant?
(e) Why does a simple pendulum not keep on oscillating ad infinitum?
E3.3 A mass m is suspended from a spring and causes an elongation x. An

identical spring is connected in series with it and a mass m suspended
from the combination. What is the elongation of the combination?
E3.4 A mass on the end of a string is swinging back and forth as a
pendulum. Is it in equilibrium at any point of the motion?
E3.5 A 2 kg mass is in static equilibrium, hanging at the bottom end of a
long vertical spring. When pulled down 0.4 m below the equilibrium
position and released, it vibrates with a period of 2 s. What force does
the spring exert on the mass when the mass is
(a) at its lowest point?
(b) passing through the midpoint of its motion?
(c) at its highest point?
E3.6 A light spring is hanging from the ceiling. A load is attached to the free
end of the spring and it is observed that the load, when released, moves
^
52
EXPERIMENT 3
downward a distance of 0.5 m before starting to rise again. What is the
period of this SHM?
E3.7 Show that when only small oscillations of a simple pendulum are
considered, the centripetal acceleration is small, that is the magnitude
of the tension in the string is approximately mg.
E3.8 What would be the shape of the curve drawn for the force constant of
the spring if we continue to increase the load?
E3.9 If a body is placed in the scale pan, its height above the ground is
decreased. What is the effect on its gravitational potential energy? How
is the energy conserved in this case?
E3.10 A body of mass 0.1 kg hangs from a long spiral spring. When pulled
down 0.1 m below its equilibrium position and released, it vibrates with
a period of 2 s.
(a) What is its velocity as it passes through the equilibrium position?
(b) What is its acceleration when it is 0.05 m above the equilibrium
position?
(c) When it is moving upward, how long a time is required to move
from a point 0.05 m below its equilibrium position to a point 0.05
m above it?
(d) How much will the spring shorten if the body is removed?
E3.11 A block suspended from a spring vibrates with simple harmonic

motion. At an instant when the displacement of the block is equal to
half the amplitude, what fraction of the total energy of the system is
kinetic and what fraction is potential?
E3.12 A pendulum clock which keeps time correctly at a point where g = 9.8
m sÿ2 , is found to lose 10 s per day at a higher altitude. Find the value
of g at the new location.
E3.13 It is often said that the period of a pendulum depends on the mass of
the bob. Criticise this statement.
E3.14 What is the length of a second pendulum? (Hint: The period T of a
second pendulum is 2 s.)
E3.15 At what point of its swing does a pendulum bob have its greatest
acceleration? Explain.
E3.16 At what point of its swing does a pendulum bob have its greatest
velocity? Explain.
Questions on experiments
E3.17 Use a figure to show that the displacement and acceleration of the mass
in Experiment 3(a) are always in opposite directions.
E3.18 What are four possible sources of systematic error in the pendulum
experiment?
E3.19 Estimate the error in g if the angle in Experiment 3 b is 30 :
E3.20 Why is it necessary that the amplitude of swing used for each length of
the pendulum in Experiment 3(b) should always be less than one-tenth
of the length being used?
E3.21 The following results were collected by a student who executed the
simple pendulum experiment:
Radius of bob (cm) 0.619 0.617 0.612 0.615 0.620
Length of string (m) 0.510 0.730 1.014 1.221 1.505
Time for 20 oscillations (s) 28.3 34.8 40.0 45.0 49.5
Determine the value of g from the data in the table above. Proceed as
follows:

53
(a) Extend the table above to include the period and period2 for each
length of the string, using the given data.
(b) Identify the variables representing y, m, x and c in the well-known
straight-line equation, y mx c, if applied to the expression for
the period of a simple pendulum
s
L
T 2 :
g
(Hint: You will first have to manipulate the last equation a little
bit.)
(c) Using the data, plot a graph of T 2 vs L, and determine the value of
g. (Hint: Use linear regression.)
E3.22 The following results were collected by a student who executed the
simple pendulum experiment:
Radius of bob (cm) 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.70
Length of string (m) 10.0 15.0 21.0 33.0 46.3 63.2
Time for 50 oscillations (s) 310.5 390.0 455.3 580.5 695.1 790.3
Determine the value of g from the data given above. Proceed as

follows:
(a) Extend the above table to include the period and period2 for each
string length using the given data.
straight-line equation, y mx c, if applied to the expression for
s
L
T 2 :
g
( Hint: You will first have to manipulate the last equation a little bit.)
(c) Using the data, plot a graph of T 2 vs L, and determine the value of
g. (Hint: Use linear regression.)
E3.23 The following results were collected by a student who executed a simple
pendulum experiment:
Radius of bob (cm) 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.32 0.31 0.30
Length of string (m) 5.3 10.8 16.3 28.3 38.2 55.0
Time for 80 oscillations (s) 45.2 66.3 83.2 112.1 122.4 150.2
From the above data, determine the value of g. Proceed as follows:

(a) Extend the above table to include the period and period2 for each
string length using the given data.
straight line equation, y mx c, if applied to the expression for
s
L
T 2 :
g
( Hint: You will first have to manipulate the last equation a little bit.)
(c) Using the data, plot a graph of T 2 versus L, and determine the
value of g. (Hint: Use linear regression.)
^
54
EXPERIMENT 3
EXPERIMENTS ON ELECTROMAGNETISM
Each of the experiments on electromagnetism is preceded by a discussion of the
background theory that applies to the specific experiment. These discussions
contain enough theoretical material for the purpose of doing the experiment,
but if you should find that they do not provide you with all you want to know,
you could read up on some more of the relevant theory in any first year
textbook. It is also good academic practice not to limit oneself to just one
source of information. If you are also registered for, or have completed the
PHY102-6 or PHY106-B module, you may want to have a look at the material
on electricity and magnetism in the textbooks for those modules. Any first year
textbook on physics will in fact contain the information you need. WE DO
NOT EXPECT YOU TO GO TO THE EXPENSE OF BUYING AN
ADDITIONAL TEXTBOOK. If you do not have a first year physics textbook
available, you can always borrow one from the Library if you feel the need to
read up some more about the theory.
four ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS
The beauty of electricity is not that the power is mysterious and unexpected,
but that it is under law and that the taught intellect can now even govern it
largely.
Michael Faraday (1791±1867)
Learning objectives
After you have studied the background theory for this experiment you should
be able to
1. differentiate between conductors, isolators and semiconductors
2. explain the difference between ohmic and nonohmic behaviour of
conductors
3. explain how electric current is conducted by
(a) a metal
(b) a semiconductor
(c) a diode
BACKGROUND THEORY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this experiment we are going to measure electric current, potential difference
and resistance. It is therefore essential to understand why electric current can
flow in a conductor and why the conductor offers resistance to the flow of
current. We will also be looking at the difference between the behaviour of
ohmic and nonohmic devices. (You do not know what `òhmic'' and
``nonohmic'' means? Keep reading, it will all become clear quite soon!) A
knowledge of the electrical properties of materials is important, for example,
when deciding what material to use when designing a torch bulb or an electric
CONDUCTORS heater. In general, materials may be classified as either conductors or insulators.
Materials that permit electric charge to move from one region of the material
INSULATORS to the other (eg copper and silver) are called conductors of electricity and those
which do not allow the motion of charge through them are called insulators.
^
56
EXPERIMENT 4
Most metals are good conductors and most nonmetals are insulators. Some
materials, called semiconductors, are intermediate in their properties between SEMICONDUCTORS
good conductors and good insulators. Let us have a closer look at why electric
current can flow in a conductor and why the flow of the charges is inhibited,
even in a good conductor.
4.2 THE CONDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

In a solid metal such as copper, one or more of the outer electrons in each atom
become detached and can move freely throughout the material. These electrons
are known as free electrons (sometimes they are called conduction electrons). FREE ELECTRONS
The other electrons remain bound to the positively charged nuclei, which
themselves are bound to fixed positions within the material. In copper there is
one free electron per atom, the other 28 are bound to the nucleus. Insulators
have no, or at most very few, free electrons, and electric charge cannot move
freely through the material.
In metals the moving charges are always negatively charged electrons, but in an
ionised gas (plasma) or an ionic solution, both electrons and positively charged
ions are moving. In a semiconductor material such as germanium or silicon,
conduction takes place partly by electrons and partly by the motion of VACANCIES or
vacancies also known as holes. These are the sites of missing electrons and they HOLES
act like positive charges. In general, we can say that electric current is
conducted by charge carriers, which can be either positive or negative or both. CHARGE CARRIERS
Electric current, usually referred to simply as current, is defined as the net ELECTRIC CURRENT
amount of charge flowing through an area per unit time. Thus, if there is a net
charge q that flows past a point in a conductor in time t, the current past
the point is
I q : 4:1
t
We will take the direction of current flow as the direction in which positive
charge flows. This means that positive charges flow in the direction of the
current, and negative charges flow in the opposite direction. In Figure 4.1 you
can see the difference between the motion of positive and negative charges. The
moving charges in Figure 4.1(a) are positive, and move in the direction of the
electric field. In Figure 4.1(b) they are negative and move in the opposite
direction to the electric field. In both cases the result is a net transfer of positive
charge from left to right.
FIGURE 4.1: Positive charges moving in the direction of the electric field produce the same
positive current as negative charges moving in the direction opposite to the field
THE CONDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ^

57
Although the individual conduction electrons in a metal move at quite high
velocities (about 106 m sÿ1 ), this motion is completely random in the absence
of an externally imposed electric field. We may think of this random motion as
resulting from random elastic collisions between the electrons and the metal
MEAN FREE TIME lattice. The average time between collisions is known as the mean free time and
the average distance travelled between collisions is called the mean free path.
MEAN FREE PATH The same terminology is used when discussing the random motion of
molecules in a gas. Because of the random nature of this motion on average
~ is applied to the metal (ie if
no net charge is transferred. If an electric field E
there is a potential difference between the ends of the conductor), the path of
each electron is bent in its random motion in the direction of the force
produced by the field. Figure 4.2 is a crude picture of the effect of the external
field in causing the electron paths to curve in the direction of the force to
DRIFT VELOCITY produce the net drift velocity.
FIGURE 4.2: Drift of electrons in an electric field
This curvature results from the acceleration of the charge between collisions.
We may assume that on each collision with the lattice, the excess energy picked
up by the electron in the external electric field is lost to the lattice. Let us
consider an electron with charge e and mass m in this electric field. We can
now associate the term ``mean drift velocity'' ~v with the acceleration due to the
external field. During each free path, the electron experiences a force eE~ due to
the electric field. As a result it undergoes a uniform acceleration ~ ~
a eE=m
where each collision reduces the accumulated velocity produced by the external
field to zero, after which the acceleration again causes a uniform velocity
increase until the next collision with the lattice. The drift velocity is the time
average of this motion superposed on the generally much higher random
velocity of the electrons.
Since the drift velocity is always much less than the random velocity of the
electrons, the mean time between collisions is independent of the applied field.
Thus the only factor influencing the drift velocity is the acceleration due to the
~ on the electrons. Since the current I depends on the drift
electric force eE
velocity, we have
I/E 4:2
OHM'S LAW which is the result needed to understand Ohm's law.
^
58
EXPERIMENT 4
For the simple case of a conductor of uniform cross section and length L, an
applied potential difference V between the ends gives rise to a uniform electric
field given by
E VL : 4:3
In the case of a conductor, we can replace the field E in the proportionality

equation (4.2) by V =L to get
I/V 4:4
or
I R1 V 4:5
where R is the resistance of the conductor. Equation (4.5) is usually written as RESISTANCE
V IR 4:6
which is the general form of Ohm's law. It is important to understand that the
real content of Ohm's law is the direct proportionality (for some materials)
between I and V as expressed by equation (4.4). Equation (4.6) tells us that the
greater the potential difference we apply across the ends of a conductor, the
greater will the current be that flows through the conductor (provided R OHMIC CONDUCTOR
remains constant of course!). A material that obeys Ohm's law is known as an
ohmic conductor or linear conductor. ``When does a material obey Ohm's law?'', You may want to have
you ask. The answer is when the ratio between V and I remains constant. This another look at our
means that when we plot V versus I we will get a straight line graph, with discussion on linearity
gradient R. Many materials show substantial deviation from Ohm's law, and in Study Unit 12 of
they are known as nonohmic or nonlinear conductors. Manual 1.
NONOHMIC
Consider the following situations and try to answer the questions about them.
1. Silver and copper are considered good conductors of electricity, whereas

wood is a poor conductor of electricity.
(a) Do you know why this is so, and what the difference is between them?
(b) If you had to choose between copper and silver to use as a good
conductor of electricity, which one would you choose and why?
2. It is common to see birds perched on single voltage lines of, say 3000 V,
and not get electrocuted, whereas when you touch a battery of, say 12 V, of
an idling car standing on the ground you get a shock. Why is this so?
Explain.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . .
1. (a) Silver and copper are metals, and in a metal the outer electrons are not
bound to individual atoms, but are free to move within the lattice of
metal atoms. Wood, on the other hand, does not have free electrons,
and therefore it does not permit the transfer of electric charge.
(b) If we were to choose between copper and silver, to use as a good
conductor of electricity, we would look up the resistivity for each of
THE CONDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ^59

them. Resistivity is a basic property of a material that gives a measure
of how well a material conducts electric current. The smaller the
resistivity of a material, the better its ability to conduct electric current.
A ``perfect'' conductor would have zero resistivity. Metals and alloys
have the smallest resistivities and are the best conductors. The
resistance of a particular conductor is related to the resistivity of
its material by
L
R
A
where A is the cross-section area of the conductor.
When we looked it up, we found that the resistivity of copper is

1:72 10ÿ8 m at room temperature, and that silver has a resistivity
of 1:47 10ÿ8 m at the same temperature. This means that they are
both excellent conductors of electricity, because the values are very
small, and silver conducts even a little better that copper. So, my first
choice would be silver, but since silver is considerably more expensive
that copper, this would not be a wise choice! Seeing that there is really
very little difference between the resistivities of copper and silver,
copper would do the job just fine.
2. To answer this question, we have to ask another question: What causes

electric shock Ð current or potential difference? The damaging effects of
electric shock are caused by current passing through the body. In order to
receive an electric shock, there must be a difference in potential between
one part of your body and another part. Current will pass along a path in
your body connecting these two points. That is why the birds perched on a
high voltage wire are quite safe from electrocution. Every part of their
bodies is at the same high potential as the wire, and they feel no ill effects.
Suppose you fell from a bridge and managed to grab onto a high-voltage
power line halting your fall. As long as you touched nothing else at a
different electric potential, you would receive no shock at all. Even if the
wire were a few 1000 V above ground potential and even if you hung by it
with two hands, no current would flow between your hands. If, however,
you reached over with one hand and grabbed onto a wire at a different
potential.....zap!
So, what causes electric shock Ð current or potential difference? Electric
shock occurs when current flows through the body, and the current is
caused when a potential difference exists between two points of the body.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 SEMICONDUCTORS
As an example of a conductor that displays nonohmic behaviour, we will be
DIODE investigating the way in which current is conducted by a diode. A
semiconductor diode is a device that conducts current better in one direction
that the other. The importance of semiconductors in present-day electronics
stems from the fact that their electrical properties are very sensitive to small
impurities. Silicon and germanium are the best-known semiconductors, so we
will discuss the basic concepts by using them as examples.
^
60
EXPERIMENT 4
Silicon and germanium have four electrons in their outermost subshells and
crystallise in the diamond structure. Each atom is surrounded by four nearest
neighbours with which it forms covalent bonds. A small amount of energy is
required to break some of the bonds and to set an electron free. As the
temperature is increased, the number of free electrons, which could result in
electrical conduction, is increased. The removal of an electron from a covalent
bond leaves a positively charged vacancy. An electron from a neighbouring
atom can drop into the vacancy. In this way the vacancy, called a hole, can
move through the lattice, serving as an additional current-carrying mechanism, INTRINSIC
known as intrinsic conductivity. CONDUCTIVITY
If an impurity in the form of a small amount of arsenic, having five electrons in

the outer sub-shell, is mixed with germanium, the arsenic atom can replace a
germanium atom because these atoms have approximately the same size. Four
of the valence electrons of the arsenic atom become involved in the covalent
bonds with neighbours while the fifth electron remains very loosely bound to
the arsenic atom. This electron can escape very easily and contribute to
electrical conduction. This mechanism is by far the dominant conduction
mechanism. Such a material in which the conduction is almost entirely due to n TYPE
negative charge motion, is called an n type semiconductor. SEMICONDUCTOR
If an element such as gallium with only three valence electrons is added, it uses
one of the electrons of a neighbouring germanium atom to form the four
covalent bonds, leaving the germanium with the hole. In this case the hole can p TYPE
move through the lattice. Such a material is called a p type semiconductor. SEMICONDUCTOR
If a crystal of silicon or germanium is grown such that one region is an n type

semiconductor and an adjacent region a p type semiconductor, a diode is
obtained. If a potential difference is applied across the diode, conduction takes
place much more readily in the direction p ! n than in the reverse direction.
When the p region is at a higher potential than the n region, holes in the p
region flow into the n region. Both regions contribute substantially to the
current. When the polarity is reversed, the resulting electric field tends to push
electrons from p to n and holes from n to p. However, there are very few
electrons in the p region. A similar situation prevails in the n region and
therefore the current is smaller than with the opposite polarity.
It can be shown that the relationship between the current and the voltage
across a diode is given by
I I0 eAV ÿ 1 4:7
where A e= kT . T , e and k are the absolute temperature, electronic charge

and the Boltzmann constant respectively. I0 is the reverse saturation current
and 1 for Ge and 2 for Si.
Note that if AV 0, equation (4.7) can be written as
I ' I0 ÿ1 ÿI0 :
Therefore, equation (4.7) can be rewritten as
I
I0 eAV ÿ 1: 4:8
SEMICONDUCTORS ^
61
EXPERIMENTS
4.4 APPARATUS
DIGITAL In the experiments that follow, you will be using a digital multimeter like the
MULTIMETER one shown in Figure 4.3. The digital multimeter is a laboratory instrument
used to measure electric potential differences, resistances and currents, and has
in recent years almost totally replaced the more traditional multimeters, such
as the familiar `ÀVO''. The reason for the domination of the digital
multimeter over the traditional meters is the ``recent'' development of low
cost, high quality liquid crystal displays, analog to digital converts, et cetera.
These developments enable electronic meters to be produced which are more
accurate and cheaper to manufacture than the traditional analog electro-
mechanical meter.
A B
D
C
FIGURE 4.3: Digital multimeter
The digital multimeter shown in Figure 4.3 is a typical high quality, general
purpose digital multimeter. A digital multimeter consists of four main external
parts:
1. The case A.
2. The display B where the value of the measured quantity is displayed.
3. The range/function selector buttons C, which enables one to select the
required function (eg volts) and range to be selected.
4. The input terminals D. These terminals are used in conjunction with the
range/function selector to select either potential difference, resistance or
currents.
The use of the digital multimeter is very simple and is summed up in the
following rules:
1. Switch the digital multimeter on by selecting the required range/function.
2. Wait for the internal self-test to be performed. Only use the instrument if it
passes the test.
3. Plug the test probes E into the correct input terminals as selected by the
range/function switch.
^
62
EXPERIMENT 4
4. Connect the test probes to the circuit under test. Where possible try to
estimate if the currents=potential differences present in the circuit exceed
the measuring range of the digital multimeter. If they do, do not perform the
measurement.
5. Wait for the display to stabilise and then read the display.
4.5 EXPERIMENT 4(a) ö OHMIC BEHAVIOUR: RESISTOR

In this experiment we are going to investigate ohmic behaviour by measuring
the resistance of a resistor using the ammeter-voltmeter method.
4.5.1 Procedure
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 4.4. V , A and P are a voltmeter, an
ammeter, and a power supply respectively. R is the unknown resistor.
FIGURE 4.4: Circuit diagram for Experiment 4(a)
2. Vary the potential difference V across the resistor R (using the power
supply) and record the corresponding current values I. Take at least eight
to 10 pairs of measurements and record your results in the form of a table.
3. Do a linear regression analysis of the data and plot a graph that will enable
you to answer the questions in step 4 below.
4. (a) Is a resistor an ohmic conductor or a nonohmic conductor? Explain.
(b) Explain (without doing any calculations) how you would determine
the resistance of the resistor using the graph plotted in step 3.
(b) Now use your explanation of question 4(b) and calculate the resistance
R and the standard error in R from the graph.
(c) Why do we plot I against V in this experiment and not V against I?
Explain.
4.6 EXPERIMENT 4(b) ö NONOHMIC BEHAVIOUR: DIODE

In this experiment we are going to investigate the relation between the current
and the voltage across a diode. In Figure 4.5 you can see what a semiconductor
diode looks like.
NONOHMIC BEHAVIOUR: DIODE ^

63
FIGURE 4.5: Semiconductor diode
4.6.1 Procedure
1. Construct a circuit similar to the one shown in Figure 4.4, replacing the
resistor with a diode.
2. Measure the current flowing through the diode as a function of potential
difference across the diode. (First make sure that the diode is forward
biased.) Present your results in the form of a table.
3. Reverse the diode in the circuit and repeat (or reverse the switch if you are
using a reverse switch in the circuit) and repeat step 2.
4. Plot a graph of I versus V .
5. Determine the saturation current I0 for the diode from the graph of your
measurements.
6. Linearise equation (4.8) (showing all your work) and draw a straight line
graph from which you can determine A and sa . You should do a linear
regression analysis of the data to fit the best line through the points.
7. Calculate the absolute temperature from the value of A and compare it
with the temperature at which the experiment was executed ( 295 K).
4.7 EXPERIMENT 4(c) ö CONSTRUCTION OF A POTENTIOMETER

A potentiometer is a voltage comparison device that uses a galvanometer as a
null indicator. It can be used for the accurate measuring of potential difference.
Its circuit is shown in Figure 4.7. It consists of a voltage source E connected to
a uniform resistance wire CD, length `. The potential difference across AB is
adjusted by moving the sliding contact K along CD. If a known voltage source
Es is connected across AB (note the polarities of E and Es ), the current
through the galvanometer will be zero if
E s I 0 Rs
where Rs is the resistance of the wire between D and Ks . If the known voltage
source is replaced by the unknown voltage source Ex the galvanometer will
show no deflection if
E x I 0 Rx
where Rx is the resistance of the wire between D and K. From these two
equations it follows that
Ex Rx
: 4:9
Es Rs
^
64
EXPERIMENT 4
Since the resistance wire is uniform, the resistances are proportional to the
lengths of the wires between D and Ks , and D and Kx . Therefore
Ex ` x
4:10
Es ` s
where `s is the measured length between D and Ks and `x that between D and
Kx : Since no current flows through the unknown voltage source, its emf is
determined.
FIGURE 4.6: Potentiometer
4.7.1 Procedure
1. You are supplied with 3 voltage sources: a variable source E (see Figure
4.6), a torch cell Es and a black box Ex :
2. Determine `s for zero reading of the galvanometer with Es connected
across AB.
3. Replace Es with Ex and determine `x :
4. Calculate Ex .
4.8 EXPERIMENT 4 (d) ö THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

A Wheatstone bridge is widely used for the precise measurement of resistance.
The circuit is shown in Figure 4.7
FIGURE 4.7: Wheatstone bridge
THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE ^

65
X is the unknown resistance to be determined. P is a resistor of fixed known
resistance and M and N are adjustable resistors. The values of M and N can be
adjusted until the galvanometer G shows no deflection. When this has been
achieved, we say that the point of balance has been achieved. The method is a
null method; it does not depend on the instrument. At the point of balance
points b and c are then at the same potential. This means that the potential
differences across ab and ac are equal, and so are the potential differences
across bd and cd. Since the galvanometer current is zero, the current I1 through
M equals the current through N and the current I2 through P equals the
current through X. Since Vab Vac , it follows that
I1 N I2 P
and since Vbd Vcd
I1 M I2 X:
Therefore
N P

M X
or
MP
X : 4:11
N
4.8.1 Procedure
1. Connect the Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure 4.8.
FIGURE 4.8: The sliding wire version of the Wheatstone bridge
2. Move the sliding key of the galvanometer until a point of balance is

obtained at D.
3. Measure the lengths `1 and `2 of the wire.
4. Interchange P and X and find the new balance point, say D0 . Measure `01
and `02 .
^
66
EXPERIMENT 4
5. Find the mean of `1 and `02 and of `2 and `01 .
6. Since the resistance is proportional to the length
N / `1
and
M / `2
so
M X
:
N P
7. Use the information above and determine the value of X.

8. Why is the Wheatstone bridge considered more reliable than the ammeter-
voltmeter method in measuring resistance?
4.9 EXPERIMENT 4(e) ö CONSTRUCTION OF AN AMMETER
4.9.1 The resistance of colour coded resistors

Before we look at the construction of the ammeter, you should get to know the
colour coded resistors that you are going to use in the next two experiments. COLOUR CODED
Figure 4.9 shows a number of colour coded resistors. By ``colour coded'' we RESISTORS
mean that the resistance of a resistor is indicated by four colour bands as
illustrated in Figure 4.10. Each colour is associated with a specific number.
Table 4.1 shows the numbers associated with the different colours.
FIGURE 4.9: A number of colour coded resistors
FIGURE 4.10: The meaning of the bands on a colour coded resistor
CONSTRUCTION OF AN AMMETER ^
67
Band Colour Number
First two bands Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
Third band Gold 10ÿ1
Black 100
Brown 101
Red 102
Orange 103
Yellow 104
Green 105
Blue 106
Violet 107
Grey 108
White 109
Fourth band Silver 10%
Gold 5%
TABLE 4.1: Numbers for colour coded resistors
The combination of the colours red, green, orange and silver therefore
indicates a resistance of (25 103 10%) , and a resistor marked red, red,
gold and gold will have a resistance of (22 10ÿ1 5%) .
4.9.2 Galvanometer
Figure 4.11 is a photograph of a moving-coil galvanometer.
FIGURE 4.11: A moving coil galvanometer
^
68
EXPERIMENT 4
A moving-coil galvanometer consists of a flat coil supported in the magnetic
MOVING-COIL
field of a permanent magnet as shown in Figure 4.12. If electrons move
GALVANOMETER
through the coil, they experience a magnetic force which causes the coil to turn
against the resisting torque of the spring C. It can be shown that the torque on
the coil due to the current I flowing through it is given by
ÿ NIABsin 4:12
where A is the area of the coil, N is the number of turns on the coil, B is the
magnitude of the magnetic field and is the angle between the normal to the
~ However, due to the design of the magnet, B
plane of the coil and the vector B. ~

is always perpendicular to the plane of the coil, that is 90 . Equation (4.12)
therefore reduces to
ÿ NIAB: 4:13
As soon as the coil starts to turn, the spring s winds up and gives rise to a
restoring torque. According to Hooke's law this restoring torque is
proportional to the angle through which the coil is rotated, ie
k
where k is the torsional constant of the spring. The equilibrium position of the
coil is reached when
ÿ
or
NIAB k:
Therefore
NIAB
:
k
FIGURE 4.12: Construction of a galvanometer
69
As shown in Figure 4.12, a pointer P is attached to the axis of the
galvanometer and indicates the rotation angle on a scale. This scale may be
calculated against known currents. In this case the galvanometer can be used as
an ammeter.
4.9.3 Ammeter
AMMETER When a galvanometer is used as a current-measuring instrument or ammeter, it
is desirable that its resistance is very low compared with other elements in the
circuit to which it is connected. This is necessary to avoid perturbing the
circuit. A simple example is shown in Figure 4.13 where the idea is to determine
the resistance R by measuring the current flowing through it when it is
connected to a known voltage source V . We need to have the resistance of the
galvanometer much less than R so that all but a negligible fraction of the
voltage V appears across R. Galvanometers for use in ammeters are wound
with a few turns of heavy wire to keep the resistance low.
FIGURE 4.13: Galvanometer G connected in series with resistor R
The maximum sensitivity of an ammeter is fixed by the sensitivity of the

galvanometer from which it is made. However, it is often necessary to reduce
the sensitivity to a lower value. This is done by providing a shunt or parallel
resistance as shown in Figure 4.14. The resistance of the galvanometer is given
by Rg and the shunt resistance is Rs . Application of Ohm's law to this circuit
gives the value of Rs required to reduce the sensitivity to any desired value.
Such a shunt also reduces the total resistance of the ammeter.
FIGURE 4.14: Galvanometer used as an ammeter
Example 4.1
A 100 galvanometer gives a full scale deflection for a current of 10ÿ6 A.
Determine the resistance of the shunt that will convert the galvanometer to an
ammeter with a full scale deflection for 10ÿ2 A.
^
70
EXPERIMENT 4
The current through the shunt is given by
Is Ia ÿ Ig :
Since the galvanometer is in parallel with the shunt, the potential difference
across both is the same.
Therefore
I s Rs I g Rg
or
Ia ÿ Ig Rs Ig Rg
and
I g Rg
Rs
Ia ÿ Ig
10ÿ6 A 100

10ÿ2 ÿ 10ÿ6 A
10ÿ2 :
4.9.4 Procedure
1. A number of resistors are supplied in a container. Draw up a list of the
colour codes and resistance values of each of these resistors.
2. Select one of these resistors suitable for use as shunt Rs and construct the
circuit as illustrated in Figure 4.15 where A represents a multimeter set to
measure current. Before you switch on the power supply P , ask the
instructor to check the circuit.
FIGURE 4.15: Construction of an ammeter
3. The scale on the galvanometer G has divisions marked from 0 to 40.

Increase the current until the reading on the galvanometer is 5 divisions.
Read the current on the multimeter A.
4. Repeat at 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 divisions and draw up a calibration
table.
5. Draw a calibration graph.
71
6. Calculate the currents through the galvanometer and the shunt Rs when
the galvanometer shows 40 divisions.
4.10 EXPERIMENT 4(f) ö CONSTRUCTION OF A VOLTMETER

VOLTMETER When a galvanometer is to be used as a voltmeter, as in Figure 4.16, the
resistance has to be much larger than any resistance across which it is to be
connected. Otherwise the voltmeter will alter the current flow in the circuit.
Galvanometers which are to be used as voltmeters are wound with many turns
of fine wire to give high sensitivity and high resistance. Usually there is
sensitivity to spare and the total resistance of the voltmeter is increased. The
sensitivity is reduced to the desired value by the addition of the appropriate
series resistance Rs as shown in Figure 4.17. A simple calculation again allows
us to determine the appropriate value of Rs for a given sensitivity.
FIGURE 4.16: Galvanometer connected in parallel with resistor R
FIGURE 4.17: Galvanometer used as a voltmeter
Example 4.2
Determine the resistance Rs required in Figure 4.17 to give the voltmeter a full
scale deflection for a potential difference of 0.01 V. Rg 100 and the
ÿ6
galvanometer has a full scale deflection for Ig 10 A.
Solution
Application of Ohm's law yields
Vab
Ig
R g Rs
^
72
EXPERIMENT 4
so
Vab
Rg Rs
Ig
and
Vab
Rs ÿ Rg
Ig
0:01 V
ÿ6 ÿ 100
10 A
104 ÿ 100
9900 :
4.10.1 Procedure
1. A number of resistors are supplied in a container. Draw up a list of the
colour codes and resistance values of each of the resistors.
2. Select one of these resistors suitable to be used as series resistor R and
construct the circuit as illustrated in Figure 4.18 where V represents a
multimeter set to measure voltage. Before you switch on the power supply
P , ask the instructor to check the circuit.
FIGURE 4.18: Construction of a voltmeter
3. The scale on the galvanometer G has divisions marked from 0 to 40.

Increase the current until the reading on the galvanometer is 5 divisions.
Read the voltage on the multimeter V .
4. Repeat at 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 divisions and draw up a calibration
table.
5. Draw a calibration graph.
6. Calculate the currents through the galvanometer and the shunt Rs when
the galvanometer shows 40 divisions.

E4.1 Compare electrical conductivity with thermal conductivity.
E4.2 What is meant by linear and non-linear circuit elements?

73
E4.3 How does the resistance of a wire depend on the length, area, diameter
and temperature?
E4.4 Is the direction of electron drift (not conventional current direction)
from high to low potential or from low to high potential? Explain.
E4.5 If the current in a wire is 7 A, what is the charge in C which drifts past a
given point in the wire in 1 s?
E4.6 What is the definition of the potential difference between two points in
space? Also define electric current and resistance.
E4.7 Suppose the behaviour of a diode is given by
I Ae BV C
where A, B and C are constants. V is the potential difference across the

diode and I is the current flowing through it. Measured values of I and
V are given below.
V I V2 I2 ln V ln I
0 9.0 0 81 Ð 2.19
10 40.2 100 1613 2.30 3.69
20 180.0 400 32412 3.00 5.19
30 806.9 900 651000 3.40 6.69
40 3616.1 1600 13076000 3.69 8.19
The potential difference is measured in mV and the current in mA.

(a) What are the units of A?
(b) Rewrite the equation to obtain a straight line graph.
(c) Draw a graph to obtain the value of B.
E4.8 What is the cause of the leakage current in a reversed biased p-n
junction? Why is this current greater for germanium than for silicon?
E4.9 Refer to Figure 4.19.
FIGURE 4.19: Circuit for problem E4.9
(a) Calculate the potential difference between X and Y .

(b) If a galvanometer is now connected between X and Y , what
resistance must be replace the 4 resistor to balance the bridge?
^
74
EXPERIMENT 4
E4.10 The emf of a ``dead'' battery is measured by a potentiometer to be 1.5 V.
When a voltmeter of resistance 9000 is connected across the terminals of
the battery it reads 1.35 V. What is the internal resistance of the battery?
E4.11 A potential difference V exists across two resistors of 2 and 3
joined in series.
(a) If the voltmeter reading across the 2 resistor reads 4 V, what is
the current in the resistor?
(b) What is the current in the 3 resistor?
(c) What is the value of V?
E4.12 Figure 4.20 shows a version of the potentiometer used to compare the
emf's of two cells. The balance point is first found with E1 connected
and then with E2 connected. Use the theory outlined in the
potentiometer experiment to show that
E1 `1
:
E2 `2
FIGURE 4.20: A version of the potentiometer used to compare the emf's of two cells
E4.13 An ammeter is a low resistance instrument connected in series, while a

voltmeter is a high resistance instrument connected in parallel. Which
instrument would be damaged when improperly connected? Explain.
E4.14 The resistance of a galvanometer coil is 25 and the current required
for full scale deflection is 0.02 A.
(a) Show in a diagram how to convert the galvanometer to an
ammeter reading 5 A full scale and calculate the shunt resistance.
(b) Show how to convert the galvanometer to a voltmeter reading 150
V full scale and calculate the series resistance.
E4.15 The resistance of the coil of a pivoted coil galvanometer is 10 and a

current of 0.02 A causes it to deflect full scale. We want to convert this
galvanometer to an ammeter reading 10 A full scale. The only shunt
available has a resistance of 0.03 . What resistance R must be
connected in series with the coil?
E4.16 Figure 4.21 shows the internal wiring of a three-scale voltmeter of
which the binding posts are marked 3 V, 15 V and 150 V. The
resistance of the moving-coil galvanometer used is 15 . A current of 1
mA in the coil causes it to deflect full scale. Find the resistances and the
total resistance of the voltmeter on each of its ranges.

75
FIGURE 4.21: Internal wiring of a three-scale voltmeter
E4.17 The resistance of the moving-coil galvanometer in the ammeter shown

in Figure 4.22 is 25 and it deflects full scale with a current of 0.01 A.
Find the magnitude of the resistances required to make a multirange
ammeter deflecting full scale with currents of 10 A, 1 A and 0.1 A
respectively. Assume that only one resistor is connected to the circuit at
a time.
FIGURE 4.22: Resistance of moving-coil galvanometer
E4.18 In the circuit shown in the Figure 4.23 a galvanometer is used as an

ammeter. Show that if the shunt resistance Rs of the ammeter is
negligible compared with the galvanometer resistance Rg , then
V
R ÿ Rs
I
where V =I is the ratio of the voltmeter reading to the ammeter reading.
FIGURE 4.23: Circit for problem E4.18
^
76
EXPERIMENT 4
E4.19 Derive equation.
E4.20 The following data were obtained for Experiment 4(a):
V I
(volt) (A)
1 0.11
2 0.19
3 0.33
4 0.41
5 0.47
6 0.59
7 0.73
8 0.80
9 0.93
10 0.99
(a) What graph would enable you to find the value of the resistance
and the error in the resistance from the data? Plot this graph.
(b) Do a linear regression analysis of the data and fit the best straight
line through the data.
(c) Find the resistance R and the error in the resistance sR .
E4.21 The following data were obtained for Experiment 4(b) with a silicon
diode:
V I
(volt) (A)
0.30 75
0.25 28
0.20 10.6
0.15 3.3
0.10 1.2
0.05 0.36
0.0 0.01
± 0.05 ± 0.13
± 0.10 ± 0.15
± 0.15 ± 0.19
± 0.20 ± 0.19
± 0.25 ± 0.20
± 0.30 ± 0.20
± 0.40 ± 0.20
(a) Plot a graph of I versus V .

(b) Determine the saturation current I0 for the diode from the graph
of your measurements.
(c) Linearise equation (4.8) showing all your work.
(d) Do a linear regression analysis of the data and plot the best
straight line through the points.
(e) Determine A and sa .

77
(f) Calculate the absolute temperature from the value of A and
compare it with the temperature at which the experiment was
executed ( 295 K).
E4.22 Explain why we use a potentiometer rather than a voltmeter for the
measurement of an emf.
E4.23 Do temperature changes on the slide wire affect the results obtained
from the potentiometer? Explain.
E4.24 How do the diameter and the material of the slide wire affect the results
obtained by a potentiometer? Explain.
E4.25 Draw a circuit diagram and show in which parts a current is flowing
when the potentiometer is balanced.
E4.26 What effect would a slide wire 10 times the length have on the accuracy
of the measurements?
E4.27 How can a potentiometer be made to read directly in volts?
E4.28 How does the emf of the power supply affect the results obtained by
the potentiometer? Should the power supply be larger, smaller or the
same as the unknown emf?
E4.29 Explain why the Wheatstone bridge is considered to be a more reliable
method for determining resistance than the ammeter-voltmeter
method.
E4.30 Give two reasons why a known resistor in the Wheatstone bridge is
chosen such that the balance point is near the centre of the wire.
E4.31 Discuss the importance of the correct polarity of the batteries used in
the potentiometer experiment.
E4.32 If a Wheatstone bridge is balanced, will interchanging the battery and
galvanometer affect this balance? Explain. If the bridge is balanced,
what will be the effect of removing the battery completely from the
circuit?
E4.33 Is the polarity of the power supply in the Wheatstone bridge of any
importance?
^
78
EXPERIMENT 4
five CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM
MAGNETIC FIELD
What led me to the special theory of relativity was the conviction that the
electromotive force acting on a body in motion in a magnetic field was
nothing else but an electric field.
Albert Einstein (1879±1955)
Learning objectives
able to
1. explain what is meant by thermionic emission

2. describe what an electron beam is and how to generate one
3. explain how the velocity of accelerated electrons can be calculated
4. describe how electrons can be detected
5. explain how Helmholtz coils can generate a uniform magnetic field
6. determine the strength of the magnetic field generated by Helmholtz coils
7. calculate the Lorentz force on moving charges in a magnetic field
8. predict the motion of electrons in a magnetic field
BACKGROUND THEORY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of an electron as we know it today was developed during the last
few years of the nineteenth century and the first twenty years of this century.
Subsequently electrons have been the subject of much scientific investigation.
Their interaction with light and matter is of great theoretical interest and
physical importance. At present no evidence exists to suggest that electrons
have any substructure, and within the framework of the theories which
describe elementary particles, it is meaningless to specify a size or shape for the
particles. Consequently the only important properties of the electron are its
mass and electrical charge.
CHARGED PARTICLE IN A UNIFORM ^

79
The minuteness of an electron makes it rather difficult to determine its charge
and mass. Measuring the ratio of an electron's charge and mass is the first step
in this direction. Mr Harvey Fletcher, a student of Robert Millikan, was able
to measure this ratio in 1910. He balanced the electrical and gravitational
forces on a charged oil drop. His was a very intricate experiment. In our
experiment we shall balance an electromagnetic force and the inertia of an
electron in order to determine its e=m ratio, where e is the charge of the
electron and m is its mass.
5.1.1 Outline
Before moving on to the details, you need to understand the principles
involved in performing this experiment.
^ First we generate a beam of electrons in a vacuum. The velocity of the
electrons must be known.
^ Next a uniform magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the electron
beam. As we know, charges moving across a magnetic field experience a
force normal to their motion. Thus the electrons will trace out a circle.
^ Comparing the known centripetal force with the known tangential
velocity, we have e=m.
^ Of course we shall also require some mechanism for detecting the path of
the electrons.
5.2 THE ELECTRON BEAM
FIGURE 5.1: The apparatus for Experiment 5
The apparatus for this experiment is depicted in Figure 5.1. The only other
equipment required is two power supplies and some connecting wires. For the
moment, we will concentrate on the part of the apparatus depicted in Figure
5.2.
^
80
EXPERIMENT 5
FIGURE 5.2: Generating the electron beam
^ The glass sphere A contains a vacuum. (Why must the electron beam be in
a vacuum?)
^ B is simply a metal resistor, like the filament of a light bulb. When the
potential V1 is applied across it, it will heat up and even glow a bit. V1 is
typically two or three volts, and the current through the resistor several
amperes.
When the metal resistor is heated, the energy of the electrons in the metal
increases. Some of the electrons will acquire enough energy to overcome
the forces which bind them in the metal. This is known as the thermionic THERMIONIC
emission of electrons. Thus there will be many electrons in the vacuum near EMISSION
to the resistor.
^ Notice the high potential difference (V2 ' 3000V ) between the resistor and
the plate C at the edge of the sphere. The plate is much more positive than
the resistor, and so will attract the electrons.
What is the velocity of the electrons when they reach the plate? Well, the
magnitude of the electric field between the resistor and the plate is
V2
E
d
where d is the distance between the resistor and the plate. The magnitude
of the accelerating force that the electrons experience is
F eE
ma:
The second equality is merely Newton's second law. Thus You can refresh your
memory about New-
eE
a ton's second law by
m reading the back-
eV2
ground theory for
md Experiment 1.
and assuming that the electrons are at rest after emission, their velocity at the
plate is
v2 2ad
2eV2

m
THE ELECTRON BEAM ^81

or
r
2eV
v : 5:1
m
(Note that I have dropped the subscript ``2'' from the accelerating potential in
equation (5.1).) Some of these electrons will be absorbed by the plate, so that
there is a small current (of the order of milli-amperes) in this acceleration
circuit. Most of the electrons will, however, pass through the hole in the plate
and continue into the glass sphere. At last we have a beam of electrons of
known velocity.
5.3 THE DETECTION OF ELECTRONS

Electrons are so small that they cannot be seen directly. It is not even possible
to build a microscope that will enable us to see them. But in order to conduct
our experiment, we require some means of detecting where the electron beam
is. We achieve this with a fluorescent screen which is fixed inside the glass
sphere. This calibrated screen is clearly visible in Figure 5.1.
The electrons in the beam collide with atoms in the screen, knocking some of
the atomic electrons into an excited state. When these excited electrons fall
back into their stable orbits, they emit visible light, disclosing the electron's
position. Note that electrons are removed from the beam in order to reveal the
beam's path.
5.4 THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A PAIR OF HELMHOLTZ COILS

We now turn to the problem of creating a uniform magnetic field. To this end
we place two coils on the same axis at a distance R apart. These coils can be
seen in Figure 5.3. The radius of each coil is also R. With a current I in the
same direction in both coils, a reasonably uniform magnetic field will exist in
the central part of this set-up.
FIGURE 5.3: A view of the apparatus showing the Helmholtz coils
^
82
EXPERIMENT 5
In order to calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field in this region, we first
consider a single loop of wire as shown in Figure 5.4.
FIGURE 5.4: Magnetic field along the axis of a current loop
We wish to calculate the magnetic field strength B ~ on the axis at a distance a

from the centre of the loop, at the point P . To do this we apply the Biot-Savart
law to an element L of the loop which yields
~ kIjL r^j
jBj
r2
kIL
:
r2
0
where k = 10ÿ7 Wb Aÿ1 mÿ1 and 0 = permeability of free space (it's
4
value is 1:257 10ÿ6 WbAÿ1 mÿ1
~ has the direction as indicated in Figure 5.4

The magnetic field contribution B
and can be resolved into an x and a y component. The x component is
Bx B sin
kIL
sin :
r2
The total magnetic field at P is the sum of the contributions from all the
elements L that make up the loop. Clearly B y 0. So we are left with
B Bx
kI
2 sin L
r
kI R
2 2R
r r
R2
2kI 3 :
r
Now we can extend this result to a coil of N loops by simply multiplying by N

R2
B 2NkI :
r3
THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A PAIR OF HELMHOLTZ COILS ^

83
This magnetic field is fairly dependent on a, the distance from the centre of the
loop. In order to enlarge the space over which the field can be considered
uniform, we position a second similar coil on the same axis at a distance R
from the first, as shown in Figure 5.5.
FIGURE 5.5: Dimensions of the Helmholtz coils
HELMHOLTZ COILS This arrangement is know as a pair of Helmholtz coils. The magnitude of the
p
magnetic field at the centre is given by the last equation with r a2 R2 and
a R=2. There is also an additional factor of 2 since both the coils contribute
to the field strength. Thus
R2
B 4NkI
a2 R2 3=2
3=2
4 4NkI

5 R
NI
8:99 10ÿ7 WbAÿ1 mÿ1 : 5:2
R
5.5 THE MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

What effect does the magnetic field have on the electron beam? Charges
LORENTZ FORCE moving in a magnetic field experience the Lorentz force which has been
empirically determined to be
F~ q~ ~
v B: 5:3
FIGURE 5.6: Electron motion in a uniform magnetic field
Consider an electron with a negative charge eÿ moving through a uniform

~ which is perpendicular to the electron's motion (B
magnetic field B ~ is directed
into the page in other words). The force on the electron will have magnitude
F evB and it will be directed normal to both the B ~ field and the electron's
^
84
EXPERIMENT 5
motion, as shown in Figure 5.6. You should note that when we apply the right-
hand screw rule here, we take into account the negative sign of the electron
charge. The direction of the force on the electron is downward in this case,
because it has a negative charge. The force on a positive charge moving in the
same direction in this field would be opposite to the force on the electron.
Such a force cannot change the magnitude of the electron's velocity. It will only
change the electron's direction. As you should know, the electron will in fact
travel in a circle at constant speed. And F~ will point to the center of the circle.
The acceleration of the charge is also directed to the centre of the circle and has
a magnitude of
v2
a
r
where v is the tangential velocity of the charge, and r is the radius of the circle.
Using Newton's second law we can link all this together:

F~ m~
a 5:4
2
v
evB m
r
so that
e v
: 5:5
m rB
We are sure that all this talking has you itching to DO something for a change!
Let us do some calculations for an electron in a magnetic field.
An electron with a kinetic energy of 103 eV moves perpendicular to the field

lines of a uniform magnetic field B = 10ÿ4 T. Use the space provided below to
calculate the radius of its orbit.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . .
In order to find the radius from equation (5.4)
v2
evB m
r
THE MOTION OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN A MAGNETIC FIELD ^

85
we need to determine the speed of the electron first. Because the kinetic energy
EK 103 eV
103 1:6 10ÿ19 J
1:6 10ÿ16 J
it follows that
r
2EK
v
m
s
2 1:6 10ÿ16 J

9:11 10ÿ31 kg
1:9 107 m sÿ1 :
From equation (5.4) the radius of the circular path is

mv
r
eB
9:11 10ÿ31 kg 1:9 107 m sÿ1

1:6 10ÿ19 C 10ÿ4 T
1:1 m:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXPERIMENTS
5.6 APPARATUS
With the apparatus that you will be using at Unisa, it is not possible to have
the electrons move in a complete circle. The configuration is such that the
electrons leave the uniform magnetic field before they can complete a loop. The
typical arc that you will observe is depicted in Figure 5.7.
(o,r)
FIGURE 5.7: Radius of curvature of the electron beam
^
86
EXPERIMENT 5
This arc is part of a circle which has its centre at C. The screen is calibrated as
if its origin were at 0, where the beam enters the magnetic field. The general
equation for a circle with its centre at (a,b) and a radius r is
x ÿ a2 y ÿ b2 r2 : 5:6
In the coordinates defined by the screen, the centre of the electron circle C, is at
(0; r). Thus we have
r2 x2 r ÿ y2 5:7
where x and y are measured as in Figure 5.7.
Important:
When using the apparatus, always ensure that the high voltage source is
at its lowest setting before switching it on or off.
The Helmholtz coils that you will be using have a radius of R 6:5 cm and
there are N 320 loops on each coil.
5.7 EXPERIMENT 5(a) ö CIRCULAR PATH OF ELECTRONS

This experiment is an introductory exercise. Use it to familiarise yourself with
the theory and apparatus. The objective is simply to verify that the arc we
observe on the screen is indeed part of a circle, and to measure its radius.
Begin by thoroughly examining the set-up. Make sure that you understand
what each switch does, and what each dial is displaying.
5.7.1 Procedure
1. The first thing to switch on is the heating element Ð it will glow a bit.
Next, ensure that the accelerating potential is at its lowest setting and
switch it on. Slowly increase this potential to 3 or 4 kV. You should see the
electron beam on the screen. (Pinch yourself, you are now looking at the
path of real electrons!)
2. Now we are ready to make the electron beam curve. Again it is a good idea
to set the current in the Helmholtz coils as low as possible before switching
it on. As you increase the magnetic field, you will notice that the radius of
curvature of the beam decreases as expected.
3. Choose a suitable beam path and record the accelerating potential and the
current in the Helmholtz coils. Then proceed with the experiment without
making further adjustments to the set-up.
4. Record the x and y-intercepts of the arc at six or more points and plot a
graph to calculate the radius of the arc. (Hint: The graph should be based
on equation (5.7).)
5.8 EXPERIMENT 5(b) ö e/m OF AN ELECTRON

Now we get down to the business of measuring the charge mass ratio of an
electron. Once we have measured the radius of an arc on the screen, we can
determine e=m using equations (5.1), (5.2) and (5.5).
CIRCULAR PATH OF ELECTRONS ^

87
However, to improve the accuracy of the experiment, you should measure the
radius of at least six different arcs and draw an appropriate graph. Do not
forget to record the relevant electrical settings for each arc. Once you have
taken all the readings, you should turn the accelerating potential to zero and
switch off the apparatus immediately.
Do a linear analysis of the data to fit the best straight line through the points
and determine the error on e=m.

E5.1 What is the minimum amount of information needed to determine the
direction of the magnetic force on a moving charge?
E5.2 The equation F qvB sin involves the magnitude of three vectors,
namely F~, ~ ~ Of these three vectors, which pairs are always at
v and B.
right angles? Which pairs may have any angle between them?
E5.3 Explain how magnetic fields can be used to measure a charged
particle's momentum.
E5.4 A length of wire carries a steady current. It is bent first to form a
circular plane coil of one turn. The same length is now bent more
sharply to give a double loop of smaller radius. What is the ratio of the
magnetic flux densities at the centres of the two coils?
E5.5 Under what conditions is the motion of a charged particle in a uniform
magnetic field a straight line? Is the particle accelerated?
E5.6 A charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field. How does the
velocity of the particle vary as it moves? How does the energy vary?
E5.7 Explain why By 0 in Figure 5.4.
E5.8 A charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field. How does the
energy of the particle vary as it moves? Compare your answer with the
motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field.
E5.9 Define the cross product of two vectors A ~ and B. ~ A
~ If C ~ B,
~
determine
(a) the magnitude of C ~
(b) the direction of C~
What is the direction of D~ if D~ ÿA~ B?

~
E5.10 Write down the vector equation for the force on a charged particle that
moves with velocity ~ ~
v in a magnetic field B:
E5.11 How many forces act on the electron while it is moving in the circular
orbit? Discuss the nature of each of the forces.
E5.12 An electron and an alpha particle (a doubly ionized helium atom) both
move in circular paths in a magnetic field with the same tangential
velocity. Compare the number of revolutions they make per second.
The mass of the alpha particle is 6:68 10ÿ27 kg.
E5.13 How is the electron beam made visible in the e/m tube? Discuss the
physical process which results in the emission of light.
^
88
EXPERIMENT 5
E5.14 In the experiment, the charged particles are first accelerated to a
velocity ~
v. Explain how this is done. Find an expression for v in terms
of V , the accelerating potential.
E5.15 Can you explain why it is necessary to consider a only single electron in
the magnetic field rather than the many electrons which are actually
present? Explain.
E5.16 Why should the pressure inside the cathode ray tube be low?
E5.17 The apparatus has two circular coils to produce a homogeneous
magnetic field. Why must the field be homogeneous?
E5.18 Discuss the effects of the earth's magnetic field on the results of these
experiments.
E5.19 How could one correct for the effect of the horizontal component of
the earth's magnetic field?
E5.20 The following results were obtained for Experiment 5(a):
V = 3000
I = 0.3 A
x (cm) 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0

y (cm) 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.9
Draw a graph based on equation (5.7) and extract the radius of the arc
from the graph.
E5.21 In Experiment 5(b) I (the current in the Helmholtz coils) and r (the
radius of the arc of the electron beam) are variables while V (the
accelerating potential) is a constant. How would you plot the results to
obtain a straight line graph and what is the slope of this graph in terms
of e=m and V ?
E5.22 Repeat question E5.21 with V and r variable and I constant. This time
you should find the slope in terms of e=m and I.
V = 3000 V
I (A) x (cm) y (cm)
0.08 7.0 0.5
0.13 6.0 0.6
0.19 6.0 0.8
0.24 6.0 1.2
0.37 5.0 1.3
0.48 4.0 1.2
For each data point calculate the arc radius r. Then using on equations
(5.1), (5.2) and (5.5), draw a graph that will allow you to extract the
e=m ratio. (Remember to use linear regression to fit the best straight
line through the points.)
The radius of the Helmholtz coils is R 6:8 cm and there are N 320
loops on each coil.

89
six MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-
CARRYING CONDUCTOR
In every explanation of natural phenomena we are compelled to leave the

sphere of sense perception and to pass to things which are not the objects of
sense and are defined only by abstract conceptions.
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821±1894)
Learning objectives
able to
1. show that the magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor is given by
F~ I L
~ B
~
2. use the right hand rule to determine the direction of the magnetic force on a
current carrying conductor
3. calculate the magnitude of the magnetic force on a current carrying
conductor
4. apply the concept of moments (torques) about a point to the apparatus
used in the experiment
BACKGROUND THEORY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This experiment deals with forces on current-carrying conductors. Before
embarking on the details of the experiment, let us first think of a practical
situation in which the force on a current-carrying is put to use. When a wire is
made into a loop, it experiences a torque. Such a torque can be used in the
design of a galvanometer, as the amount of rotation of a pointer mounted on
such a loop can be related to the current flowing in the loop. There are a good
many things we can understand by studying simple concepts in the laboratory.
^
90
EXPERIMENT 6
The principles involved in this experiment are the same as those described in
the background theory for Experiment 5. The flow of current in a straight wire
is the movement of electrical charge but in this case the electrical charges are
confined to a conductor and therefore do not describe a circular orbit as in
Experiment 5.
6.2 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE

In Experiment 5 we learnt that the force F~ on a charge q moving in a magnetic
~ is given by equation (5.3). Suppose that the charge moves through a
field B
straight conductor (wire) of length L. Consider a vector L parallel to the wire
with a magnitude equal to the length of the wire and in the same direction as
the conventional current. The displacement of the charge is
~ ~
sL
and therefore the velocity is

~
s
~
v
t
~
L

t:
Substituting this expression for the velocity into equation (5.3), it follows that
~ B
q L ~
F~
t
if the field B is uniform over the length L. Since

q
I
t
it follows that
~ I L
F ~ B:
~ 6:1
~ is perpendicular
The cross product in equation (6.1) indicates that the force F
~ ~
to both L and B. The magnitude of the force is given by
F ILB sin 6:2
where is the angle between the direction of the current flow and the direction
of the magnetic field B.
The direction of a cross product is determined by the right-hand rule which can RIGHT HAND
be applied according to two methods to obtain the direction of a cross product. RULE
I will discuss both, and you can choose whichever of the two you feel most
comfortable with. For the first method, let us suppose two vectors A ~ and B~ lie
~
in a plane with B pointing out of the page. If we want to establish the direction
of A~ B,
~ we have to rotate the first vector A ~ to be in the same direction as
~ If we now place the fingers of our right hand so that they point along
vector B.
the direction of the first vector in the vector product (A~ in this case) and we
~
rotate our fingers toward the second vector (B in this case), our the thumb
points in the direction of the cross product (see Figure 6.1).
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR ^

91
!
~
A
!
~
B
!
~ B
A ~
FIGURE 6.1: The right-hand rule
The second method uses the right hand with the second finger (from the
thumb) pointing in the direction of the first vector, the middle finger in the
direction of the second vector, and the thumb indicates the direction of the
cross product (see Figure 6.2).
~ B
A ~
~
A
!
~
B
!
FIGURE 6.2: An alternative method for applying the right-hand rule
^
92
EXPERIMENT 6
All this sounds very theoretical! How can we put the magnetic forces acting on
current-carrying conductors to some practical use? In fact, most loudspeakers
operate on the principle that a magnetic field exerts a force on a current
carrying-wire. Figure 6.3 shows a design for a loudspeaker that consists of
three parts, namely a cone, a voice coil and a permanent magnet. The cone is
usually made of stiff paper and is mounted so that it can vibrate back and
forth. When it vibrates, the cone sets the air in front of it in motion, thereby
creating sound waves. At the apex of the cone is a hollow cardboard cylinder
around which many turns of wire are wound. Together the cylinder and the
turns of wire are known as the voice coil. The voice coil is slipped over one pole VOICE COIL
of the permanent magnet. The magnet itself does not move, but the voice coil is
designed to move freely over the magnet. The two ends of the voice coil wire
are connected to the speaker terminals located at the back panel of a receiver.
The receiver acts as an alternating current generator that sends an alternating
current to the voice coil. Because the current is continually alternating, it
interacts with the magnetic field to generate an alternating force that pushes
and pulls on the voice coil and the attached cone.
Cone
Permanent magnet
Voice coil
Back panel of Speaker

receiver terminals
FIGURE 6.3: A loudspeaker consisting of a cone, a voice coil and a permanent magnet
Figure 6.4 shows a cross-sectional view of the voice coil and the permanent
magnet we have just discussed. The current is directed into the page in the
upper half of the voice coil (indicated by ) and out of the page in the lower
half (indicated by ). In both cases the magnetic field is perpendicular to the
current, so the maximum force is exerted on the wire.
FIGURE 6.4: A cross-sectional view of the voice coil and a permanent magnet
MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE ^

93
(a) Apply the right-hand rule to both the upper and lower half of the coil to
determine the direction of the magnetic force F ~ exerted on the wire.
(b) What happens one half-cycle later?
(c) Say the voice coil has a diameter of d = 0.025 m, contains 55 turns of wire
and is placed in a magnetic field B = 0.10 T. The current in the voice coil is
2.0 A. What is the magnitude of the force that acts on the voice coil and cone?
. . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(a) The magnetic force F ~ exerted on the voice coil and the cone is directed
towards the right on both the upper and the lower halves (see Figure 6.5).
FIGURE 6.5: The force exerted on the voice coil and cone
(b) One half cycle-later, when the current is reversed, the direction of the
magnetic force is also reversed, and the cone accelerates to the left. If, for
example, the alternating current from the receiver has a frequency of 1 000
Hz, the alternating magnetic force causes the cone to vibrate back and
forth at the same frequency, and a 1 000 Hz sound wave is produced. In
this way it is the magnetic force on a current-carrying wire that is
responsible for converting an electrical signal into a sound wave.
^
94
EXPERIMENT 6
(c) Since the magnetic field acts perpendicularly to all parts of the wire,
90 and the force on the voice coil is
F ILB sin
2:0 A55 0:025 m 0:01 T sin 90
0:86 N:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXPERIMENTS
The main aim of the experiments that follow is to verify the fact that when a
current-carrying conductor is placed in a region of external magnetic field, it
experiences a force. We have seen that this force is theoretically given by the
equation 6.1. In order to verify this theoretical expression we shall investigate
the dependence of F on each of the three quantities I, L and B by plotting
graphs of F against I, F against L and F against B. To determine the force we
shall use the concepts of moments (torques) to derive an expression for the
force in terms of measurable quantities.
What sort of graphs do we expect in order to verify the theoretical expression?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . .
In order to verify that F ILB we expect straight line graphs for the
dependence of each of F on each of the quantities I, L and B.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 APPARATUS
The apparatus we will be using for this experiment is shown in Figure 6.6. Five We discussed
equally spaced straight wires A are attached horizontally to an isolator B. Also conductors and
attached to B are five electrical connectors C (one for each of the five wires); isolators in the
two vertical metal rods D which rest on two thicker vertical metal rods E; and background theory
a horizontal aluminium rod F which serves as a centimetre scale. A for Experiment 4.
counterpoise G of known mass m can slide along F . About 10 cm from B
the wires A are bent vertically downwards. About 2 cm from the bend the
vertical wires are connected to a piece of a straight horizontal wire H. A set of
identical U-shaped permanent magnets I is arranged in such a way that the
horizontal wire H is in the magnetic field and perpendicular to it. At the other
end of the apparatus a reference mark J indicates the horizontal position of the
aluminium rod. The output terminals of a power supply are connected to the
metal rods E and the circuit is completed by connecting two of the connectors
C to the metal rods D. By selecting different positions of C the length L of the
horizontal conductor which carries an electric current can be varied. The
current can be changed by adjusting the current and/or voltage controls on the
power supply. The magnitude of the magnetic field can be varied by changing
the number of magnets. (Make sure that the poles of the different magnets are
all in the same direction.)
APPARATUS ^95
J
G F
B
C K
A D
H E
FIGURE 6.6: Apparatus for investigating the magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor
If the current is off and the zeroing screw K is adjusted until the apparatus is
horizontal with the counterpoise at the zero position (Z in Figure 6.7), we can
say that the apparatus is in equilibrium at this position. Thus the sum of the
torques due to all the forces acting on the body, with respect to the pivot point,
must be zero. That is
ÿL ÿR 6:3
where ÿL is the left-hand torque, and ÿR is the right-hand torque about the
pivot point respectively.
FIGURE 6.7: Force diagram
If the current is switched on, the horizontal wire H will experience a magnetic
force F ILB (see Figure 6.7). Depending on the directions of L and B, F can
be either upwards or downwards. If F is downwards, ÿL > ÿR and the
apparatus will rotate anticlockwise. It can be aligned horizontally again by
increasing ÿR until ÿL ÿR , that is. the counterpoise has to be shifted towards
^
96
EXPERIMENT 6
the right. Under these circumstances the additional moment mgd is equal to
the moment of the magnetic force FL0 , that is the magnitude of the force is
mgd
F
L0
ILB 6:4
where d is the distance measured on the scale on the aluminium rod F . Here we
are applying the conditions of static equilibrium as we have studied them in
mechanics. This demonstrates that many physical principles can be combined
with others to explain a concept in another section of physics.
6.4 EXPERIMENT 6(a) ö DEPENDENCE OF MAGNETIC FORCE ON ELEC-

TRIC CURRENT
Equation 6.4 contains three variables that determine the magnitude of the
magnetic force. In the experiments that follow, we will consider each of them in
turn. The first aspect of the magnetic force experienced by a current carrying-
conductor that we are going to investigate, is the relationship between the
current and the magnitude of the magnetic force. Before you begin, you need
to think carefully about which will be the dependent variable, which will be the
independent variable and whether you will have to control any variables in this
experiment.
6.4.1 Procedure
1. Adjust the zeroing screw until the apparatus is horizontal with I = 0 and
the counterpoise at the zero position.
2. Switch on the power supply and increase the current slowly until the
apparatus rotates anticlockwise. Use maximum values of L and B. Adjust
the counter-poise until the apparatus is horizontal.
3. Record the current and the value of d.
4. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic force in newtons using the
experimentally determined value of d. The mass of the counterpoise
m 10ÿ3 kg, the value of L0 can be measured and g 9:8 m sÿ2 .
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 until you have at least six set of readings. Do not exceed
2 A.
6. Draw a suitable straight line graph to prove that F / I, using the results of
a linear regression analysis of the data to fit the best straight line through
the experimental points.
7. Measure L and calculate B and sB in tesla from the slope of the graph.
6.5 EXPERIMENT 6(b) ö DEPENDENCE OF MAGNETIC FORCE ON THE

LENGTH OF THE CONDUCTOR
Now that we have established the relationship between the current and the
magnetic force, we can investigate the next factor that influences the magnetic
force, namely the length of the conductor.
6.5.1 Procedure
1. Measure the total length of the horizontal wire and calculate the average
length between a pair of adjacent vertical wires.
DEPENDENCE OF MAGNETIC FORCE ON ELECTRIC CURRENT ^

97
the counterpoise is at the zero position.
3. Set the current at a convenient value and keep it constant throughout the
experiment. Values between 1.2 A and 2 A are recommended but do not
exceed 2 A.
4. Obtain four values of d corresponding to the four lengths L.
5. Calculate the magnitude of F in newtons using experimentally obtained
values of d, the given value of m, the measured value of L0 and
g 9:8 m sÿ2 .
6. Draw a suitable straight line graph to illustrate that F / L using the
results of a linear regression analysis of the data to fit the best straight line
through the experimental points.
7. Calculate B and sB in tesla from the slope of the graph.
6.6 EXPERIMENT 6(c) ö DEPENDENCE OF MAGNETIC FORCE ON THE

MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGTH
It is better to do this experiment after you have completed Experiment 6(a)
and/or 6(b). This is because the value of B calculated in either part (a) or (b) is
used for the magnetic field strength in this section of the experiment.
6.6.1 Procedure
the counterpoise is at the zero position.
2. Set the current at a value between 1.2 A and 2 A and keep it constant
throughout the experiment. Do not exceed 2 A. Use the maximum value of
L.
3. Obtain six values of d corresponding to six different values of B (which is
1
6 B value obtained in part (a) and (b) for each magnet).
4. Calculate the magnitudes of F in newtons using the experimentally
obtained values of d, the given value of m, the value of L0 which can be
measured and g 9:8 m sÿ2 .
5. Draw a suitable straight line graph to illustrate that F / B, using the
results of a linear regression analysis of the data to fit the best straight line
through the data points.
6. Calculate L from the slope of the graph and compare it with the value
obtained from direct measurement.
The experiment is self-consistent in the sense that if a mistake is made in parts

(a) and (b) in determining the value of B, then the value of L obtained in part
(c) will also be out.
In summary, we can say that in this experiment we have demonstrated some

physical principles. The main one is that if a conductor carrying a current is placed
in an external magnetic field, it will experience a force. The force is proportional to
the current, the length of the conductor and the magnetic field strength. The
second principle is the application of one of the conditions of equilibrium, namely
that the sum of the moments around a point must be zero. We saw that this
condition means that the object should have no tendency to rotate.
^
98
EXPERIMENT 6

E6.1 Use the expression in equation (6.1) to derive the units of magnetic
induction.
E6.2 Illustrate graphically how the force F (equation (6.1)) changes as the
conductor is rotated from a position parallel to the field through an
angle of 180 .
E6.3 A long straight wire carries a current of 1.5 A. An electron travels with
a velocity of 5 104 msÿ1 parallel to the wire, 0.10 m from it, and in
the same direction as the current. What force does the magnetic field of
the current exert on the moving electron?
E6.4 What is the maximum torque on a coil 0.05 m 0.12 m which carries a
current of 1 A in a field of magnetic induction 0.1 N Aÿ1 mÿ1 (Wb
mÿ2 )?
E6.5 Could the force F be determined in this manner if an alternating
current were used?
E6.6 Find the current density required in a horizontal aluminium wire to
make it ``float'' in the earth's magnetic field at the equator. The density
of aluminium (Al) is 2.7 103 kgmÿ3 . Assume that the earth's field is
about 7 10ÿ5 Wb mÿ2 and that the wire is oriented in the east-west
direction.
E6.7 A wire 0.6 m long, carrying 3.0 A, is located in a region in which there
is a magnetic field of 0.014 Wb mÿ2 . Find the magnitude of the
~ parallel to
magnetic force on this wire if the angle between the vector L
~
the wire and the field B is
(a) 0
(b) 30
(c) 45
(d) 90
E6.8 The general equation for the force on a charge is

~ qE
F ~ q~ ~
v B:
Interpret each symbol in this equation.
Questions about the experiments

E6.9 Figure 6.7 shows the current balance that is used in the experiments.
The current element between the pole pieces has length L and the
current is I. The magnetic induction between the pole pieces is B. Use
the principle of moments to obtain an expression among B, I, L, d, L0
and mg at equilibrium.
E6.10 Explain in detail the reason for the downward force on the wire. Draw
diagrams and use the cross product.
E6.11 Why do you not have to worry about the weight of the wire when you
calculate the magnitude of the magnetic force F ?
E6.12 Suppose the magnetic fields of three magnets are in the opposite
direction to those of the other three. Is there any magnetic force exerted
on the horizontal wire? Explain.

99
E6.13 Why is it not necessary to include the vertical pieces of the wire in the
magnetic field calculation?
E6.14 What is the effect of the earth's magnetic field on the results of the
experiments?
E6.15 The following results were obtained for Experiment 6(a):
L0 = 0.10 m , L = 0.08 m and m = 0.001 kg.
I d
(A) (m)
0.1 0.0027
0.4 0.0101
0.8 0.0199
1.2 0.0280
1.5 0.0380
1.8 0.0425
2.0 0.0470
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic force in newtons using

the experimentally determined value of d, and the values for m and
L0 given above.
(b) What graph would you plot to prove that F / I?
(c) Plot this graph, fitting the best straight line through the points
with the aid of a linear regression analysis of the data.
(d) The length of the conductor was measured as L = 0.08 m in the
experiment. Calculate B and sB in tesla from the slope of the
graph.
E6.16 Will the way in which the value for the length of the horizontal wire is
obtained in Experiment 6(b) give an accurate measurement? If not,
what sort of error(s) is the estimation likely to introduce?
I = 1.2 A , L0 = 0.10 m and m = 0.001 kg.
L d
(m) (m)
0.02 0.0077
0.04 0.0152
0.06 0.0233
0.08 0.0320

the experimentally determined value of d, and the values for m and
L0 given above.
(b) What graph would you plot to prove that F / L?
(d) Calculate B and sB in tesla from the slope of the graph.
^
100
EXPERIMENT 6
E6.18 The following results were obtained for Experiment 6(c):
I = 1.2 A , L0 = 0.10 m, m = 0.001 kg and L = 0.08 m
B d
(Tesla) (m)
0.005 0.0052
0.010 0.0120
0.015 0.0160
0.020 0.0182
0.025 0.0233
0.030 0.0320

the experimentally determined value of d and the values for m and
L0 given above.
(b) What graph would you plot to prove that F / B?
(d) Calculate L and sL from the slope of the graph.

101
EXPERIMENTS ON OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Each of the experiments on optics and modern physics are preceded by a
discussion of the background theory that applies to the specific experiment.
These discussions contain sufficient theoretical material for the purpose of
doing the experiment, but if you should find that they do not provide you with
all you want to know, you could read up on some more of the relevant theory
in any first year textbook. It is also good academic practice not to limit oneself
to just one source of information. If you are registered for or have already
passed the PHY104-9 module, you may want to have a look at the material on
optics and modern physics in the text book for that module. Any first year
textbook on physics will in fact contain the information you need. WE DO
NOT EXPECT YOU TO GO TO THE EXPENSE OF BUYING AN
ADDITIONAL TEXTBOOK. If you do not have a first year physics textbook
available, you can always borrow one from the Library if you feel the need to
read up some more about the theory.
seven PHYSICAL OPTICS
Where there is a great deal of light, the shadows are deeper.
Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749±1832)
Learning objectives
able to
1. explain what is meant by the dual nature of light

2. distinguish between the concepts of interference and diffraction
3. explain diffraction of light through a single slit, through a circular aperture
(``hole'') and through a diffraction grating
4. explain diffraction of electrons through a crystal, so-called Bragg
diffraction
BACKGROUND THEORY
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Now that you know what to expect, let me introduce you to the dual nature of DUAL NATURE
matter, and in particular of light. For many years, it was assumed that light OF LIGHT
was like a wave. All the phenomena observed, for example refraction,
diffraction and interference, indicated that this assumption was indeed valid. A
certain phenomenon was observed in 1887, that could not be explained using
the wave-like nature of light. This later became known as the photoelectric PHOTOELECTRIC
effect. You can read about this in the background to Experiment 8 and about EFFECT
how Albert Einstein demonstrated, using the photoelectric effect, that light is
made up of particles or photons. This was a momentous achievement. The only PHOTONS
problem was that 102 years earlier an Englishman named Thomas Young had
shown that light is made of waves, and no one, including Einstein, was able to
disprove him! So we are going to talk about particles (photons or electrons) in
terms of waves (frequencies) and waves in terms of particles Ð does this make
sense to you?
PHYSICAL OPTICS ^
103
WAVES In this experiment, we concentrate on the matter of waves. A particle is
something that is contained in one place. A wave is something that is spread
out. Waves can do various things, for example, under certain conditions they
DIFFRACTION bend around corners. When this happens it is called diffraction. Let me help
you visualise this with an example. Imagine, firstly, that we are in a helicopter
hovering over the mouth of an artificial harbour. The mouth of the harbour is
wide enough for two aircraft carriers to pass each other going through it. The
sea is rough and the wind and waves are blowing straight into the mouth of the
harbour. When we look down, this is the pattern that we see the waves making
in the harbour (see Figure 7.1).
FIGURE 7.1: Harbour mouth with large entrance
The waves are stopped cleanly by the walls of the harbour except at the
harbour entrance, where they continue straight forward into the harbour until
they are dissipated. Now imagine that the mouth of the harbour is so small that
a row-boat scarcely can pass through it. As we look down from the helicopter,
the pattern we see is quite different (see Figure 7.2).
FIGURE 7.2: Harbour mouth with small entrance
Instead of moving directly ahead into the harbour, the waves inside the
harbour spread out from the mouth of the harbour almost as if it were a pond
and we had dropped a rock into it at that point. This is diffraction.
Before reading the next section, ask yourself why this happened.
1. Why does reducing the size of the harbour mouth cause the wave pattern
inside the harbour to spread out in semicircles?
^
104
EXPERIMENT 7
2. Use the space below to write down any example that you can think of
where light actually bends around a corner.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . .
1. The answer lies in comparing the size of the harbour mouth with the size of
the wavelength of the incoming waves. In the first case, the size of the
harbour mouth is considerably larger than the distance between the crests
of the waves going through it, and the waves proceed directly through it
into the harbour following a straight line (rectilinear propagation) as
waves usually do.
In the second case, the size of the harbour mouth is about the same size, or
smaller, than the wavelength of the incoming waves, and when this
happens, it causes the characteristic pattern (diffraction) we see in the
drawing.
Since light is a wave phenomena (according to the wave theory of light), it
should behave in the same way, and it does. This you will see for yourself
in the experiments that we do.
2. We do not often observe diffraction patterns in everyday life, because most

ordinary light sources are not monochromatic and are not point sources.
The diffraction patterns formed by the different wavelengths that are
present in the light from an ordinary light source (such as the sun or an
incandescent light) usually overlap and obscure each other. Nevertheless,
diffraction patterns are visible when we look at a distant source, such as a
street lamp, through a crack between our two fingers or through a gauze
curtain.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Light waves can also interfere with each other. Let me illustrate this
phenomenon of interference by means of another example. INTERFERENCE
It is just as if we dropped two stones into a pond simultaneously and watched

the waves spreading from their points of entry. The waves that the stones make
interfere with each other. In places where the crests of the waves caused by one
stone meet the crests of the waves caused by the other stone, large waves result CONSTRUCTIVE
(constructive interference). In places where the troughs of the waves caused by INTERFERENCE
one stone meet the crests caused by the other stone, the water is calm
(destructive interference). DESTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
INTRODUCTION ^
105
By now, you should have achieved the first, second and last of the above-
mentioned learning objectives. Go back to the beginning of this chapter and
decide for yourself if you have achieved these. If not, read through the
introduction again and contact your lecturer for advice!
7.2 DIFFRACTION BY A SINGLE SLIT

PHYSICAL Whenever one studies physics, one is tempted to search for and study the
OPTICS definitions. Just to satisfy that need, here follows the definition of physical
optics. Physical optics is that part of physics that describes the effect of a
number of wave trains arriving at one point on a screen and is dependent on
the phases as well as the amplitudes of the waves.
Think about the following: What would you observe when light is shone onto a
screen through a slit which has dimensions much larger than the wavelength of
the light? If you began to reduce the size of the slit, what is the first change that
you would observe? As the slit is made smaller, would you observe diffraction
and interference or just diffraction?
. . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The answers to these questions appear in the text that follows. Read carefully!
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
As you have probably deduced by now, the slit with large dimensions will
simply cast a perfect image of itself onto the screen. As you diminish the size of
the slit, the light will be diffracted (bent) through the slit and the image will no
longer be perfect. At some stage, the diffracted light waves will begin to
SINGLE SLIT interfere with each other, and a diffraction/interference pattern will be
DIFFRACTION observed on the screen. A series of dark and bright fringes will be seen. From
PATTERN here on we will refer to this as the single slit diffraction pattern. It is this that we
will be observing in this experiment. (See figure 7.3.)
FIGURE 7.3: Diffraction through a single opening
^
106
EXPERIMENT 7
Now, we are interested in determining the position of the dark fringes, which
are of course the minima in the intensity of the superimposed waves. This MINIMA
position can be specified either by determining the angle from the normal to
the screen, or by the distance d from the centre of the interference pattern. This
can be seen in the Figure 7.4.
(minimum)
FIGURE 7.4: Position of fringes
Knowing the wavelength of the light, and the width of the slit, let us examine
how we can determine where the minima in the diffraction pattern will occur.
Consider a long and very narrow slit with the incident waves normal to the
plane of the slit (see Figure 7.5).
FIGURE 7.5: Single narrow slit of width b
According to Huygens' principle all points of the incident wave falling on the slit
act as secondary sources of waves. Each of these waves are diffracted in the present
case. If these waves are diffracted at an angle , it follows that the path difference
of ray A coming from one edge and ray C coming from the centre of the slit is
1
CF b sin :
2
To understand what we mean by path difference you will have to take a closer PATH DIFFERENCE
look at the diagram, and find where CF is.
What is the path difference between ray A and ray B ?
DIFFRACTION BY A SINGLE SLIT ^

107
. . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ray A and ray B start out from the plane of the original wave surface in
phase, but ray B has to travel a greater distance to reach the screen than ray
A. The path difference between ray A and B is the distance BG in Figure 7.5.
We will calculate the distance BG in terms of the slit width b a little further
along.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Now, if the path difference is equal to n 12, where is the wavelength of

the light (which is monochromatic, ie has only one wavelength) and
n 0; 1; 2; 3; . . . ; the interference between the two rays is totally destructive.
This means a total cancellation of the light waves, and therefore a minimum in
the intensity. Therefore, if
1 1
b sin n
2 2
b sin 2n 1
so that
b sin N N 1; 3; 5; 7; . . .
these two rays as well as all other pairs originating from points separated by 12 b
interfere destructively. Let us consider points A and B separated by 14 b. The
path difference is now
1
BG b sin
4
and for destructive interference
1 1
b sin n
4 2
or
b sin N N 2; 6; 10; . . .
By extending this procedure all integers can be included. We therefore

conclude that minima in the intensity occur when
b sin N N 1; 2; 3; . . . 7:1
MAXIMA The maxima occur approximately between minima, that is at N 3=2; 5=2; . . ..
The intensity distribution for a single narrow slit is shown in Figure 7.6.
FIGURE 7.6: Diffraction intensity distribution for a single slit
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108
EXPERIMENT 7
The other maxima are considerably smaller than the centre (N 0) maximum
and the intensity drops fast with increasing jNj. This happens because wavelets
from some parts of the slit cancel even at maxima. This partial cancellation
becomes more and more complete as the angle increases.
To put into practice what you thought about in the previous activity, cut a
single slit in a card with a razor blade and look at a light source through it.
You can vary the size of the opening by bending the card slightly. See the
interference fringes? Try it with two closely spaced slits.
7.3 DIFFRACTION BY A CIRCULAR APERTURE

This activity is only for those of you who claim to have some kind of
imagination! If instead of a slit, you placed a circular hole in the path of the
light, what would the diffraction pattern look like on the screen? Draw a picture
of it and compare it with what you see on the screen in the actual experiment.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . .
We do not want to spoil the fun of the actual experiment by saying too much
now. You can check your prediction when you do Experiment 7(b) during the
laboratory session.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
If we use a small opening of diameter d instead of the single slit, we observe a

circular diffraction pattern, consisting of concentric bright and dark rings,
instead of the linear diffraction pattern. The equation for the minima has the
same form as that for the linear case, namely
d sin N 7:2
but the circular geometry results in

N 1:220; 2:233; 3:238; 4:241; . . .
7.4 DIFFRACTION BY TWO IDENTICAL PARALLEL SLITS

Consider two slits of width b separated a distance a as shown in Figure 7.7. If
the slits are illuminated by parallel rays of monochromatic light, the two slits
serve as coherent sources, that is the incident waves are always in phase at the COHERENT SOURCES
slits. In the direction two sets of diffracted waves, one from each slit, are
DIFFRACTION BY A CIRCULAR APERTURE ^

109
observed and interference of these waves will take place. The observed
pattern is therefore a superposition of the diffraction pattern of the single
slit and the interference pattern resulting from both slits. According to the
theory of interference, the maxima (``bright fringes'') will occur at directions
given by
a sin n n 0; 1; 2; 3; . . . 7:3
The minima of the diffraction pattern are given by
b sin N N 1; 2; 3; . . . 7:4
3 "
3 "
FIGURE 7.7: Two narrow slits of width b and a distance a apart
Since a is larger than b, the minima of the single slit diffraction pattern are
more widely spaced than the maxima of the interference pattern. The single slit
diffraction pattern forms an envelope for the interference pattern or we say that
the interference pattern is modulated by the diffraction pattern. The intensity
of the interference peaks therefore becomes smaller further away from the
centre as illustrated in figure 7.8.
FIGURE 7.8: Interference and diffraction patterns of a double slit
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110
EXPERIMENT 7
The angular width of the diffraction pattern depends on the size of the slit
relative to the wavelength of the light. If the width of the slit b , it follows
that for the first maximum
sinÿ1 1 90o :
The central peak of the diffraction pattern is therefore very broad. On the
other hand, if b 20

ÿ1 1
sin 2:9o
20
and the peaks are relatively narrow.
7.5 DIFFRACTION GRATINGS

A diffraction grating consists of a large number N of identical slits of width b,
equally spaced. The distance between two adjacent slits is a, as shown in Figure 7.9.
Gratings with many lines very close to each other can have very small slit spacings.
For example a grating ruled with 5000 lines/cm has a slit spacing
1 1
a
N 5000 _lines=cm
2 10ÿ4 cm
FIGURE 7.9: Diffraction grating
In the direction the interference pattern of N sources (one per slit) modulated
by the diffraction pattern of one slit will be observed. If the angle is such that
a sin n n 0; 1; 2; . . . 7:5
a maximum will be observed. The intensity of this maximum will be much

higher than the intensity of the corresponding maximum in the two slit
experiment since the amplitudes of all N slits contribute in the case of the
grating.
Similar to double-slit interference, if b the diffraction envelope is so broad

that no variation in intensity between successive interference peaks is observed.
If b , the diffraction envelope becomes important and a pattern similar to
the one for a double-slit will be observed, that is the interference peaks differ in
intensity.
DIFFRACTION GRATINGS ^
111
7.6 ELECTRON DIFFRACTION
Having read the previous sections, you will immediately realise that we are not
going to talk about electrons as particles in this section, but about electrons as
``waves''. There is a definite relationship between the wave-like and particle-
like natures of matter, which can be expressed mathematically. De Broglie
postulated that if the momentum of a particle is p, the wavelength associated
with the particle is given by
h
7:6
p
where h is Planck's constant (6:63 10ÿ34 J s). If an electron has been accelerated
from rest through a potential difference V , its kinetic energy is given by
1 2
2 mv eV: 7:7
The momentum p mv of the electron is

1
p 2meV 2 7:8
and the wavelength of the electron is

h
1 : 7:9
2meV 2
If, for example, the accelerating potential is 20 volt, the wavelength of the
electron is
2:7 10ÿ10 m: 7:10
Normally the grating spacings of commercially available gratings are of the

order of 2:5 10ÿ6 m. The wavelengths of accelerated electrons are therefore
much smaller than ordinary grating spacings and a grating with much smaller
spacing is required to observe diffraction of matter waves. In 1912 Max von
Laue suggested that crystals with their regularly spaced planes of atoms might
serve as gratings for waves of wavelengths comparable with the spacings
between the planes of a crystal lattice (which are usually of the order of 10ÿ10
m). Davison and Germer observed the first diffraction of electrons in 1927.
The interference is more complicated because the sources of radiation are not
simple parallel lines or slits, but individual atoms distributed in three
dimensions, as illustrated in Figure 7.10.
FIGURE 7.10: Atoms distributed in three dimensions
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112
EXPERIMENT 7
The basic principle is, however, the same. Each point source emits a wavelet
which may interfere with wavelets from other sources. The diffraction pattern
for a single crystal consists of spots. The reason is that, among other things, the
cross-section of the incident beam is small and thus also a spot.
Consider an electron beam falling on a crystal, making an angle with a

certain family of planes as illustrated in Figure 7.11.
a
b
FIGURE 7.11: Electron beam incident on two planes of atoms at a distance d
We investigate the scattered electrons along a line which also makes an angle
with the family of planes. If d is the separation of the consecutive planes,
maximum intensity of the scattered waves is observed if
2d sin n n 1; 2; 3; . . . 7:11
where n is an integer (the Bragg condition). For fixed planes (or fixed d) and
wavelength , changing alternately produces positions of maximum and
minimum intensity, corresponding to constructive and destructive interference.
For a given direction of incidence relative to the whole crystal, we have a series
of maxima corresponding to scattering from all families of planes for which
equation (7.11) holds. The maxima are in different directions because of the
different orientations of the families of planes. If a screen is interposed in the
path of the scattered rays from a single crystal as shown in figure 7.12, a
regular pattern characteristic of the crystal appears. Each dot in the pattern
corresponds to the direction of scattering from a family of planes.
FIGURE 7.12: Scattering rays from a crystal
ELECTRON DIFFRACTION ^
113
If the material causing the scattering is a powder consisting of a large number
of small crystals randomly oriented, the same characteristic pattern will be
generated by each small crystal. The randomness of the orientations of the
crystals results in the different orientations of the patterns about the direction
of the incident beam. Since the number of small crystals is large, the observed
pattern consists of concentric circles (see Figure 7.13). Each circle corresponds
to a spot on the single crystal picture.
FIGURE 7.13: Scattering rays from a powdered sample
EXPERIMENTS
7.7 EXPERIMENT 7(a) ö SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION
7.7.1 Apparatus
We use a helium-neon laser (see Figure 7.14) as a source of monochromatic
light ( 6328A8 ). Instead of a single slit a human hair is used. The diffraction
pattern which is produced is the same as that which would be produced if a
single slit, the width of the hair, is used.
FIGURE 7.14: Helium-neon laser and screen
In this experiment, we know the wavelength of the laser beam, and can
determine the position of the minima from the diffraction pattern on the
screen. We can therefore make use of the single slit relation derived earlier to
determine the thickness of the hair, a measurement that would normally be
very difficult to perform.
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114
EXPERIMENT 7
7.7.2 Procedure
1. Insert the supplied slide with the human hair in the holder at the front of
the laser tube. If the hair is in the path of the laser beam, the diffraction
pattern will be observed on the screen.
2. Measure the distance between the central maximum and the first, second
and third minima on either side of the central maximum.
3. Measure the distance from the hair to the wall or screen.
4. Calculate an average value for the thickness of the hair.
5. No graphs or error analyses are required.
7.8 EXPERIMENT 7(b) ö DIFFRACTION PATTERN OF BLOOD CELLS

The spherical blood cells serve as obstacles causing diffraction of the laser
beam. The equation used for calculating the minima of the pattern consisting
of concentric rings is exactly the same as that for a circular aperture.
The exciting thing about this experiment is that we are actually going to be able
to determine the diameter of a blood cell!
7.8.1 Procedure
1. Insert the glass slide, covered by a thin layer of blood, into the holder at
the front of the laser tube. Switch the laser beam on and move the slide
until a pattern characterised by two or three dark rings is observed on the
screen, which is about 10 cm from the tube.
2. Measure the diameter of the rings and the distance from the screen to the
glass slide.
3. Calculate the diameter of a red blood cell.
4. No graphs or error analyses are required.
7.9 EXPERIMENT 7(c) ö DIFFRACTION BY A GRATING

In this experiment, we know the distance between the slits in the grating and
can determine the position of the maxima from the diffraction pattern on the
screen. What is exciting now is that we can determine the wavelength of the
laser beam without knowing anything about the laser itself. We do this by
making use of the grating equation derived earlier. (Of course, in this
experiment the wavelength of the laser beam is given and you will be able to
compare your result with this.) The geometry of the experimental setup is
shown in figure 7.15.
FIGURE 7.15: Geometry of the experiment with the diffraction grating
DIFFRACTION PATTERN OF BLOOD CELLS ^

115
7.9.1 Procedure
1. Insert the grating which produces the largest number of diffraction spots
into the holder at the front of the laser beam. The diffraction pattern can
be observed on the wall about 50 cm from the grating.
2. Determine the centre O of the pattern and measure the positions of the
maxima from O.
3. Measure the distance between the screen and the grating.
4. Draw a suitable straight line graph to determine the wavelength of the laser
beam. The number of slits per unit length of the grating is given on the grating.
5. Do a linear regression analysis of the data.
7.10 EXPERIMENT 7(d) ö ELECTRON DIFFRACTION

The apparatus is shown in Figure 7.16. Electrons, accelerated between the
cathode C and the anode A inside an evacuated glass tube G, are diffracted by
a thin piece of polycrystalline material B. The diffraction pattern is observed as
concentric circles on screen S. In this experiment you are going to actually
determine the distance between the planes of a crystal!
S A C
B
FIGURE 7.16: Electron diffraction apparatus
7.10.1 Procedure
1. Adjust the potential difference across the cathode and anode until the
concentric circles are clearly visible on the screen.
2. Calculate the wavelength of the electrons.
3. Measure the diameter of the first circle and the distance between S and B.
Repeat this for two other settings of the potential difference.
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116
EXPERIMENT 7
4. Calculate the average distance between the planes in the polycrystalline
material.

E7.1 Diffraction of sound waves is much more evident in our everyday
environment than of light waves. Why is this so?
E7.2 Why do radio waves diffract around buildings, while light waves do not?
E7.3 Two loudspeakers a metre or so apart emit pure tones of the same
frequency and loudness. When a listener walks past in a path parallel to
the line that joins the speakers, the sound is heard to alternate from
loud to soft. What is going on?
E7.4 Light illuminates two closely spaced thin slits and produces an
interference pattern on a screen behind. How will the distances
between the fringes of the pattern differ for red light compared with
blue light?
E7.5 What happens to the distance between interference fringes in the
double slit experiment if the two slits are moved farther apart?
E7.6 A pattern of fringes is produced when monochromatic light passes
through a pair of thin slits. Would such a pattern be produced by three
parallel slits? By thousands of such slits? Give an example to support
your answer.
E7.7 What is the effect on the diffraction pattern from a double slit if
(a) the distance between slits is kept unchanged and the slit width is
varied?
(b) the slit width is kept fixed and the distance between the slits is
varied?
E7.8 What is meant by coherent light? What is meant by monochromatic

light? Give examples of each.
E7.9 If a separate light source is used for each slit of a double slit diffraction
experiment, would a diffraction pattern be observed? Explain.
E7.10 State clearly De Broglie's hypothesis regarding the wave nature of
matter.
E7.11 What is the relation connecting the De Broglie wavelength , the
momentum of a particle p and Planck's constant h?
E7.12 Derive the relationship between the De Broglie wavelength of the
electrons and the accelerating voltage.
E7.13 Mention some instances in which diffraction of sound waves is
observed.
E7.14 Describe the diffraction pattern observed when a slit is illuminated by
white light.
E7.15 Is a double slit experiment a pure interference effect or a mixture of
interference and diffraction? Explain.
E7.16 How should the ratio of a=b be chosen in a double slit experiment so
that diffraction effects are negligible?

117
E7.17 In a double slit diffraction pattern the third interference maximum is
missing because it coincides with the diffraction zero (minimum). Find
the ratio a=b.
E7.18 An observer looks at a source through a grating having 364 slits per
mm. If is 550 nm how many images of the source can be seen?
Questions on the experiments

E7.19 For the single slit diffraction experiment used to determine the
thickness of a hair, the following set of data was obtained:
n Position of minimum
d (mm)
-1 3.2
1 3.0
(a) Calculate the angular position of each minimum.

(b) Now, without drawing a graph or doing linear regression, obtain
an average value for the thickness of the hair if the wavelength of
the laser beam is 632.8 nm and the distance D from the laser
beam to the screen is 30.1 cm.
E7.20 For the single slit diffraction experiment used to determine the
thickness of a hair, the following set of data was obtained:
n Position of minimum
d (mm)
-1 7.0
1 6.5
(a) Calculate the angular position of each minimum.

(b) Now, without drawing a graph or doing linear regression, obtain
an average value for the thickness of the hair if the wavelength of
the laser beam is 632.8 nm and the distance D from the laser
beam to the screen is 1 m.
E7.21 For the diffraction grating experiment, the following set of data was
obtained:
n Position of maximum
d (cm)
-3 -28.0
-2 -17.0
-1 -8.2
0 0.0
1 8.4
2 18.3
3 33.5
If the distance from the grating to the screen is D 40 cm, and the
number of slits per unit length in the grating is N 2:953 105 mÿ1 ,
(a) calculate the angular position of each maximum
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118
EXPERIMENT 7
(b) plot a graph of sin versus n, and from the slope obtain the
wavelength of the laser beam and the error in this calculation
obtained:
d (cm)
-4 -20.5
-3 -15.2
-2 -10.1
-1 -5.1
0 0.0
1 5.0
2 10.2
3 15.5
4 21.0
(a) calculate the angular position of each maximum,
(b) plot a graph of sin versus n, and from the slope obtain the
wavelength of the laser beam.
obtained:
d (cm)
-3 -43.1
-2 -25.5
-1 -12.0
0 0.0
1 12.3
2 26.2
3 45.5
(a) calculate the angular position of each maximum
(a) plot a graph of sin versus n, and from the slope obtain the
wavelength of the laser beam and the error in this calculation
E7.24 Why does the electron diffraction pattern you obtained consist of
rings? How do the radii of these rings vary with the wavelength of the
electrons?

119
eight THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
What is now proved, was once imagined.
William Blake (1757±1827)
Learning objectives
able to
1. explain the photoelectric effect

2. define the concepts
(a) work function
(b) threshold frequency
(c) stopping potential
3. use the photoelectric equation

E hf ÿ
to calculate the work function and threshold frequency from experimental
data
BACKGROUND THEORY
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The photoelectric effect was first observed around 1887, when scientists
noticed that if they shone ultraviolet light onto an electroscope, the
electroscope would discharge. This caused quite a dilemma for scientists of
the time! Their experimental results could not be explained by the wave-like
properties of light. This must have been very frustrating for them, since they
had been trying for years to prove that light is indeed a wave. Now they had
suddenly discovered something that could not be explained by their theories
that light acts like a wave! (So you see, even great scientists do not always have
all the answers!) This puzzle was to remain for another 18 years before Albert
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EXPERIMENT 8
Einstein postulated his theory, namely that light consists of little packets (or
quanta) of energy, called photons.
This idea was not very popular among his fellow scientists and it was only after
Robert Millikan proved this theory conclusively through his experiments in
1916 that the idea of light quanta was generally accepted. Einstein later
received the Nobel prize for his work in this regard.
At this stage I would like you to think for a moment about any practical
applications for the photoelectric effect. Write your down thoughts in the space
provided below and as you read through the theory (and hopefully get a better
idea of what it is all about) decide whether your applications are practical and
see if you can think of any others.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . .
Although the human eye is a wonderful organ, it cannot distinguish between
different light intensities if these intensities are very close to each other. We
sometimes need to measure light intensity, for instance when taking a photo or
making a movie, to ensure that there is enough light. (If the light intensity is
too low, we may underexpose the film and our photo will be too dark. If the
light intensity is too high, we may overexpose the film and get a photo that is
too bright.) How can we measure light intensity?
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 THE DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT

The photoelectric effect proves what we refer to as the dual nature of light. DUAL NATURE
What do we mean by this? Light can show the properties of a wave (such as OF LIGHT
diffraction and interference) in some instances, and the properties of a particle
in other instances. The photoelectric effect can only be explained by the
particle-like nature of light.
Einstein postulated that all light consists of energy quanta, or photons. When PHOTONS
light falls onto a metal surface, these photons give their energy to the electrons
of the metal. If the electrons receive enough energy from a photon, they will be We discussed dif-
able to break free from the metal, in other words electrons will be ejected from fraction and inter-
the metal surface. If the photons give just enough energy to the electrons to ference in the back-
break free, the electrons will be ejected but will have no remaining energy. If ground theory for
the photons give the electrons more energy than they need, the electrons will Experiment 7.
have extra energy once they have been ejected. This energy is in the form of
kinetic energy.
8.3 WORK FUNCTION

We indicate the minimum amount of energy needed by the loosest bound
electron to be able to break free from the metal by (in some textbooks a W is
used). We call the work function of the metal. WORK FUNCTION
If we now look at two different metals, say iron and copper, do you think that
will be the same for both metals, or different? Why do you think so?
THE DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT ^

121
. . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The answer is of course that has different values for different metals (ie is a
function of the type of metal). If we think about it we can see why this is so.
Remember that in every metal, the electrons have different bonding-energies
(energy which is needed to break their bond with the parent atom), that is in
some metals the electrons are bound tighter than in other metals (for various
reasons that we will not consider here). Therefore, for some metals we need to
give the electrons more energy to allow them to escape, while for other metals
the electrons need less energy to break their bonds and escape from the metal.
The electrons that break free with the most ease (ie which need the least
amount of energy), are the valence electrons. However, it is also possible for
other electrons in the atom to break free, but they need more energy to do so
and do not have as much kinetic energy after they have been ejected from the
metal.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 THRESHOLD FREQUENCY

Let us look now at the light we use to illuminate the metal. What properties of
the light will be important for the photoelectric effect?
There are two characteristics of light that may be important for the
photoelectric effect. The first of these is the frequency (or alternatively, the
wavelength) of the light. It has been found experimentally that for a specific
metal, light with a frequency above a certain value, f0 , could liberate electrons
from the metal. However, when the light frequency was below this cutoff value,
THRESHOLD no electrons were ejected from the metal. We call f0 the threshold frequency. As
FREQUENCY the name indicates, there is a certain threshold below which no electrons will be
ejected. Remember that the threshold frequency will be different for each
metal, because the binding-energy of the electrons differs for each metal.
Why, do you think, does the frequency play such a major role? If we think
back for a moment, we will remember that the energy of the photons is
important. If their energy is too low, no electrons will be ejected. The answer to
our question lies in this fact. Einstein said that the energy of a photon is given
by hf, where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency of the light.
(Alternatively, the energy is given by hc=, where is the wavelength and
f c=.) We can see from this relation that if the frequency is low, the energy
of the photon will also be low. If the frequency is high, the photon will have a
lot of energy. This brings us to an important relation between the work
function and the threshold frequency. The relation is given by
hf0 :
INTENSITY The second property we need to look at is the light intensity. At first scientists
thought that they could force the photoelectric effect to happen by increasing
the intensity of the light they used. (Why would they have thought so? Hint :
Think about the wave-like nature of light.) Imagine their surprise when they
saw that no matter how bright the light was, no electrons were ejected if the
frequency was below the threshold frequency. (Even if you were to shine all the
lights at Ellis Park or the FNB Stadium onto the metal, if the frequency were
too low, no electrons would be emitted!) This was not what they had expected
at all. Today we know why this is so. We have already said that the energy of a
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122
EXPERIMENT 8
photon is a function of the frequency. It is, however, not a function of the light
intensity! But, the greater the light intensity, the more photons there are. Thus
we can see that, although increasing the light intensity will not cause the
photoelectric effect to happen if the frequency is too low, it will cause more
electrons to be ejected from the metal if the frequency is high enough for the
photoelectric effect to happen.
This brings us back to my first question about the practical applications of the
photoelectric effect. Remember that we asked you how we can measure light
intensity. The answer is, of course, by making use of the photoelectric effect!
The greater the light intensity, the greater the number of electrons ejected. If
we now put our piece of metal into a circuit, we can measure the number of
electrons by measuring the current that flows through our circuit. This will
enable us to measure the intensity of the light! We call the device that we use to
measure light intensity a photometer. We can now write an equation for the PHOTOMETER
photoelectric effect:
E hf ÿ 8:1
or
hc
E ÿ 8:2

where E is the kinetic energy of the ejected electron, hf is the energy of a

photon and is the work function.
8.5 STOPPING POTENTIAL

Now that we have this equation, how can we use it to get information from our
experimental results? First we need to define a new concept, that of the
stopping potential Vs . If we want to measure the photoelectric effect, we need to STOPPING POTENTIAL
include our piece of metal in an electronic circuit. When no light shines on the
metal (cathode), no electrons will be ejected and no current will flow. If we now CATHODE
shine a light (with a high enough frequency) on the metal, electrons will be
ejected and they will move to another electrode (anode), thus completing the ANODE
circuit and we can measure the current that is flowing. However, for our
experiment we are not really interested in the value of the current, except to
know whether or not it is zero. It is easier for us to measure the stopping
potential.
If you recall the previous theory, you will remember that each electron, when
ejected, has a certain amount of surplus energy, in the form of kinetic energy.
We can now apply a potential in our circuit, so that it works against the ejected
electrons, pushing them back towards the electrode. When all the electrons are
pushed back, our current will be zero. This does not mean that the electrons
are not being ejected and that we have now somehow ``turned off'' the
photoelectric effect! The electrons are still ejected, but as they leave the metal,
we now apply a potential that pushes them back and stops them from reaching
the anode. The potential value for which we can see no more current is called
the stopping potential.
The energy of an electron is given by the equation E eV . Thus, we can see

that the stopping potential will give us the energy of the most energetic
STOPPING POTENTIAL ^
123
electrons (the ones with the most kinetic energy). If we now substitute the
electron-energy equation into equation 8.2 we get
hc
eVs ÿ : 8:3

This is the equation that we will use to interpret our experimental data.
EXPERIMENT
8.6 EXPERIMENT 8 ö THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
8.6.1 Apparatus
A schematic representation of the apparatus we use for this experiment is given
in Figure 8.1.
FIGURE 8.1: Schematic diagram of the apparatus for the photoelectric effect
In Figure 8.1 L is our light source and C is the cathode, which is where the
photo-electrons are ejected. When the electrons are ejected, they have a certain
velocity (due to their kinetic energy) and they will collect on the anode, A. This
completes our circuit and we can measure a current flowing. The anode and
cathode are enclosed in an evacuated glass tube G. There is a window made of
quartz, indicated by Q, that allows light to fall on the cathode. V is a voltmeter
(in our case we use an oscilloscope). When we do the experiment, we will apply
a potential from A to C, to push the photo-electrons back.
In Figure 8.2 you can see what the apparatus really looks like. The light source
is again indicated by L while S indicates the slides (or optical filters) that we
use. The knob indicated by V is what we use to adjust the potential until it is
equal to the stopping potential.
^
124
EXPERIMENT 8
L
FIGURE 8.2: Apparatus for the photoelectric effect
For this experiment you will receive a number of optical filters marked from 1
to 10. Each filter transmits only a narrow band of wavelengths. Table 8.1 gives
the midvalue of the wavelength band transmitted by each slide, except for slide
5. You have to determine the wavelength of slide 5 yourself, but we will come
to that later. (The wavelength that you have to use in your calculations, is the
midvalue of the transmitted wavelength band indicated in Table 8.1.)
Slide nr (nm)
1 410
2 450
3 465
4 515
5 525
6 540
7 580
8 600
9 625
10 640
11 650
TABLE 8.1: midvalues of the wavelength band of transparancies for Experiment 8
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ^

125
We do not measure the photoelectric current directly in our experiment.
CATHODE RAY Instead we look at it in an indirect manner, by using a cathode ray oscilloscope
OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO) like the one shown in Figure 8.3. The CRO in fact measures the
potential in the circuit. Thinking back to electricity, you will remember that
You can read about Ohm's law says V IR. Therefore, when the current goes to zero, so will the
Ohm's law in the potential that we observe on the oscilloscope.
background theory
for Experiment 4.
FIGURE 8.3: A cathode ray oscilloscope
Because this is probably the first time that you will be using a CRO, you may
be interested in some more information about this instrument. So before we
start on the experiment itself, let me give you a brief description of what goes
on inside CRO. Most meters used for measuring voltages and currents involve
mechanical parts. The inertia of these moving parts is much too great to permit
them to follow a very rapid variation in the applied torque. These instruments
do not measure instantaneous voltages and currents but rather average or
effective values.
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an instrument which records instantaneous

values of rapidly varying voltages. There is no mechanical moving part in the
instrument. The essential features of a cathode ray oscilloscope are shown in
Figure 8.4.
FIGURE 8.4: Essential features of the cathode ray oscilloscope
^
126
EXPERIMENT 8
The heater H heats the cathode K which emits thermionic electrons. These We discussed ther-
electrons are accelerated towards the anode A which has a cylindrical form and mionic emission in
which is maintained at a positive potential of several hundred or several the background
thousand volts with respect to the cathode. Please note that the cathode and theory for
anode we are considering here are situated in the cathode ray oscilloscope; they Experiment 5.
are not the same ones in the apparatus for the photoelectric effect that we
discussed previously. A narrow beam of electrons is guided through the anode
and eventually strikes the screen S. The screen consists of a thin layer of zinc
sulfide coated on the evacuated glass envelope of the tube. When the screen is
struck by the electrons it emits light (it fluoresces). The intensity of the light
spot, that is the intensity of the beam of electrons, is controlled by means of a
grid G placed between the cathode and the anode. Between the anode and the
screen the beam passes between two sets of plates, X and Y . Electric fields
across these plates control the horizontal and vertical deflections of the beam.
A field across the X plates produces a horizontal deflection while a field across
the vertical plates Y produces a vertical deflection. If no voltages are applied
across the deflection plates, a bright spot is observed at the centre of the screen.
Never let an excessively bright spot appear on the screen. It may burn the screen
and decrease the life of the tube. If a voltage is applied across the vertical plates
Y that makes the upper plate positive, the spot on the screen moves up. If we
make the upper plate negative, the spot moves down. If an alternating voltage
is applied, the spot will move up and down. If the frequency is higher than
about 10 Hz, the retentiveness of the screen and the observer's eye cause the
moving spot to appear as a continuous line.
If we want to study the wave shape of an applied voltage, the spot must be
moved horizontally too, so that the pattern may spread out on the screen. This
is done by connecting the horizontal deflecting plates X to a source of voltage
that rises gradually at a constant rate to a maximum and then drops suddenly
to zero. This saw-tooth shaped voltage causes the beam to move horizontally
across the screen at a uniform speed and to snap back to its starting point. This
voltage is supplied by the sweep circuit. The only condition that has to be
fulfilled is that the period of the saw-tooth voltage must be equal to the period
of the applied voltage to be studied. To make sure that the sweep frequency is
exactly the same as the frequency of the voltage being studied, it is ``locked in
step'' by means of the synchronisation. Adjusting the synchronisation properly
will keep the wave form stationary on the screen.
Why do we see a ripple (waveform) on the CRO, as illustrated in Figure 8.3? In

other words, why does the photoelectric current fluctuate, even when we are
not changing the stopping potential? Think about this for a moment and write
your thoughts down in the space provided below.
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ^

127
. . . . . . . . . . . FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
When we think about this problem, we have to remember that the lamp we use
works with alternating current. In other words, the current is continually
fluctuating in a sine-wave type of pattern. As the current fluctuates, so does the
intensity of the light, because the light intensity is proportional to the current
flowing through the filament. If the intensity fluctuates, our photoelectric
current will fluctuate too, because, although the intensity does not determine
whether or not the photoelectric effect occurs, it does determine the number of
electrons being ejected. If more electrons are ejected, our photoelectric current
will increase. Since the photoelectric current fluctuates, our signal on the CRO
will also fluctuate.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comment
There are a number of things that will cause the experimental value that
you obtain for Planck's constant to deviate from the correct one, for
instance heat from the lamp. (Why would that be a factor?) Another
problem is that with time, some of the cathode material will collect on the
anode. This means that when we move past the stopping potential, our
signal on the oscilloscope will again become bigger. The measured value
of the stopping potential will therefore be less than the real value.
However, this experiment is still very useful as a method for measuring
Planck's constant.
8.6.2 Procedure
1. Determine the stopping potential for each of the optical filters (including
number 5) at least five times.
2. Choose any one of the filters and put it in place. Now try to change the
intensity of the light. (This part is left up to your imagination. Try putting
a piece of paper or a piece of clothing between the lamp and the filter.) DO
NOT TOUCH THE LAMP, AS IT GETS VERY HOT! DO NOT TRY
TO CHANGE THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT FLOWING
THROUGH THE LAMP IN ANY WAY! Write down what you observe.
Put another filter on top of your chosen one and observe what happens.
3. Draw up a table of the stopping potentials and wavelengths.
4. Analyse your data statistically (determine the mean, standard deviation,
etc).
5. Do a linear regression analyses and then draw a straight line graph, using
the slope and y-axis values obtained from your linear regression. Indicate
the errors you calculated in step 4 using error bars on your graph.
6. Determine Planck's constant, the work function of the metal, the threshold
frequency as well as sh and s .
7. Determine the wavelength of slide 5 by using your straight line graph.
8. Explain why your answer differs from the correct value of Planck's
constant.
9. Explain what you observed in step 2.
^
128
EXPERIMENT 8

E8.1 Derive the relation between the work function and the threshold
frequency f0 given in the theory.
E8.2 How will the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons be affected if we
increase the light intensity? Answer this question by:
(a) considering the wave theory of light
(b) considering the particle theory of light
E8.3 What really happens when we increase the light intensity? Why?
E8.4 On what does the maximum kinetic energy of an ejected electron
depend?
E8.5 What do mean when we talk about the threshold frequency?
E8.6 Why do most ejected electrons end up with a smaller velocity than the
maximum velocity?
E8.7 A certain Dr A Sleep saw during his experiments that when he
illuminated a clean metal surface with ultraviolet light, electrons were
ejected only if the wavelength of the light was less than 2:93 10ÿ7 m.
(a) What is the work function (in eV) of the metal?
(b) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons if he uses a
light with wavelength 1:24 10ÿ7 m?
(c) Calculate the maximum velocity that the ejected electrons can
have. Should he use relativistic equations to calculate the velocity?
Why?
E8.8 The photometer of a cricket umpire contains a metal with a work

function of 4.67 eV. If the lights on the field are switched on, will his
reading of the light intensity be affected if the wavelength of the lights
is
(a) 3:66 10ÿ7 m?
(b) 2:57 10ÿ7 m?
Show all your calculations.
E8.9 A physics student, who also likes cricket, does not want the game to be
stopped because of bad light. After a lot of research he establishes that
the umpire's light meter will give a current reading for light with a
wavelength of 6:66 10ÿ7 m.
(a) What is the work function of the metal in the light meter?
(b) The student has borrowed two lasers from his physics lecturer,
which he intends to shine on the light meter, to increase the light
intensity reading. The frequency of the lasers are 5:1 1014 Hz and
3:25 1014 Hz respectively. What is the energy of the photons for
each of the two lasers?
(c) Will his plan work? Which laser will he have to use? Will both of
them work?
E8.10 Mr I M Rich has just bought a new alarm system to guard the safe that
contains all his money. He was very impressed when the salesman said
that the alarm system works because of the photoelectric effect.
Describe how Mr Rich's alarm system works by making use of your
knowledge of the photoelectric effect.

129
E8.11 Unfortunately for Mr I M Rich, a certain Mr I Steal, a thief, likes to
read up on physics in his spare time, and he knows all about the
photoelectric effect. Mr Steal has found out that the work function of
the metal in the photocell is 8:34 10ÿ19 J. He also knows that he can
fool the alarm by putting a light source with the correct frequency in
front of the photocell. What must the frequency of the light source be?
Can he use a light source with a lower frequency? Can he use a light
source with a higher frequency?
E8.12 If the light source in Mr I M Rich's alarm produces light with
wavelength 4 10ÿ7 m, what is the energy of the photons?
E8.13 While busy with his experiments, Prof I M Confused noticed that green
light liberates electrons from a certain metal surface, but yellow light
does not.
(a) Would you expect electrons to be ejected when he uses red light?
Why?
(b) Would you expect electrons to be ejected when he uses blue light?
Why?
E8.14 The doorbell in General Stores also makes use of the photoelectric
effect. Every time a customer enters the store, he or she crosses the path
of the light beam and a bell chimes to let the storekeeper know that he
has a customer. The work function of the metal in the detector is 5:6
eV.
(a) What is the minimum amount of energy (in J) that the photons
from the light source must have for the photoelectric effect to
occur?
(b) What must the wavelength of the light be so that the photons will
have enough energy?
E8.15 Some street lamps have photocells to measure the light intensity. When
the light intensity is below a certain value, the street lamps switch on
automatically. Red light has a wavelength of 640 nm. What will the
energy of a photon of red light be? What must the work function of the
metal be for the photocell to be able to sense the red light?
(a) What do we mean when we talk about the stopping potential?
(b) How can we use the stopping potential to determine the work
function and Planck's constant?
E8.16 Show that if the potential difference between the anode and the
cathode is kept constant, the velocity of an electron at the anode is
independent of the distance between the anode and the cathode.
E8.17 Explain how the intensity of the light spot on the screen can be
controlled by the grid G in Figure 8.4.
E8.18 Explain in detail how a cathode ray oscilloscope can be used as a
voltmeter.
E8.19 Show that the deflection of the electron beam in a cathode ray
oscilloscope is given by
d eEL L 2`= 2mv20
where E is the magnitude of the electric field between a pair of plates,

v0 is the velocity of the electron as it enters the electric field, L is the
length of the plates, ` is the distance between the plates and the screen
and m and e are the mass and charge of the electron respectively.
^
130
EXPERIMENT 8
Questions about the experiment
E8.20 Why do you think should our metal surface always be clean?
E8.21 Assume that the stopping potential for light with wavelength
4:00 10ÿ7 m is 2:22 V for a certain metal, while the stopping
potential for light with wavelength 6:00 10ÿ7 m is 1:00 V. Determine
the value of Planck's constant and the work function of the metal.
E8.22 A student doing PHY103-8 obtained the following data for the
photoelectric experiment:
Wavelength Stopping potential

(10ÿ7 m) (V)
0.8±1.0 12.4
1±2 7.5
2±4 3.0
3±5 2.2
5±7 1.1
7±9 0.57
9±11 0.20
(a) Do a linear regression analysis of the data and use the results you
obtain to draw a straight line graph.
(b) Determine the work function and the error on it.
(c) Determine the threshold frequency.
(d) Determine Planck's constant and the error on it.

(10ÿ7 m) (V)
0.8±1.0 13.5
1±2 7.4
2±4 3.4
3±5 2.8
5±7 1.7
7±9 0.98
9±11 0.60
(a) Do a linear regression analysis of the data and use the results to
plot a straight line graph.
(b) Determine the work function and the error on it.
(d) Determine Planck's constant and the error on it.

131

(10ÿ7 m) (V)
0.8±1.0 13.8
1±2 8.2
2±4 4.0
3±5 2.7
5±7 1.9
7±9 1.2
9±11 0.9
(a) Do a linear regression analysis of the data and use the results to
plot a straight line graph.
(b) Determine Planck's constant.
(d) Determine the work function.
(e) Determine the errors in h and .
^
132
EXPERIMENT 8
^
A EXPONENTS AND LOGARTHMS
EXPONENTS
For real numbers, the following rules apply to calculations with terms
containing an exponent:
an a a a:::n times
1
aÿn
an
1 p
n

an a
1 p
a1 1
a a0 1
abp ap bp
ap aq ap aq apq
ap
apÿq
aq
p p
q
p ÿpp
aq a qa
ap q apq
Logarithms
If a > 0, and an b then b > 0 for all real values of n. Then
n loga b
and we say that n is the logarithm of b to the base a. This means that n is the LOGARITHM
exponent to which the base a must be raised to give b. We can also say that
b antiloga n:
APPENDIX A ^
133
Logarithms to the base 10 are frequently used in calculations, and the base is
usually not indicated in this case. When the logarithm of a number is written as
r log s
it means that
s 10r :
Another logarithm that is often used has e 2:71828::: as base, and is known
NATURAL as a natural logarithm When we write
LOGARITHM
y loge b ln b
it means that
b ey :
The notation y ln b is generally accepted for natural logarithms.
When p, q and r are positive numbers and a 6 1, the following rules apply for
calculations involving logarithms:
loga pn n loga p
p 1
loga n
p loga p
n

1
loga ÿ loga p
p
loga 1 0
loga pq loga p loga q

p
loga loga p ÿ loga q
q
It is sometimes necessary to change the base of a logarithm. If b 6 1 and b > 0

and we want to change the base of a logarithm of p from a to b, then
logb p loga p loga b:
^
134
APPENDIX A
^
B GREEK ALPHABET
Upper case Lower case Name
A alpha
B beta
ÿ gamma
delta
E epsilon
Z zeta
H eta
theta
I iota
K kappa
lambda
M mu
N nu
xi
O o omicron
pi
P rho
sigma
T tau
upsilon
phi
X chi
psi
! omega
APPENDIX B ^
135
^
C PHYSICAL CONSTANTS AND CONVERSION FACTORS
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Speed of light c 3:00 108 m sÿ1
Gravitational constant G 6:67 10ÿ11 N m2 kgÿ2
Gas constant R 8:31 J molÿ1 Kÿ1
Avogadro's number Na 6:02 1023 molÿ1
Coulomb's constant k 9:00 109 N m2 Cÿ2
Boltzmann's constant kB 1:38 10ÿ23 J Kÿ1
Planck's constant h 6:63 10ÿ34 J s
Electron charge (magnitude) e 1:60 10ÿ19 C
Electron mass me 9:11 10ÿ31 kg
Proton mass mp 1:67 10ÿ27 kg
Bohr radius a0 5:29 10ÿ11 m
CONVERSION FACTORS
1 eV = 1.6 10ÿ19 J
1
A 10ÿ10 m
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 cal = 4.19 J
1 u = 1.66 10ÿ27 kg
180 rad
^
136
APPENDIX C
^
D MICROCOMPUTERS FOR DATA
ANALYSIS
During the practical session at Unisa, you will often have to plot a straight line
graph as part of the report you have to write for each experiment. You will be
able to use a microcomputer to perform a linear regression analysis to find the
gradient and the y-intercept of the best straight line through the data points
you obtained from the experiment. The computer program also calculates the
error in the gradient, the error in the y-intercept and the correlation coefficient
r. At the end of the calculation, a graph of your data will be displayed on the
computer screen. This serves as a preliminary graph from which you will be
able to see whether your data points are well distributed over the range of
values that is allowed by the apparatus you are using. They should not be
clustered about any one region of the graph. You will also be able to identify
doubtful points for which the measurements need to be repeated.
FIGURE D.1: A microcomputer showing the screen as it appears at the

beginning of the linear regression analysis program
137
APPENDIX D
In Figure D.1 you can see a photograph of a microcomputer showing the
screen as it appears at the beginning of the linear regression analysis program.
You can communicate with the computer (A) by typing commands on the
keyboard (B) and the computer communicates with you by asking questions,
giving commands or listing results on the screen (C). Please do not be
concerned if you have not used a computer before, because you will be given a
detailed description of the procedure you have to follow at the beginning of the
laboratory session in Pretoria.
^
138
APPENDIX D
^
E INFORMATION ABOUT THE LABORATORY SESSION
1 INTRODUCTION
The practical work module is concluded by a two week long laboratory session
at our first year laboratory on Unisa's main campus in Pretoria. As soon as the
third assignment is marked, you will be notified if you have qualified for
admission to the laboratory session. This appendix contains important
information about the laboratory session, so please study it carefully to make
sure that you know exactly what to expect when you arrive here.
Although we would very much like to invite all students to attend the
laboratory session, we feel that students who have not obtained the necessary
admission credits do not have a reasonable chance of passing the module. Since
coming to Pretoria for two weeks involves travel and accommodation
expenses, we would not like students to incur unnecessary expenses if they
are not likely to pass the module. We would like to encourage you, however, to
try your best to gain admission to the laboratory session, because it is a very
rewarding experience and we would very much like to meet you and to share
the pleasures of ``doing physics'' with you.
2 GENERAL INFORMATION
1. The laboratory session includes
^ short tests on the theoretical and practical aspects of the experiments
(see section 4)
^ the execution of experiments and the writing of experimental reports
(see section 3)
^ a written exam on the last Friday of the laboratory session (see section 5)
2. The time table for every day of the laboratory session, except the first
Monday and the last Friday, is as follows:
08:30 ± 09:00 The lecturer who is responsible for the experiment that you
will be performing on the particular day discusses the
experiment in a short lecture.
09:00 ± 09:15 The writing of a short test that covers both theoretical and
practical aspects of the experiment that you will be
executing during the day.
09:15 ± 12:15 Execution of the experiment in the laboratory.
12:15 ± 13:00 Lunch
13:00 ± 15:45 Writing of the report. You have to submit your report at
the end of this period.
APPENDIX E ^
139
3. The program for the first Monday is as follows:
08:30 ± 15:45 This day is used for orientation, which includes a lecture in
the which you will be given all the necessary information
about the procedures to be followed during the laboratory
session.
4. SMOKING IS NOT ALLOWED in the laboratory or any seminar room.
3 EXECUTION OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Information on the experiments, laboratories and the lecturers respon-
sible will be given in a special tutorial letter which you will receive before
you come to the laboratory session.
2. You should review all the material covered in manual 1 before you come
to the laboratory. Please pay special attention to study unit 16 on Hints on
how to plot graphs and topic 4 on Planning an experiment and writing a
report.
3. The time table for the execution of the experiments will be given to you on
the first Monday of the laboratory session. Each student will be given a
laboratory number to use for the two weeks, and the sequence in which
you will be doing the experiments will correspond with this number. If
this sounds confusing, please do not worry. It will all be explained in
detail during the orientation lecture on the first Monday.
4. The lecturers responsible for each experiment will be available to assist
you and to discuss the theoretical and practical aspects of the experiments
with you.
5. Since the time available for performing an experiment and writing a
report is limited, it is very important that you are well prepared for each
experiment. Remember that you will write a short test on all aspects of the
experiment before you perform it in the laboratory. This means that you
have to PREPARE yourself for each experiment before you execute it. You
can do this by studying the background theory that applies to each
experiment as well as the information about the apparatus and the
instructions for the experiment in manuals 2.
6. Although you will be working in groups of two or three when you are
performing the experiments, we expect you to process and interpret your
results individually. The lecturers who mark your reports will be very strict
about this, so do not be tempted to ``collaborate'' with your fellow
students!
7. You will be given examination books and graph paper for the writing of
reports every day. It is not necessary to buy a laboratory book.
8. All measurements must be written down immediately, directly and in ink
in your examination book.
9. Start to process your results immediately after you have completed the
practical part of the experiment, that is once you have taken all the
readings and gathered all the data you need. Microcomputers are
available for the linear regression analyses of data. Lecturers will be
available to help you with any problems that you may encounter.
Remember to keep your report accurate, complete and clear.
10. You should submit the completed report to the lecturer responsible before
15h45 on the day that the experiment was executed (excluding the first
Monday). During the course of the following morning the lecturer will
discuss your marked report with you.
^
140
APPENDIX E
4 SHORT TESTS
The short tests that you will be writing every day may consist of multiple-
choice questions that you have to answer on the question sheet by selecting and
circling the most correct of the given number of alternatives.
Example:
Say question 1 of a test reads as follows:
1. A SPACE SHUTTLE IS ORBITING THE EARTH IN A UNIFORM

CIRCULAR MOTION.
(A) THERE ARE NO FORCES ACTING ON THE SHUTTLE.
(B) THE SHUTTLE IS BEING ACCELERATED TOWARDS THE
CENTRE OF THE EARTH.
(C) THE SHUTTLE IS BEING ACCELERATED AWAY FROM THE
EARTH.
(D) THE SPEED OF THE SHUTTLE IS CONSTANT.
(E) THE VELOCITY OF THE SHUTTLE IS CONSTANT.
The possible answers to this question are indicated as follows:
1:(A) 2:(B) 3:(B)+(D) 4:(C) 5:(D) 6:(E) 7: NONE OF THESE.
From these possible answers, you have to select and circle the most correct
alternative.
The given example could be marked as follows:
1: -1 mark, 2: 1 mark, 3: 2 marks, 4: -1 mark, 5: 1 mark, 6: -1 mark, 7: 0 marks.
The most correct answer (3) earns 2 out of a possible 2 marks for the question.
The results of the tests will be displayed on a notice board in the laboratory
every day as soon as they have been marked.
5 WRITTEN EXAM
The laboratory session is ended by a written exam on the last Friday of the
laboratory session. This exam will cover all aspects of the practical work
module.
6 ACCOMMODATION
Students are responsible for all arrangements concerning their accommodation
and transport during the course.
7 FINAL MARK FOR PHY 103-8

The final mark for the practical work module PHY103-8 is made up as follows:
1. Experimental work and writing of reports: 40%

2. Short tests: 20%
3. Written exam: 40%.
^
APPENDIX E
141
8 MAPS
^
142
APPENDIX E
APPENDIX E ^
143

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PHYSICS

Study Guide 2 for

Physics Practical Work 1

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Page layout by the Department

Experiment 1 Linear air track 1

Experiment 2 Rotational motion 19

Experiment 3 Simple harmonic motion 35

Experiment 4 Electrical measurements 56

Experiment 5 Charged particle in a uniform magnetic field 79

Experiment 6 Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor 90

EXPERIMENTS ON OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS

Experiment 8 The photoelectric effect 120

Appendix A: Exponents and Logarthms 133

A schematic presentation of first the contents of the module is given on page

2 THE CONTENTS OF THIS MANUAL

The procedure for each experiment is given in a stepwise fashion, and

3 HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL

3.1 Learning objectives

^ making careful observations of physical quantities for experimental

This icon indicates an activity

3.4 Worked examples

3.5 Margins and margin notes

^ work through the material once

We are looking forward to meeting you.

STUDY MATERIAL INCLUDED IN MANUAL 2 ^

Benedictus de Spinoza (1632±1677)

1. apply the following concepts in an experimental situation:

LINEAR AIR TRACK ^

1.2 ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION

1.2.1 Kinetic energy

1.2.2 Potential energy

(where g describes the gravitational acceleration at the earth's surface).

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it may be transformed from one

Mechanical energy  EK  EP : 1:3

ENERGY AND ITS CONSERVATION ^

1.3 MOMENTUM AND ITS CONSERVATION

1.3.1 Defining momentum

It is important to note that momentum is a vector, that is it has magnitude as

1.4 NEWTON'S LAWS

Newton's second law is best encapsulated in the form of an equation: NEWTON'S

where F~ represents the resultant force acting on a body, m represents the

3. What is the reaction force to the weight of the soap F~SE ?

1.5 THE APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

1.5.1 The linear air track

FIGURE 1.2: Linear air track

FIGURE 1.3: Glider

1.5.3 Photogate Timers

THE APPARATUS FOR STUDYING MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE ^

1. Timing mode: GATE

1.6 MEASURING VELOCITIES

1. What do the photogate, timers and ``flags'' have to do with measuring

1.7 PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING THE APPARATUS

PRECAUTIONS WHEN HANDLING THE APPARATUS ^ 9

1.8 LEVELLING THE AIR TRACK

FIGURE 1.5: Exaggerated shape of the track

The glider leaves the one end with an initial velocity ~

FIGURE 1.6: End of the air track

ANALYSIS OF THE FLATNESS OF THE AIR TRACK ^

1.10 EXPERIMENT 1(b) ö DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF

FIGURE 1.7: Tilted air track

The coefficient of restitution is therefore given by

1.11 EXPERIMENT 1(c) ö COLLISIONS

Mechanical energy EK EP : 1:3

v2x v2ox 2ax x

E1.10 A mass m1 is given an initial velocity v0 while mass m2 6 m1 is