Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 71, No. 4, 2015, pp.

788--803
doi: 10.1111/josi.12149

Interracial Couples in Therapy: Common Themes

and Issues
∗
Leigh A. Leslie and Jennifer L. Young
University of Maryland

This article approaches the topic of intimate interracial relations from a clinical
perspective. Throughout this article, we use the term “interracial” relationships,
which refers to partners’ different racial categories defined by their physical and
biological characteristics. This term falls under the larger umbrella of “intereth-
nic” relationships, which refers to differences in partners’ cultural heritage as
well as biological characteristics. Different racialized histories and experiences
set interracial couples apart from other dyads, and can influence the types of prob-
lems that they encounter in their relationships. Given the challenging history of
intergroup relations between races, a distinction is drawn between problems which
are common to all couples (i.e., negotiating gender roles, poor communication,
disagreements over financial management, and intimacy issues) and problems that
are unique to interracial couples (i.e., managing societal disapproval, managing
the effects of racial privilege). The utility of interdependence theory in furthering
understanding of the problems that may arise in interracial relationships is exam-
ined. We argue that this theoretical model does not sufficiently address external
casual conditions which are a primary source of the unique problems faced by
interracial couples.

Studies of marital satisfaction and longevity suggest that, in general, inter-

racial couples experience lower marital satisfaction and stability than same-race
couples (Bratter & King, 2008; Hohmann-Marriott & Amato, 2008). While the
majority of interracial couples thrive and succeed; and dissolution rates vary by
the gender and racial make-up of the couple (Bratter & King, 2008; Fu & Wolfin-
ger, 2011), it is not altogether surprising that as a group, these relationships may
be somewhat more vulnerable than monoracial couples. Not only must interracial

∗ Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Leigh A. Leslie, 1142V School
of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20743. Tel: 301-405-4007 [e-mail:
lleslie@umd.edu].
788

C 2015 The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
Interracial Couples in Therapy 789

couples navigate all the typical challenges of partnered life, such as integrating two
families, negotiating gender roles, establishing effective patterns of communica-
tion, decision making, financial management, and maintaining mutually satisfying
emotional and sexual interaction, but these couples also face unique challenges
arising from a highly racialized society.
For clinicians, understanding the possible implications of a couple’s interra-
cial status on the challenges of partnered life is critical to culturally competent
therapy. Just as the rise in interracial couples has been met with an increased
attention in the sociological and social psychological literatures, so too has there
been an increased focus on these couples in the more applied clinical literature.
However, unlike the literature in the social sciences, clinical literature on inter-
racial couples tends to be less empirical and more practice-oriented. The clinical
literature on interracial couples is primarily of two types. The first body of work
assesses the adequacy of established treatment models in couple therapy for ad-
dressing the issues common to interracial couples. This work highlights models
that seem most suitable for work with these couples and offers possible adaptations
or modifications to enhance therapists’ responses to needs and experiences of in-
terracial couples. Given that the audience for this article is not primarily clinicians,
a specific review of the details of various treatment models will not be undertaken.
However, the authors would refer readers who are interested in honing their clinical
skills with interracial couples to articles and chapters by Leslie (2015), Greenman,
Young, and Johnson (2009), Kim, Prouty, and Roberson (2012), and Waldman and
Rubalcava (2005).
The second, and more common, approach to interracial couples in the clinical
literature is to integrate the research from the social sciences with clinicians’
experiences in the therapy room to identify issues or problems that commonly
arise in therapy with interracial couples. It is this body of literature that will be the
focus of this article.
Prior to moving to a review of this literature, however, we want to set this
endeavor in the context of the common focus of the articles in this volume; that
is, to assess the utility of interdependence theory (Kelley & Thibaut, 1978) in
understanding the processes and experiences of interracial couples. In considering
the relevance of interdependence theory for interracial couples in therapy, it is
important to acknowledge that as a social psychological theory, interdependence
theory, per se, gets little to no attention in clinical literature or training. That
is not to say, however, that the content and focus of interdependence theory is
irrelevant to clinicians or to interracial couples in therapy. While the tenets of
interdependence theory are spelled out in more detail by Gaines, Clark, and Afful
(2015) in the first article in this issue, it is clear that the way in which each partners’
outcomes are linked and dependent on the behavioral choices of the other is as
relevant to couples in therapy as it is to other couples. Furthermore, understanding
the influence of the characteristics examined in interdependence theory, such as
790 Leslie and Young

situation structure, emotion, cognition, and habit (Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003),
on individual behavioral choices is part and parcel of the work done by therapists.
It is worth noting that these very concepts are analogous to ones used in Cognitive
Behavioral Therapy (CBT), a dominant therapeutic model in clinical psychology
and family therapy (Baucom & Epstein, 1990). The CBT therapist works to
not only help clients understand the interaction of their cognitions, affect, and
behavior, but to see how couple behavior patterns and relationship satisfaction are
established through the reciprocal influence of partners’ cognitions, affect, and
behaviors on one another. Ironically, neither interdependence theorists nor CBT
therapists reference each other’s work, though the overlap is significant.
While interdependence theory is not integrated into clinical training or schol-
arship, one noteworthy attempt to conceptualize intervention from an interde-
pendence perspective has been offered by Christensen (1983). Conceptualizing
relationship dysfunction as partners’ interference with, as opposed to facilitation
of, the other’s needs and goals, Christensen identifies four causal conditions which
contribute to dysfunction; characteristics of the individual partners, characteristics
of the relationship interaction (P × O), conditions in the social environment, and
conditions in the physical environment. While it is fair to say that interdependence
theory has given much more attention to personal characteristics (e.g., thought,
affect, action) and relationship characteristics (e.g., joint goals, frequency of inter-
action, symmetry of connections) than to social and physical environment in trying
to understand the interdependence between partners, Christensen’s causal typol-
ogy does open the door for the consideration of race in the problems experienced
by interracial couples.
Thus, in addition to identifying the issues that are common to interracial
couples in therapy, this article will briefly assess the utility of interdependence
theory, specifically the intervention framework offered by Christensen (1983) for
enhancing our understanding of the issues presented by interracial couples in
therapy.

Why Interracial Couples Come to Therapy

One of the most frequent themes in the clinical literature is that interracial
couples present for therapy for all the same reasons as other couples (e.g.,
Leslie, 2015; Poulsen, 2003). Whether the presenting problem is arguments over
housework, feelings of emotional abandonment, disagreements over in-laws, or
problems with children, interracial couples do not come to therapy merely because
they are interracial, they typically come for what could be referred to as “common
couple problems.” In fact, interracial couples often downplay the significance of
race in their relationship and in the current problem. It has been well established
that while interracial couples commonly acknowledge the significance of race
in structuring their interaction with the outside world, they often maintain it is
Interracial Couples in Therapy 791

irrelevant in their private life (Karis, 2009; Killian, 2013). A common refrain is
“we are just like every other couple.” This manifests in therapy in that couples
engage in what Killian (2013) refers to as “no race talk,” if not throughout therapy,
then certainly in the early stages of therapy. Rosenblatt, Karis, and Powell (1995)
point out that this tendency to minimize the relevance of race to their relationship
and the current problem may help them support the image of being just like
any other couple. However, it also limits the couple’s understanding of how
their different racialized histories and experiences may affect their relationship.
Specifically, not talking about race may constrain their awareness of both how
they may experience common problems somewhat differently than other couples
and how they may experience problems that are unique to interracial couples.
The challenge for a therapist, therefore, is to open the therapeutic discourse to the
potential role of race in the couple’s private life and in the presenting problem.

Common Couple Problems

Although interracial couples come to therapy for all the same reasons as other
couples, they may experience the problems that are common to all couples a bit dif-
ferently because of their interracial status. For example, while many monoracial
partners have different opinions about the best way to parent, different experi-
ences with racism and discrimination may contribute to disagreements between
interracial partners about acceptable or safe behavior for children and adolescents.
The therapist must find a way to sensitively introduce race into the exploration
of these common couple problems, while remembering that race is only one of
a host of factors impacting the current situation for this couple. The balance of
recognizing that race is relevant but not deterministic is something a therapist must
remain mindful of throughout the work with an interracial couple. Questions about
whether or not their different racial backgrounds might contribute to how they view
parenting, the way they set limits with in-laws, or how they navigate the numerous
negotiations of family life are not threatening to most couples, when delivered in
a sincere, respectful manner. In these circumstances, race can be viewed simply
as one of many causal conditions such as gender, age, locale in which one grew
up, or religion that are impacting their views. This is not to say that issues of race
may not be difficult or painful in the discussion of common problems, but when
presented as one of a host of factors impacting their interaction, couples are often
less invested in avoiding a discussion of race relative to their presenting problem.
When applying Christensen’s (1983) framework, it could be said that in-
terracial couples present for therapy with the same set of problems in facilitating
individual and joint goals and needs as can be found in other couples. An important
consideration in treatment with interracial couples, however, is that in addition to
the individual characteristics (e.g., feelings, beliefs, and attributions) and the cou-
ple interaction patterns which are explored in therapy with all couples, attention
792 Leslie and Young

needs to be paid to the racial difference as one of many social causal conditions
that may contribute to the current issues in the relationship. It should be pointed
out that while one might argue that race is an individual characteristic, what we are
referring to here is not the mere difference in skin color or physical characteristics
that racial difference might imply, but to the history of social interactions and
experiences tied to one’s race. Thus, race, as a socially constructed variable, and
as a social stimulus, falls into the category of social environment causal condi-
tions. The emphasis in the clinical treatment is on how this social causal condition
may add a nuanced dimension to the dysfunctions that are common to all types of
couples in intimate relationships.

Unique Couple Problems

In addition to the problems that are common to all couples, there may be
unique issues that monoracial couples, as a group, do not have to deal with
when navigating the challenges of forming a mutually satisfying relationship. For
example, most monoracial couples do not experience ongoing doubt from family
and friends about the stability of their marriage, or face question of whether
marrying their partners is a betrayal of their race.
It is the unique problems which can be more taxing for a therapist and for the
partners. Not only are these problems less likely to be what the couple is seeking
therapy for, but their relevance to the current situation may be less obvious to the
couple and the therapist. Furthermore, partners may have unconsciously avoided
talking about them in an effort to minimize the ways in which they may be different
from other couples. Again, these unique problems can be seen as a result of the
social causal conditions emanating from issues of racism and racial privilege in
our society, and as such are not experienced broadly across couples.
While the introduction of race into the discussion of common couple problems
is more straightforward, it is the discussion of unique problems faced by interracial
couples that is more sensitive and challenging in therapy. For that reason, these
problems will be examined in greater detail in the following section.

Unique Clinical Issues for Interracial Couples

A framework to help organize the potential problems experienced by inter-

racial couples primarily or solely because of their interracial status emphasizes
the source of the problem. Issues unique to interracial couples may arise either as
a result of the couple’s current social context or their racialized histories. Issues
originating in the current social context have to do with the way interactions
with the larger social environment impact the couple, both at the individual
and the interactional level. This category includes issues of family support and
community acceptance, as well as difficulties that arise for couples as a result of
Interracial Couples in Therapy 793

racial privilege. Issues arising from different racial histories have to do with the
cognitions, perceptions, and behaviors that each partner has developed as a result
of having lived his or her life as a member of a particular racial group. These
issues focus on how one feels and thinks about self, how one interprets the words
and behaviors of others, and beliefs about family and communication.

Current Social Context

From an interdependence perspective, an interracial couple’s current social

context is relevant as a contemporary source of stimuli impacting the partners both
as individuals and as a unit. While the spotlight shown from an interdependence
perspective focuses on the interactive process between the two partners, there is
recognition that those interaction sequences or chains are also affected by the
social environment. More specifically, the interaction chains between partners can
be impacted by the interaction chains each partner has with other individuals,
such as family members, coworkers, or even strangers. Furthermore, these other
interaction chains could be analyzed using the same concepts which are applied to
the interracial couple’s relationship (Kelley et al., 1983). The purpose here, as well
as in therapy, is not necessarily to analyze the relationships as it exists in the social
environment, but to recognize their ongoing relevance to the couple’s present
day interactions. While the ways in which the current social context can serve
as stimuli in partners’ interaction sequences is vast, issues of social support and
racial privilege are common contextual issues that play a role in most interracial
couples’ interactions.

Social support. No issue faced by interracial couples has received more

empirical or clinical attention than the difficulties that arise from a lack of family
and community support for their relationships (Bertoni & Bodenmann, 2010).
As Wieling (2003) points out, couples often feel added pressure to make their
relationship work because of the high level of scrutiny it undergoes from families
and friends. In addition to the stress of family and friends not being supportive,
couples report that negative reactions from strangers in public add strain to their
relationship (Killian, 2013). In spite of the challenges of limited social support and
community acceptance, this is the one area where couples report a great deal of
“pulling together” to confront the problem. Numerous authors have identified the
many strategies couples use for managing unsupportive networks and public rude-
ness, including: (1) creating shared meaning or a “we” in the couple relationship (2)
framing differences as something to learn about and celebrate, (3) communicating
emotions and insecurities, and (4) positioning the “we” in relationship to familial
and societal context (Seshadri & Knudson-Martin, 2013). Csizmadia, Leslie, and
Nazarian (2015) refer to these strategies as “boundary maintenance” as a couple
794 Leslie and Young

finds way to protect themselves from those who are critical or nonaccepting, and
to engage with those who support and celebrate their relationship.
Obviously, if partners are not successfully managing the lack of social support,
the role of the therapist will be to help them develop more effective strategies for
coping with the lack of support they experience. However, given that many couples
feel some level of competence in their approach to managing poor social support
and community reactions, the therapist’s interventions around this issue tend to
be one of three areas. First, in working on the current problem, therapists may
encourage couples to employ the resilience and collaboration they have developed
in navigating external support. Second, therapists may help partners voice how
emotionally draining it is to persevere in the face of low support. The point here
is not to problematize their response, but to allow partners to support and nurture
each other in acknowledging the difficulty of their work together. Finally, Tubbs
and Rosenblatt (2003) point out that an important task for the therapist may be to
help partners grieve both the support they have lost as a result of their interracial
relationship, and the experiences of racism that have impacted their lives. This
grieving process in no way undercuts the partnering choice they have made but
allows each to acknowledge and mourn losses and pain associated with their
relationship.

Racial privilege. A second issue emanating from the current social context
is power differences in the relationship that may exist as a result of racial privilege.
Interracial couples exist in a society that privileges being White. While the issue of
racial privilege is most evident in couples composed of one minority partner and
one White partner, even interracial partners of two minority races can experience
the problem of differential privilege. Lee and Bean (2007) have noted that the color
line which determines social privilege is in flux. Historically, a White/non-White
divide existed such that only those belonging to the socially determined “White”
group were entitled to the benefits of the preferred racial group. However, they
argue that for a host of reasons, the most significant of which is immigration, that
social status dichotomy is shifting to a non-Black/Black dichotomy. In other words,
the color line is increasingly being drawn in such a way that anyone considered
non-Black is entitled to the privileges of “Whiteness,” with Blacks remaining the
disenfranchised group. Regardless of whether the privilege divide is drawn to only
advantage Whites or to advantage all who are not Black, those in the dominant
group, usually White people, do not tend to think about how being White impacts
their lives. While a partner may be sensitive to the way race structures the life of
his or her minority partner, it is less common for the privileged person to enter an
interracial relationship with a full awareness of the benefits he or she accrues both
outside and inside the relationships by virtue of being White.
The impact of racial privilege on couples can be both overt and incredibly
subtle. The more overt ways often have to do with the fact that the White partner
Interracial Couples in Therapy 795

lives in a dual reality while his or her partner and children do not. For example,
he or she moves through life enjoying the privileges of being White when alone
(e.g., better service), but experiencing different treatment when with the minority
partner (e.g., suspicious looks, poor service). While some White partners may
acknowledge the guilt, and sometimes relief, that comes from knowing they can
at times “opt out” of experiencing racism, Killian (2013) found that this power
differential is not often discussed between partners. On a much more subtle level,
it is not uncommon for White partners, as members of the dominant group, to
assume that the way they see the world is accurate, whether it be the interpretation
they make for why they were slighted by a cashier or why they did or did not
receive a job promotion (Killian, 2013). While this dynamic is tied to the concept
of microaggressions, which will be discussed in greater detail later in the article,
the significant point is that this privilege-based behavior usually occurs outside
the awareness of the couple. However, this unacknowledged difference between
partners can result in the minority partner feeling devalued or dismissed for reasons
he or she cannot fully articulate. It is a finely nuanced intervention for a clinician
to be able to introduce the notion that perhaps the White partner, by virtue of the
privilege accrued growing up a member of the dominant culture, has come to see
his or her view of reality as having more “truth” than the partner’s view. This is
often difficult for a White partner to comprehend. He or she is much more likely
to be attuned to how much privilege he or she has forfeited in the decision to
marry interracially. The key here is that although the privilege may have been lost
in some social contexts, it still inadvertently may exist within the couple.

Racialized Histories

Some of the unique problems faced by interracial couples which may become
evident in the course of therapy are less a result of how others see or react to
them, and more a result of how partners’ experiences related to race impact their
attitudes, their interpretations of social stimuli, and their resulting behaviors. The
ways in which all people make sense of the world and respond to others grow
out of experiences in their families and communities. For partners who grew up
in different racial groups, particularly when one group is much more privileged
than the other, these histories can contribute to different values, different ways
of expressing oneself, different lenses for interpreting behavior, and different
interaction styles. It should be stated that the interpersonal growth inherent in
learning to understand a history and a perspective other than your own is one of
the joys articulated by many interracial couples (Rosenblatt et al., 1995; Usita
& Poulsen, 2003). Nonetheless, for some couples, it can add complexity and
additional strain to the daily demands of couple and family life.
From Christensen’s application of interdependence theory to clinical inter-
vention, these could be viewed as past social causal conditions impacting current
796 Leslie and Young

individual and relationship characteristics such as affect, beliefs, attributions, and

communication style. While the therapeutic work may focus primarily on current
emotions, cognitions, and behaviors, it is likely to be important to help part-
ners understand the role of past race-based experiences in how they are currently
perceiving and reacting to the world, and to one another.

Racial identity. An important part of the maturation process for any person
is developing a stable sense of self; an answer to the question of “who am I in
the world?” While this process occurs for all people, racial minority youth are
typically developing their identity in a larger society that does not fully value
them. Thus, their successful identity development may be complicated as they
work through the meaning of their racial minority status for their identity. This
process of developing identification with, and pride in one’s race, is referred to
as racial identity (Phinney, 1990). While all people develop a racial identity, it is
much more strongly linked to mental health and adjustment for racial minorities
(Fischer, Reynolds, Hsu, Barnes, & Tyler, 2014; Sellers, Caldwell, Schmeelk-
Cone, & Zimmerman, 2003). Research has also shown that marital adjustment is
higher for those in interracial marriages who have a strong positive racial identity
(Leslie & Letiecq, 2004). In other words, interracial partners who have a sense of
pride in being a member of their race are also more satisfied in their marriages.
Given that the research on racial identity and marital adjustment is cross-sectional,
it is not clear whether people with a positive racial identity are better equipped to
establish and maintain healthy relationships, or whether healthy relationships help
individuals feel more grounded and secure in their racial identity. In either case,
the implications of this link between a strong positive racial identity and marital
quality have important clinical implications.
In clinical work with interracial couples, racial identity can be relevant in
several ways and may differ based on one’ minority or majority status. First, in
some cases, individuals may use interracial relationships to help explore or resolve
uncertainty in their feelings about their race. While in no way wanting to support
the rhetoric which links marrying interracially with psychopathology or acting out,
it would be naı̈ve to deny that in some cases people with complicated or ambivalent
feelings about their own race may be drawn to partnering with someone outside
of their race (Romano, 2008). Not surprisingly, this is likely to be associated with
relationship/marital difficulty if one is using the relationship to resolve personal
identity issues. This is supported by research indicating higher levels of marital
quality for couples in which partners are not wrestling with issues of racial identity
(e.g., Leslie & Letiecq, 2004).
Second, even people who feel comfortably grounded in their race may ex-
perience some doubt about themselves as a result of partnering or marrying in-
terracially (Inman, 2011; Killian, 2001). Minority partners may ask themselves
what marrying outside their race means for who they are and their feelings
Interracial Couples in Therapy 797

regarding their race (Luke, 1994). For example, an African-American man might
ponder whether he is being rejecting of his race or of African-American women, in
general, by marrying a White woman. Similarly, those questions may come from
family and friends. Or, a Chinese-American woman might face questions from
extended family members as to whether she will be able to be a good Chinese
daughter while married to a White man. While the selection of a partner impacts
identity for everyone, it is possible that the meaning attributed, by self or others, to
partnering with someone outside one’s race can contribute to relationship distress.
Alternatively, Whites are much less likely to have thought of themselves as
having a racial identity (Burton, Bonilla-Silva, Ray, Buckelew, & Freeman, 2010).
In other words, most White people do not give much thought to how being White
impacts their lives. For this reason, self-identity questions for Whites in interracial
relationships are more likely to be associated with the personal experiences of
racism that come as a result of being in the relationship. White partners may
experience embarrassment, guilt, anger, or a host of other feelings as they try to
incorporate being treated as an “other” into their self-identity.
The way that these racial identity issues may present in relationships is as
questions of commitment and trust (Leslie, 2015), particularly for those consider-
ing marriage or recently married. In other words, when one is uncertain about the
personal implications of marrying someone from a different race, they may exhibit
doubt or indecision about the relationship. Given the strong association between
marital satisfaction and commitment reported by Dainton (2015), in this volume,
it may also be that racial identity issues can be manifested in partner’s reports of
marital satisfaction. Thus, for interracial couples expressing dissatisfaction with
the relationship or doubts or questions about their future, a therapist may want to
explore how being in this relationship has impacted each partners’ identity and
sense of self.

Microaggression. The experience of growing up as a member of a minor-

ity race in the United States is filled with intentional and unintentional assaults
on one’s self-esteem, which are generally referred to as microaggressions (Sue
et al., 2007). These incidents can range from minor slights to aggressive acts of
discrimination and persecution, and can generate a host of feelings from being
annoyed or angry to feeling dismissed or threatened. Microaggressions present
perplexing perceptual and behavioral challenges in that one must assess if they
have occurred (e.g., did that waiter ignore my repeated requests for more water
because he is busy, incompetent, or because I am Latino?), as well as decide how
to respond (e.g., do I just let it go and not come back to the restaurant or do I
mention to the manager that I was treated rudely?).
One of the major ways in which microaggressions can become an issue for
interracial couples is that partners are likely to have had very different histories
in experiencing and handling microaggressions. This can lead to very different
798 Leslie and Young

perceptions as to if they are occurring and how to respond to them. A common

theme in clinical literature is the extent to which interracial partners disagree on
the occurrence or intent of negative reactions from others, with minority partners
being more sensitive to social disapproval (Castle Bell & Hastings, 2011). Karis
(2003) has pointed out that White partners may inadvertently use their privileged
position to dismiss the minority partner’s concerns or accuse the partner of being
oversensitive and misreading a situation. While the literature focuses primarily
on White partners downplaying microaggressions, it has also been noted that the
differences in interpretation and reaction can lean in the opposite direction. Csiz-
madia et al. (2015) point out that in many cases the White partner is experiencing
disapproval and discriminatory acts for the first time and may be highly reactive.
Their minority partner, on the other hand, has over time developed successful
strategies for ignoring or coping with microaggressions and may see the White
partner as overreacting. Regardless of which partner is sensing a microaggression,
it is their different racialized histories that can cause them to see, interpret, and
respond to these affronts in dissimilar ways.
In those couples where this difference is contributing to relationship distress,
it is the role of the therapist to help partners hear and empathize with each
other’s feelings about the incidents and help them understand how their different
experiences with racism have led them to develop different perceptual lenses and
coping strategies. The challenge is to help partners realize that both “truths” can
coexist based on their lived experience. (For additional discussion of the impact
of microaggressions on interracial couples, see the Castle Bell & Hastings, 2015
article on parental approval and disapproval in this volume).

Communication. Partners’ past experiences, particularly in their cul-

ture of origin, influence their patterns of communication and problem solving.
While this is true of all couples regardless of race, interracial couples may expe-
rience an additional layer of difference that they must navigate. It is important to
note here that when it comes to addressing the communication differences that
couples must traverse, it is probably more accurate to focus on cultural as opposed
to racial histories. A specific organizing cultural principle that may vary among
racial groups is whether interpersonal relationships are grounded in the value
of individualism or collectivism. Ting-Toomey (2009) points out that a group’s
placement on this value dimension has significant implications for the way they, in
general, approach communication and the management of interpersonal conflict.
In particular, groups adhering to a more individualistic approach to relationships
tend to emphasize autonomy, personal space, and clear boundaries between an
intimate relationship and a larger family system. Their communications tend to
be more direct; with needs, expectations, and emotions clearly stated and de-
contextualized. In contrast, groups that are more collectivist in nature emphasize
connection in personal relationships with boundaries between individuals and
Interracial Couples in Therapy 799

between a couple and the extended family (or even the community) being more
fluid. More indirect styles of communication are preferred with one’s desires and
feelings being couched in context and behavior.
It is important to remember that individualism and collectivism are end points
of a continuum, not binary categories, and that groups and individuals are never
purist in their relationships orientation and communication styles. Furthermore,
as Karis (2009) points out, regardless of race, anyone who grew up in the United
States shares an “American culture” with its emphasis on independence and in-
dividual rights. Nonetheless, even in the United States, Whites, as the dominant
group, are more likely to hold to these values and communication patterns while
minority groups may lean toward a more collectivist orientation both for survival
and because the direct expression of their needs in society has historically been
suppressed.
It is not difficult to see how the general communication orientation of one’s
cultural or racial group may cause what Ting-Toomey (2009) calls “decoding
problems” in interracial couples as they may employ different strategies to express
emotions, indicate dissatisfaction or request a relationship change, or work to
solve a problem. This may be particularly evident in interracial couples in which
partners grew up in different countries and do not share the overarching influence
of American culture. In therapy, these culture-based communication differences
may appear as partners feeling ignored, misunderstood, or bullied. For therapists
working with such couples, the challenge is to help partners place these differences
in expressing themselves in a larger historical context, and to help each one learn
to listen and speak in a way that is mindful of the other’s communication style.

Conclusions

Utility of Interdependence Theory

In reflecting on the usefulness of interdependence theory in furthering under-

standing of the clinical issues common to interracial couples, it is important to not
lose sight of the larger question of the utility of interdependence theory in under-
standing problems in couple relationships, in general. Christensen (1983) offers
a compelling framework for understanding dysfunction in couple relationship.
Both, he and Kelley et al. (1983), recognize that while the focus of analysis and
intervention may typically be the characteristics of the interaction sequences be-
tween partners, the larger social and physical context has significant implications
for the relationship quality. Nonetheless, while this acknowledgement is made,
little scholarly work has been undertaken under the umbrella of interdependence
theory to further develop the role of social causal conditions. Even less work has
been done to integrate an interdependence analytic perspective into clinical work.
However, in Christensen’s singular effort to conceptualize intervention from an
800 Leslie and Young

interdependence perspective, consideration of social factors only expanded the

analysis to include family. Gaines and Hardin (2013) make note of this lack of
attention to factors outside the couple, particularly culture, in interdependence
theorists’ efforts to examine couple interaction.
The absence of a more robust consideration of external causal conditions
is particularly problematic in trying to understand interracial couples and the
problems they may face. In a society that is at best, race-conscious, and at worst,
racist, perhaps no couples are impacted by the larger social influences of culture
and race more than those couples who choose to partner across racial lines.
For these couples, societal attitudes affect how others perceive and interact with
partners and, in turn, how partners perceive and interact with one another. Thus,
the clinical challenges of helping partners develop more satisfying relationships
would seem incomplete if attention is not given to the numerous ways in which
current and past racialized experiences are impacting their interaction.
As mentioned earlier, the therapeutic model most similar in focus to interde-
pendence theory is CBT. It is noteworthy that this model is not one that is typically
utilized in clinical recommendations for work with interracial couples, not because
the focus on affect, cognition, and behavior is inaccurate, but because it is insuf-
ficient. In general, there is a strong trend to recommend treatment models which
allow a couple to focus on the uniqueness of their experience by examining the way
in which their different racial histories have contributed to the current situation.
Narrative Therapy, which “externalizes” the problem as something outside the
individual or relationship (Morgan, 2000), is the most commonly recommended
treatment model for interracial couples, thus giving primacy in treatment to the
social causal conditions.

Summary of Clinical Issues

Like all other couples, interracial couples may, during difficult periods in their
relationship, chose to seek the assistance of a therapist. In working with interracial
couples, it is imperative that therapists balance the way in which the couple’s
interracial status may present unique issues, with the fact that they struggle with
the exact same problems as other couples. While both recognizing the sameness
and appreciating the uniqueness, therapists should assess the extent to which the
couple’s current social context and different racialized histories are contributing
to the problems for which the couple is seeking help. Throughout the course of
therapy, it is important to be mindful of the fact that, as so many interracial couples
argue, their racial difference in no way defines them, but neither is it irrelevant to
their experience as a couple.
Interracial Couples in Therapy 801

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LEIGH A. LESLIE (PhD in Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsyl-

vania State University) is an Associate Professor in The Department of Family
Science in the School of Public Health at The University of Maryland where she
teaches in the Couple and Family Therapy Program. She is the author of numerous
book chapters and over 30 journal articles focusing on topics related to gender
Interracial Couples in Therapy 803

issues in families and minority families. She has conducted numerous evaluations
of psychoeducational programs in areas such as couples communication, parent
education, and promoting emotional resiliency in children. She is a Licensed Psy-
chologist and Marriage and Family Therapist and maintains a private practice,
with a focus on interracial and intercultural families.

JENNIFER L. YOUNG is a second-year Family Science doctoral student at the

University of Maryland and a practicing licensed graduate Marriage and Family
Therapist in the state of Maryland. She earned a B.A. in Psychology and Mandarin
Chinese from the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Jennifer also earned her M.A.
in Chinese Language and Culture from The Ohio State University. Jennifer’s
research and clinical interests include interracial family relations, cross-cultural
communication, and medical family therapy. She is currently in her second year
as a predoctoral fellow at the Clinical Genetics branch of the National Cancer
Institute, NIH.