This basic music theory guide looks at fundamental concepts musicians use to understand,

analyze, and create music.

What is Music Theory?

Music theory is a practice musicians use to understand and communicate the language of music.
Musical theory examines the fundamentals of music. It also provides a system to interpret musical
compositions.

For example, basic music theory defines the elements that form harmony, melody, and rhythm. It
identifies compositional elements such as song form, tempo, notes, chords, key signatures,
intervals, scales, and more. It also recognizes musical qualities such as pitch, tone, timbre, texture,
dynamics, and others.

How to Learn Music Theory?

Music theory is a complex and extensive subject.
There are several practices, disciplines, and concepts.

Best to learn music fundamentals first before exploring advanced music theory. The building
blocks that form musical compositions include:

• Melody
• Rhythm
• Harmony

Solidly understanding these three core elements will help you learn basic music theory.

What Is Melody in Music?

Melody is a succession of notes or voices arranged into a musical phrase. A song’s melody is often
the most memorable and recognizable part.

Melodies can be created with instruments or vocals. They have two or more notes in a sequence
that sound musically pleasing. Most compositions consist of multiple melodies that repeat.

The two primary elements of a melody are pitch and rhythm:

• Pitch is the audio vibration produced by an instrument or voice. It’s how high or low a
note will sound. Arranging these pitches in a series creates a melody.
• Rhythm or duration is the length each pitch will sound. These durations are divided into
beat divisions like whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, triplets, etc.

In the world of music, you may encounter different names for the many notes used.

The U.S. and U.K. (Europe) standard terms differ, but the US names — which were originally
translated from the German names for the notes because so many German composers immigrated
to the United States in the 19th century — are more universally standard. The U.K. (Europe)
names are also used in medieval music and in some classical circles.

The following table shows the common notes and their U.S. and Europe names.

i
 U.S. Note Name Note Europe Note Name

Double whole Breve

Whole Semibreve

Half Minim

Quarter Crotchet

Eighth Quaver

Sixteenth Semiquaver

Thirty-second Demisemiquaver

Extending notes with dots and ties

All notes have a certain value, indicated by the size and shape of the note, that determines how
long a pitch should be held by the voice or an instrument. Sometimes, however, you want to add
to the value of a note to create syncopation or other interest in your musical piece.

You can extend a note’s value in written music using dots and ties. Here’s the lowdown on each:

• Augmentation dot: This dot indicates that a note’s value is increased by one half of its
original value. The most common use of the dotted note is when a half note is made to last
three quarter-note beats instead of two, as shown in the figure. Less common is the dotted
whole note. This dotted note means the whole note’s value is increased from four beats to
six beats.

ii
 • Tie: Ties connect notes of the same pitch to create one sustained note instead of two
separate ones. When you see a tie, simply add the notes together. For example, a quarter
note tied to another quarter note equals one note held for two beats, as shown in the
figure.

What Is Rhythm in Music?

Rhythm is an essential element of music with more than one meaning. For example:

• Rhythm is a recurring movement of notes and rests (silences) in time.

It’s the human perception of time.
• Rhythm also describes a pattern of strong and weak notes or voices that repeat throughout
a song. These patterns can be created with drums, percussion, instruments, and vocals.

The basic elements that comprise musical rhythm include:

• Beat – A repeating pulse that underlies a musical pattern

• Meter – A specific pattern of strong and weak pulses
• Time Signature – The number of beats per measure
• Tempo (BPM) – Indicates how fast or slow a piece of music plays
• Strong and Weak Beats – Strong beats are the downbeats, and weak
beats are the offbeats between the downbeats
• Syncopation – Rhythms that accent or emphasize the offbeats
• Accents – Refers to the intensity or emphases placed on notes

Understanding rhythm will help you create great harmonies and melodies.

Also, the rhythm section or pulse propels a piece of music. It acts as the rhythmic backbone for
other musical elements.

What Is Harmony in Music?

Harmony is when multiple notes or voices play simultaneously to produce a new sound. The
combined sounds in harmonies complement one another and sound pleasing.

iii
Chords and chord progressions are examples of harmony. A chord has three or more notes that
play at the same time. The chords and chord progressions in a piece of music support or
complement the melody.

Combining vocal parts also creates harmony. The combined voices of a choir are a perfect
example. The multiple voices that make up a choir blend to make a harmonious sound.

However, not all harmonies are pleasing to our ear.

There are two main types of harmony: dissonant and consonant.

• Dissonant harmony adds notes that do not sound pleasant when played together. The
result adds tension and makes the chord sound unstable. This tension releases by resolving
to consonant chords. Dissonant interval examples are seconds, sevenths, and ninths.
• Consonant harmony sounds stable and pleasing. All the notes in a consonant chord have
intervals that play nicely together. Constant chords also transition smoothly with one
another in a progression. Consonant interval examples are unison, thirds, fifths, and
octaves.

Musicians combine consonant and dissonant harmonies to make the music more exciting and
intriguing.

Note: Musical theory is not a set of rules or guidelines you must follow. It’s only a tool to help you
understand and explain how music works.

The Fundamentals of Music

This basic music theory for beginner’s guide examines the core music fundamentals. It also
provides insight into the basic building blocks of music that form harmony, melody, and rhythm.

Musical Notes and Intervals

This section describes all the available notes and the specific relationships between them.

The Music Alphabet

Notes are the building blocks for all music. The musical alphabet consists of seven letters: A, B, C,
D, E, F, G. Each note has a unique pitch.

iv
The 12 Keys of Music

There are 12 notes on the piano keyboard: A, A#/B♭, B, C, C#/D♭, D, D#/E♭, E, F, F#/G♭, G,
G#/A♭.

The same 12 notes repeat upwards and downwards in octaves.

White Keys

The white keys on a piano play the “natural” notes in a scale: A, B, C, D, E, F, G.

Playing only white keys places you in either the key of C major or A minor.

Black Keys

The black keys on a piano play the “flat” and “sharp” notes in a scale: A#/B♭, C#/D♭, D#/E♭,
F#/G♭, G#/A♭.

Each note has a symbol: ♭ for flat and # for sharp. Playing a combination of white and black keys
allows you to write in all available key signatures.

Intervals

An interval is a distance between two notes. There are several intervals. Measure these intervals
by the number of half steps, whole steps, and their position in the scale.

• A half step interval is one semitone

• A whole step interval is two semitones
• Two half steps make a whole-step

Intervals are also the foundation of both harmony and melody. Playing two or more notes at the
same time creates harmonic intervals (chords). Playing single notes in a sequence makes melodic
intervals (melodies).

Furthermore, we describe intervals by number (distance) and prefix (quality). The interval
number represents the number of half-steps between two notes. These numbers are 1st (unison),
2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th (octave).

Lastly, intervals have using a prefix to describe their quality. The five interval qualities are major
(M), minor (m), perfect (P), augmented (A), and diminished (d).

Octaves

Octaves are the next highest or lowest pitch of the same note. The interval between a note and a
note double its frequency is an octave. For example, an octave up from C1 on a piano is C2. An
octave down would be C0.

There are 12 semitones in the octave. These pitches repeat in the same order throughout the
range of human hearing.

Key Signatures

v
Key signatures tell you what notes in a scale are sharp (♯) or flat (♭). There are twelve key
signatures, each derived from the twelve available notes.

Key signatures also help identify the key of a song, which is the tonal center. For example, a song
in the key of A minor uses notes from the A minor scale.

Music Scales and Modes

Musical scales form the building blocks of music. Understanding musical scales and their
functions is essential when learning basic music theory.

This section looks at the two most common scales, their scale degrees, and the seven music modes.

Music Scales

A music scale is a set of notes within an octave arranged by their pitch. The ascending or
descending interval relationships among the note pitches define each scale. Moreover, the notes
from a scale form melodies and harmonies.

There are several types of scales. However, the two main types are the major scale and the minor
scale. You can build both major and minor scales from any note. How you use them depends on
the pattern of intervals you use.

Major Scales

There are twelve possible natural major scales. Natural major scales are bright, uplifting, and
happy sounding.

The seven notes in all major scales follow the same interval pattern: W-W-H-W-W-W-H
(whole-whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half).

vi
Minor Scales

Natural minor scales are dark, sad, and emotional sounding. The seven notes in all minor scales
follow the same interval pattern: W-H-W-W-H-W-W (whole-half-whole-whole-half-whole-
whole).

There are twelve possible natural minor scales. In addition, there are three variations of the minor
scale: natural, harmonic, and melodic.

Scale Degrees

Each note of a scale has a specific name related to its function, called a scale degree.
The name is the function, and a number indicates its position on the scale.

There are seven scale degrees. These names apply to all major and minor scales. Learning more
about these functions takes us into advanced music theory. For now, it’s good to know the names:

• 1st – Tonic
• 2nd – Supertonic
• 3rd – Mediant/Characteristic
• 4th – Subdominant
• 5th – Dominant
• 6th – Submediant
• 7th – Leading Tone

Music can create and release tension. The function of a scale degree relates to the amount of
tension created. It also helps you decide what note(s) should follow to resolve the tension.

Moreover, remembering the different pitches in major and minor scales is difficult. Referring to
the steps of the scale by numbers rather than notes makes it easier to remember.

Music Modes

Musical modes are scales derived from a parent scale. There are seven music modes.

Each mode is a slight variation of a scale. They use all the same notes and interval patterns as the
parent scale.

The main difference is the root note used to build the scale. Starting a scale on a different note
defines the tonal center, giving it distinct melodic characteristics.

The seven musical modes are:

• I – Ionian (major scale)

• ii – Dorian (major scale starting on the 2nd degree)
• iii – Phrygian (major scale starting on the 3rd degree)
• IV – Lydian (major scale starting on the 4th degree)
• V – Mixolydian (major scale starting on the 5th degree)
• vi – Aeolian (natural minor scale or major scale starting on the 6th degree)
• vii – Locrian (major scale starting on the 7th degree)

vii
Learning musical modes goes beyond basic music theory and is more advanced.
However, getting familiar with these terms and basic functions is helpful.

Counterpoint

Counterpoint is the relationship between two or more melody lines played at the same time. These
melodies or voices work together to create pleasant-sounding harmonies.

The melodies that create counterpoint are dependent on each other to create harmony.
However, they are independent in rhythm and contour.

Chords and Chord Extensions

Chords are the harmonious building blocks of music.

They evoke emotion and provide the foundation for creating melodies.

Knowing how to build chords and how they interact with each other is essential when learning
music theory. This section looks at basic chord types, chord extensions, and inversions.

Musical Chords

A chord is a combination of two or more notes played at the same time. They’re built off a single
starting note called the root.

You can create chords from all twelve notes. There are also four basic types of chords in music:

• Major – Has a major third and a perfect fifth above the root
• Minor – Has a minor third and a perfect fifth above the root
• Diminished – Has a minor third and a diminished fifth above the root
• Augmented – Has a major third and an augmented fifth above the root

The chords and chord progressions in a piece of music support or complement the melody.

Triad Chords

The most basic chords are triads. A triad is a chord made of three notes. Triads have a root note, a
third (four semitones above the root), and a perfect fifth (seven semitones above the root).

Triads are also the foundation for more complex chords. For example, you can create seventh and
ninth cords by adding notes above a tried.

Seventh Chords

A seventh chord adds a note above the basic triad. Seventh chords have a root note, a third, a
perfect fifth, and a seventh.

For example, a C major seventh has the notes: C–E–G-B. There are also five main types of
seventh chords: major, minor, dominant, diminished, and half-diminished.

viii
Major Chords

Major chords have a root note, a major third, and a perfect fifth. A chord with these three notes
alone is a major triad.

For example, a C major triad has the notes: C-E-G. You can also add notes to build more complex
chords.

Minor chords

Minor chords have a root note, a minor third, and a perfect fifth. A chord with these three notes
alone is a minor triad.

For example, a C minor triad has the notes C-E♭-G. You can also add notes to build more
complex chords.

Diminished Chords

Diminished chords sound tense, dissonant, and dramatic. They have a root note, minor third, and
a diminished fifth (six semitones above the root).

For example, a C diminished triad has the notes: C-E♭-G♭.

Augmented Chords

Augmented chords sound dissonant, unsettling, and mysterious. They have a root note, major
third, and an augmented fifth (eight semitones above the root).

For example, a C augmented triad has the notes: C–E–G#.

Chord Extensions

Chord extensions are notes added to the basic triad.

There are four chord extensions: the 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th.

Extended chords create a richer, more harmonically complex sound than basic major and minor
triads. They also provide additional voice leading possibilities, which makes chord progressions
sound more interesting.

Chord Inversions

Chord inversions are variations of the same chord. Transposing the bottom note in a chord to the
next octave creates an inversion.

There are two main chord inversions: first inversion and second inversion.

• First Inversion – Transposes the root note up one octave. The third of the triad becomes
the bass note.
• Second Inversion – Transposes the inverted triad again. The fifth of the triad becomes the
bass note.

ix
Chord inversions add variation, excitement, and smoother transitions in chord progressions. The
more notes a chord has, the more possible inversions.

Chord Progressions

A chord progression or a harmonic progression is an ordered series of chords. Chord progressions

support both the melody and the rhythm. They also provide the foundation for creating harmony
and melody.

Moreover, the key determines the chords used in a progression. A progression can also consist of
major and minor chords.

Roman Numeral Analysis

Roman numerals indicate the chords in a progression. They identify the musical key and the root
note for each chord. For example, “IV” means the chord is built on the fourth degree of a scale.

Uppercase Roman numerals represent major chords, while lowercase numerals represent minor
chords. For example, a chord progression in the key of C major would look like I-vi-IV-V (C-Am-
F-G).

Delving deeper into this topic goes beyond basic music theory.
However, it helps to introduce this numerical system.

Voice Leading

Voice leading is the linear movement between melodic lines or voices to create a single musical
idea. This technique focuses on the smooth movement of notes from one chord to the next using
common sounding tones.

Voice leading also minimizes the vertical and horizontal transitions between notes in a chord
progression or melody. These smaller moves sound more natural and pleasing.

When creating a chord progression, use harmonically related chords. They can share similar notes
or have inversions to make the stepwise motion smoother. For example, a C major chord and an A
minor chord both have the notes E and C.

Creating music with chord progressions

A chord progression is a group of chords that you use to create music. Some chord progressions
just sound better than others, so it pays to experiment.

Chord progressions are the skeleton that give your songs their basic outline.

Choosing the chords you’ll use and arranging them into satisfying progressions is one the most
important jobs when writing a song.

But creating new chord progressions is difficult if you don’t know a handful of basic ones to get
your ideas flowing.

So many songs are based on the same common chord progressions.

x
If you understand how the most common ones work, you’ll have a head start for creating your
own - and you’ll know how to play a lot of songs!

1. I-V-vi-IV

This progression is called “the most popular progression” for a reason.

It’s been used in just about every genre imaginable, from post-punk to country.

It sounds so satisfying because each new chord in the pattern feels like a fresh emotional
statement.

Once you know how this one works you’ll start to hear it everywhere in pop music.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1k8craCGpgs&feature=youtu.be

xi
 2. I, IV and V

I, IV and V are the basic building blocks for chord progressions in western music.

You’ll find these chords playing an important role in every single style of popular music.

The reason why has to do with functional harmony.

I, IV and V are the simplest versions of the main chord categories in tonal music—tonic, pre-
dominant and dominant.

Moving from one to the other and back again is how you create the sense of tension and release
that gives chord progressions their forward momentum.

I, IV and V are the basic building blocks for chord progressions in western music.

There’s almost too many songs to count that include these chords in their progressions. But here’s
a classic example to get it in your ears.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jp6j5HJ-Cok&feature=youtu.be

3. ii-V-I

Some chord progressions are closely associated with specific genres.

The ii-V-I progression is the backbone of almost all of the standard tunes in jazz.

xii
It’s so important that it appears in different forms in the best jazz chord progressions.

Even if you’re not into jazz, these timeless harmonic patterns are important to know.

Many modern genres have a strong influence from jazz harmony. Whether it’s R&B, neo-soul or
hip-hop, the ii-V-I is an essential sound.

Many modern genres have a strong influence from jazz harmony

Here's a modern tune that's based on the ii-V-I progression:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S2Cti12XBw4&feature=youtu.be

3. 12 Bar Blues

Speaking of genre progressions, the 12 bar blues is another essential chord sequence that comes
from a distinct style.

It forms the basic sound of blues music but it appears in many different genres too.

Depending on how you use it, the 12 bar blues can even sound more “happy” than bluesy.

It’s a versatile progression that you need to add to your songwriter’s toolkit.

Here’s an example of an interesting usage of the 12 bar blues that shows how it can work in many
different moods.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bDktBZzQIiU&feature=youtu.be

xiii
5. I-vi-IV-V

This common chord progression is associated with the classic love songs and do-wop tunes of the
50s, but it shows up all over music history.

It features smooth motion from the tonic to the sixth in the first half that provides a great blank
canvas for vocal melodies.

Each chord after that adds to the compelling arc this progression makes as it cycles back to the
tonic.

You can hear the way this progression tugs on the heartstrings in vintage ballads like The
Righteous Brothers' “Unchained Melody”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qiiyq2xrSI0&feature=youtu.be

6. Canon

xiv
This chord pattern comes from one of the most enduring progressions in classical music.

The secret of this progression is how it visits so many different chords in the key before moving
gracefully back to the tonic.

It has a dignified yet affecting sound that’s popular for formal occasions like weddings and
commencements. Think of Vitamin C’s emotional hit “Graduation”

But surprisingly, it works in many other contexts. Here's a nice example in Belle and Sebastian's
cheerful tune “Get Me Away from Here I’m Dying”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcKsxHURj24

7. I-bVII-I

This is less of a chord progression and more of a harmonic technique that’s often found in rock
and pop songs.

Sometimes it doesn’t take much to create enough harmonic action to propel a song.

One easy way to keep a song centered but still moving forward is to simplify the harmony, like in
this “progression” that moves from the tonic to bVII and back again.

bVII is a borrowed chord from the natural minor scale, but it feels familiar because it’s only a
whole step away from the tonic.

bVII adds satisfying color to a progression because of its association with the Mixolydian mode.

Mixolydian is a very common sound in rock music—once you hear it you’ll know what I mean!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xpmGxUHJqkc&feature=youtu.be

xv