Chapter 1 Soil and Water Conservation 1.1 Why Conserve Soil? Soil is the most fundamental and basic resource. Although erroneously dubbed as “dirt” or perceived as something of insignificant value, humans can not survive with- Gut soil because it is the basis of all terrestrial life. Soil is a vital resource that pro- vides food, feed, fuel, and fiber. It underpins food security and environmental qual- ity, both essential to human existence. Essentiality of soil to human well-being is often not realized until the production of food drops or is jeopardized when the soil is severely eroded or degraded to the level that it loses its inherent resilience (Fig. 1.1). Traditionally, the soil’s main function has been as a medium for plant growth. Now, along with the increasing concems of food security, soil has multi-functionality including environmental quality, the global climate change, and repository for ur- Fig. 1.1 Soil erosion not only reduces soil fertility, crop production, and biodiversity but also alters water quality and increases risks of global climate change and food insecurity (Courtesy ‘USDA-NRCS) H. Blanco, R-Lal, Principles of Soil Conservation and Management, 1 eB Sciences Business Media B.V. 2008 Scanned with CamScanner1 Soil andl Water Conservation “Table 1.1 Maltifunetionality of vols Food security, Water quality Projected global Production of biotic biodiversity, and elimate change feedstovky urbanization * Food + Filtration of kof CO, and —* Mivenengy crops + Fiber pollutants cy | WaT eH + Housing * Purification of} * C sequestration in gen al + Recreation water soil and biota shout rotation Infrastructure + Retention of + Reduction of awoonly crops) + Waste disposal sediment and nitrification © Praicie asses + Microbial diversity _cliemicals + Deposition and + Preservation of * ‘Bulfering and burial of C-entiched flora and fauna transformation of sediment chemicals bar/industrial waste, World soils are now managed to: (1) meet the ever increasing food demand, (2) filter air, 3) purify water, and (3) store carbon (C) to offset the anthropogenic emissions of CO; (Table 1.1). Soil isanon-renewable resource over the human time seale. [tis dynamic and prone to rapid degradation with land misuse. Productive lands are finite and represent only <11% of earth’s land area but supply food to more than six billion people inerensing at the rate of 1.3% per year (Eswaran et al., 2001). Thus, widespread degradation of the finite soil resources can severely jeopardize global food security and also threaten quality of the environment, Conserving soil has many agronomic, environmental, and economical benefits. The on- and off-site estimated costs of erosion for replenishing, lostnutrients, dredging or cleaning up water reservoirs and conveyances, and prevent ing erosion are very high and estimajed at US$ 38 billion in the USA und about US$ 400 billion in the world annually (Uri, 2000; Pimentel et al., 1995). In the USA, the estimated cost of water erosion ranges from US$ 12 to US$ 42 billion while that of wind erosion ranges from USS 11 to US$ 32 billion (Uri, 2000). ‘The need to maintain and enhance multi-functionality necessitates improved and prudent management of soil for meeting the needs of present and future generations, ‘The extent to which soil stewardship and protection is professed determines the sustainability of land use, adequacy of food supply, the quality of ait and water resources, and the survival of humankind, Soil conservation has been traditionally discussed in relation to keeping the soil in place for crop production, Nowy, soil con- servation is evaluated in terms of its benefits to increasing crop yields, reducing wa- ter pollution, and mitigating concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. 1.2 Agents that Degrade Soil ‘Water and wind erosion are two main agents that degrade soils, Water erosion a= fects nearly 1,100 million hectares (Ma) worldwide, representing about 56% of the total degraded land while wind erosion affects about 28% of the total degraded land Scanned with CamScanner |13 Soil Erosion . vay il particles from slopin, 1994), Runoff washes away the soil particles PINE and tay = ee Mt blows away loose and detached soil particles from flat and un. lands ved lands. Another important pathway of soil redistribution, often overlooked, protect : plowing, which gradually moves soil downslope in is the tillage erosion caused by y moves lowed elds with adverse on-site effects on crop production. Soil compaction, poor a image, acidification, alkalinization and salinization are other processes that also degrade soils in specific conditions of parent material, climate, terrain, and water management. 1.3 Soil Erosion There are two main types of erosion: geologic and accelerated erosion. Geologic erosion is a normal process of weathering that generally occurs at low rates in all soils as part of the natural soil-forming processes. It occurs over long geologic time horizons and is not influenced by human activity. The wearing away of rocks and formation of soil profiles are processes affected by the slow but continuous geo- logic erosion. Indeed, low rates of erosion are essential to the formation of soil. In contrast, soil erosion becomes a major concern when the rate of erosion exceeds a certain threshold level and becomes rapid, known as accelerated erosion. This type of erosion is triggered by anthropogenic causes such as deforestation, slash-and- bum agriculture, intensive plowing, intensive and uncontrolled grazing, and biomass burning. Control and management of soil erosion are important because when the fertile topsoil is eroded away the remaining soil is less productive with the same level of input. While soil erosion can not be completely curtailed, excessive erosion must be ” reduced to manageable or tolerable level to minimize adverse effects on productiv- FI ity, Magnitude and the impacts of soil erosion on productivity depend on soil profile and horizonation, terrain, soil management, and climate characteristics. The esti- mated average tolerance (T) level of soil erosion used in soil and water conservation planning in the USA is 11 Mgha™! yr-!. The T value is the amount of soil erosion that does not significantly decrease soil productivity. The specific rates of maximum tolerable limits of erosion vary with soil type. In fact, moderate soil erosion may not adversely affect productivity in well-developed and deep soils, but the same amount of erosion may have drastic effects on shallow and sloping soils. Thus, critical limits of erosion must be determined for each soil, ecoregion, land use, and the farming system. 1.3.1 Water Erosion Ona global scale, water erosion is the most severe type of soil erosion (Fig. 1.1). It ‘ccurs in the form of splashyinterrill rill, gully, tunnel, streambank, and coastal ero- - sion. Different forms of erosion are discussed in detail in Chapter 2, Runoff occurs Scanned with CamScanner1 Soil and Water Conservation 4 when precipitation rates exceed the water infiltration rates. Both raindrop impact and water runoff can cause soil detachment and transport. Unlike wind erosion, water erosion is a dominant form of erosion in humid, and sub-humid, regions character~ ized by frequent rainstorms. It is also a problem in arid and semiarid regions where the limited precipitation mostly occurs inthe form of intense storms when the soil is bare and devoid of vegetal cover. One of the spectacular types of water erosion is the concentrated gully erosion which can cause severe soil erosion even in asingle event of high rainfall intensity. Excessive gully erosion can wash out crops; expose plant roots, and lower ground water table while adversely affecting plant growth and land scape stability. Gullying is a major source of sediment and nutrient Joss. It causes drastic alterations in landscape aesthetics and removes vast amounts of sediment. ‘Sedimentation at the lower end of the fields in depressional sites can bury crops, damage field borders, and pollute water bodies. Gullies dissect the field and ex- acerbate the non-point source pollution (e.,, sediment, chemicals) to nearby war | fer sources, Gullies undercut and split croplands and alter landform features and ‘watercourses. In the USA, soil erosion by gully erosion has been measured at 1OOMgha"!ye~! and represents about 21-275% of the interill and rill erosion (USDA, 1996). In mountainous terrains and structurally fragile soils subjected to i tense rains, total erosion from gullies can be as high as that from other types of erosion. 1.3.2 Wind Erosion ~ d phenomenon, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. It is a dominant geomorphic force that has reshaped the earth. Most of the material carried by wind consists of silt-sized particles, Deposition of this material, termed as “loess”, has developed into very fertile and dcep soils. The thickness of most Joess deposits ranges between 20 and 30m, but it can be as thick as 335 m (e.g. Loess Plateau in China). Extensive deposits of loess exist in northeastern China, Midwestern USA, Las Pampas of Argentina, and central Europe. Excessive wind erosion due to soil mismanagement has, however, caused the barren state of many arid lands (Fig, 1.2). Anthropogenic activities set the stage for severe wind erosion by directly influencing soil surface conditions through de- forestation and excessive tillage. Wind erosion is prominent but not unique to arid regions. High winds, low precipitation (=300mm annually), high evapotranspira- tion, reduced vegetative cover, and limited soil development are the main drivers ‘of wind erosion in arid and semiarid regions. Rates of wind erosion increase in the order of: arid>semiarid> dry subhamid ‘reas> humid areas. Unlike water, wind has the ability to move soil particles up- ‘and down-slope and can pollute both air and water. While arid lands are more prone to wind erosion than humid ecosystems, any cultivated soil that is seasonally disturbed can be subject to eolian processes in windy environments. Wind erosion is a widespread phen Scanned with CamScanner1a History of Soil Erosion (Photo Fig, 1.2. Wind erosion reduces vegetative cover and forms large sand dunes in arid regions by H. Blanco) Wind erosion not only alters the properties and processes of the eroding soil but also adversely affects the neighboring soils and landscapes where the deposition may occur. Landscapes prone to wind erosion often exhibit an impressive network of wind ripples (<2m high) Fig. 1.2). Formation of sand dunes in deserts or along beaches is a sign of excessive wind erosion. Sand dunes can be as high as 200m in desert regions of the world (e.g., Saudi Arabia), The smaller sand dunes often migrate and form larger sand dunes. There are fast moving as well as slow drifting dunes. 1.4 History of Soil Erosion Accelerated erosion is as old as agriculture. It dates back to the old civilizations in Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, and other regions in the Middle East (Bennett, 1939). The collapse of great ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia along the Tigris. Euphrates Rivers illustrates the consequences when lands are irreversibly degraded. Less fom te past erosion and consequences forthe demise of ancient civie ations have ban amply ced and dgcused in several textbooks. Indeed, Hugh Hanon Beast ognized as the “ale of Soil Conservation” inthe US, seed in his welL4nown textbook in deal the historical episodes and conse pa qa erosion (Bennett, 1939). Troeh et al. (2004) also reviewed past and {ora erosion ates around the wal, Knowledge ofthe hist erosion i eical Histor iad e severity and consequences of erosion and developing strate- © management of present and future soil erosion. Thus, readers are Scanned with CamScanner: 1 Soil and Water Conservation teferred to other textbooks for details on historic rates of erosion. This textbook pri- marily focuses on the processes and strategies for effectively managing soil erosion. 1.5 Consequences of Soil Erosion Accelerated soil erosion causes adverse agronomic, ecologic, environmental, and economic effects both on-site and off-site. Not only it affects agricultural lands but also quality of forest, pasture, and rangelands. Cropland soils are, however, more susceptible to erosion because these soils are often left bare or with little residue Cover between the cropping seasons. Even during the growing season, row crops are susceptible to soil erosion. The on-site consequences involve primarily the reduction in soil productivity, while the off-site consequences are mostly due to the sediment and chemicals transported away from the source into natural waters by streams and depositional sites by wind. 1.5.1 On-site Problems The primary on-site effect of erosion is the reduction of topsoil thickness, which results in soil structural degradation, soil compaction, nutrient depletion, loss of soil organic matter, poor seedling emergence, and reduced crop yields (Fig. 1.3). Removal of the nutrient-rich topsoil reduces soil fertility and decreases crop yield. Soil erosion reduces the functional capacity of soils to produce crops, filter pollu- tants, and store C and nutrients. One may argue that, according to the law of conser- vation of matter, soil losses by erosion in one place are compensated by the gains Fig, 1.3 Runoff sediment pollutes nearby water sources (Courtesy USDA-NRCS) Scanned with CamScanner Sai a a alLS Consequences of Soil Erosion 7 at another place. The problem is that the eroded soil may be deposited in locations where either no crops can be grown or it buries and inundates the crops in valleys. 1.5.2 Off-site Problems Water and wind erosion preferentially remove the soil layers where most agricul- tural chemicals (e.g., nutrients, pesticides) are concentrated. Thus, off-site transport of sediment and chemicals causes pollution, sedimentation, and silting of water re~ sources (Fig. 1.3). Sediment transported off-site alters the landscape characteristics, reduces wildlife habitat, and causes economic loss. Erosion also decreases livestock production through reduction in animal weight and forage production, damages wa- ter reservoirs and protective shelterbelts, and increases tree mortality. Accumula- tion of eroded materials in alluvial plains causes flooding of downstream croplands and water reservoirs, Soil erosion also contributes to the projected global climate change. Large amounts of C are rapidly oxidized during erosion, exacerbating the release of CO and CH, to the atmosphere (Lal, 2003). Wind erosion causes dust pollution, which alters the atmospheric radiation, re- duces visibility, and causes traffic accidents (Fig. 1.4). Dust particles penetrate into buildings, houses, gardens, and water reservoirs and deposit in fields, rivers, lakes, and wells, causing pollution and increasing maintenance costs. Dust storms trans- port fine inorganic and organic materials, which are distributed across the wind path. Most of the suspended particles are transported off-site and are deposited hundreds or even thousands of kilometers far from the source. Airborne fine particulate mat- ter with diameters of 101m (PM10) and 2.5 1m (PM2.5) pose an increasing threat to human and animal health, industrial safety, and food processing plants. Finer particles float in air and are transported at longer distances than coarser particles. Particle size of the deposited eolic material decreases with increase in distance from ke PASE sae Mig. 1.4. Air pollution during the Dust Bowl (Courtesy USDA-NRCS) | | | | Scanned with CamScanner" 1 Soil and Water Conservation ‘Table 1.2. Some of the erosion-induced soil degradation processes, Physical Processes Chemical Processes Biological Processes Tnerease in: Tnerease Decrease int * Surface sealing * Acidification * Biomass production + Crusting * Salinization + Soil organic matter content * Compaction * Sodication + Nutrient content and cycling * Delloceulation + Water pollution + Microbial biomass, activity, * Sand content Decresse int and diversity ee * Cation exchange capacity _Terease in: * Topsoil depth + Notrient storage and cycling * Organic matter * Soil structural stability * Biogeocherical cycles decomposition + Macroporosity + Butophication * Plant available water * Hypoxia capacity + Emission of greenhouse * Water infiltration gases, the source area. In the Sahara, a region in Africa with one of the highest wind ero- sion rates, dust emissions range between 400 and 700'Tg per year and are prone to increase with the projected change in climate (Washington et al., 2003). ‘A number of changes in physical, chemical, and biological processes occur due to the accelerated soil erosion (Table 1.2). These processes rarely occur individually but in interaction with one another (Eswaran et al., 2001). For example, com- pact soils are more prone to,structural deterioration (physical process), saliniza- tion (chemical process), and reduced microbial activity (biological process) than un-compacted soils. Some processes are more dominant in one soil than in another. Salinization is often more severe in irrigated lands with poor internal drainage than in well-drained soils of favorable structure, 1.6 Drivers of Soil Erosion Anthropogenic activities involving deforestation, overgrazing, intensive cultivation, mismanagement, cultivation of steep slopes, and urbanization accelerate the soil erosion hazard. Land use and management, topography, climate, and social, | economic, and political conditions influence soil erosion (Table 1.3). In developing countries, soil erosion is directly linked to poverty level. Resource-poor farmers lack ‘means to establish conservation practices. Subsistence agriculture forces farmers to use extractive practices on small size farm (0.5-2ha) year after year for food production, delaying or completely excluding the adoption of conservation practices that reduce soil erosion risks (Lal, 2007). The leading three causes of accelerated soil erosion are: deforestation, overgrazing, and mismanagement of cultivated soils. About 35% of soil erosion is attributed to overgrazing, 30% to deforestation, and 28% to excessive cultivation (FAO, 1996). Scanned with CamScanner