Nordic Bronze Age

Nordic Bronze Age
The Nordic Bronze Age (also Northern Bronze Age, or

Scandinavian Bronze Age) is a period of Scandinavian
Nordic Bronze Age
prehistory from c. 2000/1750–500 BC.
The Nordic Bronze Age culture emerged about 1750 BC as a

continuation of the Battle Axe culture (the Scandinavian Corded
Ware variant) and Bell Beaker culture,[1][2] as well as from
influence that came from Central Europe.[3] This influence most
likely came from people similar to those of the Unetice culture,
since they brought customs that were derived from Unetice or
from local interpretations of the Unetice culture located in North
Western Germany.[4] The metallurgical influences from Central
Europe are especially noticeable.[5][6] The Bronze Age in
Scandinavia can be said to begin shortly after 2000 BC with the
introduction and use of bronze tools, followed by a more Geographical Southern
systematic adoption of bronze metalworking technology from range Scandinavia,
1750 BC.[7][8][9] northern Germany
The Nordic Bronze Age maintained close trade links with Period Bronze Age
Mycenaean Greece, with whom it shares several striking Dates c. 2000/1750–500 BC
similarities.[10][11][3][12] Some cultural similarities between the Preceded by Battle Axe culture,
Nordic Bronze Age, the Sintashta/Andronovo culture and
Bell Beaker culture,
peoples of the Rigveda have also been detected.[a][13] The
Pitted Ware culture
Nordic Bronze Age region included part of northern
Germany,[14] and some scholars also include sites in what is now Followed by Jastorf culture, Pre-
Estonia, Finland and Pomerania as part of its cultural Roman Iron Age
sphere.[15][16]
The people of the Nordic Bronze Age were actively engaged in the export of amber, and imported metals in
return, becoming expert metalworkers. With respect to the number and density of metal deposits, the Nordic
Bronze Age became the richest culture in Europe during its existence.[17][18][19]
Iron metallurgy began to be practised in Scandinavia during the later Bronze Age, from at least the 9th
century BC.[20] Around the 5th century BC, the Nordic Bronze Age was succeeded by the Pre-Roman Iron
Age and the Jastorf culture. The Nordic Bronze Age is often considered ancestral to the Germanic
peoples.[21]
History
Origins
The Nordic Bronze Age is a successor of the Corded Ware culture in southern Scandinavia and Northern
Germany. It appears to represent a fusion of elements from the Corded Ware culture and the preceding
Pitted Ware culture.[22][23] The decisive factor that triggered the change from the Chalcolithic Battle Axe
culture into the Nordic Bronze Age is often believed to have been metallurgical influence as well as general
cultural influence from Central Europe, similar in custom to those of the Unetice culture.[24][25][26]
Chronology
Oscar Montelius, who coined the term used for the period, divided it into six distinct sub-periods in his
piece Om tidsbestämning inom bronsåldern med särskilt avseende på Skandinavien ("On Bronze Age
dating with particular focus on Scandinavia") published in 1885, which is still in wide use. His relative
chronology has held up well against radiocarbon dating, with the exception that the period's start is closer to
1700 BC than 1800 BC, as Montelius suggested. For Central Europe a different system developed by Paul
Reinecke is commonly used, as each area has its own artifact types and archaeological periods.
A broader subdivision is the Early Bronze Age, between 1700 BC and 1100 BC, and the Late Bronze Age,
1100 BC to 550 BC. These divisions and periods are followed by the Pre-Roman Iron Age.
Culture
Settlements
Settlement in the Nordic Bronze Age period consisted mainly of single farmsteads, which usually consisted
of a longhouse plus additional four-post built structures (helms). Longhouses were initially two aisled, and
after c. 1300 BC three aisled structure became normal. Some longhouses were exceptionally large (up to
about 500 m2 in area),[27] and have been described as "chiefly halls",[28] "the sitting area of which is the
size of a megaron in contemporary Mycenean palaces".[27][29] Larger settlements are also known (such as
Hallunda and Apalle in Sweden and Voldtofte in Denmark), as well as fortified sites, specialist workshops
for metalwork and ceramic production, and dedicated cult houses.[30][31][32][33] Settlements were
geographically located on higher ground, and tended to be concentrated near the sea.[34] Certain settlements
functioned as regional centres of power, trade, craft production, and ritual activity.[35][36][37] The Bronze
Age fortified town of Hünenburg bei Watenstedt in northern Germany (12th c. BC) has been described as a
trading post for people from Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea region, as well as a cult centre and seat of a
ruling elite.[38][39]
Burials
Associated with Nordic Bronze Age settlements are burial cairns, mounds and cemeteries, with interments
including oak coffins and urn burials; other settlement associations include rock carvings, or bronze hoards
in wetland sites.[34] Some burial mounds are especially large and, with respect to the amount of gold and
bronze in them, extraordinarily rich for this time period. Examples of prominent burial mounds include the
Håga mound and Kivik King's Grave in Sweden, and the Lusehøj in Denmark.[40] A minimum of 50,000
burial mounds were constructed between 1500 and 1150 BC in Denmark alone.[41]
Oak coffin burials dating from the 14th–13th centuries BC
contained well-preserved mummified bodies, along with their
clothing and burial goods. The bodies were intentionally
mummified by watering the burial mounds to create a bog-
like, oxygen-free environment within the graves.[27][42][43]
This practice may have been stimulated by cultural influence
from Egypt, as it coincided with the appearance of Egyptian
artefacts in Scandinavia and the appearance of Baltic amber
in Egypt (e.g. in the tomb of Tutankhamun).[43][44]
However, intentional mummification within oak coffin
Kivik 'King's Grave', Sweden, c. 1400 BC
burials has also been noted in Britain at an earlier date (c.
2300 BC).[45][46]
The Late Bronze Age King's Grave of Seddin in northern Germany (9th century BC) has been described as
a "Homeric burial" due to its close similarity to contemporary elite burials in Greece and Italy.[47][48]
Agriculture
In the Nordic Bronze Age, both agriculture (including cultivation of wheat, millet, and barley) and animal
husbandry (keeping of domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep and pigs) were practiced. Fishing and
hunting were also sources of food, which included shellfish, deer, elk, and other wild animals. There is
evidence that oxen were used as draught animals; domesticated dogs were common, but horses were rarer
and probably status symbols.[34]
Metalwork
Scandinavian Bronze Age sites present a rich and well-preserved legacy of bronze and gold objects. These
valuable metals were all imported, primarily from Central Europe, but they were often crafted locally and
the craftsmanship and metallurgy of the Nordic Bronze Age was of a high standard. The lost-wax casting
method was used to produce artefacts such as the Trundholm Sun Chariot and the Langstrup belt
plate.[49][50] The archaeological legacy also encompasses locally crafted wool and wooden objects.
During the 15th and 14th centuries BC, southern Scandinavia produced and deposited more elaborate
bronzes in graves and hoards than any other region of Europe.[17] As regards the number and density of
metal deposits, the Nordic Bronze Age became the richest culture in Europe.[18] More Bronze Age swords
have also been found in Denmark than anywhere else in Europe.[18] Uniform crucibles found at metal
workshop sites further indicate the mass production of certain metal artefacts.[32]
Rock carvings
The west coast of Sweden, namely Bohuslän, has the largest concentration of Bronze Age rock carvings in
Scandinavia; and Scandinavia has the largest number of Bronze Age rock carvings in Europe. The west
coast of Sweden is home to around 1,500 recorded rock engraving sites, with more being discovered every
year. When the rock carvings were made, the area was the coastline; but it is now 25 meters above sea
level. The engravings in the region depict everyday life, weapons, human figures, fishing nets, ships,
chariots, plows, the sun, deer, bulls, horses, and birds. By far, the most dominant theme is human figures
and ships, especially ships — 10,000 of which have recorded. The typical ship depicts a crew of six to
thirteen. Rock carvings in the late Bronze Age, and even the early Iron Age, often depict conflict, power,
and mobility.[51]
Warrior ethos
The culture of the Nordic Bronze Age was that of a warrior culture, with a strong emphasis on weapons
and status.[52] Helle Vandkilde of Aarhus University, in her publications from 1995, describes most men of
the period as having followed a warrior ethos.[53] More than 70% of burials dating to the Nordic Bronze
Age contain metal objects of various kinds, the most common objects being swords and daggers.[54] It is
noted that the people of the Nordic Bronze Age also placed great importance on helmets of intricate design,
which they put much effort into making. However, not all of the weapons and armour of the Nordic Bronze
Age were used for warfare. Some of them are believed to have been ceremonial, especially the helmets.
Despite the importance of weapons in their society, archaeological discoveries suggest that intrasocietal
violence was not particularly common in the Nordic Bronze Age, especially not when compared to
contemporary European Bronze Age cultures.[55] The people of the Nordic Bronze Age seem to instead
have been directing their military efforts outwards, likely against people of neighbouring cultures, and are
believed to have participated in battles along the Amber Road and other trade routes that were important for
the continuous prosperity of their society.
Many of the stone carvings from the Nordic Bronze Age depict boats in great numbers as well as groups of
armed men manning the boats. Finds such as the Hjortspring boat, among others, give further credence to
the theory that Bronze Age people in Scandinavia relied heavily on naval dominance of the waters
surrounding their region in order to secure trade and safety.
Ancient DNA and archaeological evidence indicates that people from the Nordic Bronze Age sphere were
involved in the conflict at the Tollense valley battlefield in northern Germany (13th century BC),[56] "the
largest excavated and archaeologically verifiable battle site of this age in the world".[57]
International contacts
The Nordic Bronze Age maintained intimate trade links with the Tumulus culture and Mycenaean Greece.
The Nordic Bronze Age exported amber through the Amber Road, and imported metals in return. During
the time of the Nordic Bronze Age, metals, such as copper, tin and gold, were imported into Scandinavia on
a massive scale.[58] Copper was imported from Sardinia, Iberia and Cyprus.[58][59] The trade network was
briefly disrupted during the Late Bronze Age collapse in the 12th century BC.[60]
Evidence for horse-drawn chariots appears in Scandinavia c. 1700 BC, around the same time or earlier than
it appears in Greece. In both cases the chariots appear to have come from the region of the Carpathian Basin
or the western steppe.[61] Cheek-pieces and whip handles in Denmark dating from this time feature
curvilinear 'wave-band' designs that are also found on contemporary artefacts from the Carpathian Basin
and Greece, including in the elite shaft graves at Mycenae. These designs subsequently appear on Nordic
Bronze Age metalwork, including on the gold disc of the Trundholm Sun Chariot.[62][63] Engraved
depictions of chariots appear in Scandinavian rock art from c. 1700 BC onwards, as they do on engraved
stone stelae from Mycenae.[61] The introduction of the chariot in Scandinavia coincided with the
introduction of socketed spearheads, whose ultimate origin Vandkilde (2014) ascribes to the Seima-Turbino
culture.[62] Cheek-pieces and belt hooks adorned with horse heads are suggested to have originated from
the Carpathian Basin, making their way into Scandinavia.[62]
Chariot wheels in Scandinavia are depicted with four spokes, as in Mycenaean Greece and the Carpathian
Basin.[64][65] A depiction of a two-wheeled vehicle with four-spoked wheels is also known from Kültepe in
Central Anatolia, dating from c. 1900 BC.[66] In contrast, chariot wheels from the Sintashta culture and
Andronovo cultures near the Urals had more than four spokes.[67] Miniature spoked-wheel models have
been found in the Carpathian Basin dating to the 20th–19th centuries BC,[68] and cheek-pieces are known
there from c. 2000 BC.[69] According to Maran (2020, 2014) chariots probably originated "in the entire
zone between the Carpathian Basin and the Southern Ural", rather than just in the Ural region, and spread
southwards from there to Greece and the Near East.[70][71][72] In the case of Greece this is given some
support by analyses of skeletal material from the shaft graves at Mycenae, which also indicate connections
to the north.[73]
According to Kristiansen and Larsson (2005), "foreign origins were most consciously demonstrated in the
formation of the Nordic Bronze Age Culture from 1500 BC onwards, basing itself on a Minoan/Mycenaean
template."[74] During the 15th–14th centuries BC the Nordic Bronze Age and Mycenaean Greece shared
the use of similar flange-hilted swords, as well as select elements of shared lifestyle, such as campstools,
drinking vessels decorated with solar symbols, and tools for body care including razors and tweezers. This
"Mycenaean package", including spiral decoration, was directly adopted in southern Scandinavia after 1500
BC, creating "a specific and selective Nordic variety of Mycenaean high culture" that was not adopted in
the intermediate region of Central Europe.[10] These similarities can not have come about without intimate
contacts, probably through the travels of warriors and mercenaries.[10] Archaeological evidence further
indicates the existence in both regions of shared institutions linked to warriors. Specifically, the dual
organisation of leadership between a Wanax (ritual chief) and a Lawagetas (warrior chief) in Mycenaean
Greece was apparently replicated in the Nordic Bronze Age. However this dual organization may have also
been part of a shared Indo-European tradition.[10] Other similarities have been noted in artistic iconography
from both regions and its associated cosmology.[75] Some of the contacts between Scandinavia and Greece
were probably conveyed through Central Europe. [10][3]
Cultural connections with the Hittites have also been suggested. These include a sign or symbol akin to the
Hittite hieroglyph meaning ‘divine’ found among the rock carvings at Fossum in Sweden, associated with
possible images of divinities.[76] According to Kristiansen & Larsson (2005), "From the eighteenth century
BC until the beginning of the fifteenth century BC networks were operating between the Hittites, the steppe
and the Carpathians, with direct link to northern Europe. During this period basic institutions were
transmitted north in exchange for amber and horses, while at the same time the institution of chariotry was
transmitted south from the steppe".[74]
Trade and cultural contacts have also been noted between the Nordic Bronze Age and New Kingdom
Egypt.[77][43][78][79]
The contacts during the Late Bronze Age (period IV–VI) were more intensive with Central Europe and
Italy. A lot of similarities are seen in art and iconography between different continental Urnfield cultures and
the Hallstatt culture. Copper was imported from Central Europe and Italy.
Religion and cult
There is no coherent knowledge about the Nordic Bronze Age religion, its pantheon, world view, and how
it was practised. Written sources are lacking, but archaeological finds draw a vague and fragmented picture
of the religious practices and the nature of the religion in this period. Only some possible sects and only
certain possible tribes are known. Some of the best clues come from tumuli, elaborate artifacts, votive
offerings, and rock carvings scattered across Northern Europe. There are many rock carving sites from this
period. The rock carvings have been dated through comparison with depicted artifacts, for example bronze
axes and swords. Many rock carvings are uncanny in resemblance to those found in the Corded Ware
culture. There are also numerous Nordic Stone Age rock carvings, those of northern Scandinavia mostly
portray elk.
Many finds, especially rock carvings, indicate sun worship was central to the religion. The Sun, when
personified, was conceived of as female and associated with various objects, like the swastika, sun cross,
and boats, and animals such as horses, birds, snakes, and fish (see also Sól), though snakes may only have
been associated with the Sun by one group of religious specialists, as seen on their razors; otherwise the
myths depicted on rock carvings seem to indicate the opposite, that snakes were the enemy of the Sun.
During the day, the Sun is thought to be transported by horse or by boat, then at night embarks a night ship
to be transported in at night, switching for a day ship or horse afterwards, repeating this process every night
and day in its journey.
A pair of male twin gods are believed to have been worshiped in close conjunction with the sun goddess
and were associated with objects such as lurs, horned helmets, and weapons, particularly axes and swords.
Where sacrificial artifacts have been buried, they are often found in pairs and paired objects, like boats, are
very common on rock carvings. The horned helmets found in sacrificial deposits are thought to be purely
ceremonial and to have no practical function, i.e. in actual warfare. The Divine Twins are thought to be the
protectors of the sun, ensuring its safe passage through the night so it can rise again in the morning and
make its usual path across the daylit sky, repeating this every night and day.
Jeanette Varberg has proposed, in light of archaeological evidence pairing hose gear with women's
ornaments (and wagons), that there may have been a goddess associated with war and horses that was
worshiped in the Late Bronze Age which she calls the Lady of the Battle and of the Horse.[80]
Sacrifices, including of animals, weapons, jewellery, and humans, often had a strong connection to bodies
of water. Water bodies such as bogs, ponds, streams, and lakes were often used as ceremonial and holy
places for sacrifices and many artifacts have been found in such locations. Ritual instruments such as bronze
lurs have been uncovered, especially in the region of Denmark and western Sweden. Lurs are also depicted
in several rock carvings and are believed to have been used in ceremonies.
Nordic Bronze Age religion and mythology is believed to be mostly Indo-European in character and to
itself be the ancestor to Norse mythology and religion and wider Germanic mythology and religion.
Nordic Bronze Age culture

Solar boat petroglyph, Amphora and Reconstruction of
Madsebakke at Bornholm, golden bowls Daensen folding chair,
Denmark. from Funen, northern Germany.
Denmark.
Sun cult artifacts. The Lur from Bronze belt plates, collars
Trundholm sun chariot, Brudevælt and arm rings, Denmark.
Denmark, c. 1400 BC.[81] e
Denmark.
Håga burial mound, Sweden. Skallerup ritual Ceremonial Langstrup belt plate,
vessel, Denmark. helmets. Denmark, 1400
Veksø, BC.[82]
Denmark.
Bronze Mound burials with oak Stone ship monuments.
figurines, coffins. Borum Eshøj Man, in Gotland in Sweden.
Denmark. Borum, Denmark.
National Museum display, Grave goods, Ceremonial Golden

Denmark (photo from 1880) Håga burial axe, Denmark. vessels from
mound, Borgbjerg,
Sweden Denmark.
Bronze animal Bronze and Ceremonial Boat petroglyph, Tanum,

figurines, Denmark. gold votive axe, Denmark. Sweden.
items.
Votive shields from Froslunda, Gold bowls, Bronze saw Wool Clothes
Sweden Denmark mold, clothing. from
Sweden. Trindhøj Borum
man, Eshøj.
Denmark.
Bronze combs. Bronze razor Bronze swords. Rørby, Denmark.

Gotland, Sweden. for shaving.
Scania,
Sweden.
dagger, tweezers and button, Bronze collar, Sweden. Miniature gold boats from Nors,
Sweden. Denmark.[83]
Amber sun Balkåkra Ritual Object,
cross, Sweden
Denmark.[84]
Skrydstrup woman, mummified remains in oak coffin, Men with weapons.

Denmark.[85] Tanumshede, western
Sweden.
Agriculture. Ploughing with Chariot petroglyph, Kivik Longhouse reconstruction,

bulls. Petroglyph depiction from grave, Sweden. Denmark, c. 1900
Tanum, Sweden. BC.[86][87]
Longhouse Outline of a Bronze Age Hünenburg bei Watenstedt, central
remains, longhouse at Skrydstrup, settlement reconstruction,
Denmark, c. Denmark.[89] c. 1000 BC.
1900 BC.[88]
Bronze Age house Bronze Age house model.

reconstruction, Landa, National Museum,
Norway Denmark
Seamanship
Thousands of rock carvings from the Nordic Bronze Age depict ships, and the large stone burial
monuments known as stone ships. Those sites suggest that ships and seafaring played an important role in
the culture at large. The depicted ships, most likely represents sewn plank built canoes used for warfare,
fishing and trade. These ship types may have their origin as far back as the neolithic period and they
continue into the Pre-Roman Iron Age, as exemplified by the Hjortspring boat.[90] 3,600-year-old bronze
axes and other tools made from Cypriot copper have been found in the region.[91]
Researchers note that there is great continuity in the way that ships continuously had a strong importance in
Scandinavian society. The boat building and seafaring traditions that were established during the Nordic
Bronze Age lasted throughout the ages and were further developed upon during the Iron Age. Some
archaeologists and historians believe that the culmination of this sea-focused culture was the Viking
Age.[92]
Climate
The Nordic Bronze Age was initially characterized by a warm climate that began with a climate change
around 2700 BC. The climate was comparable to that of present-day central Germany and northern France
and permitted a fairly dense population and good opportunities for farming; for example, grapes were
grown in Scandinavia at this time. A minor change in climate occurred between 850 BC and 760 BC,
introducing a wetter, colder climate and a more radical climate change began around 650 BC.[93]
Genetics
A June 2015 study published in Nature found the people of the Nordic Bronze Age to be closely genetically
related to the Corded Ware culture, the Beaker culture and the Unetice culture. People of the Nordic Bronze
Age and Corded Ware show the highest lactose tolerance among Bronze Age Europeans. The study
suggested that the Sintashta culture, and its succeeding Andronovo culture, represented an eastward
migration of Corded Ware peoples. [a]
In the June 2015 study, the remains of nine individuals of the Northern Bronze Age and earlier Neolithic
cultures in Denmark and Sweden from ca. 2850 BC to 500 BC, were analyzed. Among the Neolithic
individuals, the three males were found to be carrying haplogroup I1, R1a1a1 and R1b1a1a2a1a1. Among
the individuals from the Nordic Bronze Age, two males carried I1, while two carried R1b1a1a2.[94][95][96]
See also
Bronze Age Europe
Bronze Age sword
Egtved Girl
The King's Grave
Stone ships
Tanumshede
Pomeranian culture
Single Grave culture
Notes
a. "European Late Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures such as Corded Ware, Bell Beakers,
Unetice, and the Scandinavian cultures are genetically very similar to each other... The close
affinity we observe between peoples of Corded Ware and Sintashta cultures suggests
similar genetic sources of the two... Among Bronze Age Europeans, the highest tolerance
frequency was found in Corded Ware and the closely-related Scandinavian Bronze Age
cultures... The Andronovo culture, which arose in Central Asia during the later Bronze Age, is
genetically closely related to the Sintashta peoples, and clearly distinct from both Yamnaya
and Afanasievo. Therefore, Andronovo represents a temporal and geographical extension of
the Sintashta gene pool... There are many similarities between Sintasthta/Androvono rituals
and those described in the Rig Veda and such similarities even extend as far as to the
Nordic Bronze Age."[94]
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hgate.net/publication/272312010). European Journal of Archaeology. 17 (4): 602–633.
doi:10.1179/1461957114Y.0000000064 (https://doi.org/10.1179%2F1461957114Y.0000000
064). S2CID 162256646 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162256646). Archived (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20220722011818/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27231
2010_Breakthrough_of_the_Nordic_Bronze_Age_Transcultural_Warriorhood_and_a_Carpa
thian_Crossroad_in_the_Sixteenth_Century_BC) from the original on 22 July 2022.
Retrieved 30 November 2020. "In NBA IB, the horse was not yet dominant within cultural
expressions, but is nevertheless a candidate for inclusion among the list of novelties which
originated from the Carpathian Basin (Kristiansen & Larsson 2005). Belt hooks are
sometimes adorned with a horse head. The whip handles mentioned above in the burials at
Strantved and Buddinge correspond with Carpathian bone versions. A pair of imported antler
bridle cheek-pieces from a bog at Østrup near Roskilde in Zealand also testifies to horse
handling. The Østrup cheek-pieces share the geometric zone-organized ornamentation with
other Carpathian bone cheek-pieces and bone whip-handles ... These designs are typical of
the Otomani-Fuzesabony-Gyolavársand culture and associated metalwork styles, and even
adorn material culture inside and above the shaft graves in the two circles in Mycenae. It was
precisely decorations like this that were translated to decorate locally made NBA IB
metalwork"
63. Maran, Joseph; Van de Moortel, Alexis (October 2014). "A Horse-Bridle Piece with Carpatho-
Danubian Connections from Late Helladic I Mitrou and the Emergence of a Warlike Elite in
Greece During the Shaft Grave Period" (https://www.academia.edu/29307618). American
Journal of Archaeology. 118 (4): 529–548. doi:10.3764/aja.118.4.0529 (https://doi.org/10.376
4%2Faja.118.4.0529). S2CID 170077187 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170077
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64. Maran, Joseph (2020). "The Introduction of the Horse-Drawn Light Chariot – Divergent
Responses to a Technological Innovation in Societies between the Carpathian Basin and
the East Mediterranean". Objects, Ideas and Travelers: Contacts between the Balkans, the
Aegean and Western Anatolia during the Bronze and Early Iron Age (https://www.academia.
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4248-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230407151859/https://www.academia.edu/
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66. Anthony, David (2010). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=nLIufwC4szwC). Princeton University Press. p. 404. ISBN 9780691148182. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20230423131047/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_
Horse_the_Wheel_and_Language/nLIufwC4szwC?hl=en&gbpv=0) from the original on 23
April 2023. Retrieved 7 April 2023. "engraved seal images of vehicles with four-spoked
wheels, pulled by equids (?) controlled with lip- or nose-rings from Karum Kanesh II, 1900
BCE."
67. Raulwing, Peter (2000). Horses, chariots and Indo-Europeans : foundations and methods of
chariotry research from the viewpoint of comparative Indo-European linguistics (http://worldc
at.org/oclc/884628368). Archaeolingua. pp. Fig. 10.1. ISBN 963-8046-26-0.
OCLC 884628368 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/884628368).
68. Molloy, Barry; et al. (2023). "Early Chariots and Religion in South-East Europe and the
Aegean During the Bronze Age: A Reappraisal of the Dupljaja Chariot in Context" (https://ww
w.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-journal-of-archaeology/article/early-chariots-and-rel
igion-in-southeast-europe-and-the-aegean-during-the-bronze-age-a-reappraisal-of-the-duplj
aja-chariot-in-context/DC2A0FC7066548E7C0FED0C9024169B3). European Journal of
Archaeology: 1–21. doi:10.1017/eaa.2023.39 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Feaa.2023.39).
"The earliest known spoked wheel models from the Carpathian Basin are dated to the
twentieth to nineteenth centuries BC (Mengyán et al. 2023)."
and Development of Wagons with Two-Spoked Wheels". In Rupp, Nicole (ed.). Winds of
Change: Archaeological Contributions in Honour of Peter Breunig (https://www.academia.ed
u/35334570). Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH. pp. 355–371. ISBN 978-3-7749-4074-1.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230407001011/https://www.academia.edu/3533457
0) from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 26 September 2022. "In the Carpathian Basin
the spread of rod- or disc-shaped cheekpieces since ca. 2000 BCE could be proposed as an
indication of the existence of the chariot."
70. Maran, Joseph (2020). "The Introduction of the Horse-Drawn Light Chariot – Divergent
Responses to a Technological Innovation in Societies between the Carpathian Basin and
the East Mediterranean". Objects, Ideas and Travelers: Contacts between the Balkans, the
Aegean and Western Anatolia during the Bronze and Early Iron Age (https://www.academia.
edu/43434670). Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH, Bonn. pp. 505–528. ISBN 978-3-7749-
4248-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230407151859/https://www.academia.edu/
43434670/The_Introduction_of_the_Horse_Drawn_Light_Chariot_Divergent_Responses_to
_a_Technological_Innovation_in_Societies_between_the_Carpathian_Basin_and_the_East
_Mediterranean) from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 7 April 2023. "... in light of their
long experience dealing with horses and building earlier types of wheeled vehicles, the
societies of the zone between the Carpathian Basin and the Ural may have played a key role
in initiating a "quantum leap" in chariot technology as they possessed the capability to invent
the spoked wheel and develop new forms of bridle-harnessing that allowed the horse to be
employed as a draught animal, and were also in a position to transfer these innovations to
the Near East ... recent research on the earliest phase of light chariots in Greece [suggests]
the simultaneous appropriation of at least two different systems of bone or antler horse-bridle
cheekpieces. The first, characterized by disc-shaped cheekpieces and represented by the
four well-known examples from Shaft Grave IV of Mycenae, predominated in the vast area
between the Southern Ural and the Lower Danube ... The second system of rod-shaped
cheekpieces was typical of the Carpatho-Danubian zone" (p.512) "David Anthony recently
reiterated the case for the light chariot's origins in the zone between the Southern Ural and
Central Kazakhstan and its military function. To me it seems that Anthony is probably right in
his geographical attribution of the development of key elements of the light chariot, though I
would extend it to include the entire zone between the Carpathian Basin and the Southern
Ural. (p.519)"
71. Maran, Joseph; Van de Moortel, Alexis (October 2014). "A Horse-Bridle Piece with Carpatho-
Danubian Connections from Late Helladic I Mitrou and the Emergence of a Warlike Elite in
Greece During the Shaft Grave Period" (https://www.academia.edu/29307618). American
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the closest parallels to the disk toggles from Shaft Grave IV derive from the area of the lower
Danube … That all identifiable components of Shaft Grave–period horse harnesses can be
linked to regions to the north or northeast of Greece corroborates Penner's conclusion that
the two-wheeled chariot did not first reach Greece from the Near East."
72. Molloy, Barry; et al. (2023). "Early Chariots and Religion in South-East Europe and the
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aja-chariot-in-context/DC2A0FC7066548E7C0FED0C9024169B3). European Journal of
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"Focusing on horse-tack, Maran (2020) and Makarowicz et al. (2023) have argued that
chariots emerged at the same time in the Carpathian Basin as in the Sintashta-Petrovka
cultural complex. Notably, the rod-shaped cheekpieces common to the Carpathian Basin are
distinct from the disc-shaped early varieties of the Eurasian steppe, indicating coeval but
distinct traditions."
73. Kristiansen, Kristian; Larsson, Thomas B. (2005). "The cosmological structure of Bronze Age
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Nordic Bronze Age

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Nordic Bronze Age

The Nordic Bronze Age (also Northern Bronze Age, or

The Nordic Bronze Age culture emerged about 1750 BC as a

Religion and cult

Nordic Bronze Age culture

National Museum display, Grave goods, Ceremonial Golden

Bronze animal Bronze and Ceremonial Boat petroglyph, Tanum,

Bronze combs. Bronze razor Bronze swords. Rørby, Denmark.

Skrydstrup woman, mummified remains in oak coffin, Men with weapons.

Agriculture. Ploughing with Chariot petroglyph, Kivik Longhouse reconstruction,

Bronze Age house Bronze Age house model.

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