International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology (IJARET)

Volume 11, Issue 11, November 2020, pp. 2293-2300, Article ID: IJARET_11_11_228
Available online at https://iaeme.com/Home/issue/IJARET?Volume=11&Issue=11
ISSN Print: 0976-6480 and ISSN Online: 0976-6499
DOI: 10.34218/IJARET.11.11.2020.228

© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed

ASTRONOMY IN ANCIENT INDIA: AN

INTROSPECTIVE STUDY
Avinandan Krishna Mandal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3rd Year Students,
Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

ABSTRACT
The intellectual achievements of ancient India lay scattered across several fields of
study texts ranging from the Vedas and the Upanishads to a whole range of scriptural
scientific and artistic sources. In ancient India, the development of knowledge in
scientific disciplines like Astronomy, arithmetic, algebra, medicine, chemistry, biology
were the results of meticulously accurate observations of natural phenomena. The
contribution of ancient India in this field was not well documented but it is known to
many prominent astronomers and physicists in the world. India stood in the highest
position in the Vedic period. The objective of the study is to search the enrichment in
Astronomy in ancient India. This study is a descriptive type of research based on
secondary data gathered from ancient books, epics like Upanishad, Srimad Bhagavad
Gita, articles, websites and web-based journals.
Key words: Intellectual achievements, Vedas, Upanishads, Vedic period, Natural
phenomena.
Cite this Article: Avinandan Krishna Mandal, Astronomy in Ancient India: An
Introspective Study, International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and
Technology, 11(11), 2020, pp. 2293-2300.
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1. INTRODUCTION
The knowledge of Astronomy is found mostly in Sanskrit in the shape of Shloka in Vedas,
Vishnu Purana, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Srimad Bhagavad Gita, and so many epics. In India,
all scientific information is imbibed in routine life by explaining them through mythological
Stories. Through tradition or custom, all scientific truths are brought to the stage of
implementation in day-to-day life. During the period 2500 BCE and 500 CE, the Astronomy of
ancient India formed several treatises in India. The different applications of Astronomy are
observed in Rig Veda written in 2000 BCE in India. Astronomy was linked with Astrology in
ancient India in the forecasting of horoscopes. It is still continuing today. The Astronomy and
the Astrology of India were based upon sidereal calculations. Astronomical principles were
applied (i) to calculate the occurrences of eclipses, (ii) to determine the Earth's circumference,
(iii) to explain the sun as a star, and the number of planets in the solar system. In the ancient

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 Astronomy in Ancient India: An Introspective Study

Indian language, the Astronomy was called Khagola Shastra. The word Khagola perhaps was
derived from the famous astronomical observatory of the Nalanda University at Khagola, where
the famous Indian astronomer, Aryabhatta studied and extended the subject in the 6th century.
[6]

Objective: The objective of the study is to search the enrichment of ancient India in Astronomy.

2. METHOD AND MATERIALS

This study is a descriptive type in nature based on secondary sources of ancient astronomical
works in ancient India.
Sources of Data: The data of secondary sources are collected from ancient books, epics like
Upanishad, Srimad Bhagavad Gita, articles, websites, and web-based journals published at
different times.
Analysis: The different materials collected from the different sources have been scrutinized,
verified and set up systematically under appropriate heading to hold requisite presentation and
conclusion.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. The Universe: Lord Krishna showed the solar system, galaxy, and the whole universe (Virat
Roop) while bestowing Srimad Bhagavad Gita to Arjuna (3rd brother of Panch Pandava) and
also said about the existence of the universe where there are countless numbers of galaxies. He
gave Divya Drishti (Super eyes) and power to Arjuna because he with limited capabilities of
the material body could not see or hear or feel Lord Krishna’s teachings. It is one kind of
subatomic particle’s trajectory. This is because they are trying to observe something that is of
the same scale as the photons they are using to observe it. In the 1920′s Werner Heisenberg
(1901-1976) formulated his famous uncertainty principle, which states when a physicist
attempts to observe a subatomic particle, the experimental apparatus inevitably alters the
subatomic particle’s trajectory. Many mysterious functions of the universe and planets in the
solar system were discussed in our Srimad Bhagavad Gita before 5500 years. Again many
inexplicable things in the universe were explained in Veda also. [7]
The ancient Indian Vedic philosophy propounded the life-cycles of the universe. It stated
that the universe undergoes an infinite number of deaths and rebirths. According to Sagan, [1]
one cycle runs from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of the Brahma. One day and
night of the Brahma is equal to 8.64 billion human years age of the Earth or the Sun. Aryabhata
in the 6th century came up with this awesome achievement, apparently, there was a
mythological angle to this as well. It becomes clear from the Srimad Bhagavad Gita (Part VIII
lines 16 and 17), where Lord Krishna said, "All the planets of the universe, from the most
evolved to the most base, are places of suffering, where birth and death takes place. But for the
soul that reaches my Kingdom, O son of Kunti, there is no more reincarnation. One day of
Brahma is worth a thousand of the ages (yuga) known to humankind; same as-is for each night".
In other words, the four ages (yuga) of the maha yuga must be repeated a thousand times to
make a "day of Brahma", a unit of time that is the equivalent of 4.32 billion human years,
doubling which one gets 8.64 billion years for a day and night of Brahma. This was later
theorized (possibly independently) by Aryabhata in the 6th century. This is also supported by
Einstein’s Time Dilation Theory. The formula of Time dilation of Einstein is shown here.

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 Avinandan Krishna Mandal

Where: t′ = Time duration in space

t = Time duration on the earth
V = Speed with which the universe is expanding
C = Speed of light
The cyclic of nature of this analysis suggests a universe that is expanding to be followed by
contraction, a cosmos without end. This, according to modern physicists, is not impossibility.
[8]
The same theory of the universe said by Lord Krishna in Srimad Bhagavad Gita 5500 years
ago has been shown by Einstein with a sophisticated formula.
2. The Nine Planets (Navagrahas): The Indians were worshiping the ‘Navagrahas’ (Nine
planets) of the solar system, when the rest of the world did not know about planet. Worshipping
the ‘Navagrahas’ by the Indians in 5500 BCE remains an inherent aspect of our tradition. The
influences of the stars, planets and other celestial bodies of the cosmos on our existence are
undeniable. It is believed that the ‘Navagrahas’ have a profound impact throughout our life
time. Planetary positions and conjunctions at a given point in time can create, support and
disrupt harmony in nature. Jyotisha-shastram, an important branch of Vedic studies also known
as a Vedanga is a comprehensive study of how the various elements of the cosmos and their
interplay affect our lives, individually and collectively. Seven of the nine planets are linked to
the seven days of the week as per the Indian calendar and are also worshipped individually on
these days. Stories and descriptions about the Navagrahas as well as their impact are found
throughout our epics such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and Puranas. In situations
where particular planet is found to have negative influences, suitable remedial measures are
suggested including worship of the planet on the corresponding day of the week.[9] The ancient
Indian discovered the shape of Earth as spherical and the Earth moves/revolves round the Sun
while others were busy claiming earth is flat. But now, the people of the rest of the world who
laughed at Indians are agreeing that ancient India was the hub of knowledge.
3. Age of Earth: Our ancient Srimad Bhagavad Gita estimated the age of earth as 4,320 million
(4.32 billion) years. Carbon-dating undertaken some decades ago put the age of the earth at
5,000 million years. There is a little variation in computation of Srimad Bhagavad Gita before
5540 years.[10] Manusmriti, a sacred book of ancient India says that the earth is more than 4
billion human years. Science says, it is 4.54 billion human years approximately. Geologist
Holmes said, “Long before it became a scientific aspiration to estimate the age of the earth,
many elaborate systems of the world chronology had been devised by the sages of antiquity.
The most remarkable of these occult time-scales is that of the ancient Hindus, whose
astonishing concept of the Earth’s age has been traced back to Manusmriti, a sacred book”. [7]
4. Duration of Year: According to the Rig Veda, the year was divided into 12 months and
again, each month was divided into 30 days, i.e., the year was divided into 360 days. For every
5 years, two intercalary periods were added to bring the calendar back in line with the solar
year so as to ensure a year of 366 days. Again, four days were deducted in every five years, and
thus, the Indian astronomers constantly tweaked and adjusted their calendars over the millennia.
Some other astronomers also enumerated the sidereal year through their own mathematical
techniques and astronomical equipment. This is discussed below. [11]
(i) Yajnavalkya calculated the average length of the tropical year as 365.24675 days based on
his heliocentric model in the 9th–8th century BCE. He mentioned it in his astronomical text
titled, ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’. His calculated value is only 6 minutes and 33.98 seconds more

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 Astronomy in Ancient India: An Introspective Study

than the modern value of 365.24219 days. His estimated value remained the most accurate
anywhere in the world over a thousand years. [11]
(ii) As per Surya Siddhanta written in 800 CE, the duration of sidereal time in regard of
Earth’s revolution around the Sun is 365.2563789 days. It is only 1.4 seconds longer than the
modern value of 365.2563627 days. This was the most accurate calculation of duration of
sidereal time anywhere in the world over a thousand years.
(iii) Rishi Bhaskaracharya was born in 1114 CE. He was the head of the astronomical
observatory at Ujjain till his death in 1185 CE. He wrote a text titled ‘Siddhanta Siromani’ in
1150 CE at the age of 36 years on planetary positions, eclipses, cosmography, mathematical
techniques and astronomical equipments. His astronomical equipments were divided into two
parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (Mathematics of the planets). He calculated the
time taken by the Earth to orbit the sun up to 9 decimal places before hundreds of years of the
modern astronomers. It was 365.258756484 days. [6] [12]
Now the above values are compared with the modern values in Table-1 shown below.

Table 1 Time of the Earth to orbit the Sun as per Shatapatha Brahmana, Surya Siddhanta and
Siddhanta–Siromani
Old Computation Modern Computation Variation
Yajnavalkya’s ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ in 9th–8th century BC
365.24675 days for a tropical 365.24219* days for a tropical 0.00456 day i.e., 6 minutes 33.98
year year Seconds more in ‘Shatapatha
Brahmana’
Lata’s ‘Surya Siddhanta’ in 800 CE
365.2563789 days 365.2563627 days 0.0000162 days i.e. 1.40 seconds more
in ‘Surya Siddhanta’
Rishi Bhaskaracharya’s ‘Siddhanta–Siromani’ in 1150 CE
365.258756484 days 365.2563627 days (0.002393784) day i.e., 3 minutes
(365 days 6 hours 9 minutes 26.82 seconds more in ‘Siddhanta–
9.73728 seconds) Siromani’
Source: Shatapatha Brahmana, Surya Siddhanta and Siddhanta–Siromani and Modern
Computation.[13]
Findings of Table-1: In the three ancient and oldest astronomical treatises on the duration of
the earth to orbit the sun, it is observed that in ancient time the measurement of year by the
three astronomers were near about correct. In Yajnavalkya’s ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ in 9th–8th
century BC, 6 minutes 33.98 seconds are more than that of modern measurement in a year. In
Lata’s ‘Surya Siddhanta’ in 800 CE, only 1.40 seconds were more in a year. In Rishi
Bhaskaracharya’s ‘Siddhanta–Siromani’ in 1150 CE, 3 minutes 26.82 seconds were more in a
year. The duration of a year in ‘Surya Siddhanta’ is more accurate.
5. Eclipses of the Sun and the Moon: Brahmagupta was born in 598 CE. He was the head of
the astronomical observatory at Ujjain. He wrote a text on Astronomy titled ‘Brahmasphuta
Siddhanta’ in 628. He was the first to use algebra to solve astronomical problems. He died in
668 CE. During his life time, he developed the methods of calculation of motions of various
planets, their locations, their rising and setting, their conjunctions and the time of eclipses of
the Sun and the Moon. [6]
6. Distance of Sun and Moon from the Earth: (i) Yajnavalkya (9th–8th century BC)
recognized that the Earth is spherical in shape and the Sun is situated at the centre of the solar
system as it had been described in the Vedas and Srimad Bhagavad Gita. He wrote a book on
Astronomy titled ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’, where he stated, “The sun strings these worlds – the
earth, the planets, the atmosphere to himself on a thread ” (8.7.3.10). He accurately measured

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 Avinandan Krishna Mandal

the relative distances of the Sun and the Moon from the Earth as 108 times the diameters of
these heavenly bodies, almost close to the modern measurements of 107.6 for the Sun and 110.6
for the Moon. [11] Yajnavalkya’s Measurements of the distance of the Sun and the Moon from
the Earth compared with modern measurements are shown in Table-2 below.

Table-2 Comparison between Yajnavalkya’s Measurement and Modern Measurement for the Distance
of Sun and Moon from the Earth
Heavenly Diameter Distance from Earth as per Distance from the Difference in
Body Yajnavalkya’s measurement Earth as per modern Yajnavalkya’s
= Diameter × 108 instrument measurement
Sun 1392680 km 150409440 km 1392680 km× 107.6 = 557072 more
149852368 km
Moon 3474.2 km 375213.6 km 3474.2 km × 110.6 = 9032.92 less
384246.52 km
Source: Yajnavalkya’s Treatise ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ (8.7.3.10) and Modern Measurement
Findings of Table-2: Yajnavalkya calculated the distance of the Sun and of the Moon from the
Earth in (9th - 8th century) BC. It is unbelievable to the rest of the world when there was no
modern instrument. His calculation is accurate to the modern measurement with slightly more
in the distance of the Sun and slightly less in the distance of the Moon from the Earth. It shows
how the ancient Indians developed the knowledge of Astronomy.
(ii) Hanuman Challisa: As per Hanuman Challisa (Prayer of Hindus) the distance between the
Earth and the Sun is shown below. Hanuman challisa was written by Goswami Tulasidas (born
15th century). Two lines of the Hindu prayer Hanuman Chalisa compute this distance with great
simplicity.
जुगसहस्त्रयोजनपरभानु, लील्योताहहमधुरफलजानू
This means that the Sun (भानु) is at a distance of yuga sahastra yojanas (जुगसहस्त्रयोजन–Unit
of distance in Sanskrit/Hindi).
According to the following conversion practices that are in use as per Hindu Vedic literature:
1 yuga = 12000 celestial years
1 sahastra = 1000
1 yojana = 8 Miles
Total Distance = yuga × sahastra × yojana = parabhanu miles from the Earth to Sun.
Total Distance = 12,000 × 1000 × 8 miles = 96,000,000 miles from the Earth to Sun
Or, Total Distance in kms = (96,000,000 miles × 1.6) kms = 153,600,000 kms from the Earth
to the Sun (as 1 mile = 1.6 kms).
The earth moves in an elliptical orbit around the sun, so there will be slight variation
depending on the season. The distance between the Sun and earth had been calculated much
more accurately than the 17th century scientists even before 2 centuries. The Question here is
how Tulsidas calculated this distance or how he is able to know about this distance. We also
have to observe that the people of that age had more knowledge, capabilities and much more
advanced technology that is beyond the imagination of our present day technologies. [14]
7. Diameter and Duration of Revolution of Planets around the Sun: The Surya Siddhanta,
a Sanskrit treatise is one of the several astronomical studies in ancient India composed or
revised in 8th century CE from an earlier text. According to al-Biruni, the Persian scholar and
polymath in the 11th Century, a text named the Surya Siddhanta was written by Lata. It was a
palm-leaf manuscript. The text described the methods how to compute the motion of planets

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 Astronomy in Ancient India: An Introspective Study

and the Moon in respect of various constellations, and how to calculate the diameter and the
orbit of various celestial bodies. The treatise predicted reasonably accurate. Some contributions
of this text in astronomical field are shown below in Table-3.

Table 3 Astronomical calculations: Computation of diameter and Duration of revolution of Planet

around the Sun as per Surya Siddhanta

Computation Surya Siddhanta Modern Variation

Computation of Diameter
Computation of the 87.7 miles less in Surya
7,840 miles 7,927.7 miles
Earth's diameter Siddhanta
Computation of the 240 miles more in Surya
2,400 miles 2,160 miles
Moon’s diameter Siddhanta
Computation the 252, 710 miles 290 miles more in Surya
distance between the 253,000 miles (Vary: 221,500–252,710 Siddhanta
moon and the earth miles)
Duration of Revolution of Planet around the Sun (Orbit)
87 days, 23 hours, 87 days, 23 hours, 15 38.4 seconds more in
Budha (Mercury)
16 mins, 22.3 secs mins, 43.9 secs Surya Siddhanta
224 days, 16 hours, 224 days, 16 hours, 49 3 minutes 12.80 Sec. less
Shukra (Venus)
45 mins, 56.2 secs mins, 8.0 secs in Surya Siddhanta
686 days, 23 hours, 686 days, 23 hours, 30 25 minutes 42.10 Sec.
Mangala (Mars)
56 mins, 23.5 secs mins, 41.4 secs more in Surya Siddhanta
4,332 days, 7 hours, 4,332 days, 14 hours, 2 6 hours 20 mins 24.20 sec.
Bṛhaspati (Jupiter)
41 mins, 44.4 secs mins, 8.6 secs less in Surya Siddhanta
10,765 days, 18 13 hours16 mins 41.40 sec.
10,759 days, 5 hours, 16
Shani (Saturn) hours, 33 mins, 13.6 more in Surya Siddhanta
mins, 32.2 secs
secs
Source: Astronomical treatise ‘Surya Siddhanta’ in the 8th century.[2] [3] [5] [15] [16]
Findings of Table-3: The oldest astronomical treatises ‘Surya Siddhanta’ computed the
diameters of the earth, moon and the distance between the moon and the earth in the 8th century
CE without the use of modern instruments, which vary a slightly in comparison to modern
computation. The computations of duration of revolution of Planets around the Sun were also
correct with slightly variation. The treatises ‘Surya Siddhanta’ has been taken now as guidance
in astronomical filed.
8. Division of Day: Brihath Sathaka lived at Ujjain of Madhya Pradesh in the 6th century. He
divided the time of a day into 60 kalas. Each kala was equal to 24 minutes. [Total Minutes of a
day = (60 × 24) minutes =1440 minutes. Total Hours of a Day = (1440 ÷ 60) hours = 24 hours].
The smallest unit of time (3 × 10-8 second) is astonishingly close to the life-spans of certain
mesons. The age of the universe is 8.64 billion years. Both figures are fairly equal to the modern
day measurements. [5]

4. REMARKS
1. Maximum astronomical study was developed in the Vedic period when the human in the rest
of the world believed that the sun moves around the earth. The truth has been discovered by
Copernicus in the 16th century and Galileo in 17th century.

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 Avinandan Krishna Mandal

2. Most of the astronomical calculations in ancient India were nearby accurate when there were
no modern instruments.
3. The information of nine planets in the solar system was first discovered by the ancient
Indians.
4. Most of the intelligent persons were Brahmin (higher caste). They lived either in temple or
in Gurukul (School in ancient time). The Muslim ruler demolished most of the temples and
educational institutions and converted some of them into mosque.
4. The Nalanda University founded in the 5th century CE at Rajgir (Bihar), the world’s most
ancient university, where many foreign students studied, was an international university of
worldwide reputation destroyed and burnt by Marauding Turkish force led by Bakhtiyar Khalji
at the end of the 12th century. The oldest university in the world was Takshashila (Taxila)
University established around 1000 BCE at Taxila in Pakistan. Both the two universities were
the oldest universities not only in ancient India but also in the world and both were the centre
of higher learning especially in Astronomy.
5. The human civilization of other parts of the world came to know about the enriched
astronomical studies in ancient India. Some studies were carried by foreign invaders and
translated into many languages. Some astronomical studies of ancient India might have been
documented in their name or the ancient Indian astronomical studies are utilized as the source
of their success. If their astronomical studies are enquired, then it may be seen that the source
of their studies were the origin in ancient India.

5. CONCLUSION
Ancient India definitely was the centre of Astronomy. India could reach at the highest position
of development in the world if a separate school of ancient knowledge would have been set up
immediately after independence. The main function of this school would be to search, utilize
and preserve the ancient knowledge with the help of Sanskrit language specialists as most of
the scripts were written in Sanskrit language in our ancient religious books such as, Purana,
Vedas, Upanishad, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other epics. The subject specialist would try
to explain the Sutra (Law) and its application. Our glory has hidden in our past, which might
be brought in to light with some innovative ideas to restore our lost position. In support of
ancient Indian knowledge, the opinions of Albert Einstein, (prominent scientist of 20th century)
are:
• We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile
scientific discovery could have been made. - Albert Einstein.[4]
• When I read the Srimad Bhagavad Gita and reflect about how God created this universe,
everything else appears superfluous. - Albert Einstein. [4]
Commitment: I would not like to hurt any person. If any gentle person wants to verify the
truth, he/she can do with the help of the following references.
Dedication: I have dedicated this article in the name of Lord Sri Krishna, Who governs the
universe and enlightens the whole world through His science.
Acknowledgment: I acknowledge the suggestions of Dr. Ram Krishna Mandal, Associate
Professor, Department of Economics, Dera Natung Govt. College, Itanagar, India.

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 Astronomy in Ancient India: An Introspective Study

REFERENCES
[1] C. Sagan (1980). Cosmos. Ballantine Books, New York.

[2] Ebenezer Burgess, P. Ganguly, P. Sengupta (ed.) (1989). Surya-Siddhanta: A Text-book of

Hindu astronomy. Motilal Banarsidass (Reprint), Original: Yale University Press, American
Oriental Society. pp. 26–27.

[3] Richard L. Thompson (2007). The Cosmology of the Bhagavad Purana. Motilal Banarsidass.
pp. 16, 76–77, 285–294.

[4] Singh, Dilbaag (nd): “Indian Treasure of Knowledge: Through the Ages” accessed from
https://www.academia.edu/4992138 dated 07.07.2020

[5] Vidya, R. (2001): “Science in India: Past, Present and Future”, November 18, 2001
(www.folk.uio.no/ravindrv)

[6] https://www.crystalinks.com/indiastronomy.html (accessed on 24.07.2020)

[7] https://pparihar.com/2017/05/22/modern-inventions-stolen-from-the-vedas/

[8] https://www.cerc.utexas.edu/~jay/anc.html (accessed on 24.07.2020)

[9] https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Culture/Indian-Culture/Worshipping-the-NAVAGRAHAS--
1.aspx

[10] http://metasci.tripod.com/oldindia.html by Robert Priddy, Retired Professor of History of

Philosophy at University of Oslo.

[11] https://pparihar.com/2015/01/30/2954/

[12] (https://magnificentmaharashtra.wordpress.com/2015/01/16/bhaskaracharyas-law-of-gravity-
discovered-1200-years-before-newton/).

[13] www.google.com/search?q=what+is+tropical+year&oq=what+is+tropical+year

[14] https://www.indiadivine.org/distance-between-sun-and-earth-is-mentioned-in-hanuman-
chalisa-an-ancient-prayer/

[15] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Siddhanta

[16] https://pparihar2011.files.wordpress.com/

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