Computer Studies PAPER 1(840/1)

Table of contents.

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Definitions ................................................................................................................... 3
Some computer terms ................................................................................................. 3
General characteristics of a computer ....................................................................... 4
Advantages of using a computer ................................................................................ 5
Disadvantages of computers .......................................................................................6
Functions of computers ..............................................................................................6
Computer and Lab care...............................................................................................8
Rules that govern a computer Room or Laboratory ..................................................8
The Background of Computer systems ......................................................................9
Computer generations ............................................................................................... 11
Computer classifications (by size)............................................................................ 16
Computer Categories (classification by process) .................................................... 20
Classification by purpose ...........................................................................................21
The Computer system ............................................................................................... 22
In put hardware/devices ........................................................................................... 23
The central processing unit (system unit) ............................................................... 35
Memory...................................................................................................................... 37
Commutation devices ...............................................................................................40
Storage devices ..........................................................................................................44
Out put devices ......................................................................................................... 53
Computer security ..................................................................................................... 58
Computer viruses ...................................................................................................... 59
Computer software.................................................................................................... 65
Operating system ...................................................................................................... 67
Utilities and service programs .................................................................................. 70
System tools (programming languages) ...................................................................71
Application software ................................................................................................. 73
Networking ................................................................................................................ 81
Networks.................................................................................................................... 82
Topology ....................................................................................................................84
Factors to consider before a network ....................................................................... 87
Advantages of a school network ...............................................................................88
Disadvantages of a school network ......................................................................... 90
Computer as an aid to education ............................................................................. 91
The internet .............................................................................................................. 96
Components of the internet ..................................................................................... 97
Advantages of the internet ......................................................................................102
Disadvantages........................................................................................................... 103
Factors affecting the speed of the internet ............................................................. 103
Web terms ............................................................................................................... 106

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Introduction to computers
The word computer is derived from a Latin word "Computare" which means to
count or to calculate. The computer is an extension of human mind, which can
perform several tasks with a great speed. Computers are just like a dumb servant
who cannot take any decision by itself they only do what they are told to do.

Definitions

Any subject/item can be defined basing on one or a few areas. Below are some of
the areas that people who define always look at during the formulation of a
definition.

a) Characteristics of the item

b) Functions
c) Advantages
d) Size
e) Colour
f) Shape
g) Etc

Therefore that is the reason as to why a subject/item may have different

definitions from different people who try to define.
For that matter a computer happens to be defined differently.

Definition 1.

A computer can be defined as; A general-purpose machine capable of accepting

data or instructions and processes them thus giving an output.

Definition 2.

It is a programmable digital device, which processes data very fast.

Definition 3.

It is an electronic device that can store, organize and find information, do

calculations and control other machines.
It does all this with the human interaction. (Dictionary version).

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Definition 4.

Is a general purpose digital machine machine that can receive, store, manipulate,
and output information.
Some Computer basic terminologies

Data and information

Data are raw facts or figures that are of little meaning until they are put or sorted
in a more useful manner. (Mostly by the help of a computer)

Information
This refers to processed data

Data processing
Data processing therefore means transferring the raw facts into information.

N.B. Data processing is an iterative process i.e. an on going process (one step leads
to another),
All tasks in data processing take place in three stages: 1.in put, 2.processing,
3.out put

System (computer System)

A system is a collection of many interrelated parts working together to achieve a

common objective. E.g. Computer system, keyboard, C.P.U, monitor, printer etc,
all for a common objective of data processing

General Characteristics of a computer

1. A Computer is an interactive device, that is to say it responds to what you

do as you work with it.

2. It is a processing machine; it processes data into information following the

instructions of the user

3. It is a versatile tool, meaning multipurpose for example it enables typing,

calculations, storage and so many other tasks that is to say limitations are
not defined by its design but by its software programs (flexible)

4. It is communicative and can be connected to other computers for

information sharing through networking.

5. It is a diligent tool i.e. it does repetitive and boring work without getting
tired.
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6. Among others, computers are also; accurate, fast in processing
(speed),have storage, have an artificial intelligence, are automatic, efficient
e.t.c.

Advantages of using Computers

1. Computers are fast in task execution compared to manual methods. For

example the time taken to calculate using a computer program like Excel is far
less than when you calculate manually because in the program there are in
build formulae. (=SUM (B2:C2)

2. Computers identify mistakes: for example when using Microsoft word

immediately a wrong tense or spelling is given it is underlined.

3. Correction of mistakes: not only does it identify mistakes but also gives an
option to correct the mistakes for example the spelling and grammar checker.

4. Neatness /professionalism: Computers have got fonts like times new roman
that are outstanding, neat and smart compared to the different handwriting
that people have.

5. Accuracy: it is observed that machines execute tasks accurately according to

the commands given by the user as compared the manual methods especially
in calculations.

6. Computers have got a general and outstanding advantage of being more

efficient (perfect), effective, and more reliable than human beings

7. They don’t suffer from human diseases like malaria

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Disadvantages of computers

1. They are relative expensive to buy and to maintain where by they need
regular servicing, repairs, and anti virus updates and installation.

2. They require intensive training before one can be able to use. Which is
costly

3. They are delicate machines, where by any simple harm like dropping or
falling off, heat; dust can cause damage the machine.

4. They are some times called stupid machines because whatever data either
right or wrong they just accept (Garbage In Garbage Out) GIGO

5. They are always corrupted by viruses.

6. They are power dependant, since they are electronic machines they only
operate when there is power, only for laptops that may be charged and later
used.

FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTERS:

1. Computers play a great role in the production process by improving the

productivity, efficiency and effectiveness in the production process. For
example Soft drinks production at the century bottling company is done
in a way that computerized machines specialize at different levels and
millions on litres of soft drinks are produced with in a shorter time than
it could when handled manually.

2. Computers are storage devices; they store information that could other
wise be lost or damaged due to poor whether conditions or poor
handling most especial paper work.

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 3. Computers play a great role in documentation and report production
mostly by word processor programs i.e. Microsoft word, word perfect

4. Computers are used as communication devices through network

technology: i.e. intranet, extranet and most known the internet (also
known as the information super high way) this renders a computer to be
the most famous, information and communication technology (I.C.T.)
device for example the video conferences, E-mails etc

5. Computers are sources of entertainment in various ways for example a

number of computer games have been designed, music and video clips
can be played on the computers and so many entertainments

6. Computers can be used to create, modify graphical work and

illustrations

7. Computers are also used to carry out data organization, budgets and
calculations ranging from simple to complex. Computers have got in
built formulae “the functions”, logical interpreters for example the (IF
function) spreadsheet programs are designed to help in this area.

8. Computers control other machines in what is referred as robotics

9. Computers are used in nearly impossible activities for example human

body scanning and detection of foreign bodies that cannot be done
manually

10. Computers are teaching aids. They are used to enhance teaching and
learning processes of various subjects like computer studies, biology,
chemistry etc by running illustrations and any other presentations.

11. Many Employment opportunities as a result of the machine invention

are many ranging from typists, technicians, programmers, teachers,
database managers and many others
Exercise:
(a) Precisely, define the term Computer.
12. Computers have helped a lot in research, which has led to a lot of new
(b) Define the term “Artificial Intelligence”.
discoveries and inventions for development.
(c) Give 10 characteristics of modern computers.
(d) In your own opinion, give reasons why you think a “maize weighing scale” is a
computer.
(e) Asses the advantages and disadvantages of using computers.

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COMPUTER AND LAB. CARE:

Use of the resources and an account on the computer system are privileges,
not rights. Misuse of the resources may result in a loss of your computer
privileges. Specific misuse includes

 Copying copyrighted software.

 Disturbing another person's account and/or files.
 Using another person's account.
 Downloading, viewing or distributing offensive material (for example
pornography, profane language, etc.)
 Physically abusing the equipment by Removing hardware, software, or
manuals from the computer lab without authorization

RULES THAT GOVERN A COMPUTER ROOM OR LABORATORY

 Do not move equipment.
 Do not connect or disconnect any cables.
 Do not force diskettes in or out of floppy drives.
 Report problems to the consultant/ teacher
 No food, drink, or roller blades are allowed in the laboratory.
 No games should be played in the laboratory or computer room
 Work quietly and do not disturb others.
 Leave promptly when a class is announced or the lab is closing
 Clean up the work area around your station when you leave.
 Avoid using diskettes from other centers before running the virus
scan
 Etc

Understanding the background of computer systems

Milestones in computer development
To appreciate fully the importance of microcomputers in business and in society
today, a knowledge of the history of computer systems is necessary.
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Over centuries people have developed an amazing variety of data processing tools
and techniques.
Around 300B.c, the Sumerians used a box of stones as means for representing
numbers
2000 years later, the Chinese strung stones on threads in a wooden frame called
the ABACUS; the device is still used in some parts of Asia.

Early developments
In the mid 1600s, Blaise Pascal, a French Mathematician, invented an adding
machine called the Pascaline. This machine was based on the decimal system, it
used rotating gears, or notched wheels, each wheel stood for one place the 1s, 10s,
100s and so on. Unfortunately the market did not grow, only 50 pascalines were
built although the machine never became popular, Pascal has been honored for his
role in computer history: the computer language was named after him.

Liebniz wheel
In the early 1700s Liebniz invented a machine that performed Arithmetic
operations of additions, subtractions, multiplications, and divisions. It was the first
general-purpose machine.

Jacquard’s weaving loom (1801)

Joseph-Marie Jacquard developed a way of recording each loom setting by using
punched cards. (a heavy paper storage medium containing holes punched to
represent coded instructions. These sets of punched cards instructions were the
fore runners of computer programs. They told the machine what to do without
changing the machine in any way.

Thomas’ arithnometer (1800s)

It was the first commercially successful adding and subtracting machine.

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Babbage’s Analytical Engine
This was an English mathematician, was the first person to plan an automatic
calculating machine he wanted his machine to build tables showing results of
complex math operations quickly and accurately. His first attempt was in 1822
when he built a working model of his idea, called the different Engine. But
building the parts was too difficult and he lost interest and he began a new
machine called the analytical engine.
He was this time assisted by Ada Augusta Byron the daughter to the Romantic
poet Lord and a brilliant mathematician they planned coded card programs. The
analytical engine would have been able to add, subtract, divide and multiply
unfortunately; the analytical engine was too advanced for its time. Babbage died
before building a working model of the machine. His design for the analytical
engine incorporated key concepts used in computers today. This is the reason as to
why Babbage is known as the father of computers.

Herman Hollerrith
The punched card concept from the weaving industry was put to good use at the
end of 1800s by Herman Hollerith, a statistician. The U.S. government was
encountering problems in trying to process data from a census. He developed the
forerunner of standard computer cards. His coding scheme, called the Hollerith
code, could present data in eighty column punched cards. This invention reduced
the time required to process the census 2 ½ years instead of 7 ½, if it was to be
computed manually. His tabulating machine company later became the
international business machine Corporation (IBM)

COMPUTER GENERATIONS

A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of a product.

This term is also used in the different advancements of computer technology.

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(Computer generation is thus the advancement in computer technology over a
period of time.)
With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced
than the previous generation before it. As a result of the miniaturization
(Efficiency, smallness), speed, power, and memory of computers has
proportionally increased. New discoveries are constantly being developed that
affect the way we live, and work.

The First Generation: 1946-1958 (The Vacuum Tube Years)

The first generation computers were huge, slow, expensive, and often

Undependable. In 1946two Americans, Presper

Eckert, and John Mauchly built the ENIAC
(Electronic Numeric Integrator and Computer)

A computer, which used vacuum tubes instead of

the mechanical switches of the Mark I. The ENIAC
used thousands of vacuum tubes, which took up a
lot of space and gave off a great deal of heat just like light bulbs do. The ENIAC
led to other vacuum tube type computers like the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer) and the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic
Computer).

The vacuum tube was an extremely important step in the advancement of

computers. Vacuum tubes were invented the same time the light bulb was
invented by Thomas Edison and worked very similar to light bulbs. Its purpose
was to act like an amplifier and a switch. Without any moving parts, vacuum
tubes could take very weak signals and make the signal stronger (amplify it).
Vacuum tubes could also stop and start the flow of electricity instantly (switch).
These two properties made the ENIAC computer possible.

The ENIAC gave off so much heat that they had to be cooled by gigantic air
conditioners. However even with these huge coolers, vacuum tubes still
overheated regularly. It was time for something new.

Characteristics in summary

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 1. They used vacuum tubes for internal operations
2. They were very large (1800 square feet)

3. They consumed a lot of power

4. They generated a lot of heat

5. They had maintenance problems

6. They had limited primary memory (RAM)

7. They used punched card for input and out put and magnetic tapes

8. Programming was done in machine and assembly language

9. They could run only one program at a time.

10. Memory size was about 2kb and the speed about 10kips(kilo instructions
per second)

11. They were very expensive

The Second Generation: 1959-1964 (The Era of the Transistor)

The transistor computer did not last as long as the vacuum

tube computer lasted, but it was no less important in the
advancement of computer technology. In 1947 three scientists,
John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain
working at AT&T's Bell Labs invented what would replace the
vacuum tube forever. This invention was the transistor which
functions like a vacuum tube in that it can be used to relay and
switch electronic signals. There were obvious differences between the
transistor and the vacuum tube. The transistor was faster, more reliable,
smaller, and much cheaper to

Build than a vacuum tube. One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum
tubes. These transistors were made of solid material, some of which is silicon, an
abundant element (second only to oxygen) found in beach sand and glass.

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Therefore they were very cheap to produce. Transistors were found to conduct
electricity faster and better than vacuum tubes. They were also much smaller
and gave off virtually no heat compared to vacuum tubes. Their use marked a
new beginning for the computer. Without this invention, space travel in the 1960's
would not have been possible. However, a new invention would even further
advance our ability to use computers.

Characteristics in summary

 They used transistors for internal operations. A transistor is an electronic

switch that alternately allow current to pass.
 They gave off less heat

 They became less expensive

 High level programming languages were introduced e.g. FORTRAN,

formula translation, Html hypertext markup language

 Memory increased to 32 kb and speed to 200k and 300kips

 The storage devices were removable

Examples

 IBM 1401
 NCR 501

The Third Generation: 1965-1970 (Integrated Circuits -

Miniaturizing the Computer)

Transistors were a tremendous breakthrough in

advancing the computer. However no one could predict
that thousands even now millions of transistors (circuits)
could be compacted in such a small space. The integrated circuit, or as it is
sometimes referred to as semiconductor chip, packs a huge number of
transistors onto a single wafer of silicon.

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  Since the invention of integrated circuits, the number of transistors that can
be placed on a single chip has doubled every two years, shrinking both the
size and cost of computers even further and further enhancing its power.
Most electronic devices today use some form of integrated circuits placed
on printed circuit boards-- thin pieces of bakelite or fiberglass that have
electrical connections etched onto them -- sometimes called a mother
board.
These third generation computers could carry out instructions in
billionths of a second. The size of these machines dropped to the size of
small file cabinets. Yet, the single biggest advancement in the computer era
was yet to be discovered.

 Characteristics in summary

 Used integrated circuits

 They used parallel processing

 Introduction of operating systems like multics

 Introduced simpler programming languages like visual basic

 They were cheaper, more reliable, smaller and used less power

 They used magnetic discs for secondary storage of data

 They supported multi-programming capabilities

 Memory increased to 2MB mega bytes of RAM

 Speed increased to 5,000,000 instructions per second (5MIPs)

 E.g. PDP-1 IBM 360

The Fourth Generation: 1971-Today (The Microprocessor)

In 1971, the first electronic computers were introduced that

used large scale integrated circuits (thousands if integrated
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circuits on a chip for main memory and logic circuitry that performs the logical
operations of the CPU different types of chips had different functions. These
computers had much larger capacity to support main memory. This period has
also seen increased use OF INPUT AND OUT PUT devices that allow data and
instructions to be entered directly through the keyboard. The microprocessor,
introduced in 1971, combined all the circuitry for the central processing unit on a
single chip. LSI and the microprocessor enabled the development of the super
computer

In 1977 the Apple II was sold to the public and in 1981 IBM entered the PC
(personal computer) market.

Today we have all heard of Intel and its Pentium® Processors and now we
know how it all got started. The computers of the next generation will have
millions upon millions of transistors on one chip and will perform over a billion
calculations in a single second. There is no end in sight for the computer
movement.

Characteristics in summary

 Large scale integrated and very large-scale integrated circuits were

developed and contained hundreds and millions of transistors on a tiny
chip.
 Development of micro-processor and micro computers

 Introduction of a wide variety of soft wares

 They started the miniaturization process, i.e. development of smaller and

small computers.

 Memory increased to hundreds of megabytes (100Mb)

 Speed increased from 1 GIGA to itera instructions per second

 Development of computer net working.

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  Computers became cheaper that schools and homes were able to purchase
them.

 Examples windows 8088,80286,80386,80486,Pentiums 1,2,3,4, apple

mackintosh

Generation V (now and in the future)

Artificial intelligence is always referred to as the fifth generation of computer

technology. Scientists are trying to program computers to imitate the human
qualities of creativity, judgment, and intuition.

One sub field of artificial intelligence is Expert system technology

These are software programs that can search a stored base of knowledge and
recommend solutions to specific problems.

Definitions of what constitutes fifth generation computers do not always agree.

Some people think that the new micro-computers with fast operating speeds,
greater processing capacity, and virtual unlimited memory should be included.

Other people believe that the fifth generation computers will have circuitry based
on gallium arsenide. Very less power and no heat but great speed computers.

Optical circuitry that transmits data with light rather than electricity.

Revision Questions (multiple choice).

1. Which of these generations in the evolution of computers is characterized by the
use of Transistors?

A. First B. second C. Third D. Fourth E. Fifth

2. Which of the following is not true about computers.

A. Diligence B. Versatility C. Thinking D. storage

3. John Napier invented calculating rods called?

A. Napier ’s bones B. Calculators. C. Arithmetic machine D. Napier’s rods.

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4. Which of these best describes a computer?

A. A machine.

B. Electronic device for input.

C. Electronic device for input and processing.

D. Electronic device for input, storage, processing and output.

5. How many generations have computers undergone?

A. One B. Three C. Four D. Five E. Six

6. Tangible components of a computer are called?

A. Equipement B. Hardware C. Software D. Liveware

7. Which of these is the easiest to carry from one place to another?

A. Super computer B. Mainframe C. Laptop D. Minicomputer

8. The following make up a computer system except?

A. Hardware B. Firmware C. Data D. Software

E.Humanware.

9. The ability of computers to handle more than one task is called?

A. Mobility B. Versatility C. Capability D. Veracity.

10. Which of these best characterizes the mechanical era between (1623-1945)?

A. Napier’s bones B. programming languages C. Leibniz calculator D.

multics.

11. …………………………… is a device used to move a pointer on the computer

screen?

A. Sensor B. mouse. C. Keyboard D. pointer

12. A program that occupies the computer screen when a computer is not in use for a
long time is?

A. An icon B. desktop C. Screen saver D. a virus

13. Pressing a mouse button twice is………..

A. Double Clicking B. Dragging C. Moving D. Clicking.

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 14. Artificial Intelligence is?

A. The ability of computers to think and reason like humans.

B. The ability of computers to do work.

C. Man made brains.

D. Making human brains.

15. As computer technology advances, the physical size of computers…

A. Also advances. B. Reduces C. Enlarges D. Remain normal.

Computer Classification (By size)

Computers are of different sizes, shapes, and processing power capabilities. The
earliest computers were quite large because of the crude technologies used; as
technological improvements were made in computer components, the sizes began
to reduce. As we talk now the central processing unit can be smaller than a
postage stamp.
And their jobs also vary from one another according to the class they belong to.

1. Super computers

2. Mainframe computers

3. Mini computers/mid-range computers

4. Work station computers

5. Micro-computers/personal computers (p.cs)

6. Micro controllers

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Super computers

These are giant (largest), high speed computers with vast processing power applied
in a narrow range of applications and certain kind of problems e.g. nuclear
stations, scientific research, scientific computation, weather forecasting, defense
and weapon analysis, petroleum/oil exploitation Different industries also use this
huge computer for designing their products.
They are described as “Giant computers”, they are kept in special rooms with
cooling systems,

Characteristics
 They process millions of instructions per second (MIPS)fastest
 Their memory size is very huge
 They are the most expensive, they cost over $10,000,000
 They are very large computers
e.g. Option Red (1600ft) Mexico, Blue mountain, Cray t-90 system

Mainframe Computers

These are huge electronic machines that may be used by a hundred or more users
at the same time, main frames were widely used during the era of centralized
computing, before the invention of the personal computer, they are mainly used in
weather forecasts, guiding missiles, solve scientific and commercial problems and
also handling complex mathematical calculations. Airline reservations companies,
The servers on the World Wide Web
E.g. IBM s/390
Mostly found in developed countries and in Government agencies.

Characteristics
 They have high data storage capacity
 Their memory is large
 They very expensive
 Can be used by more than one user at the same time, which means they
support a wide range of in put and out put devices
 They have a high rate of data transfer between the processor and the
peripherals

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E.g. IBM 370, MCR 8000 and 8400

Mini computers

They are also known as midsize or low end

These are smaller than the main frame but larger the ordinary computers
They are also used up to 50 people at the same time such as those at U.N.E.B.

Characteristics
Diligent
 They support a limited range of peripherals
 They can accommodate many users from remote locations
 The data is transferred at a lower speed compared to mainframes
 Their storage capacity is lower than that of the mainframe
 They are commonly used in data processing and industrial applications

Workstation

They are between mini computers and personal computers

They have characteristics of personal computer but with processing of a mini-
computer.
They are popular among scientists, engineers, graphic artists, programmers and
other users who need a great need of number crunching power.
They use advanced processors and store more data compared to personal
computers.
They are often used as servers on personal computer networks and the web.

Microcomputers

These are referred to as personal computers (P.Cs).

They are the smallest (micro), the cheapest and relatively less powerful compared
to other classifications.
These are the computers that we use today and have a wider application in the
computer world due to their portability, low cost and convenience.
They are called personal computers because they are used by one person at a time.

They are in various types

1. Desktop/mini tower/tours
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 2. Laptop/note book
3. Network computer
4. Hand held/palm tops

DESKTOP

These are commonest in offices and commercial institutions, schools, banks etc.
There is another model called the Tower model which other than laying
horizontally like the original desktop computer, it stands vertically to allow more
space for other devices like printers, scanners, speakers. Etc

LAPTOP/Note BOOK

These are briefcase like type of microcomputers, many of them have back up
batteries to enable usage even while traveling, which means they can operate on
alternating current or on special batteries.

This is easy to carry around and preferred by students and business people to
meet their assignments and other necessary tasks.

The approach of this computer is also the same as the Personal computer. It
can store the same amount of data and having a memory of the same size as
that of a personal computer. One can say that it is the replacement of personal
desktop computer.

Network computers

It is a less powerful version of a personal computer with less processing power,

memory and storage. It is designed to be connected to a network
It relies on the network software and data storage and may even use the network’s
server to perform some processing task.

Hand held PC/ Palm Top pc.

These are much smaller than laptops and can be easily carried in our palms hence
the name palmtop.
Examples include: personal Digital Assistants (PDA), cellular phone/pc pro, Micro
controllers

Personal Digital Assistants (PDA)

These are among the smallest portable computers.

They can fit in our pockets

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They are mainly used in taking notes, calculations, displaying phone numbers,
address, keeping track of date, agendas etc
They can be connected to larger computers for data exchange
Most of them come with an electronic pen that allows the user to write on a touch
screen
Some have a built in microphone and speakers to record speed digitally
They have personal information management software (PIMS)
They can be used for Internet services, facts and E-mail services

Cellular phones
This allows the user to communicate
It allows the user access the Web

HPC Pro (professional)

It is a new development in hand held technology
They are larger than personal Digital Assistants but not as big as a laptop. They
offer long battery life, they have less RAM and Less processing Speed compared to
a lap top.

Micro Controllers
These are also called Hidden/Embedded/Dedicated computers
They are tiny computers fixed in smart appliances like microwave oven, pocket
calculators.
They are dedicated to performing a particular task or a specific task.

Characteristics of microcomputers
 They are basically single users but with a technology of networking i.e.
users can use them at different locations.
 They are smaller than both mainframe and mini computers
 They are relatively cheap, portable and convenient.

COMPUTER CATEGORIES (CLASSIFICATION BY PROCESS)

1. Digital computer
2. Analogue computer
3. Hybrid computer

Digital
Traditionally, digital means the use of numbers and the term comes from digit
or figure. Digital computers use binary digits 0’s and 1’s in all their operations.

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Advantages
They work at a very fast rate.
They are more accurate
Today digital is Synonymous with computer

Analog
A representation of an object that resembles the original
Analog devices monitor conditions such as movement, temperatures, and ound
and convert them into analogous electronic or mechanical patterns, for
example an analog watch represents the planet’s rotation with the rotating
hands on the watch face. Telephones turn voice vibrations into electronical
vibrations

Definition
These compute by a physical quantity as measured by some system unit.
The physical quantities may be electrical voltage, electric current etc

Analog implies continuous operation in contrast with digital which is broken

up into numbers.

Hybrid
A digital computer that accepts analog signals converts them to digital and
processes them in digital form. It is used in process control and robotics, that is
to say they work on a combination of both analog and digital
Some calculations are processed in the analog and vice versa, these are mostly
used in scientific research.

Classification by purpose

These computers are classified according to the work they are designed for.
Here they are categorized in two classes.

Special purpose computers

These are designed to handle only a particular task. Their form of operation is
restricted in nature e.g. digital watches and pocket calculators. They are
designed to perform a particular task and no other.

General-purpose computers
These are designed to solve a wide range of problems. They can be adopted to
perform particular tasks or solve specific problems by means of specially
written programs. Most digital computers are general-purpose computers and
used in business and commercial data processing.

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 Classification by processing power
Processing power is the measure of the processing speed of the computer and it
is measured in Hertz

The fastest computer has its power measured in Gigahertz (GHz)

Here computers can be classified according to the type of processor power they
posses. These include 80286, 80386, 80486, pentiumI (80586), Pentium II,
Pentium III, and Pentium IV, etc.

Exercise:
1. Write the following abbreviations in full;
(a) PDA
(b) GIGO
(c) PC
2. Describe the four categories and classification of computers.
3. What do you understand by the following terms: (i) Microcomputer (ii) Special Purpose
computers?
4. What are the major differences between a mini computer and a mainframe computer?

COMPUTER SYSTEM
A complete working computer. The computer system includes not only the
computer, but also any software and peripheral devices that are necessary to make
the computer function.

The term computer is used to describe a device made of a combination of

electronic and electromechanical (part electronic and part mechanical)
components namely monitor, keyboard, system unit, mouse, and printers.
A computer does not come to life until it is connected to other parts of a computer
system.

Elements of computing:

 Hardware,
 Software,
 Human ware (trained)

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  Data/information
 Procedures

Hardware:

This refers to the parts of a computer you can touch and feel that is to say the
physical or tangible components a computer.

Hardware' is the term used to describe any kind of computer equipment (think of
it as being something that can be physically touched).

For example - on a CD, the music or the computer files are the software, the disk
itself is the hardware.

In Put Hardware/Devices

Hardware can be divided into five main types:

 Input
 Output

 Storage.

 Communication.

 Processing.

Input devices:

These are used to get data into the computer

Keyboard.

This is the oldest and most familiar of all in put devices (primary computer in put
device)
Keyboards of all in put devices contain their own chips or memory.

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In computing, a keyboard is a peripheral partially modelled after the typewriter
keyboard.

Physically, a keyboard is an arrangement of buttons, or keys. A keyboard typically

has characters engraved or printed on the keys; in most cases, each press of a key
corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols
requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence; other
keys do not produce any symbol, but instead affect the operation of the computer
or the keyboard itself. See input method editor.

A majority of all keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters) that
are appropriate for the operator's language.

They consist of the following sections.

(i) Typewriter Area (A-Z)
(ii) Numeric key pad (0-9)
(iii) The Functional Keys (F1-F12)
(iv) Arrow keys or Cursor movement keys.

Examples of types of keyboards include

 Computer keyboard
 Keyer
 Chorded keyboard
 LPFK

Functions of a keyboard:

(i) Its used to in put data into a computer, its keys allow the user to type
data inform of text o numbers

(ii) Can be used to command the computer to perform an operation using

the keyboard shortcuts, such as ctrl + s for saving data/information etc

(iii) It is a major connector or interface between the computer and the user
without which the user commands will not be put in a language the
computer understands.

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A keyboard is made up of various special buttons that perform specific functions.
These buttons include:

 Control key:

Is a key, which when pressed in conjunction with another key, will perform a
special operation. The Control key is a modifier key, it is used in the same fashion
as the Shift key.

 Functional key:

Is a key on a computer or terminal keyboard which can be programmed so as to

cause an operating system command interpreter or application program to
perform certain actions. On some keyboards/computers, function keys may have
default actions, accessible on power-on.

 Alt key:
Is either of two keys located next to the Space bar, used to change the function of a
key pressed. The Alt key is a modifier key, it is used in the same fashion as the shift
key. For example, simply pressing "A" will type the letter A, but if you hold down
either alt key while pressing A, the computer will perform an "Alt-A" function,
which varies from program to program.

 Caps lock:

Is a key on a computer keyboard. Pressing it causes the keyboard to go into a mode

in which letter keys are interpreted as capital letters by default. The caps lock does
not affect the number or punctuation keys.

 Space bar:

Is a key on an alphanumeric keyboard in the form of a horizontal bar in the lower -

most row, significantly wider than other keys. Its main purpose is to conveniently
enter the space, e.g., between words during typing.

 Shift key:

Is either of two modifier keys on the QWERTY computer keyboard, located on the
edges of the row below the home row, used to type an alternate 'upper' character,
when there are upper and lower characters shown on a key. The Shift key will also
capitalize the letter keys.

 Modifier key:
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Is a special key on a computer keyboard that modifies the normal action of
another key when the two are pressed in combination.

For example, <Alt> + <F4> in Microsoft Windows will automatically close the
program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just <F4> will probably do
nothing unless assigned a specific function in a particular program. By themselves,
modifier keys usually do nothing.

Pointing devices

A computer mouse

A pointing device is any computer hardware component (specifically human

interface device) that allows a user to input spatial (ie, continuous and multi-
dimensional) data to a computer. CAD systems and graphical user interfaces (GUI)
allow the user to control and provide data to the computer using physical gestures
— point, click, and drag , Right click, double click— for example, by moving a
hand-held mouse across the surface of the physical desktop and activating
switches on the mouse. Movements of the pointing device are echoed on the
screen by movements of the pointer (or cursor) and other visual changes.

While the most common pointing device by far is the mouse, many more devices
have been developed. However, mouse is commonly used as a metaphor for
devices that move the cursor.

Definition

The mouse is an input device, used to move, point and select objects and
instructions on the computer screen, because of its shape and tail like cable; it was
name mouse, Plural mice.

Most mice have got two or more buttons, which users press to select items from a
menu or to click graphical objects on the computer screen.

Functions of a mouse.

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  The mouse is used as a pointer to move to, or select a particular section of
the displayed window.

 It is used to complement the keyboard especially in a graphical interface

environment

 Its right button provides an array of time saving shortcut menus.

There are three basic types of mice:

Mechanical: Has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all
directions. Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction the ball is
rolling and move the screen pointer accordingly.

Opto mechanical: Same as a mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to

detect motion of the ball.

Optical: Uses a laser to detect the mouse's movement. You must move the mouse
along a special mat with a grid so that the optical mechanism has a frame of
reference. Optical mice have no mechanical moving parts. They respond more
quickly and precisely than mechanical and optomechanical mice, but they are also
more expensive.

Mice connect to PCs in one of several ways:

Serial mice connect directly to an RS-232C serial port or a PS/2 port. This is the
simplest type of connection.

PS/2 mice connect to a PS/2 port.

USB mice connects to a USB (Universal Serial Bus) port

Advantages of using a mouse:

 Moves cursor around the screen faster than using keystrokes.

Disadvantage:

 Requires moving hand from keyboard to mouse and back.

Repeated motion can lead to carpal tunnel syndrome

Track ball

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A trackball is a pointing device consisting of a ball housed in a socket containing
sensors to detect rotation of the ball about two axes—like an upside-down mouse
with an exposed protruding ball. The user rolls the ball with the thumb, fingers, or
the palm of the hand to move a cursor.

Large tracker balls are common on CAD (Computer Aided Design)

Workstations for easy precision. Before the advent of the touchpad, small
trackballs were common on portable computers, where there may be no desk
space on which to run a mouse.

Some small thumb-balls clip onto the side of the keyboard and have integral
buttons with the same function as mouse buttons. The trackball was invented by
Tom Cranston and Fred Longstaff as part of the Royal Canadian Navy's DATAR
system in 1952[1], eleven years before the mouse was invented. This first trackball
used a Canadian five-pin bowling ball.

The world's first trackball invented by Tom Cranston, Fred Longstaff and Kenyon
Taylor working on the Royal Canadian Navy's DATAR project in 1952. It used a
standard Canadian five-pin bowling ball.

When mice and trackballs still used a mechanical design (with slotted 'chopper'
wheels interrupting a beam of light to measure rotation), trackballs had the
advantage of being in contact with the user's hand, which is generally cleaner than
the desk or mouse pad and doesn't drag lint into the chopper wheels. The late
1990s advent of scroll wheels, and the replacement of mouseballs by direct optical
tracking, put trackballs at a disadvantage and forced them to retreat into niches
where their distinctive merits remained important. Most trackballs now have
direct optical tracking which follows dots on the ball. Some mice, in place of a
scroll wheel, acquired a small trackball between the buttons, useful in maps and
other circumstances calling for scrolling in two dimensions.

Advantages:

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 Does not need as much desk space as a mouse.
 Is not as tiring since less motion is needed.

Disadvantages:

 Requires fine control of the ball with just one finger or thumb.
 Repeated motions of the same muscles ares tiring and can cause carpal tunnel
syndrome.

JOYSTICK

Joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports
its angle or direction to the device it is controlling. Joysticks are often used to
control video games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can
also be read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern
video game consoles is the analog stick.

The joystick has been the principal flight control in the cockpit of many aircraft,
particularly military fast jets, where centre stick or side-stick location may be
employed (see also Centre stick vs side-stick).

Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater
unmanned vehicles and zero turning radius lawn mowers. Miniature finger-
operated joysticks have been adopted as input devices for smaller electronic
equipment such as mobile phones.

Joysticks can be used within first-person shooter games, but generally provide less
accurate control than a combination of mouse and keyboard input. Also popular in
hospitals by scanners.

Image scanner

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In computing, a scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text,
handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image. Common examples
found in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the
document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held scanners, where
the device is moved by hand, have evolved from text scanning "wands" to 3D
scanners used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and measurement,
orthotics, gaming and other applications. Mechanically driven scanners that move
the document are typically used for large-format documents, where a flatbed
design would be impractical.

Digital camera

A digital camera is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both,

digitally by recording images on a light-sensitive sensor.

Many compact digital still cameras can record sound and moving video as well as
still photographs. In the Western market, digital cameras outsell their 35 mm film
counterparts.[1]

Digital cameras can include features that are not found in film cameras, such as
displaying an image on the camera's screen immediately after it is recorded, the
capacity to take thousands of images on a single small memory device, the ability
to record video with sound, the ability to edit images, and deletion of images
allowing re-use of the storage they occupied.

Digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and
mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles. The Hubble Space Telescope
and other astronomical devices are essentially specialised digital cameras.

Digital video camera:

Digital video cameras can record video in digital form so that it can be
downloaded to a computer for editing. A web cam is a digital video camera. It can
be directly connected to a computer. It usually takes a digital picture at regular
intervals and uploads the picture to an Internet website. Web cams are used for

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teleconferencing. Users communicate with each other using microphones and
speakers as well as web cams to see each other on their monitors.

Light pen

A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand used
in conjunction with the computer's CRT TV set or monitor. It allows the user to
point to displayed objects, or draw on the screen, in a similar way to a touch
screen but with greater positional accuracy. A light pen can work with any CRT-
based display, but not with LCD screens, projectors and other display devices.

A light pen is fairly simple to implement. The light pen works by sensing the
sudden small change in brightness of a point on the screen when the electron gun
refreshes that spot. By noting exactly where the scanning has reached at that
moment, the X,Y position of the pen can be resolved. This is usually achieved by
the light pen causing an interrupt, at which point the scan position can be read
from a special register, or computed from a counter or timer. The pen position is
updated on every refresh of the screen.

Advantages:

 Can use handwriting instead of typing.

 Can use gestures instead of typing commands
Small size.

Disadvantages:

 Must train device to recognize handwriting.

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 Must learn gestures or train device to recognize the ones you create.

 Can lose the pen, which is not usually attached to the device.

Touch screen (Glide pad)

A touchscreen is a display which can detect the presence and location a touch
within the display area. The term generally refers to touch by a finger or hand.
Some touchscreens can sense other passive objects, such as a stylus. However, if
the object sensed is active, as with a light pen, the term touchscreen is generally
not applicable. The rule of thumb is this: if you can interact with the display using
just your finger, it is likely a touchscreen - even if you are using a stylus or some
other object. If it does not work with just the finger, it is most likely not a
touchscreen.

Up until recently, most touchscreens could only sense one point of contact at a
time, and few have had the capability to sense how hard one is touching. This is
starting to change with the emergence of multi-touch technology - a technology
that was first seen in the early 1980s, but which is now appearing in commercially
available systems.

The touchscreen has two main attributes. First, it enables you to interact with
what is displayed directly on the screen, where it is displayed, rather than
indirectly with a mouse (computing) or touchpad. Secondly, it lets one do so
without requiring any intermediate device, again, such as a stylus that needs to be
held in the hand. Such displays can be attached to computers or, as terminals, to
networks. They also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such
as the personal digital assistant (PDA), satellite navigation devices and mobile
phone.

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Advantages:

 Does not need as much desk space as a mouse.

 Can readily be built into the keyboard.
 Has finer resolution. That is, to achieve the same cursor movement onscreen
takes less movement of the finger on the glide pad than it does mouse
movement.
 Can use either buttons or taps of the pad for clicking.
 It's natural to do - reach out and touch something

Disadvantages:

 The hand tires faster than with a mouse since there are no support.
 Some people don't find the motion as natural as a mouse.

 It's tiring if many choices must be made.

 It takes a lot of screen space for each choice since fingers are bigger than
cursors.

Barcode reader

A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an electronic device for reading

printed barcodes. Like a flatbed scanner, it consists of a light source, a lens and a
photo conductor translating optical impulses into electrical ones. Additionally,
nearly all barcode readers contain decoder circuitry analyzing the barcode's image
data provided by the photo conductor and sending the barcode's content to the
scanner's output port.

Bar codes:

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A bar code is a set of parallel printed lines of differing thicknesses, which are used
to store coded information about an item.

Bar codes are read using a Bar Code Reader, which can be in the form of a hand-
held ‘wand’ or a stationary laser scanner over which the bar code is passed. This
method of data entry is used in big shops and supermarkets and in libraries.

Advantages:

 A fast method of data entry.

 Eliminates possible human error.

Disadvantages:

 Scratched or crumpled barcodes may cause problems.

Audio input devices

Microphone
Is the input device used (in conjunction with software such as "sound recorder") to
turn sound waves into digital files that a computer can understand.

A microphone, sometimes referred to as a mike or mic (both pronounced

/ˈ maɪ k/), is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into
an electrical signal. Microphones are used in many applications such as
telephones, tape recorders, hearing aids, motion picture production, live and
recorded audio engineering, in radio and television broadcasting and in computers
for recording voice, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic
checking.

Refers to the peripheral devices that generate input for the computer such
as a keyboard, scanner, mouse or digitiser tablet. Devices used included:

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1. MICR reader:(magnetic-ink character recognition)

Characters are printed using special magnetic ink, which contains iron oxide. As
the document passes into the M.I.C.R. reader, the ink is magnetized, so that the
shapes of the characters can be recognized electronically. The characters have to
be printed in a special font style. The main use of MICR is to input data from bank
cheques. The Cheque Number, the Branch Sort Code and the Account Number are
printed in magnetic ink at the bottom. The Amount gets typed in later. All the
cheques received get fed into an MICR Reader and the data is automatically input
to the bank's computer system.

Advantages:

 Documents are difficult to forge.

 It is fast and cuts out human error.

 Documents can still be read after being written on, folded, spilt on etc...

Disadvantages:

 M.I.C.R. readers and encoders are expensive.

 The system can only accept a few characters.

Midi instruments:

Refers to normal musical instruments which have a midi port for input into
a midi interface in the computer. The music can then be stored as a file,
displayed on screen and edited ready for playback.

Sensor

Chemical responses to the physical environment or movement can be

converted to electrical signals in the sensor that can be translated and used
by the computer. Various sensors can be used to measure heat, light, sound,
pressure, strain, acidity (pH), oxygen concentration, humidity, pulse, water
level, water flow, speed, tilt or simply whether something like a door or a
valve is open or shut.

Remote Control

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Emits a beam of infra red light, which carries data signals. Commonly used for
input to TVs and VCRs and now becoming used by computers as a "wireless"
method of communication.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (system unit)

Central Processing Unit (CPU), or sometimes just called processor,

It acts as the brain of the computer system. It reads and interprets software
instructions and coordinates the processing activities that must take place. The
design of the CPU affects the processing power and the speed of the computer as
well as the amount of main memory it can use effectively. It has got three sections:
The control unit, the Arithmetic Logic Unit and the memory.

C.P.U.

Out put
In put Cu ALU M

CU Control Unit
ALU Arithmetic logic unit
M Memory

The central processing unit has a function of processes raw ideas (data) and turns
it into information.

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The Control unit
It is a group of control circuits that has all important function of controlling all the
operations with in the C.P.U.

The control unit controls what is happening in the CPU. It does not process or
store data, instead it directs the order of operations.

The control unit retrieves one instruction at a time from a stored program. It
interprets the instruction and sends signals to the ALU directing it to execute the
instruction. This process is repeated until all the data instructions have been
completed and all data have been processed.

Another function of the control unit is to communicate with the input devices in
order to transfer program instructions and data into storage.

The control unit also communicates with the output device to transfer results from
storage to the output devices

It also coordinates and provides timing for each operation.

ARITHMETIC/LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

Handles arithmetic and logic computations. It does not store data. The arithmetic
operations it handles are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The
logic operations it handles are comparisons such as greater than, less than and
equal to, true or false

MEMORY
It refers to the location of information or where data is stored before processing
and reprocessing.

When data are entered into a computer through a device such as a keyboard, they
are not in a form that the computer can interpret, computers cannot understand
the complex symbols that humans use. They recognize only a code composed of 0s
and 1s, known as machine language. Machine language suits the computer because
electronic components and storage media represent two states: on/off,
conducting/non-conducting, or present/absent.
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Binary representation:

Bits , Bytes, Nibble and Word.

Data representation in a computer is in binary number system. Which has only
two digits 0s and 1s. The computer interprets the digit 0 as “off” and 1 as “on”. Each
1 or 0 is called a bit, which is short for BInary digit. A bit is the smallest unit of
data a computer can handle.

A single bit, a 0 or a 1, cannot represent a number or a letter, but by using

combinations of the two digits, computer scientists have developed codes that
represent characters (letters, numbers, and other symbols)

Many computers use coding group of adjacent bits called a byte. Bytes are usually
7 or 8 bits long. A byte can represent one character or a letter. The number of
possible combinations of 0s and 1s in 7 or 8 bits is enough to represent all the
characters. For example, one standard coding system codes an uppercase letter B is
as follows:

Bit

1000010

Byte
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a 7 bit code
but because certain machines are designed to accept 8-bit rather than 7 an 8 –bit
version of ASCII, called ASCII-8, was also created.
The other is the Extended binary coded decimal interchange code.(EBCDIC)

The number of adjacent bits that a computer can store or manipulate as a unit is
called a word (byte), there computers that can manipulate 16-bits at ago and also
32. The more words a computer can manipulate the faster the computer.

A nibble: half a byte, which is usually a grouping of 4 bits is called a nibble.

UNITS OF DATA STORAGE (memory size)

The basic unit of data storage is the byte. (B)

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7-8 bits : 1byte (word/character)
1024 bytes(1000) : 1kilo byte
1024 kilobytes(1000) : 1mega byte
1024 mega byte (1000) : 1giga byte
1024 giga bytes : 1tera byte
1024 tera bytes : 1 peta byte
1024 peta byte : 1 exa byte

Memory is subdivided into two

1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory

PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary storage (also called main storage, main memory, or internal storage)
holds all instructions and data needed for processing

It consists of:

RAM: Random Access Memory

ROM: Read Only Memory

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

This is the memory or the temporary location which holds the software and other
input data while the computer is working.

The contents of RAM can be altered, deleted, copied and read.

It is the main working memory of the computer i.e. the higher the RAM the better
the personal computer.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RAM

1. It is volatile and therefore loses its contents when the computer is

switched off.
2. It is read, copied, wrote, altered and deleted
3. The amount of data it can hold at a given time is highly limited
4. It is expensive compared to ROM.

READ ONLY MEMORY ROM

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 A computer has a built up set of instructions (non volatile) it has to know what
to do when switched on and those instructions are residents on ROM

The instructions in Rom are stored permanently; the computer can read or
follow instructions in Rom but cannot change them.

Cannot write and thus called read only. A good example of Rom is POST
(power on self test), which initializes the computer when power is turned on.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ROM

1. It is non-volatile, meaning it does not lose contents when power is switched

off.
2. The computer cannot write to it therefore programs or contents cannot be
changed.
3. It cheaper compared to random access memory.

A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to

reduce the average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory
which stores copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory
locations. As long as most memory accesses are to cached memory locations, the
average latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache latency than to the
latency of main memory.

REGISTERS
The control unit and A.L.U. also contain registers.

Registers temporarily store data during processing and provide working areas for
computation. They hold material to be processed immediately.

NB Ram which is outside the processor hold material that is to be processed a little
later.

Examples of registers:

Instruction registers
Address registers
Program registers
Acculator.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES

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Communication refers to the transfer of data from a transmitter/sender/source to
a receiver across a distance
Modem

For communication to take place between two people from widely different
countries or cultures, an electronic or human translator is required to act as an
interface between them. Similarly for a computer to communicate with another
completely different system, this will also require an interface of some kind.

An interface is usually provided by a card, which contains ports for input and
output devices, plus processing and memory microchips.

In effect it translates one form of communication from an external input device

into that which can be understood by the computer and then, if necessary, into
another that can be sent to any special output device, or another computer. An
interface card may be inserted in one of the slots provided inside the computer or
it may be external with its own power supply and plugged into the computer's
serial communication port.

Here are some common examples:

1. MODEM (MODulator-DEModulator) –

It is a communication device, which is used to convert digital signals from a

computer to analogue signals prior to signal transmission through a
telecommunication line.

Or

A device which allows the user to connect the computer system to another
computer system.

A modem attaches to a telephone line and dials up another computer via the
telephone. The modem converts the computer signals so that they work over the
telephone circuits used by the telephone companies

A modem can be internal that is to located inside the base unit or external device
that attaches to the base unit via a cable.

Modulation/demodulation

Modulation Converts digital signals into analogue form so that data can be sent
over phonelines

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Demodulation

Converts analogue signals back into digital form so that the transmitted signal can
be processed by the receiving computer.

Needed for Internet, email, fax and video-conferencing communications using

telephone cables. It converts outgoing digital signals from the computer into
analogue audio tones, which can travel along the telephone wires, and the reverse
for incoming signals.

A good modem can transmit and receive at a speed of 33,600 bits per second (bps)
which is about 4200 bytes (or characters) a second. This is about one page of text,
so it is much cheaper and somewhat quicker than ordinary mail.

2. Sound Card:

For music or speech from programs, CD-ROMs, and microphone. It usually

includes a MIDI interface for input from musical instruments.

3. MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface):

Needed to connect musical instruments to a computer so that the music played

can be stored as a file, displayed on screen, edited, printed or played back.

4. Network Card:

Enables the computer to communicate with other computers linked together by

cable through the interface. Used for shared storage of programs and work files,
and for sharing printers.

DOMESTIC DEVICES:

These are computer control devices used in the home. Basically any device, which
can be programmed by data input, which is then processed, stored (remembered)
and acted upon to provide some form of output. These are really self-contained
microcomputers, called micro controllers. They have input devices, output devices
and processing chips all linked together and embedded inside them. The program
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 used by the device is not loaded from disk like a normal computer but is
permanently stored on an internal memory chip or ROM.

1. Automatic Washing Machine

Inputs devices: sensors for water flow, water level and temperature; door switch;
selector knob or buttons for settings such as spin speed, temperature, load size
and types of wash cycle required.

Processing: program to control all of the above settings.

Output devices: switches to operate the water pump, inlet and outlet valves,
heater and drum motor.

2. Central Heating Controller

Inputs devices: buttons or keypad; temperature sensors for hot water storage
tank, room air and radiators; timer switches; water flow sensor.

Processing: keeping time and on/off settings.

Output devices: switches to operate the water pump, valves, and boiler; LCD
screen display.

3. Burglar or Car Alarm

Inputs devices: door and window switches; infra-red sensors; buttons or keypad
for setting password and for activating and deactivating the system.

Processing: program to control all of the above settings and provide time to allow
delayed activation of the system.

Output devices: buzzer; siren; bell; lights; telephone connection to security

agency.

4. Video Cassette Recorder (VCR)

Inputs devices: control panel switches and infra-red detector for remote control;
UHF channel sensor; sensor to read tape.

Processing: keep current time and date; respond to recording dates and times,
scan and store channel settings; amplify and convert UHF signals.

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 Output devices: LCD display; tape drive motors; recording to tape device; video
and sound output to television.

5. Microwave Oven

Inputs devices: door switch; buttons or keypad for settings such as time and heat
output.

Processing: program to control all of the above settings.

Output devices: switches to operate the microwave generator, turntable motor,

fan motor, interior light and warning bell; LCD screen display of inputs and
current time.

6. Digital Watch

Inputs devices: button switches to set current time, alarm time and date.

Processing: program to keep an accurate calculation of the time and date and to
control all of the above settings.

Output devices: LCD display or motor to move hands; beeper; back light.

7. Pocket Calculator

Inputs devices: button switches or keypad.

Processing: program to perform calculations.

Output devices: LCD display; button clicks.

8. Mobile Telephone

Inputs devices: button switches or keypad.

Processing: program to perform connection to telephone network and to dial

numbers; PIN number identification; store and process menu options.

Output devices: LCD display; button clicks; dialling and ringing tones; back light.

9. Toys

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Inputs devices: sensors for sound and light; pressure or feeler switches; selector
knob or buttons for settings or infra-red sensor for remote control device.

Processing: program to control all of the above settings.

Output devices: lights; sounds; motors; LED indicators; LCD screen

STORAGE DEVICES (SECONDARY STORAGE/MEMORY)

Secondary storage: storage that supplements primary storage.

Primary memory can’t store our data and programs permanently we therefore use
several secondary storage devices such as compact disks (CDs), floppy disks,
magnetic tapes etc
This is referred to as secondary memory.

Storage devices:

Storage devices refer to the electronic equipment that is used to store the
data on a storage medium, such as a floppy disk; Storage media is the actual
material on which the data is stored, such as a floppy disk. Storage media are
described as below: -

1. Hard Disk

The hard disk is the principal mass or permanent storage device in a

computer system. It holds the programs, data files, and so far no storage
device has matched its speed and capacity.

Made of stronger thick non-flexible disk material (aluminium)or

(ceranic)coated with magnetic materials and fixed permanently together
with its drive mechanism inside the computer. Data is stored magnetically.
Spinning at the required speed all the time it is very much faster to access
than a floppy disk or CD-ROM (faster than 1 MB per second). Can hold
thousands of megabytes (gigabytes) of data. Used for storing all programs
and work files for very fast access by the computer.

Characteristics

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 a) They store mass volumes of programs and data thus
increases the productivity of a computer
b) They are faster in loading or retrieving data and programs
than other forms of secondary storage.

c) They are expensive compared to the floppy disks and priced

according to storage capacity

 Seek time: Refers to the time it takes the read/write head to locate the
correct track.
 Latency: Refers to the time it takes the read/write head to locate the
correct sector.
 Access time: is the summation of seek time and latency. Or the time
taken to fetch an instruction from a memory medium.

2. Magnetic Tape:

It is a secondary storage medium consisting of a narrow strip of plastic tape.

Small spots are magnetized to represent data. This tape provides sequential
access.

Data is stored as magnetic fluctuations along the length of a specially coated

plastic tape, similar to the common audiotape. It varies from 200 to 3,600
feet and its 1 ½ inches wide. The coded data is processed (or translated) into
useful information by the computer. Data is accesses sequentially as the first
to store will be the first to access and the last will be the last to access in
that order. Information stored on the tape cannot be modified, changed or
updated at any one time. Magnetic tapes are still used in the mainframe and
minicomputers as an ideal media for backup copies of data.

Advantages of using a tape for data storage:

(a) Can hold thousands of megabytes (MB) of data depending on the length of
the tape.
(b) Useful for daily backups of all work and programs on a large network.
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(c) Can be set to run automatically during the night and then will only be
needed in an emergency.

Disadvantages of using tapes:

(a) Very slow, as need to wind tape (perhaps a long way) to find any specific
position.
(b)

3. Floppy Disk

These are the most used storage media in data exchange and back up due to
their cost, size, cost and convenience. The floppy disk uses a thin, flexible
circular disk (the floppy) which is enclosed in a protective shell/plastic
platter to store data.

Floppy Disk invented at the Imperial University in Tokyo by Doctor Yoshiro

Nakamats, the sales license for the disk was granted to IBM. He believed and said
that data is stored magnetically and uses a material similar to tape. It needs
to be formatted to provide a layout of tracks and segments to organize
where the data is stored. One spin of the disk provides access to all the data
hence much faster access than tape (about 36 KB per second) but it only
starts spinning when requested. Each disk can hold only 1.44 megabytes of
data.

Storage
=
capacity
360 A4 pages
1.44MB
(approx)

Diskettes come in varying sizes and shapes. There are the 5 ¼ inch diskettes
and the 3 ½ inch diskettes. To store information on a floppy diskette, one
needs to have a floppy disc drive. Information is recorded or retrieved from
the diskettes by the read / write head in the drive.

A number of factors affect how much data can be stored on a disk,

including: -

(a) Whether the diskette stores data on only one side (single – sided) or on
both sides (double – sided).
(b) Whether the diskette drive is equipped with read / write heads for both
the top and bottom surfaces of the diskette.

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(c) What the data recording density is – that is the number of bits that can
be stored per inch. The recording density may be classified as either
Single – Density, Double – Density, Quad – Density or High Density.

(d) What the track density (the number of tracks per inch) is?.

In view with the above factors, diskettes are commonly labeled as:

(a) DSDD – Double – Sided or Double Density.

(b) 2HD – Double – Sided, High Density.

The 5 ¼ inch diskette has capacity ranging from 360 KB to 1.2 MB. The 3 ½
inch diskette has a capacity ranging 720K for a single sided 1.44 MB for a
double sided. Compared with the 5 ¼ inch diskette, the 3 ½ inch diskette
has the following advantages:

(a) It is more durable because it is covered by an inflexible plastic jacket that

protects the disk from contamination and bending covers it.
(b) It can contain more data is a small space.

(c) Its floppy drives are smaller and lighter and therefore require less power
to operate and generate a lot less heat.

(d) The drives are faster and data is easier to transfer during storage and
retrieval.

(e) It is reusable

Care and maintenance of the floppy diskettes :( floppy disk

management)

For proper use of the floppy diskettes, one must study the following aspects:

 Keep diskettes away from magnet fields, such as near wire telephones,
loud speakers, and other appliances, which contain magnets.
 Do not keep heavy objects on top of the diskettes.

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 Do not fold or bend diskettes.

 While labeling or writing on the diskettes use felt tip pen, not pencil or
ballpoint pen.

 Do not expose the disk to excessive heat or light.

 Do not pull out the diskette from its drive when the drive light is still on.

 Do not use alcohol thinners, to clean the disk surface.

 Do not touch the disk surface.

 Do not bang, drop etc

 Do not splash liquids eg water etc

 Keep out of moisture

Removable-disk ('Zip') hard drives

Two sizes most common are 100MB and 250MBeach and being about the
same physical size have become a popular replacement for the floppy disk as
a mobile means of storage.

4. Compact Disk

These are read only media in general but there exists 3 different types

a) Compact Disc Recordable (CDR)

This allows data to be stored or recorded on to it

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b) Write once read many times (WORM)

These are common for storage installation of programs and other

applications

c) Compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM)

This is for reading data stored by the manufactures

CD – Rom

Uses laser (light) technology to store the data. Comes with the data already
on it for reading only (ROM = Read Only Memory) and hence cannot be
written to for everyday storage. Like a floppy disk it has to spin up to the
correct speed each time it is accessed.

Advantages of using a CD – Rom:

 Much faster to access than a floppy but currently slower than a hard disk
(single-speed 15 KB per second so a 40X speed CD-ROM drive is 40 times
faster, and they are getting faster).
 Can hold up to 650 MB (megabytes) of data.

 Useful for the distribution of today’s large programs and information

libraries, which you can then copy (all or in part) onto your hard disk.

 Also widely used by the music industry as they give better quality sound
and do not wear out like audiocassette tape.

 It is the safest form of storage, provided that you don’t attack it with a
sharp or heavy object. CD-ROM drives cost under £20 and are now an
expected standard on most computers. Cost of a CD disk is under £0.50 +
cost of software.

Writeable once CD-R and rewriteable CD-RW disks and associated

read/write drives are now available for under £50. Used to replace both the
standard floppy disk drive and the CD-ROM drive on some makes of laptop
computers.

5. Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)

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Also known, as a Digital Video Disk is a very large capacity CD with similar
access speed. It can store up to 17 GB (gigabytes) of data, which is more than
enough to store 8 music albums with full video presentation, or 4 feature-
length films. A DVD drive can also read a normal CD-ROM and currently
costs around £50.

Writeable DVD drives are currently quite expensive at over £150 but will
very likely replace the standard video cassette tape in the future.

6. Optical Disk

Looks and is used just like a floppy disk but contains a compact disk inside.
Unlike a CD-ROM drive, the optical disk drive is able to both read and write
to this disk many times. With 100 megabytes capacity it is most suitable for
the large picture files created on modern computers and for storing
photographs in a digital camera. Cost of disks around £20.00 but the drives
are currently very expensive.

7. Magnetic Strip

a short strip of magnetic tape for storing a small amount of data. The
simplest type has a personal identity number (PIN) permanently stored on
it, eg. Credit card, cash-point card - used to withdraw cash from the
Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) on the walls of banks. Others can be
written to as well, perhaps to store a running total, eg. Phone card, debit
card, library card.

8. Smart Card

Contains a processing microchip to provide it with intelligence as well as

memory it is really a tiny computer, eg. the SIM card used in a mobile phone
identifies you through a PIN number, identifies and connects to your service
provider and provides a menu of options, as well as storing phone numbers
and phone settings.

9. Data Logger

A remote input/output device, which stores data received from sensors that
can then be input into a computer at another time or place. It can be left
alone to collect data over a long period of time and in hostile places, such as
on a satellite, at the bottom of the ocean or at the South Pole.

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10. Microchip

There are many chips inside a computer, some perform all the processing
tasks (eg. the Intel Pentium CPU), and some are used for the storage of data
as internal memory. They have the fastest access of all storage media.
Because of this, all files read from the hard disk into memory are also copied
into a separate memory "cache" and the next time you attempt to load them
from the hard disk, the computer will look in the cache first. There are two
types of internal memory:

 ROM (Read Only Memory) chips:

Are used to store the permanent operating system data (the basic input and
out put system. (BIOS). In some types of computer, such as a pocket book,
they may be used to store major programs such as a word processor. They
are however more difficult to replace when a new version is released. They
are also used to store the permanent programming inside a domestic device
such as a television or washing machine.

 RAM (Random Access Memory) chips:

Are used for temporary storage. They can be written to as well as read. A
program and your work files have to be transferred from your hard disk into
RAM when you want to work with them. You must then save your new work
back onto the hard disk or any other medium, as all RAM memory is lost
when the computer is switched off. Computers today are normally sold with
16, 32, 64, 128 and 256 megabytes of RAM plus at least a 512KB cache RAM.
First RAM chip introduced by Intel. It was called to 1103 and had a capacity of 1 K-
bit, 1024 bit.

11. Memory Stick:

The ultimate (and latest) replacement for the floppy disk. High memory
capacity on microchip therefore no moving parts and instant access. It plugs
directly into the USB port on any computer.

Measurement of memory:

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Memory refers to the space required to handle specific data capacity at any
one time. Memory is measured in basic units as below: -

Bits and Bytes

A byte is the unit of memory representing one unit of data.

It is a code made up of 8 bits (binary digits).

A byte is the amount of memory needed to store one keyboard character.

1 kilobyte (KB) = 1000 bytes (10^3)

1 megabyte (MB) = a million bytes (1000 kilobytes) (10^6)

1 gigabyte (GB) = a billion bytes (1000 megabytes) (10^9)

1 terabyte (TB) = 1000 gigabytes (10^12)

1 petabyte (PB) = 1000 terabytes (10^15)

About 4 kilobytes (4KB) is needed to store one full A4 page of text. A ten volume
encyclopaedia or 20 musical recordings might occupy 600 megabytes (600MB) on
a CD-ROM.A full-length feature film might occupy 4 gigabytes (4GB) on a DVD.
You would need something in the order of petabytes (billions of megabytes) to
store all the data for a complete human being in an electronic state, either on a
microchip to produce a hologram person such as "Rimmer" in "Red Dwarf" or for
transporting as a beam of energy to another planet as in "Startrek".

OUT PUT DEVICES/HARD WARE

Screens, printers, and plotters all provide computer output that the user can read.
Out put that appears on a visual display terminal is called soft copy.

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Refers to any peripheral that presents output from the computer, Output devices
include: -

1. Monitor.

It is an output device that provides the means of obtaining the soft copy.

In the mother board there is what we call an adapter which is a collection of

circuits that interface with the system hardware to control the computer
display

The display adapter can be a monochrome display adapter (MDA)

Or colour graphics adapter (CGA)

a) mono-chrome

this type is capable of displaying only one colour using the white or
green or umber (yellowish green) in the back ground and these are
less popular today

b) colour video (visual) standard colour monitors which display several

colours.

The commonest visual display unit (VDU) used by desktop computers

today. It is similar to a TV. It uses a cathode ray tube (CRT) to fire electrons
at a coating of very tiny phosphor dots on the inside of the screen. This
causes the dots to glow.

A red, green and blue (RGB) dot makes up a pixel of visible light. By
varying the intensity of each of these primary colours, the whole pixel will
appear to the human eye as any colour desired. The denser the pixels the
greater are the clarity, or resolution, of the screen image.

Color graphics adapter (CGA)

Enhanced graphics adapter(EGA)

 VGA (Video Graphics Array) = 640 x 480 pixels

 SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) = 800 x 600 pixels
 XGA (Extended Graphics Array) = 1024 x 768 pixels

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LCD Monitor - smaller, lighter and using much less power than a normal CRT
monitor makes them ideal for portable laptop computers. Also used in watches
and calculators. For the scientists amongst you this is all to do with the
polarisation of light by an electromagnetic field applied to a crystal. This produces
a liquid crystal display (LCD).

Functions of the monitor

 It displays the progress or output of the user’s commands and this helps to
decide on the next step.
 It makes a computer productive, interactive tool due to its instant visual
feedback.
 It makes computing to be a continuous process due to its ability to provide
constant visual feedback.

Screen size

The screen size is measured in diagonal distance left to bottom right or top right to
bottom left.

Antiglares

Screens are normally mounted with rectangular glasses called antiglares which are
to reduce on the intensity of light and the flickering effect.

Antiglares are recommended for any person spending at least two hours a day on a
personal computer.

2. Speakers.

For playing music or speech from programs, CD-ROMs and musical instruments.

3. Printer.

Is an output device used to write a copy after a days’ processing. A copy normally
printed is referred to as a hard copy. Printers come in different types depending on
the nature of work as designed by the manufacturer. Printer can be categorized in
several ways the most common distinction is IMPACT and NON-IMPACT.

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Impact printers:
This is a printer whose print mechanism gets into contact with the paper. It works
like a typewriter, examples include: Dot matrix, line printers, Band printers.
These use a printing metal “hammer” embossed with a character strikes a print
ribbon, which presses the characters image into paper. In other types the hammer
strikes the paper and presses it into the ribbon characters created through impact
printing can be formed by either a solid font or dot matrix printing mechanism.

Non-impact printers:

Does not depend on the impact of metal on paper. In fact no physical contact at all
occurs between the printing mechanism and the paper. The most popular non-
impact methods today utilize thermal transfer, ink-jet.

Daisy-Wheel Printer:

Like a typewriter but with the preformed letters on the ends of spokes to form a
wheel. The letters strike an inked ribbon onto paper.

Advantages of using the daisy wheel printer:

(a) Good (typewriter quality) resolution.

Disadvantages:

(a) Very slow - ½ ppm (page per minute).

(b) Very noisy.

(c) Can only print the characters provided on the wheel and no graphics (line
drawings, pictures).

(d) It prints only in one colour (monochrome) only.

 Dot-Matrix Printer:

Is a set of steel pins strikes an inked ribbon onto paper producing a sequence of
dots. Low resolution - 72 dpi (dots per inch) - can just see the dots.

Advantages of using a dot-matrix printer:

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(a) Quite fast - 1 ppm.

(b) Slightly noisy.

(c) Can print any shape of character (font) stored in the computer memory and
any graphics, all on the same page.

(d) Some are capable of printing low quality colours on same page using multiple
ribbons.

 Ink-Jet Printer:

Fires a jet of liquid ink through tiny holes. High resolution - 300 to 600 dpi for
almost professional quality, sharp printing. Fast - 3 ppm.

Advantages of using ink – jet printer:

(a) Very quiet.

(b) Full black and colour print on same page.

(c) It has a very high resolution of between 300 – 600 dpi.

(d) Thousands of colours are created by mixing tiny dots of cyan, magenta and
yellow (CMY) ink on the paper.

Better printers have separate black, cyan, magenta and yellow cartridges for
easier replacement when empty.

Disadvantages:

(a) It is very expensive in the long run to replace the cartridges after being used up.

 Laser Printer:
First laser printer introduced by IBM - the IBM 3800. The first colour versions
came onto the market in 1988. It works like a photocopier; powdered ink is fused
onto paper by heat and pressure. Very high resolution - 600 to 1200 dpi for full
professional quality.

Advantages of using laser printer:

(a) Very fast: 6 -16 ppm for multiple copies.

(b) Almost silent.

(c) It prints many copies before the cartridge is used up.

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 Disadvantages:

i. Colour laser printers are quite expensive but are cheaper to run than colour
inkjet printers.

 Braille Printer:

By converting text into the Braille code, this printer produces patterns of raised
dots on paper for use by the blind.

 Thermal Transfer Printer:

It is a kind of non-impact printer. In electro thermal printing, characters are

burned on to a special paper by heated rods on a print heat. They transfer ink from
a wax-based ribbon onto plain paper. These printers can support high quality
graphic.

4. Graphics Plotter:

Uses high precision motors controlled by the computer to draw on paper with
coloured ink pens. Used for drawings where a high degree of accuracy is required
such as building plans, printed circuit boards and machine parts.

5. Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

Small low power devices, which emit light. Used to indicate various events such as
power on or hard disk in operation and to monitor other control applications.

6. Relay switches and motors:

A computer can be programmed very easily to turn switches on and off at the
required times. For example to control traffic lights or electric motors in a robot
arm. Used in the automobile industry to spray body shells or to assemble and weld
parts together; or to assemble delicate electronic components on a printed-circuit
board for computers, radios and almost anything else you can think of.

Factors to Consider When Evaluating /Choosing Printers

1. image Quality/print resolution (dots per inch)Dpi

the higher the resolution, the higher the print quality

2. Speed

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By measuring the pages per minute (ppm)
3. initial costs
colour printers always cost more than the black and white
4. Cost of operation
This includes the cost of maintaining the printer, the cost of toner or ink

REVISION EXERCISE 1.
QUESTION ONE:
Use the diagram below to answer questions 1 (a) and (b)
i
iii

ii

B B

The above diagram represents the flow of data i.e. capital B, from device (i) to
device (ii), then device (iii).
a. What are the functions of devices labeled (i), (ii), and (iii)?
i. .............................................................................
ii. ……………………………………………………………………………..
iii. ……………………………………………………………………………..
b. How was letter ‘b’ capitalized on the input device labeled
(i)?...................................................................................................
...................................................................................
c. Fill the blank spaces of the passage with the most appropriate
word from the words in the box.

Programs processing output

Hardware storage peripheral

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 d. A computer system regardless of its size consists of an input
device, memory, an device, and a
device. A computer system is a group of
machines or . A computer performs its
information processing operations under the control of sets of
instructions called . Printers are examples of
devices which can be attached as part of the computer system.
e. There are 8 bits in one byte. How many bits in five bytes?

f. Which type of computer memory stores as they are typed

from the keyboard?

QUESTION 2.
1) (a) Explain the term “System Unit” and name 6 six components found in the
system unit.
(b) Why would it not be good to install water based fire extinguishers in the
computer room?
2)What precaution would you take in the computer room in case:
(i) The humidity falls below normal for prolonged periods due to weather
change.
(ii) Users complain of backaches after long periods of using the computer.
QUESTION 3.
1. (a) Distinguish between a Computer and a computer system.
(b) Write short notes on the five computer generations that are existent.
(c)Describe the various categories and classification of computers.
PRACTICAL ACITIVITY
‘’With the help of the computer lab technician and instructor, open up the system
unit, identify 15 (fifteen) different computer components inside the system unit
and give the function of each”.

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COMPUTER DATA SECURITY

 It refers to protection and maintaining of the hardware, software and data

against access or modification.
 Computer security may also be defined as the denial of data and information
to unauthorized users. In this definition, it means that data and
information is only provided to authorized users only.
Computer Security involves enforcement of:
1. Physical security (protecting the computer hardware facility)
2. And the Internal security of the machine (data and information
security)
Physical Security.
There is need to safeguard the computer equipment from hazards like water fire
lightening, dust, and extreme temperatures by use air conditioners.

Internal security of the machine.

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This involves the putting up of necessary firewalls and protection against
alteration of software and data.
Common data security threats and risks include:
1) Computer viruses.
2) Unauthorized access and use of computer systems
3) Computer errors and accidental access.
4) Theft of data, hardware, and software.

1. COMPUTER VIRUSES

What is a computer Virus?

A computer virus is a program designed specifically to damage, infect and affect

other programs or data or cause irregular behavior of the computer without the
permission of the user.

Behavior of a computer virus.

 It replicates itself from one computer system to another.

 It destroys program and data files by interfering with the normal processes
of the operating system.
 The spread of the virus is accelerated by the increased use on networks,
internet and e-mail.

The risks or threats posed by viruses and the primary impact of a virus can be
broadly classified into:
1. Destructive Viruses

Type of Destruction Symptoms

Massive Destruction Attacks the format of disks whereby any
program or data damage will be
unrecoverable.
Partial Destruction Erasure and modification of the specific
portion of disk affecting any files stored
in the location.
Selective Destruction Erasure and modification of specific files
or file groups.
Random Havoc Randomly changing data on disk or in

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 memory during normal program
execution, or changing key stroke
values, or data from other input/output
devices.
Network Saturation Systematically using up computer
memory or space to impede
performance or cause the system to
crash.

2. Non-Destructive Viruses

These viruses do not cause any destruction, but are annoying. They usually display
messages, change display messages, change display colors, change key stroke
values (e.g. changing the effect of the SHIFT/UNSHIFT keys) and delete characters
displayed on a visual display.

Sources of Virus (Spread)

Research has shown that viruses can be introduced into computer systems from a
variety of sources. Some of the most common sources are the following:

1. Contact with contaminated systems

Any diskettes used on a contaminated system could become contaminated.
If the same diskettes are used on another system, then the virus will spread.

2. Pirated Software
The use of pirated software introduces the risk that the software may be
contaminated by the virus code or amended to perform some other
destructive function which may affect your system.

3. Infected Proprietary Software

There have been instances of virus programs being introduced and
contaminating software under development in laboratories and then being
installed onto diskettes containing the finished software product. The
number of recorded instances of this is still very low, but the possibility that
cellophane wrapped diskettes bought from an approved supplier could be
contaminated still exists.

4. Fake games
Many people like playing games on the computers and for the same reason
games programs spread very fast. It can take less than two years for a game
program to spread to Australia, South America and Europe. There are even
some game programs that pose as software e.g. hotsex.exe these games
infect the system as they are installed.
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 5. Freeware and Shareware
Both freeware and Shareware are commonly available from Bulletin Board
Systems (BBS). Generally a registration fee is requested, to be sent directly
to the author. Such programs should be treated with caution, and initially
used in a controlled environment until it is clear that the program actually
does what it is supposed to do and does not contain either virus or
destructive code.

6. Updates of software distributed via Networks

Software distributed vial networks are fairly obvious targets for virus
programmers, as they provide a built in method for widespread and
anonymous propagation.

How are viruses activated?

Viruses are activated in three ways. These are:

1. Opening an infected file

2. Running an infected program
3. Starting up the computer with an infected disk.

Types of Viruses include the following:

Boot Sector Virus

Is a virus which executes when a computer starts up because it resides in the boot
sector of the floppy disk or the master boot record of the hard disk (MBR).

A File Virus
This attaches itself to program files, and is loaded into memory when the infected
program is run.

Macro Virus
This uses the macro language of an application (e.g. Word processor or
spreadsheet) to hide the virus code.

Logic Bomb
Is a virus that activates when it detects a certain condition.

Time Bomb
Is a kind of logic bomb that activates on a particular date.

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Worm
This copies itself repeatedly in memory or on a disk drive until no memory or disk
space remains, which makes the computer stop working.

Trojan horse
Is the program that hides within or looks like a legitimate program, but executes
when a certain condition or action is triggered.
Polymorphic Virus
This modifies its program code each time it attaches itself to another program or
file, so that even an antivirus utility has difficulty in detecting it.

Virus Symptoms

The presence of a virus can be indicated if one or more of the following symptoms
appear on your computer. Any evidence of these or similar events should be an
immediate cause for concern to isolate the PC at once and investigated.

1. Unfamiliar graphics or quizzical messages appearing on screens.

2. Programs taking longer than usual to load
3. Disk accesses seeming excessive for simple tasks
4. Unusual error messages occurring more frequently.
5. Less memory available than usual.
6. Access lights turning on for non-referenced devices.
7. Programs or files mysteriously disappearing.
8. Executable files changing size for no obvious reason.
9. Changes to disk volume IDs

Detection and Removal of Viruses.

To prevent infection of your computer system, Antivirus software is used.

An antivirus utility is a program that prevents, detects, and removes viruses

from a computer’s memory or storage devices.

Software antivirus guards include the following:

Norton antivirus, F-Secure, MacAfee, Dr.Solomon, AVG, Penicillin, Kasperskey,
Avila, Symantec etc.

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An antivirus utility scans for programs that attempt to modify the boot program,
the operating system, and other programs that are normally read from but not
modified.

Antivirus programs normally look for virus signatures to identify a virus.

A virus signature or virus definition is a known specific pattern, of virus code.

Users of antivirus utilities must update the virus definition files as often as possible
to ensure that such files have patterns of newly discovered viruses.

However a polymorphic virus modifies its program code each time it attaches itself
to another program or file, so that even an antivirus utility cannot detect it by its
virus signature.
Antivirus utilities may also detect viruses by inoculating existing program files.

To inoculate a program file, the antivirus utility records its file size and file
creation date in a separate inoculation file, and uses this information to detect if a
virus has altered the inoculated program file.

However a stealth virus infects a program file, but still reports the size and
creation date of the original, uninfected program.

If an antivirus utility cannot remove the virus, it often quarantines the infected file
in a separate area of a hard disk until the virus can be removed.

Most antivirus utilities can create a recovery disk to remove or repair the infected
programs and files. E.g. boot sector virus.

In extreme cases a hard disk may need to be reformatted to remove a virus.

A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk that can be used if the original is
lost, damaged or destroyed.

Files can be restored by copying the backed up files for their original location on
the computer.

Backup copies should be kept in a fireproof and heatproof safe or offsite.

Precautions that should be taken to guard against computer

viruses.

1. Ensure that there is a policy to ensure the usage of computers and their
protection and regulations.
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 2. Ensure that the e-mail is from a trusted source before opening or
executing any e-mail attachment.
3. Install an antivirus utility and update its virus definitions frequently for
detecting and removing viruses.
4. Never start up a computer with a floppy disk in a floppy drive.
5. Scan all floppy disks and files for possible virus infection before opening
them.
6. Set the security level for macros in an application so that the user can
choose whether or not to run potentially unsafe macros.
7. Write protect the recovery disk before using it.
8. Back up important files regularly.
9. sharing of diskettes

Steps taken if a virus attack is detected:

i.Identify and isolate PCs and disks which could be affected.

ii.Seek the advice of a specialist to perform the following tasks
a. Identification of virus code on affected disks.
b. Removal of virus code from all affected disks
c. Evaluation of the security procedures to ensure that the future virus
attacks are minimized.
iii.Determine how the virus was introduced to the system
iv.Look out for any infected disks that may have left the site.

2. Unauthorized access and use of computer systems.

Unauthorised access is the use of a computer or a network without permission.
Unauthorised access may take the following forms:

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 a) Eavesdropping: This is the tapping into communication channels to get
information. Hackers mainly use eavesdropping e.g. to obtain ATM pin-
numbers, and or credit card numbers.
b) Surveillance (Monitoring): This when a person keeps a profile of all
computer activities done by another person or people. The information
gathered may be used to spread propaganda or cause sabotage. Websites
keep track of your activities using special programs such as cookies.
c) Industrial espionage: This the act of spying on your competitor to get
information that you can use to counter or finish the competitor. An
example is when MTN-Uganda may spy the activities and plans of WARID-
Telecom or vice-versa in an operation to become supreme over one
another.
d) An employee who gets access to information he or she is not
supposed to get to.
e) Forced entry to a computer room through weak access points.
f) Strangers who may stray into the computer room through weak access
points.

Control measures against unauthorized access.

 Enforce data and information access control policies on all employees and
non-employees. Such policies may include: who can access the computers
or network, when to access them, what they can do when using the
computers or networks etc.
 Encrypt data data and information during transmission. Data encryption is
the mixing up of data into a form that is only understood and interpreted
by the sender and its receiver.
 Keep the computer room closed when nobody is using it.
 Enforce network security measures.
 Reinforce the weak access points like doors and windows by using metallic
grills and burglar alarms.
 Use of passwords (A password is a combination of characters associated
with a user name that allows a user to access a computer or a network.),
Biometric devices such as fingerprints, tokens (an object users may
carry to authenticate them), call back systems (this connects a user to a
computer only after the computer calls the user back at a previously
established telephone number).

3. Computer errors and accidental access.

Sometimes threats to data and information come from people making mistakes
like printing sensitive reports and unsuspectingly giving them to unauthorized
persons. Errors and accidental access to data and information may be as a result of
people experimenting with features they are not familiar with. For example

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downloading an unknown file which may be a virus and hence dangerous to the
computer system.

Computer errors and accidental access can be controlled through giving various
file access privileges and roles to end users and technical staff in organizations.

Causes of computer system failure include:

 Aging hardware (old mice and keyboard etc.).
 Natural disaster (fires,floods,storms, earthquakes etc.).
 Electrical power surges.
 Poor and weak hardware installation (loose connections).
 System virus attack.

4. Theft.
Stealing of computer hardware parts, software and computer data and information
is real and rampant. Some information is so valuable that business competitors
and governments can pay a fortune to somebody who can steal the information for
them to use. Hardware theft is also rampant ranging from students, technicians
and immoral persons in organizations.

Control against theft.

 Employ guards to keep watch over computer systems and data backups.
 Burglar proofs the computer room.
 Reinforce the weak access points like windows, doors and roofing with
metallic grills and padlocks.
 Create backups in locations away from the main computing centres.

Computer Crimes
Common computer crimes include:
1. Trespass:
2. hacking
3. cracking
4. tapping
5. piracy
6. fraud
7. sabotage
8. alteration

Explanation:
1. Trespass: is the illegal physical entry to restricted places where
computer hardware, software and backed up data is kept. Or

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 accessing information illegally on a local or remote computer
over a network.
2. Hacking: A hacker is a person who intentionally breaks codes
and passwords to gain unauthorized entry to computer systems.
3. Tapping: This when a person sends an intelligent program on a
host computer that sends him information from that computer.
This is at times referred to as spying.
4. Cracking: cracking refers to the se of guesswork over and over
again by a person until he or she finally discovers a weakness in
the security policies or codes in software.
5. Piracy: Piracy is the making of illegal copies of copyrighted
software, information or data. Software piracy is common in
many developing countries since most of the population cannot
afford prices of original copyrighted and licensed software.
Software piracy may be controlled through:
 Enacting laws that protect the owners of copyrighted
software.
 Making software cheap to increase affordability.
 Use licenses and certificates to identify originals.
 Set installation passwords that deter illegal installation of
software.
6. Fraud: computer fraud is the use of computers to conceal
information or cheat other people with the intention of gaining
money or information. An example of fraud is when a person
creates an intelligent program in the tax department that credits
his account with cents from other tax payers. Fraudsters may be
employees in a company or outsiders. In fact the insiders are
even more dangerous since they have a lot of information about
the running of organizational activities.
7. Sabotage: this is the illegal destruction of data and information
with the aim of crippling service delivery or causing great loss to
an organization. Sabotage is usually done by disgruntled
employees or those sent by competitors to cause harm to the
organization.
8. Alteration: This is the illegal changing of data and information
without permission with the aim of gaining or misinforming the
authorized users. This is usually done by persons who want to
hide the truth.

DETECTION AND PROTECTION AGAINST COMPUTER CRIMES.

It is important to look at some measures that can perhaps be taken to detect,
prevent, and control computer crimes and seal security loopholes. These measures
include:
1) Use of firewalls.
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 2)Log files
3) Data encryption
4) Audit trial.

Explanation.
1) Firewalls: a firewall is a device or software that filters the data and
information exchanged between different networks. It does so by enforcing
the host networks access policy. Firewalls monitor and control access to or
from protected networks.
2) Log files: these are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on
the use of computers and resources of a given information system. In a
mobile phone log files help users to establish missed, dialed, and received
calls. It is also possible to know the amount of money used or how long a
call has lasted, and who sent a message and at what time.
3)Data Encryption: Data encryption is the mixing up of data into a form that
is only understood and interpreted by the sender and its receiver.

The process of data encryption.

Cypher text
I lov U I lov U
U vol I I lov U
Plain text Encryption Decryption Plain text
key key

Decryption is the process of reconstructing the mixed up message into the original
message.
4) Audit trial: this is a careful study of an information system by experts in
order to establish or find out all weaknesses in the system that could lead to
security threats and weak access points for crimesters.

Exercise:
1.”Data and Information security has recently become very important “Explain.
2. (i) Define the term computer virus, and explain any four types of computer viruses.
(ii) Describe any five ways through which computer viruses are spread.
(iii) List any 6 six examples of antivirus software you know.

3.Differentiate between cracking and hacking with reference to computer crimes.

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COMPUTER SOFTWARE

You will recall from earlier sections that “hardware is the term used to describe all
the physical pieces of equipment used for data processing,
Where as “Software” is usually taken to mean all the programs containing
commands used to instruct a computer to perform a certain task. (set of electronic
instructions consisting of complex codes)

Software is a general term used to describe the role that program, procedures and
documentation play in a computer system

Software piracy:

This refers to the unauthorized duplication of computer software. Although

companies for financial gain do some software piracy, private individuals
who lend disks to friends or copy programs from the workplace to their
computers at home do most piracy.

Software manufacturers' attempts to protect their property – for example, by

using special codes to prevent programs from being installed more than
once from each set of disks – have proved unpopular with users and by-
passable by determined copiers.

There are basically two types of software

a) System software
b) Application software

System software

Is the software that manages all the operations of the computer, it consists of
programs and routines concerned with the control and performance of the
computer itself.

Such software is usually provided by the computer manufacturer, as it needs a

close understanding of the functioning and architecture of the computer
hardware.
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Functions of system software

d) booting the computer

e) making sure that all hardware elements are working properly
f) performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and
storing application programs
g) storing and retrieving files
h) Performing a variety of system utility functions.

It works “behind the scenes” it “underlies” application software.

THE BOOTING PROCESS

Booting means switching on the computer, when you switch on the computer it
performs the following.

2. Power on self-test (POST) at this stage the computer checks all

the parts of the computer to verify whether they exist, it checks
memory integrity, battery, settings and hard disk settings, floppy
and cd rom and other necessary components.

3. then the computer proceeds to look into the following files which
allow the booting and loading the operating systems, lo.sys –
control the initial booting

There are two types of booting

9. Cold booting: is starting the computer by switching on the

system unit and the monitor

10. warm booting: is starting the computer by holding down the

control, alternate and delete key, (Ctrl+Alt+Del)at once
This is called restarting the computer, this is done in case the
computer has experienced a problem.

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System software can be subdivided into

1. Operating system
2. Utilities and service programs
3. Software tools (programming languages)
4. Firmware
5. Networking software

Operating system

This refers to a set of system programs that allow the computer to manage its own
operations (responsible for managing resources of a computer enabling them to be
utilized efficiently).

Or these are system programs, which when installed on a computer act as a

platform or base for the application software, the hardware and the user to interact
and process data. i.e. the operating system schedules the order of in put and out
put operations supervices the processing of application programs and transfers
data from programs to disks and from disks to programs.

user Spreadsheet Operating system Monitor

Word processor Keyboard
Database manager Printer
Application software Hardware

Examples
 Disk operating system (D.O.S)

Operating system programs for micro computers are usually stored on a secondary
storage device, such as floppy disk, when an operating an operating system
program is stored on a disk, it is called a Disk Operating System, Dos.

The process of loading a disk operating system into the microcomputer’s RAM is
called Booting

Microcomputers also store basic input and output commands for the operating
system in Rom. These operating system commands that are stored in Rom are

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called BIOS, which stands for Basic Input and Output System these programs are
available just by turning the computer on.

Windows operating system such as windows NT,3.1, Me,95,98,2000,

millennium/XP etc.
A window refers to a separate area of the computer screen that is used to display
text messages, menus or other software programs
 Unix

Unix is an operating system that Bell Laboratories developed for mini computers
in the late 1960s, it was first used on a micro computer in 1978. an advantage of
unix is that it can run on micro-computers, mini,and mainframe. It is a mult user
operating system

 Linux, machintosh
The machintosh was introduced by Apple Computers in January 1984

 Os/2

This first appeared in January 1988, is the most talked about new operating system.
The commands in Os/2 are almost all identical to ms-dos commands. Developing
os/02 was a joint effort between IBM and Microsoft corporation. The most
importance feature is that it can support multitasking, which means that it can ran
two or more programs at the same time.

Each program runs in its own window

It has got the Graphic programming interface (GPI) a very powerful graphics
system.

The current version of Os/2 has a few problems, it can on computers with 80286 or
80386 microprocessors

An operating system provides an interface to enable the user interact with the
system.

An interface is the way a program interacts with a user

There are mainly two types of user interfaces

A) Graphical use interfaces (GUI)

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The graphical user interface provides commands and options in a graphical
environment, its basic components are windows dropdown and popup menus,
buttons,dialogue boxes, scroll bars and icons the user then uses a mouse to
execute commands. icons (picture or graphic image that appears on the screen to
present a command or menu choice, an icon system is often used together with a
mouse and eliminates the need for typing and memorizing complex commands).

B) Command line interface (CLI)

The user uses keys in commands using the keyboard. However one needs to
memorise all the commands and their syntax example (Dos)

Factors you consider when choosing an operating system

1. Basic design of the computer eg is it an IBM or IBM

compatible or an apple computer
2. Applications intended for the computer
3. User friendliness or human computer interface ie is command
line based or menu driven
4. Availability in the market eg Microsoft windows based are
very common
5. Cost, how expensive is the operating system
6. Reliability ie can it run without crashing or hanging
7. hardware configuration or provision of the computer eg
memory size, hard disk capacity, type of processor.

Functions of an operating system

 It ties all the hardware components of your computer such as the

keyboard, monitor disk drives and printers together as a functioning
system and controls their interaction and operation.
 it manages and directs the computer in running various application
programs
 it permits users to create files.
 it creates a link between the user and the computer hardware
through a graphical interface or command line interface.
 serves as a base software or platform on which a variety of programs
can operate.
 it also allows the user to work with several documents using
different programs in their own windows all at the same time.
 it provides valuable tools for data management. Such as storage in
files and folders, data back up, recovery and deletion.
 error handling
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Firmware.

It is a combination of both the software and hardware recorded parmanetly on

electronic chips

It is also referred to as stored logic. Usually a firmware is read-only memory chip

that is mounted or plugged into the motherboard. Firm ware may hold an
operating system, utility programs, language processors eg Bios, efi
It refers to embedded (fixed)devices that execute stored codes i.e. such as drivers,
boot set up, hard disks, memory cards.

Or electronically programmable devices on a mother board or other types of

integrated hardware carrier.

Middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems

Utility programs (service programs)

A utility program is a system program which performs common tasks of a routine

nature (utility routines) sometimes called house keeping tasks

Functions

A) Sorting/merging routine
This is a program designed to reorganize data files into the desired key- field
sequence, taking in data and rearranging it in any order as specified by the
user.

(iv) File Copy (Dumping)

This is a program which copies from one storage device to another.

(v) File Reoganisation (merging)

Combining data from more than one file into one file.

(vi) File maintenance

This utility enables the user to create, delete and amend records of a file.

(vii) Diagnostic routines

This is used by programmers in the course of program testing and facilitates
error detection and correction (bug) Disk defragmentation.

(viii) Data Compression and data recovery.

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System Tools (Programming Languages)

Programming Languages are media used by ma to write instructions that

command the computer hardware to perform certain tasks. Eg a manager uses
English to give instructions.

A computer however, only understands instructions in its machine language.

Programming software usually provides tools assist a programmer in writing

computer programs and software using different programming language.
The tools include (programming language translators:

High level programming language

Assembly language
Machine language
Hardware

Interpreters (a program that executes instructions written in a high level languge)

Compilers (a program that translates source code in object code)

Debuggers
Linkers
Text editors
Assemblers

The machine language is built into the processor hardware and comprises sets of
numbers which correspond to specific tasks (sometimes called machine’s
instruction set)

This section will consider three different categories of programming languages

 Machine language
 low level languages
 high level languages

The artificial computer languages have the following characteristics.

 They have grammar

 Rules governing the structure of language referred to as syntax
 They have vocabulary ie list of words accepted within a language
 Each key word in a language has only one meaning attached to it (semantic)

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Machine language
Each machine language is specific to each type of computers different types of
computers will have a different instruction set.

These are instructions written in binary code and can be directly obeyed by the
computer.
This is the language used in processing commands.

Low level language

Low level language represented the first attempts to ease the programmers job by
making the programming language easier to use.

Such languages make use of symbols or mnemonics instead of numbers and

generally given the name “assembly languages” eg “add”, “move”, that are easier to
remember.

High level programming language

Instructions are given eg in English like statements, it has two advantages, it
improves the productivity of the programmers by making one program instruction
generate a considerable amount of machine codes and enables program to be used
on different types of computers without rewriting them completely.

Common programming languages

Basic (Beginners all-purpose Symbolic instruction Code)

Is a simple, multi-purpose language which is easy to learn and is widely used on
micro computers, in computer education and for home computers.

COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)

Is the most widely commercial language and Is sponsored by US government

CODASYL (conference on data system languages) its of English statements.

FORTRAN (Formula Translation)

It is a scientific language with extensive arithmetic computations facilities and
ability to handle mathematical formulae which makes it particularly suitable for
use in engineering and scientific applications

PASCAL
Its named after Pascal a French mathematician, it facilitates the use of structured
programming techniques and is popular in both Education and commerce

Algol algorithmic language

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
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Where as system program help the computer to function better, application
programs are the programs that the user needs to do a specific job on a computer.
Or a specified program designed to meet a particular user need e.g. stock control,
pay roll etc

Also known as productivity tools, they packages/programs written for solving a

specific user problem or for performing a specific task Examples include:
Word processors, database managers, spreadsheets, and graphic packages

There are two types of application programs

8. Tailor-made or purpose written programs, where an

organisation has specifically written what is called a “suite” of
programs for its own use,

9. Off-the shelf packages where the organisation has bought in a

pre-written suite of programs rather than going to the trouble
of writing its own (cost effective) e.g. Word processors,
spreadsheets e.t.c.

WORD PROCESSORS

These are application that allow the user to manage documents consisting of text
(such as reports, letters, and memos.

Examples

Microsoft word
Word pad
Note pad
Word perfect
Kingsoft writer

Microsoft word
It is an application software that helps the user create, edit, format, save typed
documents, open or retrieve and print out.

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Functions
1. Allows the creation and editing of documents by entering or typing text
using the keyboard and there after you can insert, copy replace delete and
spell check text

2. Helps to set the lay out of a document to make the document readable and
visually attractive by applying formatting options such as text type, size lay
outs, spacing.

3. It enables the user to print the document specifying whether to the whole
document or certain pages, either portrait or landscape

4. It provides file handling tools regarding creation of a new document, saving

retrieving and closing of document files.

Advantages
 Produces professional work
 Identification of mistakes
 Editing, correction of mistakes
 Can easily integrate with other packages

SPREADSHEETS

Definition

A spreadsheet is a grid of rows and columns that holds information, it accepts

entry, allows editing and manipulation of numeric data.

Types of spreadsheets:

1. Manual spreadsheets
2. The electronic spreadsheets

The manual spreadsheet is the most commonly used type by book keepers as a
ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into rows and columns on which
various amounts of money are entered manually using a pen or a pencil.

An electronic spreadsheet on the other hand is prepared using a computer

program that enables the user to enter values in row and columns similar to the
ones of the manual spreadsheet and to manipulate them mathematically using a
formulae.

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ADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS OVER MANUAL
SPREADSHEETS

 The electronic spreadsheet utilises the powerful aspect of the computer like
speed, accuracy and efficiency to enable the user quickly accomplish tasks

 The electronic spreadsheet offers a lager virtual sheet for data entry and
manipulation.
 255 columns and 65536 rows

 The electronic spreadsheet utilises the large storage space on computer

storage devices to save and retrieve documents

 The electronic spreadsheets enables the user to produce neat work, all the
work is edited on the screen and a final clean copy is printed unlike the
manual whose neatness depends on the writer’s handwriting and skills

 An electronic spreadsheet has a better document formatting capability

 An electronic spreadsheet has an inbuilt formulae called functions that

enables the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data

 An electronic spreadsheet automatically adjusts the result of a formula if

the values in worksheet are changed. This is called the automatic
recalculation feature.

Examples of spreadsheets (different spreadsheet packages)

 VisiCale: this was the first type of spreadsheet to be developed for personal
computers
 Lotus 1-2-3: this is an integrated software with spreadsheet module, graphs
and database
 Microsoft Excel
 Quattro pro
 Grass hopper
 View sheet
 Multiplan
And other spreadsheets that are customised to specific organisations

Components of a spreadsheet:

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  Worksheet
 Database
 Graphs

Worksheet

This is the component in which data values are entered. It is made up of rows and
columns. The intersection between a row and a column is called a cell. A group of
many worksheets make up workbook

Database

Data values can be entered in the cells of the spreadsheet and managed by special
excel features found on the data menu. These features were incorporated in excel
but they actually belong to database management software.

Graphs

A graph is a pictorial representation of the base data on a worksheet. Most

spreadsheets refer to graphs as charts.

Functions of spreadsheets

1. Spreadsheets allow entry of data

2. Spreadsheets allow saving
3. Spreadsheets allow quick retrieval of documents
4. Spreadsheets allow formatting
5. Spreadsheets allow printing out the final output

Uses of spreadsheets
1. Preparation of budgets
2. Preparation of cash flow analysis
3. General accounting preparations of financial statements
4. Basic business information (job costing, payment schedules, pay slips, stock
control and records, tax records.
5. Analysis of data from questionnaires
6. Presentation of information in tabular form graphical and chart
7. Mathematical techniques and computation like trigonometry

8. Statistical computations like standard deviations.

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Cell data types
There are four basic types of data used with spreadsheets:

 Labels
 Values
 Formulae
 Functions

Labels
Any text or alphanumeric characters entered in a cell are viewed as labels by the
spreadsheet program. Labels are used as row or column headings.

Labels are aligned to the left of the cell and cannot be manipulated
mathematically.

Values.
These are numbers that can be manipulated mathematically. They may include
currency, date, numbers (0-9), and special symbols

Formulae
These are user designed mathematical expressions that create a relationship
between cells and return a value in a chosen cell. In Microsoft Excel, a formula
must start with an Equal sign. =B3+D4. Using cell addresses, also called
referencing enables accuracy and automatic recalculation

Functions
These are inbuilt predefined formulae that the user can quickly use instead of
having to create a new one. Ie =SUM(), AVERAGE etc
(Statistical functions, logical ieIF function, mathematical using operators +
,=.>=*%/ etc

Cell referencing
A cell reference identifies a cell or a range of cells on the worksheet and shows
Microsoft Excel where to look for the values or data needed to use in a formula.

Relative cell reference

When performing tasks that require cell referencing, you can use formulae whose
cell references keep on changing automatically depending on their position in the
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worksheet. This is called relative cell referencing. A good example would be if you
type the formula =A1+B1 in cell C1. if the same formula is copied to cell C2 the
formula automatically changes to =A2+B2.

Absolute cell referencing

These are cell references that always refer to cells in a specific location of the
worksheet even if they are copied from one cell to another. To make a formula
absolute, add a dollar sign before the letter and/or number such as $B$10. in this
case, both the column and the row references are absolute.

DATABASES
This an application package which permits the creation, storage and quick
retrieval of information,

Different database package

Microsoft Access
Dbase
Fox pro
Oracle
Fox pro

Examples of databases
School grade book
Library catalogue
Telephone directory
Address book

Definitions
File: the entire collection of data

Field: Each bit of information in the record, The individual data items
held for each record.

 The customer - Name, Business, Address, Telephone Number

Contact Name.
 The product - Part Number, Description, Cost Price, Sales Price,
etc.

Record: particulars within a file

Attribute: a group of fields or columns in a table

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A primary key: used to ensure that there is no duplicate field in the table

Functions of database

 Create, organize and manage a collection of related information

 Storage of information
 Quick retrieval of information according to users interest by a certain

Why Use an Electronic Database?

Background Electronic databases allow the user to carry out the same tasks as
paper-based databases but with the following advantages:

 Increased speed.
 Easy to use.
 Store very large amounts of data.
 Allow for easy inputting and editing of data.
 Automatic updating and recalculating of data.
 Allow for easy sorting of data.
 Allow for easy searching and selection of data.
 Format, arrange and present information in the way that you want it.
 Share the information with other software applications/programs.
 On networks, electronic databases allow you to share one set of information
amongst many users and therefore reduce duplication.
 Reduction of duplication prevents the problem of keeping several copies of the
same database up to date and in-line with each other.

The objects/structures
A table: this the basic database structure, it consists of columns and rows

Introducing Access Tools

Background

When working with a database you require more than just the data. In order
to manipulate, process and present your data as information you require a set of
utilities or tools.

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What are forms?

You can use a form to input, edit or view information in your database record by

record.

It will allow you to see what you want in the way that you want to see it.

Forms can be created to imitate your paper documents.

What is a query/dynaset?
A query is a question you ask about your data:

 How many accounts are overdue?

 What customers do we have in Birmingham?

Whenever you ask a query of your database you get the latest up to date
information.

What are reports? You use reports to print and view information from your
database.

Reports allow you to produce your information in the way that you want and
enable you to:

 Group information.
 Calculate totals and averages.

What is PowerPoint?

Background Microsoft PowerPoint is part of the Microsoft Office suite of

programs. Its primary function is for producing presentation materials as follows.

On-screen presentations You can design, produce and deliver on-screen

presentations that include color, clipart, sound, animation and video clips.

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Overhead transparencies You can print your slides in either portrait or
landscape formats for the creation of overhead transparencies. If you have the
correct printer type you can print directly onto acetates in color.

35 mm slides Should you wish to use 35 mm slides for your presentation

formatting and sending a presentation file to a service bureau can achieve this.

Paper printouts It is possible to print out slides onto paper for review and/or
use within discussions.

Handouts You can print handouts for delegates that contain reduced size
copies of your slides, with multiple sides per page.

Notes PowerPoint is also able to produce notes pages with one slide per page.
These can be used by speakers to write their presentation or by delegates to record
their own notes.

OutlinesPowerPoint is able to produce presentation outlines containing as much

or as little information as required. These can be used by the presenter as a
guide/crib sheet.

Banners (for Web sites) Used for creating small rectangular banners that can be
placed on a Web site page.

Networking operating system

A network operating system is a supervisory software program that resides on a

server. It controls how the network operates by defining who can use the network
and how information and peripherals are shared among users.

Examples
Novell net ware (most popular)
Microsoft Windows NT
Apple share
UNIX/NFS

What is a Computer Network ?

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A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share
resources, exchange files, or allow electronic communications. Is a system
for communication among two or more computers.

Range of computer networks :

Computer networks are found in four major ranges. These are:

Personal area network (PAN):

A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication

among computer devices (including telephones and personal digital
assistants) close to one person. The devices may or may not belong to the
person in question.

Local area network (LAN):

Is a computer network covering a local area, like a home, office or small group of
buildings such as a college. The topology of a network dictates its physical
structure. The generally accepted maximum size for a LAN is 1000m2.

Metropolitan area networks or MANs

Are large computer networks usually spanning a campus or a city. They typically
use optical fiber connections to link their sites.

Wide area network or WAN

Is a computer network covering a wide geographical area, involving vast array of

computers. This is different from personal area networks (PANs), metropolitan
area networks (MANs) or local area networks (LANs) that are usually limited to a
room, building or campus. The best example of a WAN is the Internet. Using a
WAN, schools in Uganda can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter of
minutes, without paying enormous phone bills.

Functional relationship:

In any given form of network, computers communicate to each other depending

on the relationship that exists. The following shows the relationship therein.

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Client / Server is a network application architecture, which separates the client
from the server. Each instance of the client software connects to a server or
application server.

Client/Server is a scalable architecture whereby each computer or process on the

network is either a client or a server. Server software generally but not always runs
on powerful computers dedicated for exclusive use to running the business
application.

Client software on the other hand generally runs on common PCs or workstations.
Clients get all or most of their information and rely on the application server for
things such as configuration files, stock quotes, business application programs or
to offload computer intensive application tasks back the server to keep the client
computer free to perform other tasks.

Advantages of a client/server network:

 Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
 Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
 Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
 Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
 Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network:

 Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
 Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
 Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the
network.

A peer-to-peer (or P2P) computer network:

Refers to the network, where any node is able to initiate or complete any
supported transaction with any other node. It is a network in which resources and
files are shared without a centralized management source.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

 Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only
need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

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Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network:

 Decentralized - No central repository for files and applications.

 Security - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

Topology:

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,

computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with
logical topology which is the method used to pass information between
workstations.

Bus topology: A bus network is such that there is a

single line (the bus) to which all nodes are

connected, and the nodes connect only to this bus.

Advantages

 Easy to implement and extend

 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 Typically the cheapest topology to implement
 Failure of one station does not affect others
 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages:

 Difficult to administer/troubleshoot
 Limited cable length and number of stations
 A cable break can disable the entire network
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
 Performance degrades as additional computers are added
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Mesh topology:

A network topology in which there are at least two nodes with two
or more paths between them. A special kind of mesh, limiting the

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number of hops between two nodes, is a hypercube.

Ring topology:

A network topology in which every node has exactly two branches

connected to it. These nodes and branches form a ring. If one of the
nodes on the ring fails then the ring is broken and cannot work. A
dual ring topology has four branches connected to it, and is more
resistant to failures.

Advantages

 Growth of the system has minimal impact on performance

 All stations have equal access
 Each node on the ring acts as a repeater, allowing ring networks to span greater
distances than other physical topologies..

Disadvantages

 Often the most expensive topology

 Failure of one computer may impact others

Star topology:

A network topology in which peripheral nodes are

connected to a central node, which rebroadcasts all
transmissions received from any peripheral node to all
peripheral nodes on the network, including the originating
node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting
to, and receiving from, the central node only

Advantages

 Easy to implement and extend, even in large networks

 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 Easy to detect network problems

 Disadvantages

 Limited cable length and number of stations

 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run

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 Performance degrades as additional computers are added
 Failure of the central node can disable the entire network.

Tree and hypertree topologies :

Are important special cases of star network topologies.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type

of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes
down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

A grid network

Is a kind of computer network consisting of a number of (computer)

systems connected in a grid topology.

In a regular grid topology, each node in the network is connected

with two neighbors along one or more dimensions. If the network is
one-dimensional, and the chain of nodes is connected to form a circular loop, the
resulting topology is known as a ring.

Factors to consider before buying a school network:

1. Ease of use. Teachers and students have to be able to send and receive software,
messages and schoolwork easily. Management programs should be easy to use.

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2. Compatibility. Most computer manufacturers now produce their own networks,
so compatibility shouldn't be a problem. Increasingly, however, other
companies are selling LANs, mostly for IBMs or clones. These might be cheaper
or more appropriate.

3. RAM use. How much random access memory does the network need for each
computer? With the minimum amount, you should still be able to run all your
essential programs and more.

4. Size, distance, and expandibility. How many computers can the network
accommodate, and can it be expanded? Although it may seem unlikely now,
you may want to add more computers in the future. In addition, discuss closely
with the manufacturer how you intend to use the network. Placing computers
far apart can affect the network's efficiency.

5. Security. If you need security, how does it work? Does the network provide the
security you need while still allowing you to run the programs you need?

6. Maintenance. Unfortunately, too many districts leave maintenance to their

computer coordinators or even teachers. Ask the manufacturer about
management contracts. It may be cheaper to train a few technicians to service
networks.

7. Bandwidth, speed, throughput; interfaces and gateways. These are technical

words which apply to the kinds of information you plan to send (text, pictures,
graphs) over the network. Have the manufacturer demonstrate how well the
network handles them.

8. Ease of installation. Installation might come with the package, or it may be easy
enough to do yourself. Some LANS, however, require extensive wiring or
software installation. If you're not prepared to manage this, pay the installation
charge.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

1. Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a
network; you do not have to purchase concentrators.

2. Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.

3. Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by

adding another concentrator.

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4. Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair,
which is most often used with star topologies.

Advantages of Installing a School Network:

The days of the standalone computer are drawing to a close. Networks will
dominate the educational technology scene into the 1990s. Why are networked
computers making greater inroads into schools than ever before? The answers are
many and varied, but most educators agree that networks offer them the following
advantages:

1. Use of diskettes:

They eliminate the handling of floppy disks.

2. Costs of printing:

They cut down on computer printouts, making it possible for students' work to be
viewed on-screen, sent to teachers' workstations, or even channeled into
"electronic gradebooks."

3. Management programmes:

They support management programs that give teachers detailed reports on a

student's progress, even pointing out areas where improvement is necessary.

4. Sharing:

They allow several students in a class to use one program at the same time, or to
work on different programs or different parts of the same program at the same
time.

5. Cost:

They eliminate the need to buy several copies of one software program, thereby
often reducing costs.

6. Speed.

Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a
network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending

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the disks from one computer to another. This method of transferring files (referred
to as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming.

7. Security.

Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you
do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be
established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.

8. Centralized Software Management.

One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a school is the fact that all of
the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This eliminates that
need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on
independent computers throughout the building.

9. Electronic Mail.

The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install an e-mail

system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication for all school
personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information to the entire
school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to communicate with
teachers and peers at their own school. If the LAN is connected to the Internet,
students can communicate with others throughout the world.

10. Flexible Access.

School networks allow students to access their files from computers throughout
the school. Students can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on
a public access area of the network, then go to the media center after school to
finish their work. Students can also work cooperatively through the network.

11. Workgroup Computing.

Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows many users to work on

a document or project concurrently. For example, educators located at various
schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new
curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.

12. File transfer archives

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13. interactive communication like chanting

Disadvantages of Installing a School Network

1. Expensive to Install.

Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial costs of
installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive,
and the installation may require the services of a technician.

2. Requires Administrative Time.

Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. Many

schools have installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for the
necessary administrative support.

3. File Server May Fail.

Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other

computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come
to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary
programs and files.
4. Cables May Break.

The Topology chapter presents information about the various configurations

of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken
cable can stop the entire network.

What is a Bus?
A bus is an electronic path way that provides interface for movement of 1s and 0s
from one place to another.

Functions
It provides connection of devices
It allows transmissions of 1s and 0s from one place to another
To connect the cpu to Ram
With the help of the cpu determines a unique address for data.

NETWORK

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It refers to a series of physical remote devices (terminals and computers) and their
associated connecting cabling and transmission facilities.

Intranet

An intranet is a private network that is contained with in an enterprise.

It may consist of many interlinked

Computers today:

Computers are used in very many areas today to supplement on the days man’s
efforts. Today computers are used in the following areas: -

 In medicine.
 In education (computer aided learning CAL, computer based training CBT).
 In medicine (body chips, etc).
 In manufacturing (computer aided design CAD).
 In office automation.

Question1:

How true is it that “Computer is an aid to education”?

Approach:

Define a computer.

Give the contribution of computers as a way of aiding education in your country.

Facts:

Computers are increasingly being used in schools in the various areas of education
life in Uganda. Computers can aid education in the following ways:

1. Computers are used in the teaching as an aid in many different subject e.g. in
maths, geography, e.t.c. Much safer and cheaper to use when learning than in a
real plane/rocket etc.

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2. Can be used in while monitoring progress and testing pupils eg computer
generated reports.

3. Computers are used for electronic mailing systems both inside the school and
to communicate with other schools or organisations. This brings schools in the
world as a mere centre of education.

4. To assist in administration e.g. database of students. This makes storage and

retrieval of information against a particular student timely and whenever
needed. This speeds decisions of the school in line with education.

5. For careers advice or helping to find a place in a college or university

computers are generally used. This helps only the selected candidates to meet
the attached course and discipline.

6. As the expansion of our own school’s web site has shown, the Internet is
increasingly important being used for research. Students can obtain notes in all
the subjects that they do study and sometimes tasks, projects are also provided
which in all promote education.

7. Can be used to simulate emergency situations such as engine failure or fire, and
give the pilot/driver practice in handling a dangerous situation which might
never occur, but which if it did, would require a correct and rapid response.

8. Can standardise training given to different trainees - each person using the
program is receiving identical input, which would be difficult to produce in real
life. This may even be impossible e.g. medical training for cervical smear
testing.

9. Students can revisit the training package as many times as is necessary for
further reference and acquaintance.

Sometimes, it is not true that computers can aid learning and education in
general because of the following eventualities: -

1. Only as good as the program / rules that have been written - all rules must be
completely accurate. This limits the use of other programs in line with
education.

2. Cannot allow for unforeseen eventualities, random events, among others as

machines used are always slow and not modern.

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3. If data or rules written into program are wrong, then answers/responses will be
wrong for example for all computer based examinations that include the
multiple choice mode of response.

4. Does not provide human interaction - may not answer all of the trainees
questions. This makes the learning and education process more of a theory that
a required necessity.

Question 2:

In what ways have computers improved the quality of life for the
ordinary person? Are there any ways in which the use of computers
have contributed to a supposed decline in our quality of life? From
your knowledge, make a considered evaluation of the role of IT in
bringing about changes, which effect individuals, organisations and
society.

Approach:

 Define a computer, and IT.

 Explain the ways in which computers have contributed both positively and
negatively to the ordinary person; have the contributions elevated or brought
about a social decline in the society?

Answer sketch:

Definition:

A computer is a programmable electronic device that processes data and performs

calculations and other symbol-manipulation tasks. The introduction of computers
and information technology has lead to the following socially: -

Negative:

1. The introduction of automated machinery in manufacturing industries has

created job losses. Many people have lost jobs mainly in banks and the
accounting areas. For example, ATM machines have meant job losses in
banking

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2. The widespread use of computers has led to new crimes such as hacking; this
violates the software copyright, and virus creation that cause crashing of PCs.

3. Using the Internet is time-consuming and reduces social interaction. This

encourages daydreaming and gambling.

4. Information handling tasks have been taken over by computers and can
therefore be performed by lower grade workers. This is dangerous where a non
– professional secretary who may release information that may be harmful for
public consumption typesets an official document on a street.

5. There are problems with undesirable material published on the Internet for
example pornography, which hinders the psychological growth of the child.

6. Some digital devices are costly to repair for example a digital camera, keyboard,
and mouse, among others. This makes the use of a computer and IT equally
expensive.

7. Teleworkers are unable to separate home and work commitments this make
bring about domestic disagreements elsewhere. Businesses feel that they have
less control over Teleworkers.

8. Some people find the new technology too complicated. This encourages the
gradual intentional damage and corruption of the technology with a view of
benefiting if the technology is not used for example Accountants.

Positive:

1. There are many new forms of entertainment for instance one can make
bookings, bet, on-line music, radio stations, newspapers, and other forms of
entertainment a person can access within a short time possible. Therefore,
mostly the boring and repetitive jobs have been removed from factories

2. Information such as availability and cost of a commodity or a service is often

readily available over the Internet. This makes it easier for ill or disabled people
to shop on-line (e-commerce and e-business). People feel they have no need to
leave the home to scavenge for goodies.

3. Many people have access to money via debit and credit cards. This promotes
the discharge of goods and services for money. For example with the Nile Bank
of Uganda. This promotes e-business.

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4. Many large companies send computerised statements telling people how much
they owe e.g. Gas Bills, Water Bills, Electricity Bills among others.

5. There is much personal data stored on computers. This makes a computer the
most reliable device where a person can store and retrieve data from at a stone
throw. This speeds business decision. People have become too reliant on
microprocessor-controlled equipment in the home and other places.

6. The time taken to search for information has been reduced. This has
encouraged the Computer Aided Learning (CAL) facility. Persons can graduate
on-line, access job opportunities, etc.

7. People can have meetings using video-conferencing. Businesses are in position

to dispense all grievances and polish all ideas for the good of the company. This
promotes efficiency in all business engagements.

8. Inland revenue monitor the tax that people pay using computers. This means
that they have more accurate records about us. In terms of Pay As You Earn
(PAYE), and other forms of tax levies.

9. Microprocessor-controlled devices like washing machines and dishwashers

have reduced the time spent on domestic tasks.
THE INTERNET

The internet is a computer network made up of thousands of networks world wide.

Mostly referred to as the “information super highway”

The number of computers connected to the internet is un certain but in millions.

No one is fully in charge of the internet there are organizations which develop
technical aspects of this network and set standards for creating applications on it
but no governing body in control.

Mr. Tim Berner is the brain behind the www

All computers on the internet communicate with one another using the
Transmission Control Protocal/Internet Protocal suit; abbreviated to TCP/IP

A protocol refers to an agreed set of rules and procedures where devices

(computers and terminals) will exchange and transmit data from one to another,
eg timing of messages.

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TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol)
It is a basic communication language of the internet, it can also be used as a
communication protocol in the private networks called intranets and extranets.

TCP/IP is a two layered program, it manages the assembling of a message of file

into smaller packets that are transmitted over the internet and received by TCP
layer that reassembles the packets

Computers on the internet use a client/ server architecture, which provides files
and services to the user’s local client machine.

Many internet users are familiar with even higher layer applications protocols that
use TCP/IP to get to the internet.

These include world wide web’s hyper text transfer protocol (HTTP), the File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telnet which you logon to remote computers and the
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

These and other protocols are often packed together with TCP/IP as a “suite”
Personal computers usually get to the internet through serial line internet protocol
(SLIP) or the point to point protocol (PPP) these protocols encapsulate the IP
packets so that they can be sent over a dial up phone connection to access a
provider.

Protocols related to TCP/IP include the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) which is
used instead of TCP for special purposes.

Other protocols are used by network host computers for exchanging router
information. These include the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) the
Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) the Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) and the
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS IN UGANDA

These include:

Infocom (infocom Uganda limited)

Bush net Ltd
Swift global Uganda ltd
Arrow star light commucation ltd
Informa ltd
Uganda on line commucations
Utl
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MTN-Uganda.
Warid Telecom
Orange Telecom
Data_net
Raps Uganda Limited.

To get linked to the internet special software are needed: these are called
BROWSERS. These are commonly two Netscape communicator and Microsoft
internet explorer.

COMPONENTS OF THE INTERNET

The world wide web Abbreviated as the web or www is a system of internet servers
that supports hypertext to access several internet protocols on a single interface.

A technical definition of www and all the resources and users on the internet that
are using hypertext Transfer Protocol

A Broader definition comes from the Organization that web mentor

Tim Berners – lee formed, the www consortium (w3C)
1. THE HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP)

Is a set of rules for exchanging files (text, graphics, sound, Video and other
multimedia files on the www relative to the TCP/IP suite of protocols which are
the basis for information exchange on the internet

HTTP is an application protocol

There are very many protocols on the internet
Ie. E.mail, FTP,Telnet and usernet new but the web uses its own protocol to access
them through a single interface

Hypertext is a document containing words that connect to other documents these

words are called links

Producing hypertext for the web is accomplished by creating documents with a

language called hypertext markup language or html

With html tags are placed within the text to accomplish document formatting
visual features such as font size, italics, bold.

Html is an evolving language with new tags being added and released

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The www led by tim berner lee co-ordinates the efforts to standardizing the html,
the w3c now calls the language Xhtml and considers it to be an application of the
xml language standard

The www consists of files, called page or home pages, containing links to
documents and resources through the internet.

The web provides a vast array of experiences including multimedia, presentations,

real time collaborations, interactive pages, radio, television broadcasts.

Programming languages such as Java, Java scrip, Visual Basic, Cold fashion and
Xml are extending the capability on the web.

2. ELECTRONIC MAIL (E.MAIL)

The transmission of messages at high speeds between computers over

communication channels, also called E.mail

E.mail allows computer users locally and world wide to exchange messages Each
user of an e.mail has a mail box address to which messages are set, messages sent
through e.mail can arrive within a matter of seconds

A powerful aspect of E. mail is the option to send electronic files to a person’s

e.mail address. Non ASCII files known as binary files may be attached to e. mail
massages.

These files are referred to as MIME attachments (Multimedia internet mail

Extension) and was developed to help e.mail software handle a variety of file types
e.g. A document created in Microsoft word be attached to an E.mail message and
retrieved by the recipient with the appropriate e. mail program.

Many e-mail software programs include:

Eudora, Netscape, Messenger, Pegasus and Outlook express. Offer the ability to
read files written in HTML which is itself a MIME

Examples
Hot mail,Yahoo, G.mail

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Email Features

To: (recipient’s email address)requires the E.mail address of the person you are
sending mail to

Cc: Refers to Carbon copy of the message to the selected person (second recipient)

BCC: Blind carbon copy, a blind carbon copy is a copy of the message that is sent
to some one in secrete, other recipients of the message will not know that the
selected person has received the message.

Subject: A short over view of the message into the text.

T0: example@mtn.com

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 Subject: e.g. My Application Letter
c.c:
e.g.
Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy
example2@mtn.com e.g: example1@mtn.com

the recipient at: example@mtn.com and example2@mtn.com , will not know

that the same message they received was also sent to example1@mtn.com.

ADVANTAGES OF E.MAIL

10. A fast means of sending Communication

11. Very cheap to manage and it takes the same amount of money
to E-mail across the globe.
12. highly private and confidential compared to other means of
communications
13. E-mail series are efficient as the mails reach the rightful
person
14. addresses provide storage space
15. in addition to text you can send graphics and sound using e-
mail
16. it is not affected by geographical location or weather.

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DISADVANTAGES

1. When some one comes across a password s/he may have access to all
mails
2. E. mail only sent to people with these services
3. it only caters for computer literate people

RETRIEVING DOCUMENTS ON THE WEB

The URL and Domain name

URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator or Universal Resource Locator

The URL specifies the internet address of a file stored on a host computer
connected to the internet, every file on the internet, no matter what its access
protocol, has a unique URL. Web software program use the URL to retrieve the file
from the host computer and the specific directory in which it resides. This file is
then displayed on the monitor connected to the user’s local machine.

URLs are translated into numeric addresses using the Domain Name System
(DNS)
The DNS is a world wide system of servers that stores location pointer to web sites

Anatomy of a URL.
This is the format of the URL
Protocol://host/path/file name

For example. URL on the home page of the house committee on Agriculture of the
US house of representatives.

Http://www.housegov/agriculture/schedule.html

 protocol: Http:
 host computer name. www.
 second level domain name. house
 top level domain name. gov
 directory name. agriculture
 file name schedule.html

3. TELNET

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telnet is a program that allows you to log into computers on the internet and use
online database, library catalogue, chat services and more, there are no graphics in
Telnet sessions just text.

Telnet is a available on the www probably the most common web based resources
available through Telnet have been library catalogs through most catalogs have
since migrated to the web.

A link to a telnet resource may look like any other link, but it will launch a telnet
session to make the connection.
A telnet program must be installed on your local computer and configured to your
web browser in order to worker.

With the tiny popularity of the web telnet has become less frequently used as a
means of access to information on the internet,

4. FTP

FTP Stands for File Transfer Protocol. This is both a program and a method used to
transfer files between computers.

Anonymous FTP
Is an option that allows users to transfer files from thousands of host computers on
the internet to their personal computers account. FTP site contain books, articles,
software, games, images, sound, multimedia, course work, there is no need of a
special software in this case the web browser can suffice

ORIGIN AND DESIGN OF THE INTERNET

The internet began as an experiment by the US Department of defense in the

1960’s to help scientists and researchers from widely dispersed areas of work to
work together by sharing scarce and expensive computers and their files.

This goal required the creation of a set of connected networks that would act as a
coordinated whole.

The cold war generated interest in a “bomb proof” net work. If a part of the net
work were destroyed data would still travel towards its destination with help from
the surviving parts, the resulting internet, the responsibility of message routing,
were spread throughout the network instead of being centered in one location.

In large part the internet, now two decades old, has grown in popularity because of
the use of browsers.
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A browser is a software tool that greatly simplifies the process of user visiting
different locations on the internet.

ADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET

1. E.mail

Is now an essential communication tool in business (free), communicating to

professionals and subject matter experts.

2. Information

There is huge amount of information available on the internet about every subject,
ranging from government, services, trade market new ideas

3. employement
Carring out office work from any where away from the office and communicating
with the employer through the use of internet

4. Services

Online banking, Job seeking and application and hotel reservation

5. E.Commerce (advertising)

Buy or sell product. The internet is a very effective way to buy and sell products all
over the world.

6. Communities

Communities of all types have sprung up on the internet it’s a great way to meet
up with people of similar interest.

7. Video conferencing

Conducting a conference between two or more people ie chat rooms

8. Employment

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 Carrying out work away from the office and communicating with the employer
through the user of telecommunications equipment

9. Multimedia displays

Entertainment (music, video and any sorts of displays)

10. Real time broadcasting

11. Down loading and file

DISADVANTAGES

1. Immorality (pornography)
2. Addiction (internet games)
3. Virus spread
4. Cultural value elusion

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF THE NET

The internet has become a valuable tool in education, commerce, entertainment

and society. There tremendous number of useful resources available online.
Unfortunately, some of these resources require greater technological capabilities
to access than are available to internet users. While users with direct connections
enjoy faster connection speeds, dialup users are often limited by several factors.

 The Speed of the modem

 The modem type and speed supported by the ISP number dialed
 The quality of the phone line used
 The amount of traffic on the internet
 The power of the computer (speed of the processor)
 The software used
 The Bandwidth type of connection.

 The Speed of the modem

Most internet users connect through a modem, dials in their ISP over an ordinary
phone line. The modem speed will greatly affect how fast you are able to surf the
web and download software. A minimum of 28.8 kbps of higher is recommended
for connecting with a modem. The fastest modems currently available are 56 kbps

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and are now quite reasonably priced. These modems are usually standard in any
new computer purchased and are gaining wide support from most ISPs. With
anything less than 28.8 kbps you will notice a significant “lag time” when
attempting to download software or graphic intensive Web pages. Since there are
many places on the Web to get the same information, try to avoid such overly
large slow loading pages.

 The modem type and speed supported by the ISP number dialed

If you are dialing into an access number that only supports 28.8 kbps modems,
28.8 kbps is fast as you will ever connect, even if you have a 56 kbps modem
installed in your computer fortunately, most ISPs now support 56 kbps modem
access and allow you to choose access numbers that support different modem
speeds. Check with your ISP for more details.

 The quality of the phone line used

Line noise on the phone line running into your home can adversely affect your
ability to maintain a consistent internet connection with a modem. To check for
line noise, plug a phone into the same line that your modem uses and listen for
static (while you are not connected to the internet). Static can cause disruptions in
the transmission of data to and from the internet causing you to lose your
connection. If you hear static on line, you might want to call your phone company
and have line checked.

 The amount of traffic on the internet

Web traffic tends to increase throughout the day and speaks around the early
evening. If you plan on doing long software downloads or wish to surf faster
without delays, schedule such activities for off-peak hours. Down loading software
overnight is a popular option. Also realize that new software releases and major
events tend to cause heavy Web traffic. Avoid peak times (from 11 am EST to 6 pm
PST) remember, as traffic increases, speed decreases

There are factors associated with your computer that can affect your
internet connection speed as well

 Processor speed
A faster processor (say 500 Mhz) will allow you to surf the Web at a faster speed
than a slower one say 200Mhz you can remedy this problem by upgrading your
computer’s processor

 Memory
A computer with more memory available will tend to surf faster than one with less.
One way to avoid slowdowns in this area is to avoid opening other software

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applications that are not needed while you are surfing the Web. You can also
upgrade your system memory if you find the slowdowns too much to bear

 Hard disk

A full or highly fragmented hard disk can act to slow Web surfing considerably. It
is a good idea to keep your hard drive defragmented and optimized.

 Connection
a) (direct “dedicat”, land-wired access)
b) ISDN (Integrated Service Digital Network) or DSL, TI,T3, cable modem,
regular modem
c) internet service provider (direct access or dial up with modem)
d on line service eg Aol, web Tv of connections

DIRECTORY
A directory is a search tool (engine) that provides lists of several categories of web
sites classified by topic such as Business finance, sports, health etc its purpose is to
allow you to access information in specific categories by clicking on hyper text
link. Directories are useful for browsing-looking at web pages in a general category
and finding items of interest examples include:
SEARCH TOOLS (ENGINES)
Alta Vista – http://www.altavista.com/
HotBot- http://www.hotbot.com/
Lycos- http://www.lycos.com/
Yahoo- http://www.yahoo.com/
Google- http://www.google.com/
Infoseek- http://www.infoseek.com/
Webcrawler
Excite

Internet Access Requirements

The teaching and learning potential of the Internet can only be realized if school
computers are linked to the Internet. The table below outlines some of the basic
technical requirements (in terms of the PC and/or school infrastructure)
associated with accessing the Internet, depending on whether the Internet is being
accessed via a single computer or via a network.

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 Standalone Computer Access
Requirements:
 A telephone line
 A modem
 Software - usually provided by
the Internet Service Provider
(ISP)
Multiple Computer Access
Requirements:
 A local area network (LAN)
 An ISDN line
 An Internet router or Internet
'box' solution (this is a hardware
unit which is plugged into the
network)

Schools with a large number of networked computers may require greater

bandwidth (high capacity) connections. If so, they should investigate cable, ADSL
or leased line solutions. These options, however, are only available in certain
geographical areas of the country.
Why Create a School Web Site?

One of the most exciting aspects of the Internet is the fact that it gives schools the
ability to publish material 'globally'. School Web pages can be created without
difficulty using user-friendly software, and both teachers and students can publish
and share their work with their peers. In addition, a Web site can help promote
the school within the wider community by publishing information on school
activities, policies and events.

Possible Educational Uses

 To improve student motivation.

 To create collaborative project ventures.
 To encourage teamwork experiences.
 To share curricular resources.
 To promote the school and its activities within the wider community.

What Content should be published on a School Web Site?

There are no real limits as to what a school can publish on its Web site - any type
of information or work done by the pupils and staff would be suitable for
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publication. Ideally, the content being presented should be curriculum-centered
and, where possible, focus on the work of students. Rather than creating new or
additional work, current projects and assignments could be carried out on a
computer and then incorporated into Web pages.

It is recommended that all classes are involved in the design and creation of the
Web site, with teachers handling the more technical aspects of pushing the site
live. It is important to ensure that the design of the Web site is both inclusive of all
students, e.g., special needs students, and accessible to all potential users of the
site. For instance, some people may need to use special technologies in order to
access your site.

Schools should also be realistic when outlining the scope of their Web site first
time round. One of the greatest pitfalls in Web publishing is the tendency to
attempt to create a 'super' site - this may lead to difficulties in completing,
updating and managing the Web site.
Before commencing work on a Web site, consider the following questions:

 Why is the school publishing a Web site?

 What content will be included?
 What target audience is the content aimed at?
 What tools are required to create the content?
 Who is going to perform the tasks involved?

WEB TERMS

Web site
Often spelled “website” is the location of data stored on a www server which can
be freely accessed by people through surfing the net using a domain name ie
www.transworld.educ.ug.

Web page
Is a document on a web site, that can includes text, pictures, sound, and video.

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Home page

This is the first page you see at a website, it acts like a title page of a book, the
hope page or welcome page identifies the web site and contains links to other
pages at the site

Web server
A www server is just a computer not different but just bigger and faster, also a
www server is permanently connected to the internet so that other people can surf
24 hours a day

Web publishing
This when designed pages (documents of html nature acquire space on the www
server to be shared by other people on the net.

Hyperlink
It is part of the text or graphic on a web page, that when clicked at will
automatically do the following:

a. take you to a different part of the same page

b. take you to a different page within the website
c. take you to a page in a different web site
d. enable you to down load a file
e. launch an application, video, or sound

A Bus

A bus is an electronic pathway that provides interface for movement of 1’s and 0’s
from one location, address to another

Browsing
Searching for particular /specific items

Web browser/Internet Client

A web browser is a software tool, a program that knows how to go out on the
internet in search of a certain type of data, in other words is a software program
that allows navigation through the web.

Surfing

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Means moving from one website to another for topics of interest, the term surf is
generally used to describe a rather undirected type of web browsing.

Mosaic

Was the first graphical browser for the Web

It was designed by Marc Andreessen, who worked at the National Centre for super
computing Applications, before leaving to form Netscape.

Other Terms

Account

An Internet account allows you to access the Internet. If you

have an Internet Service Provider (ISP), you will have one of these.

Address

See Internet address.

ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) A high-speed technology

that allows large volumes of data to be sent over a telephone line. ADSL
allows data rates of 1.5 to 9 Mbps when receiving data and from 16 to 640
Kbps when sending data.

Application A program or group of programs (also known as software)

designed to carry out a particular task. For example, a word processor is used
for inputting and editing text.

Anti-virus software Software installed on a computer that scans and

protects files from computer viruses.

Attachment Any file that is attached to an e-mail message.

Article Name given to a message you post to a newsgroup, for example

to ask for information.

Backup To make a duplicate of the contents of a computer, usually onto

a floppy disk or tape, in case of computer breakdown or viruses.

Bandwidth The amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of

time. For digital devices, the bandwidth is expressed in bits per second (bps).

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 Baud

The number of signalling elements that can be transmitted per second on a

circuit. Used in referring to the speed at which a modem transmits data. This
is an older term being replaced by bps - bits per second. We still speak of the
baud rate of modems.

Bit (Binary Digit). Either 1 or 0 in the binary system. In processing

and storage, a bit is the smallest unit of information handled by a computer.

Bit rate Bit rate is the amount of digital data that is moved from one
place to another in a given time, usually in a second's time, for example,
kilobits, or thousands of bits per second [Kbps].. The bit rate can be viewed
as the speed of travel of a given amount of data from one place to another. In
general, the greater the bandwidth of a given path, the higher the data
transfer rate.

Bookmark

A term used in Netscape to describe a Web site that is marked

for later reference. Called a 'favourite' in Internet Explorer. Bookmarks offer a
convenient means to retrieve pages whose locations (URLs) you have saved.
You store your bookmarks in a list that is saved on your hard disk.

Boot up your system Simply means to start your computer.

BPS Bits per second is a measurement of the rate at which data is

transferred. For example, the data rate of a modem and computer affects the
speed of information transmitted or received over the Internet.

Broadband Broadband provides high speed Internet access by delivering

multiple channels of data (such as data/voice/video) over a single
communications medium.

Browser

Software that allows a computer to access information on the

Internet. Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer are browsers
that use a graphical user interface (GUI) for searching, finding, viewing and
managing information.

Buffer An amount of memory that temporarily stores data to help

compensate for differences in the rate of transfer of data from one device to
another.

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 Bug An error or fault in computer software or hardware, which
causes a program to malfunction.

Bus A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from

one part of a computer to another. In networking, a bus is a central cable that
connects all devices on a local-area network.

Byte (Binary term) A unit of storage capable of holding a single

character. A byte is equal to 8 bits. Large amounts of memory are indicated in
terms of kilobytes, megabytes and gigabytes.

Cache A special computer data storage area (memory or disk) where

frequently used data values are duplicated for quick access.

CAD (Computer Aided Design) Drafting and design through the aid
of a computer, which can handle technical geometric detail. It allows the user
to manipulate drawings and view them from all angles.

Cards Circuit boards that plug into computers to provide additional

functionality, such as sound and video input and output.

CAT-5 Category 5 describes network cabling that consists of four

twisted pairs of copper wire terminated by RJ45 connectors. Cat-5 cabling is
the current networking standard.

CD-ROM A type of optical disc capable of storing large amounts of data -

such as words, graphics and sound - up to 1GB, although the most common
size is 650MB (megabytes). This equates to up to 250,000 pages of text.

Compatibility A situation whereby different pieces of equipment and/or

software are capable of being used together without special modification or
adaptation.

Compression The process of storing data in a way that requires less storage
space. For example MPEGS compress video data.

Computer Any machine that accepts structured input, processes it

according to prescribed rules and produces the result as output.

Domain name A name that identifies one or more IP addresses that deliver
information, or other services, to Internet users.

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 Download The process of transferring a copy of an electronic file from a
remote computer to the requesting computer by means of a modem or
network.

Driver A program that controls a device. Every device, whether it be a

printer, disk drive, or keyboard, must have a driver program.

DVD (Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc) a new type of CD-
ROM that holds a minimum of 4.7GB, enough for a full-length movie. A DVD
player or drive is required to read the contents of a DVD.

Electronic mail (E-mail) The transmission of messages over a

communications network.

End user The final or ultimate user of a computer system. The end user is
the individual who uses the software after it has been fully developed.

External bus A bus (collection of wires) that connects a computer to

peripheral devices. Two examples are the Universal Serial Bus (USB) and
IEEE 1394.

Filtering software A program developed to sort and block access to

undesirable material on the Internet. The software company generally
compiles a list of banned sites and keywords.

FAQ A collection of questions that are commonly asked in a

newsgroup or mailing list - including answers. A good place to start when you
join a newsgroup or mailing list.

Firewall A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a

private network. Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and
software, or a combination of both.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) A set of rules by which documents,

images and applications can be transferred from one computer to another
over a network.

Gigabyte (Gb) 1,024 megabytes or one thousand million bytes. The

amount of hard disk space in a computer is usually measured in gigabytes.

Graphics card A printed circuit board that plugs into a computer to give it
display capabilities and to allow graphics output

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 Hard disk A fixed magnetic disk generally fitted internally in a personal
computer, on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to
distinguish it from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more data
(anywhere from 10 megabytes to several gigabytes) and are faster than floppy
disks.

Hardware Refers to the physical components of a computer, including

both mechanical and electronic parts: the processor, memory, keyboard,
monitor, mouse and printer.

Home page The first Web page or entry point of any World Wide Web site.

Hub A hub is a small, simple device that joins multiple computers

together as part of a LAN set up. The hub includes a series of ports that each
accept a network cable.

Hypertext A system in which objects (text, pictures, music, programs, and

so on) can be creatively linked to each other, permitting the user to browse
through related topics regardless of the presented order of the topics. A
hypertext link (hyperlink) is the point of access to additional information on
a Web page or CDROM.

IP address (Internet Protocol Address) A unique identifier for a computer

or device on a TCP/IP network.

Inkjet printer A non-impact printer that fires tiny drops of ink at the paper.

Internet The Internet consists of many millions of computers around the

world connected together by telephone lines, cables and satellites.

Intranet An Intranet uses the same technology as the Internet over a

private or internal network and is not accessible by users outside the
network.

Internet service provider (ISP) A company that provides Internet

connection to its customers. ISPs normally provide e-mail accounts and Web
site space as part of the service.

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) An agreed standard for

sending voice, video, and data over digital or normal telephone lines. ISDN
connections consist of two 64Kbps lines, both lines can be used the
simultaneously to offer speeds of 128Kbps.

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 JPEG A JPEG or JPG is a standard type of image file. It is a common
way to compress and store images, particularly photos, for the Web.

Laser printer An electro-photographic printer based on the technology

used by photocopiers.

Leased line A telephone channel leased from a telecommunications provider

for private use.

Local area network (LAN) A communications system linking computers

within a restricted geographical area such as a building or campus. This also
allows computers to share information from a central source.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display). A display that uses liquid compound

located between two transparent electrodes. For example, a digital camera
has a LCD for viewing and editing photographs.

Megabyte (Mb) 1,024 kilobytes or one million bytes.

Mbps Abbreviation for Megabits per second, which measures the

speed of data transfer.

Memory The storage medium used by computer systems to hold

programs and data. Usually RAM (a form of volatile memory, which is erased
when the system is switched off) and ROM (which is a form of permanent
memory).

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) A software standard that

allows musical instruments such as synthesizers and drum machines to be
controlled from a computer screen.

Modem (Modulator-demodulator) A device that translates digital signals

into ordinary telephone signals (and vice versa) so that data can be carried
over ordinary telephone lines.

Monitor A device, also known as a VDU (visual display unit) for viewing
visual input to and output from a computer.

Mouse A device, moved by hand across a flat surface, which control the
movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen.

MPEG (Moving Photographic Expert Group) A group that has defined a

format for motion video compression.

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 Multimedia The use of computers to present text, graphics, video,
animation, and sound in an integrated way. A multimedia machine is fitted
with hardware such as a sound card and a CD-ROM drive to allow the full use
of a multimedia product.

Operating system (OS) Software which provides all the basic control
functions to supervise the computer system. Not all computers use the same
operating system.

Peripheral Any hardware device, such as a scanner, printer or digital

camera, which can be plugged into the computer to perform some additional
function.

PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) A small mobile hand-held device

that provides computing, information storage and retrieval capabilities.

Pixel Short for Picture Element. The smallest unit of the computer
display screen.

Plug and play Refers to the ability of a computer system to automatically

configure peripherals and devices such as video adaptors, sound cards and
graphic accelerators.

POP (Point of Presence) A term used to refer to the location where

Internet or network connections are made. The location is in the form of a
number which a modem dials in order to connect to a service provider.

PPP (Point to Point Protocol) Standard consisting of multiple

protocols providing for transmission of packets of data over serial lines.

Portal A Web site or service that offers a broad array of resources and
services, such as e-mail, forums, search engines and links for a specific
subject area. For example, www.scoilnet.ie is a portal Web site for Irish
education.

Printer A peripheral device that prints output from a computer on to

paper.

Processor Short for microprocessor or Central Processing Unit (CPU). The

processor is the brains of the computer, where most calculations and
computing takes place.

Proxy server Also known as cache server, it is used by Internet Service

Providers to hold cached Web pages.

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 Protocol An agreed-upon format or set of rules to enable smooth data
transmission between computers.

RAM (Random Access Memory) Memory that a computer software uses

to run programs. Similar to a hard drive except the data is lost when the
computer is turned off.

RealAudio

With this plug-in installed in your browser, you can listen to live
and on-demand audio over the Internet using your standard modem.

RealPlayer

RealPlayer is a real-time audio and video delivery system for the

Internet. It is distributed with Microsoft Internet Explorer 4. Using
RealPlayer, you can listen and view thousands of hours of live and pre-
recorded clips, including sporting events, live radio stations, news, music,
and lectures.

Sample rate

A sample is simply a snapshot of a sound at a given point in

time. The sampling rate is a measurement of how many snapshots are taken.
The best example is a movie camera that takes 24 still photographs per
second. When they are played back at a certain speed in the cinema, the
result is almost like a real life. Each frame of film is a sample; 24 frames per
second is a sampling rate. If you reduce the number of frames per second, the
film would look like a sequence of still images.

Search tool

A free service on the Net. Search tools are like master librarians
that index and find links on the Internet to the information you request.
When you types in a phrase or keyword, the search tool scans the pages in its
index for matches.

Server

A computer that provides services to another computer - called

a client.

Service provider (ISP)

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 A commercial company selling Internet access. Also called an
Internet Service Provider or ISP.

Shareware

Computer programs that you can download from the Net. You
are free to use them for a period of time — often 30 days. If you keep them
longer, you are expected to pay the shareware provider.

Shockwave

Sometimes called Macromedia Shockwave. This is the most

popular plug-in for viewing multimedia.

Smiley

A combination of keyboard characters that portray emotions

like :-) for a smile or :-( for a frown. Also called an emoticon.

Snail mail

The slow stuff from the post office. As opposed to faster email.

Spam

The verb and noun referring to sending a commercial email

message to a large number of people. Also used to cover a multitude of other
disruptive, nasty things that happen via email from time-to-time.

Spiders

Search tools send out small programs that we once called robots
but now refer to as spiders, crawlers or 'indexers' - to review and catalogue
Web sites and copy text they finds into a database.

Surfing

Looking for interesting things on the World Wide Web using

search engines and hyperlinks

Uploading

The process of putting any data [text, audio, video] online.

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 URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

A Web site address with the name of the server where the site's
files are stored, the file’s directory path, and its file name. For example
http://www.idrc.ca/.

Usenet (USEer NETwork)

Internet newsgroups currently with over 25,000 different

newsgroups.

UUencoding

UUencoding is an older format for sending attachments via

Internet mail. It is not as flexible as MIME and is no longer widely used on
the Internet. However, there are still some mail systems on the Internet that
send attachments in Uuencoded format. To deal with these attachments in
Eudora Light you will require an additional utility to decode the attachments
since Eudora Light does not support Uudecoding.

Virus

Small computer programs that make your computer

malfunction — sick, for short. Some are a nuisance. Others can destroy all
your data.

Web site

A location where Web information is collected and made

available, normally to anyone with access to the Internet.

WinZip

WinZip is a compression utility that lets Windows users make

their files smaller for faster transfer over the Internet. This utility also
decompresses files that were originally compressed using PKZIP or TAR
formats. You can obtain WinZip at http://www.tucows.com.

WWW (World Wide Web)

The World Wide Web provides a way of linking the computers

on the Internet through HTML tags and using hyperlinks that allow you to
click on a link and advance to another location on the Web

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Exercise:
1. (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Hyperlink
EXERCISE: (UNEB QUESTIONS) (viii) packet
(ii) web browser (ix) search engine
(iii) web master (x) Network Administrator
(iv) web site (xi) Network Protocol
(v) Web authorising software (xii) Bandwidth
(vi) Web server (xiii)Surfing
(vii) Web mail provider (xiv) Email

Sample UNEB essay Questions.

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