Aircraft Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems: Aviotraceswiss - SA Aviotraceswiss - SA Aviotraceswiss - SA

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MOVE MENT
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Maintenance Training Organisation Part -147
N C H R O
M E D I ATE SY
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L C O M MAN AL GYR
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TI A VERTIC ITUDE
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MODULE 13
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Aerodynamics,
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for Aircraft Maintenance
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Licence N PFCU
NULL Category B2
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www.aviotraceswiss.com
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Cat. B2 - Table of Contents
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Table of Contents
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13.1 Theory of flight ...................................................................................................................... 9
13.1.A.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 9
13.1.A.2 Operation and effect of roll control: ailerons and spoilers ...................................... 10
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13.1.A.3 Operation and effect of pitch controls: elevators, stabilators, variable incidence
stabilizers and canards ............................................................................................................ 12
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13.1.A.4 Operation and effect of yaw control and rudder limiters ........................................ 16
13.1.A.5 Control systems using elevons and ruddervators..................................................... 17
13.1.A.6 High lift devices: slots, slats and flaps....................................................................... 19
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13.1.A.7 Drag inducing devices: spoilers, lift dampers, speed brakes .................................... 25
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13.1.A.8 Operation and effect of trim tabs, servo tabs and control surface bias ................... 27
13.1.B.1 Speed of sound ......................................................................................................... 33
13.1.B.2 Mach number and critical Mach number ................................................................. 34
13.1.B.3 Subsonic flight, transonic flight and supersonic flight .............................................. 37
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13.1.C.2 Basic operation of helicopters .................................................................................. 50

13.1.C.3 Operation and effect of cyclic, collective and anti-torque controls ......................... 53
13.1.C.4 Other aspects related to the operation of helicopters ............................................. 62
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13.2 Structure – General concepts.............................................................................................. 69
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13.2.A.1 Fundamentals of structural systems: classification of structures ............................ 69

13.2.A.2 Fundamentals of structural systems: design concepts ............................................. 70
13.2.A.3 Fundamentals of structural systems: stresses .......................................................... 74
13.2.A.4 Fundamentals of structural systems: fuselage ......................................................... 80
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13.2.A.5 Fundamentals of structural systems: lift surfaces .................................................... 87
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13.2.A.6 Fundamentals of structural systems: tail.................................................................. 92

13.2.A.7 Fundamentals of structural systems: landing gear ................................................... 94
13.2.A.8 Fundamentals of structural systems: regulations..................................................... 98
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13.2.B.1 Zonal and station identification systems .................................................................. 99
13.2.B.2 Electrical bonding .................................................................................................... 101
13.2.B.3 Lightning strike protection provision ...................................................................... 103
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13.3 Autoflight........................................................................................................................... 107
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13.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 107
13.3.2 Servomechanism and control theory principles ........................................................ 111
13.3.3 Fundamentals of automatic flight control ................................................................. 121
13.3.4 Command signal processing ....................................................................................... 136
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13.3.5 Autopilot modes of operation: roll, pitch and yaw channels..................................... 138
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13.3.6 Yaw dampers .............................................................................................................. 151

13.3.7 Automatic trim control............................................................................................... 155
13.3.8 Autopilot navigation aids interface ............................................................................ 159
13.3.9 Auto throttle systems................................................................................................. 162
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13.3.10 Automatic landing systems ...................................................................................... 166
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13.3.11 Stability augmentation system in helicopters .......................................................... 171

13.4 Communication and Navigation........................................................................................ 177
13.4.1 Fundamentals of radio wave propagation ................................................................. 177
13.4.2 Fundamentals of antennas......................................................................................... 185
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13.4.3 Fundamentals of transmission lines........................................................................... 194

13.4.4 Fundamentals of communication, receiver and transmitter ..................................... 200
13.4.5 Working principles of VHF and HF communication system ....................................... 214
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13.4.6 Audio .......................................................................................................................... 222
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13.4.7 Working principles of ELT ........................................................................................... 225

13.4.8 Working principles of FDR and CVR ........................................................................... 228
13.4.9 Working principles of NDB and ADF........................................................................... 234
13.4.10 Working principles of VOR and DME........................................................................ 245
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13.4.11 Working principles of Flight director system FDS .................................................... 255
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13.4.12 Working principles of ILS .......................................................................................... 271

13.4.13 Working principles of MLS ....................................................................................... 285
13.4.14 Working principles of VL frequency and hyperbolic navigation systems ................ 289
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13.4.15 Working principles of Doppler navigation systems.................................................. 295
13.4.16 Working principles of area navigation and RNAV systems ...................................... 301
13.4.17 Working principles of FMS ....................................................................................... 306
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13.4.18 Working principles of GPS and GNSS ....................................................................... 310
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13.4.19 Working principles of INS ......................................................................................... 320
13.4.20 Working principles of transponder and secondary surveillance radar .................... 331
13.4.21 Working principles of TCAS ...................................................................................... 339
13.4.22 Working principles of weather avoidance radar ...................................................... 344
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13.4.23 Working principles of radio altimeter ...................................................................... 355
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13.4.24 ARINC communication and reporting ...................................................................... 362

13.5 Electrical power ................................................................................................................. 367
13.5.1 Battery installation and operation ............................................................................. 367
13.5.2 Power generation ....................................................................................................... 383
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13.5.3 DC power generation ................................................................................................. 385
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13.5.4 AC power generation ................................................................................................. 391

13.5.5 Emergency power generation .................................................................................... 406
13.5.6 Voltage regulation ...................................................................................................... 411
13.5.7 Power distribution...................................................................................................... 418
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13.5.8 Inverters, transformers and rectifiers ........................................................................ 427

13.5.9 Circuit protection ....................................................................................................... 439
13.5.10 External and ground power ..................................................................................... 449
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13.6 Equipment and furnishing ................................................................................................. 456
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13.6.1 Electronic emergency equipment requirements ....................................................... 456

13.6.2 Cabin entertainment equipment ............................................................................... 467
13.7 Flight controls .................................................................................................................... 476
13.7.A.1 Primary controls: ailerons, elevator, rudder and spoiler ........................................ 476
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13.7.A.2 Trim control ............................................................................................................ 484
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13.7.A.3 Active load control .................................................................................................. 486

13.7.A.4 High lift devices ....................................................................................................... 487
13.7.A.5 Lift dump and speed brakes.................................................................................... 493
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13.7.A.6 System operation: manual, hydraulic, pneumatic .................................................. 496
13.7.A.7 Artificial feel, Yaw damper, Mach trim, rudder limiter and gust locks ................... 500
13.7.A.8 Stall protection system ........................................................................................... 508
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13.7.B.1 System operation: electrical, fly-by-wire ................................................................ 513
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13.8 Instrument systems ........................................................................................................... 521
13.8.1 Classification............................................................................................................... 521
13.8.2 Atmosphere and terminology .................................................................................... 523
13.8.3 Pressure measuring devices and systems .................................................................. 531
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13.8.4 Pitot static systems .................................................................................................... 535
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13.8.5 Pneumatic instruments .............................................................................................. 539

13.8.6 Machmeter ................................................................................................................. 555
13.8.6 Machmeter ................................................................................................................. 555
13.8.7 Altitude reporting and alerting systems .................................................................... 558
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13.8.8 Air Data Computer ADC.............................................................................................. 561
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13.8.9 Gyroscopic principle ................................................................................................... 562

13.8.10 Gyroscopic instruments ........................................................................................... 565
13.8.11 Compass system ....................................................................................................... 576
13.8.12 GPWS ........................................................................................................................ 583
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13.8.13 EFIS and glass cockpit ............................................................................................... 589

13.8.14 Instrument warning systems .................................................................................... 600
13.8.15 FDR and CVR ............................................................................................................. 603
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13.8.16 Stall warning systems and angle of attack indicating systems ................................ 607
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13.8.17 Fuel quantity indicating system ............................................................................... 609

13.8.18 Temperature indicating system ............................................................................... 614
13.8.19 Vibration measurement and indication ................................................................... 622
13.9 Lights ................................................................................................................................. 624
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13.9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 624
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13.9.2 External: navigation and anti-collision lights ............................................................. 629

13.9.3 External: landing and taxing lights ............................................................................. 643
13.9.4 External: logo and wing inspection lights................................................................... 652
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13.9.5 Internal: cockpit lights ................................................................................................ 656
13.9.6 Internal: cabin and cargo lights .................................................................................. 659
13.9.7 Emergency lights ........................................................................................................ 665
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13.9.8 Other information about aircraft lights ..................................................................... 670
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13.10 On board maintenance systems...................................................................................... 672
13.10.1 Central Maintenance Computer .............................................................................. 672
13.10.2 Data loading system ................................................................................................. 687
13.10.3 Electronic library system .......................................................................................... 690
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13.10.4 Printing ..................................................................................................................... 691
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13.10.5 Structure monitoring ................................................................................................ 696

13.11 Air conditioning and cabin pressurization....................................................................... 702
13.11.1 Air supply.................................................................................................................. 702
13.11.2.1 Air conditioning system......................................................................................... 707
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13.11.2.2 Air cycle and vapor cycle machines....................................................................... 710
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13.11.2.3 Distribution systems.............................................................................................. 717

13.11.2.4 Flow, temperature and humidity control system ................................................. 719
13.11.3.1 Pressurization system ........................................................................................... 723
13.11.3.2 Control and indication including control and safety valves .................................. 728
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13.11.3.3 Cabin pressure controllers .................................................................................... 733

13.11.4.1 Protection and warning devices ............................................................................ 737
13.12 Fire protection................................................................................................................. 739
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13.12.A.1 Fire and smoke detection and warning systems .................................................. 739
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13.12.A.2 Fire extinguishing systems .................................................................................... 747

13.12.A.3 System tests .......................................................................................................... 751
13.12.B.1 Portable fire extinguisher ..................................................................................... 753
13.13 Fuel system...................................................................................................................... 755
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13.13.1 System layout ........................................................................................................... 755
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13.13.2 Fuel tanks ................................................................................................................. 758

13.13.3 Supply systems ......................................................................................................... 765
13.13.4 Dumping, venting and draining ................................................................................ 767
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13.13.5 Cross-feed and transfer ............................................................................................ 769
13.13.6 Indications and warnings ......................................................................................... 771
13.13.7 Refueling and defueling ........................................................................................... 779
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13.13.8 Longitudinal balance fuel systems ........................................................................... 785
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13.14 Hydraulic power .............................................................................................................. 791
13.14.1 Hydraulic system layout ........................................................................................... 791
13.14.2 Hydraulic fluids ......................................................................................................... 794
13.14.3 Hydraulic reservoirs and accumulators .................................................................... 795
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13.14.4 Pressure generation: electric, mechanical and pneumatic ...................................... 798
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13.14.5 Emergency pressure generation .............................................................................. 804

13.14.6 Filters ........................................................................................................................ 809
13.14.7 Pressure control ....................................................................................................... 811
13.14.8 Power distribution.................................................................................................... 814
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13.14.9 Indication and warning systems............................................................................... 826
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13.14.10 Interface with other systems ................................................................................. 832

13.15 Ice and rain protection .................................................................................................... 835
13.15.1 Ice formation, classification and detection .............................................................. 835
13.15.2 Anti-icing systems: electrical, hot air and chemical ................................................. 846
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13.15.3 De-icing systems: electrical, pneumatic and chemical ............................................ 849

13.16 Landing gear .................................................................................................................... 861
13.16.1 Construction, shock absorbing ................................................................................. 861
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13.16.2 Extension and retraction systems: normal and emergency..................................... 877
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13.16.3 Indication and warning ............................................................................................ 885

13.16.4 Wheels, brakes, antiskid and autobraking ............................................................... 887
13.16.5 Tires .......................................................................................................................... 897
13.16.6 Steering .................................................................................................................... 900
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13.16.7 Air-ground sensing ................................................................................................... 904
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13.17 Oxygen............................................................................................................................. 909

13.17.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 909
13.17.2 System layout: cockpit and cabin ............................................................................. 910
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13.17.3 Sources, storage, charging and distribution ............................................................ 919
13.17.4 Supply regulation ..................................................................................................... 925
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13.18 Pneumatic and vacuum ................................................................................................... 934
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13.18.1 System layout ........................................................................................................... 934
13.18.2 Sources: engine, APU, compressors, reservoirs and ground supply ........................ 938
13.18.3 Pressure control ....................................................................................................... 946
13.18.4 Distribution .............................................................................................................. 954
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13.18.6 Interfaces with other systems .................................................................................. 966

13.19 Water and waste ............................................................................................................. 968
13.19.1 Water system layout, supply, distribution, servicing and draining .......................... 968
13.19.2 Toilet system layout, flushing and servicing ............................................................ 976
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13.19.3 Corrosion aspects ..................................................................................................... 982
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13.19.4 Galleys ...................................................................................................................... 987

13.20 Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA) .................................................................................. 989
13.20.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 989
13.20.2 IMA and Open IMA concept ..................................................................................... 990
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13.20.3 Federated architecture and its limits ....................................................................... 991

13.20.4 Basic elements composing IMA ............................................................................... 993
13.20.5 System development and integration process ........................................................ 995
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13.20.6 The ADCN and CPIOM development ........................................................................ 998
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13.20.7 IMA Development and Integration State of Art ....................................................... 999

13.20.8 Core Processor Input/output Module (CPIOM) ..................................................... 1000
13.20.9 Aircraft Data Communication Network (ADCN) ..................................................... 1002
13.20.10 Common Remote Data Concentrator (CRDC) ...................................................... 1003
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13.20.11 Avionic Full Duplex Switched Ethernet System (AFDX) ........................................ 1004
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13.20.12 IMA Rack .............................................................................................................. 1005

13.21 Cabin systems ................................................................................................................ 1008
13.21.1 Cabin Intercommunication Data System (CIDS) ..................................................... 1008
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13.21.2 Cabin Network Service (CNS) ................................................................................. 1015
13.22 Information system ....................................................................................................... 1024
13.22.1 Flight Deck Information System ............................................................................. 1024
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13.22.2 Aircraft Maintenance Information System ............................................................ 1029
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13.22.3 Passenger Cabin and Miscellaneous Information System ..................................... 1030
13.22.4 Means of storing .................................................................................................... 1031
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Cat. B2 - 13.1 Theory of flight
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13.1 Theory of flight
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13.1.A.1 Introduction
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The flight control is one of the main aspects in a generic aircraft mission. It is essential that the
pilot has the possibility to appropriately control the airplane around the standard axis: axis of
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roll, axis of pitch and axis of yaw.
All aircraft have flight control systems that allow the pilot to maneuver and trim the aircraft on
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these axes. Control surfaces are usually hinged near the extremities of the airfoil, so that they
can have the greatest arm from the centre of gravity and thus the greatest possible moment.
Changing the airflow around the airfoil can generate the required moments. Each control
provides movement or control around a specific axis. The roll or lateral control is performed
around the longitudinal X axis. The pitch or longitudinal control is performed around the lateral
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Y axis. In addition, the directional control is active around the directional or yaw axis. This is
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the airplane vertical Z axis or normal axis.

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Fig. 1.1 - Aircraft axes

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13.1.A.2 Operation and effect of roll control: ailerons and spoilers
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The primary control surfaces on the longitudinal axis are the ailerons. They are moved by the
lateral displacement of the control stick.
Ailerons act in opposite directions: when one aileron goes up, the other aileron goes down.
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If the pilot turns the control bar to the right, the right aileron moves up and the left aileron
moves down.
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Fig. 1.2 - Ailerons
The aileron movement changes the camber of the wing. An increased camber raises the wing,
amplifying the angle of attack and thus the lift generated by the wing. A decreased camber
instead will lower the wing by decreasing the angle of attack and thus the lift generated by
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that wing.
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A resultant rolling moment is exerted on the aircraft; its amplitude depends on the magnitude
of the different lift forces as well as on the moment arm. For this reason, the ailerons are
outboard and produce a long moment arm to the centre of gravity.
During the flight, the spoilers can be used in order to aid the lateral control. In fact, to help the
ailerons in the roll movement the spoilers are partially activated only on the descending wing,
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where the aileron is lifted. In this way, the wing lift is decreased. On the contrary, the spoiler
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on the raising wing is not deflected.

The aileron maneuver causes some secondary effects too. One of these is the adverse yaw. As
the aircraft rolls, adverse yaw is provoked by the change in drag on the left and right wings.
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The rising wing generates increased lift, which causes an increase of the induced drag.
Conversely, the descending wing generates a reduction of lift, which causes reduced induced
drag.
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For example, using the ailerons to roll an aircraft to the right, a yawing motion is produced to
the left.
The adverse yaw can be effectively compensated by the use of a rudder, which results in a
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side-force on the vertical tail. This force opposes the adverse yaw by creating a favorable
yawing moment.
Another method of compensation is represented by the differential ailerons, which have been
rigged in a way that the down-going aileron deflects less than the up-going one.
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Another secondary effect of the aileron operation is the sideslip. Once the aircraft is
established in the bank with the ailerons in neutral position the lift becomes tilted.
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This causes an imbalance of the horizontal lift component that makes the aircraft slip to the
same direction of the bank. In this way, the airplane will gradually yaw towards the lower
wing. If a correction does not occur, the result will be a descending spiral.
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13.1.A.3 Operation and effect of pitch controls: elevators, stabilators,
variable incidence stabilizers and canards
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The horizontal tail plane consists of a mobile surface hinged to a fixed surface. It has a double
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function: to stabilize the airplane attitude with the fixed stabilizer and to balance the airplane
tendency to move the nose up or down with the mobile surface, called elevator.
The stabilizer is a device that pushes the tail downwards. The elevator, which can be moved
upwards or downwards by the pilot, permits to rise or reduce the aircraft nose changing the
aircraft inclination in relation to the horizontal plane.
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When the pilot pushes forwards the control stick, the elevator moves downwards changing the
average camber of the tail plane.
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This produces a change in the angle of attack and increases the lift on the tail forcing it to lift
up. On the other hand, when the pilot pulls backwards the control stick the opposite action
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Fig. 1.3 - Elevator
When the displacements of the centre of gravity are very wide, the requested balancing
moments present a relevant intensity. On aircraft with these operational characteristics, a
variable incidence stabilizer is employed. Its efficiency is greater than that of the traditional
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system.
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Generally, the stabilizer can move of about 15°, this considering the fact that to ensure the
longitudinal stability it is necessary that the aircraft is designed in order to have the centre of
gravity placed before the centre of pressure.
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Fig. 1.4 - Variable incidence stabilizer
On some aircraft the stabilizer and elevator can be replaced by a single mobile surface, called
stabilator.
The stabilator is an aircraft control that combines the functions of an elevator and a horizontal
stabilizer; moreover, the stabilator has a compensating tab or trim hinged to the trailing edge.
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The trim moves upwards, when the stabilator is activated to pitch up, and downwards, when
the stabilator is activated to pitch down. The trim is used to harden the controls and prevent
the stabilator from being subjected to excessive displacements.
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Fig. 1.5 - Stabilator
In addition, there is also the canard aircraft. An aircraft has a canard configuration, when its
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horizontal stabilizers are positioned in front, before the centre of gravity and the wings.
The canard configuration is aerodynamically more efficient than the classic layout with tail
stabilizers. In fact, in the case of a canard aircraft both the wing and the fore stabilizer produce
upwards lift. In this way, less wing lift has to be exerted, thus producing benefits such as:
 A reduction of friction drag, caused by the reduction of the wing surface.
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 A reduction of induced drag, proportional to the generated lift.
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But, the canard configuration present some important disadvantages too:

 The design is critical.
 The use of lift augmentation systems can be very difficult, sometimes impossible.
 The canard configuration makes the aircraft instable, that is hardly maneuverable
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without an appropriate electronic system, which can be developed by the modern
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technology.
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Fig. 1.6 - Canard configuration
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13.1.A.4 Operation and effect of yaw control and rudder limiters
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The vertical tail plane is composed of a fixed surface or fin and a mobile surface, called rudder.
The rudder is hinged on the rear of the fin and can rotate left or right by using pedals. The fin
provides directional stability to the airplane around the yaw axis, while the rudder initiates the
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yaw movement. When the pilot pushes the right pedal, the rudder turns right and produces a
lateral lift that makes the tail move left and the nose move right. As a consequence, we have a
right yaw.
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Fig. 1.7 - Rudder

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The yaw is the main effect of rudder deflection, however, this maneuver causes also as a
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secondary effect a rolling moment around the longitudinal axis, called yaw roll coupling. When
a right rotation is imposed, the left wing speeds up because of the increasing of the peripheral
rotating speed, which instead decreases on the right wing. Consequently, the left wing has a
higher speed and a higher lift than the right one. This difference generates a roll around the
longitudinal axis and can cause a flight hazardous condition.
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Rudder limiters are devices designed to limit the deflection of the rudder, depending on the
airplane dynamic pressure. The purpose of the rudder limiters is to protect the airplane
structure against overloads and maintain control even at high speed.
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13.1.A.5 Control systems using elevons and ruddervators
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Due to their particular wing shape, aircraft with delta wings cannot use conventional flight
control systems. Delta wings are a kind of wing used on aircraft that can fly at supersonic
speed. Their name is linked to their particular plan-form, almost triangular, which remembers
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that of the Greek letter delta.
On these wings devices, called elevons, are used. They are a combination of ailerons and
elevators. The elevons are frequently used on tailless aircraft such as flying wings. They are
installed on each side of the aircraft, at the trailing edge of the wing. When moved in the same
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direction, they generate a pitching force, while, when moved differentially, one up and one
down, they cause a rolling force. An aircraft with elevons is controlled as if the pilot had
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separate aileron and elevator surfaces at his disposal, controlled by the yoke or stick.
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Fig. 1.8 - Elevons

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Other aircraft have a V-tail. A V-tail is an unconventional arrangement of the tail control
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surfaces. It replaces the traditional fin and horizontal surfaces with two surfaces set in a V-
shaped configuration when viewed from the front or rear of the aircraft. The rear of each
surface is hinged and these movable sections, sometimes called ruddervators, combine the
tasks of the elevators and rudder. Ruddervators provide the same control effect of rudder and
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elevator but they use a more complex control system that implies the simultaneously
actuation of control surfaces. The yaw is achieved through the deflection of both ruddervators
in the same direction, while the pitch is achieved by deflecting both ruddervators in opposite
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directions.
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Fig. 1.9 - V tail configuration

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13.1.A.6 High lift devices: slots, slats and flaps
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High lift devices are movable mechanism connected to the wings of many aircraft. The high lift
devices are mainly used during take-off and landing phases in order to decrease the aircraft
stalling speed.
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The value of the stalling speed is proportional to the square root of the double of the aircraft
weight and in inverse proportion to the square root of the air density, wing area and to the
maximum lift coefficient. Since the stalling speed is in inverse proportion to the air density,
when the aircraft flies at higher altitude where the air density is lower, the stalling speed
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increases.
Generally, to decrease the value of the stalling speed, the lift coefficient must increase. In fact,
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these devices allow increasing the lift at low speeds by augmenting the wing area or the airfoil
curvature.
However, a disadvantage of the high lift devices is that to an increase in lift corresponds an
increase in drag too. The high lift devices can be installed on both trailing edge (flaps) and
leading edge (slats). Even if they influence aerodynamics in different way, they are both able to
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increase the maximum lift of the wing.
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Fig. 1.10 - Slat and flap

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Trailing edge devices
The high lift devices installed at the trailing edge, called flaps, produce the required increase in
lift at lower angles of attack than a clean wing. Flap deflection results in increased lift and drag,
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at a given angle of attack.
Flaps are designed to increase the wing camber and to improve the air circulation, especially
on the upper surface of the wing section.
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In fact, to improve the efficiency of the flaps, the air can be accelerated through the slots
between the wing and the flaps.
The flap full extension is used only in the final approach to landing in order to optimize the
descent at low speed. In fact, by completely extending the flaps, the increment in drag is
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greater than the increment in lift. The flap small deflection instead decreases the stall speed,
with only a moderate increasing in drag. This deflection is often used during the take-off and in
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the approaching phase of landing.
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Fig. 1.11 - Diagram representing the effect caused by the deflection of flaps
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The most used and efficient type of flap is the Fowler flap. This device is designed to move
backwards in order to increase the total wing area. It also moves downwards to increase the
camber and it is slotted to increase the efficiency of the boundary layer.
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Fig. 1.12 - Fowler flap
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Leading edge devices
The high lift devices of the leading edge, called slat, increase the maximum angle of attack as
well as the maximum CL and consequently decrease the stalling speed. This offers better low-
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speed flight qualities and reduces the required runway length for take-off and landing.
However, when extending the leading edge of high lift devices, there will be
an increasing in lift as well as in drag.
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Fig. 1.13 - Diagram representing the effect caused by the deflection of flaps and slats
There are many types of slats. The most common ones are slots and they can be fixed or
movable. Many modern aircraft use a combination of flaps and slats.
At moderate speeds and angle of attack, the slats are lowered a bit without any open slot.
When flying at very low speeds and high angle of attack, the slats are deflected further and the
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slot between the slats and the wing is opened, allowing fresh air to energize the boundary
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layer.
On most modern jets, the leading edge devices are the first to be extended during the
approach and the last to be raised after take-off.
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The simplest slat is the Krueger flap. The Krueger flap avoids the creation of a slot between
itself and the leading edge of the wing.
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Fig. 1.14 - Krueger flap

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Flaperons
The trailing edge may have a combination of trailing edge flaps and ailerons, called flaperons.
When the flaps are lowered, the outer part or sometimes the whole flaps can be used as
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ailerons too. This combination considerably increases the maximum CL.
The use of flaperons, instead of separate ailerons and flaps, can reduce the aircraft weight. In
this case, the complexity lies in the fact that a double set of control surfaces (flaps and
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ailerons) needs to be replaced by a single system.
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Fig. 1.15 - Aircraft equipped with flaperons

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13.1.A.7 Drag inducing devices: spoilers, lift dampers, speed brakes
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In some flight conditions a reduction of lift and an increasing of drag are requested. This is
important in high-speed jet aircraft.
Lift can be reduced by creating a disturbance in the airflow on the upper surface of the wing,
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thus causing turbulence.
This will obviously increase the drag. The aircraft devices that perform this function are called
spoilers.
The spoilers are adjustable surfaces hinged on the upper part of the wing; they have the aim of
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interrupting the flow that produces the lift. Consequently, spoilers must cause an increasing of
drag and a considerable reduction of lift.
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Fig. 1.16 - Aircraft spoilers
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In many aircraft, spoilers accomplish three tasks.

The first one is that of increasing the drag in order to manage a steeper gradient of descent. In
this case the spoilers are also called speed brakes.
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The second task of spoilers is that of reducing lift after landing, increasing the form drag.
This is usually done through the full extension of spoilers and additional surfaces. In this case
the spoilers are called lift dumpers.
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Spoilers also help ailerons in roll control. Spoilers will be extended only on the descending
wing, decreasing the lift, while the spoilers on the raising wing will not be used.
On many modern jets, the outer ailerons are locked during high speed cruises to avoid control
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reverse caused by wings aero-elasticity and a later check is performed by using inner aileron
and spoilers.
At low speeds ailerons work normally, while spoilers will extend to increase the roll rate only if
a certain angle of the control stick is exceeded.
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13.1.A.8 Operation and effect of trim tabs, servo tabs and control
surface bias
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An aircraft is in trim when it maintains a constant flight path, the sum of all movements is zero
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and continuous interventions by the pilot are not required.
This is done by means of some compensation surfaces. In order to fly the aircraft without
exerting any steady pressure on a particular control surface, an aircraft has trim tabs.
The aim of a trim tab is to reduce to zero the nose down movement, cancelling the force
exerted by the pilot on control surfaces. It is important to remember that the aircraft will stay
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in trim until the power, the airspeed or the centre of gravity change.
However, there is a disadvantage with trim tabs on control surfaces. The opposite direction of
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the trim tabs on control surfaces reduces their deflection.
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Fixed tab
Fixed tab is adjustable only on the ground by the maintenance engineer. It may be fitted to
non-powered controls and is used to correct inherent flying faults. It may be an actual tab or
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may be a metal strip riveted to the trailing edge of the control surface. The tab is adjusted by
removing the fixing plate, repositioning the tab and refitting the plate. The metal strip type is
bent into the new position usually using a special bending tool.
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Fig. 1.17 - Fixed tab
The tab is moved in a direction opposite to that you require the control surface to move
towards, i.e. to correct for an inherent nose down flying attitude the elevator needs to be
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raised, which means the tab on the elevator is adjusted downwards.
The pilot will report any tendency of the aircraft to fly in a particular attitude.
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Controllable tab
Mobile trim fins are installed on most aircraft. These fins are usually operated mechanically by
a cable or chain system; electrically by a screw jack mechanism or a motor that drives the
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cable and chain system; hydraulically, through actuators.
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When the pilot wishes to change the position of the aircraft with the trim system, the flap is
moved in the opposite direction to the desired movement of control surface.
When the trim tab is flexed in the airflow, the air tries to push it back in line with the control
surface.
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Since the control mechanism prevents this from happening, the entire control surface is
moved.
The governable trims are adjusted by means of cranks or wheels placed in the cockpit and
indicators are provided to show the tabs position.
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In case flaps can be operated electrically or hydraulically, they include the equipment to
indicate their position.
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The servo tab
The servo-fins are used to assist the pilot in the operation of flight controls. When the pilot
moves a primary flight control, a servo-flap flexes in the right direction to help the pilot moving
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the control surface. This reduces the force that the pilot must give to the control system in
order to maneuver the plane.
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Fig. 1.19 - Servo tab
The antiservo tab

An antiservo tab is used to help the pilot in setting a surface, for example a stabilator, in the
standard position and to prevent it from moving into a position of total deflection under to
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aerodynamic forces. This type of tab creates an effect opposite to that of a servo-flap. The
antiservo tabs are often used as trim correction allowing the pilot to adjust the aerodynamic
trim in neutral position.
The spring tab sw

The spring tab is similar to the servo tab but it only operates at high airspeed. At the lower
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airspeed the pilot operates the control surfaces as normal.

The control linkage is connected to the control surface via a torsion bar.
At low airspeeds the loading on the control surface is insufficient to overcome the pressure of
the spring bar and the movement of the control system moves the control surface through the
spring bar.
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At high airspeeds the aerodynamic loading on the control surface is enough to overcome the
force of the spring bar and the link moves.
The link movement compresses or extends the spring bar and moves the tab. The tab in turn
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moves the control surface acting as a servo tab.
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The cockpit controls are designed so that their operation is "instinctive". A forward movement
of the control stick corresponds to the nose down position, while, conversely, a backward
movement means nose up. The same process is true for side movements: control stick left or
left pedal/ left movement, control stick right or right pedal/right movement.
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Fig. 1.21 - Elevator tab movement

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Fig. 1.22 - Aileron tab movement

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Fig. 1.23 - Rudder tab movement

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13.1.B.1 Speed of sound
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Sound is a vibration that travels through an elastic medium as a wave. The speed of sound
describes how far this wave travels in a given amount of time. The speed of sound in the air
depends on the actual absolute temperature (T) and is proportional to its square root. The
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formula to calculate the speed of sound is:
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where gamma is the adiabatic index (in the air equal to 1.4) and R is the gas constant equal to
287 [J/ (kg K)].
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For example, in the air at + 15° C the speed of sound is approximately 340 m/s (1220 Km/h);
while, at a lower temperature, for instance - 60° C, the speed of sound decreases until 290 m/s
(1040 km/h).
It is important to remember different fluids present speed of sound.
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13.1.B.2 Mach number and critical Mach number
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In aeronautic field, it is very important to know and calculate the Mach number. In
aeronautical applications, the flight speed is often expressed as Mach number.
The Mach number (M) is defined as the ratio of the speed of a body (V) to the speed of sound
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(c) in the air mass:
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It is important to underline that the Mach number is a dimensionless parameter. When the
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speed of the aircraft is equal to the speed of sound, it has a speed of Mach equal to 1.
The speed of sound is influenced by the temperature and so by the flight altitude.
Consequently, an aircraft flying at Mach 1, at low altitude with an air temperature of 15° C, has
a true airspeed greater than an aircraft flying at a higher altitude, where temperature is lower.
These conditions remain valid considering that the flight happens in atmospheric standard
conditions (ISA).
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The value of the Mach number also influences the air compressibility. If the Mach number is
less than 0.3, the air can be said to be an incompressible fluid and its density is considered
constant.
However, by increasing the Mach number, the compressibility effects of the fluid stream will
increase.
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The critical Mach number of an aircraft is defined as the point where a portion of the airflow,
passing over the wing, reaches the speed of sound; in this case the Mach number is equal to 1.
The critical Mach number varies with different aircraft types, the shape of the airfoil and the
angle of attack. The critical Mach number is rather low for aircraft not designed for high
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speeds, and high for modern high-speed aircraft. For example, supersonic jetfighters have a
very high critical number and they have no significant disturbance of the stability or control.
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Moreover, supersonic aircraft have also particular airfoils, whose characteristics are, thin
thickness and sharp leading edge.
Increasing the Mach number, until to reach the critical Mach number, on the aircraft the tuck-
under phenomenon happens. It is an undesired phenomenon, in which aircraft nose tends to
pitch down.
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This happens because at Mach number, greater than the critical one, the centre of pressure of
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the aircraft moves forwards. This tendency to pitch down produces an excessive bar load.
The device, that allow to reinstate the bar load to acceptable levels, is called Mach trim.
This device sends to the tail elevator a signal proportional to the flight Mach number, to
correct the aircraft attitude.
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A way to increase the critical Mach number of an aircraft is orientating backwards or forwards
the wings. This type of wing is called swept wing.
If the wing extremities are turn towards the tail the wings are called positive swept wing, while
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if they are turn towards the nose the wings are called negative swept wing.
However, the positive swept wing configuration is the most common type of swept wing, while
that of negative swept is installed mainly on Canard aircraft.
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Fig. 1.24 - Different swept-wing configurations
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On swept-wing aircraft, the wing section will be characterized by a smaller ratio between
thickness and chord, in the flow direction. In this way, the velocity of the local flow near the
wing is reduced and the critical Mach number is increased. It is important to remember that
increasing the swept angle, the critical Mach number increases.
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However, a wing with a high swept angle needs to a high angle of attack to generate a specific
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lift.
So, the disadvantage is the fact that a wing with great swept angle causes a greater drag that a
wing with smaller swept angle or a rectangular wing, which have the same aspect ratio.
On aircraft that fly at low speed, which are very far to sound velocity, the straight wings of
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Moreover, some aircraft models, called airplane with variable geometry, have the possibility to
change their swept, during the mission, according to their flight speed. In this way, the aircraft
can maintain stretched wings at low speeds, with a small swept angle, then to move them
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towards the fuselage, increasing the swept angle, at transonic and supersonic flight regimes.
Another disadvantage of wings with high swept angle is the possibility to meet the superstall
phenomenon.
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A wing with a positive swept tends to stall before at its tips.
But, since the tips are located behind the centre of gravity, the generated loss of lift causes a
fast increase of the longitudinal attitude, and consequently a further increase of the angle of
attack.
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This spontaneous increase of the angle of attack makes that the wing stalled area extends
more and more. In this way, the drag quickly increases and the lift suddenly decreases.
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The aircraft in this stability condition starts to lose altitude, with a constant nose-up attitude.
This problem is very critical on aircraft with T tail configuration.
In fact, if the horizontal tail plane is mounted on the top of the fin, it is immersed in the
separated and turbulent flow, generated by the stalled wing.
The efficiency of the elevator is greatly reduced, and the pilot isn’t able to decrease the angle
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of attack of the aircraft. So the airplane is in a particular flight condition, known as superstall or
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deep stall.
It is important to underline that the aircraft isn’t leaded to the superstall attitude by incorrect
actions on flight controls, but it reaches this condition by itself, further to aero-dynamics
phenomena that happens.
The tendency of a swept wing to present the superstall can be reduced by particular devices,
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such as the vortex generators, that are installed on the wing area.
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13.1.B.3 Subsonic flight, transonic flight and supersonic flight
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According to the flight Mach number we can identify 3 main cases:
 The subsonic flight
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 The transonic flight
 The supersonic flight
Subsonic flight
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An aircraft that flies at an airspeed below Mach number 0.8 is said to be in subsonic flight. In
subsonic regime, all the airspeeds are less than the speed of sound in the given fluid. The
aircraft, which flies in this regime, behaves in accordance with the aerodynamic of Bernoulli’s
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theorem. It is important to remember that when the Mach number is below 0.3, the air can be
considered as an incompressible fluid and the flow density as a constant.
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Fig. 1.25 - Subsonic aircraft

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Supersonic flight
If the aircraft, which flies at Mach 1.2, accelerates further, it enters in a supersonic regime. In
this case the flight is smooth and efficient. In the supersonic regime, the speeds of the velocity
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field are always bigger than the sound speed in the considered fluid. The behavior of a
supersonic airflow is very different from that of a subsonic flight.
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Fig. 1.26 - Mach line
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When the aircraft moves at a velocity greater than the speed of sound, it emits pressure waves
in all directions continuously at every point along its path. The line tangential to the circular
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wave is the Mach line, each line is generated from different points of the aircraft. If the speed
of the air over the aircraft is constant, then all Mach lines will be in parallel. If the airflow is
accelerating, then Mach lines will diverge. In addition, if the airflow is decelerating, then Mach
lines will converge and form a shock wave.
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Supersonic flow can be divided into compressive flow and expansive flow.
Compressive flow: if we consider the supersonic airflow meeting the wedge angle, it will not
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anticipate the corner but it will continue until it is forced to move by the wedge angle itself. At
this point the air slows, while temperature, pressure, and density increase. An oblique shock
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wave is generated.
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Fig. 1.27 - Compressive flow
This condition will occur whenever supersonic air meets:

 The leading edge of a wing.
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 The nose of a body.

 The beginning of a contracting duct.
Expansive flow: when air at supersonic speed meets a convex corner, it is pushed to move
around the corner, otherwise a vacuum would occur.
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This sudden change in direction causes the reverse to happen as seen in compressive flow.
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Thus, there is a reduction in pressure, density, and temperature together with an increase in
velocity.
At the same time Mach lines are generated. Between the old and the new Mach lines the air
follows a curved path with the second Mach line being at a more acute angle than the first.
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The air flows through these Mach lines (which are weak compared to shock waves) without
sudden changes in direction or in physical properties.
The condition between these lines is called expansion wave.
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Fig. 1.29 - Supersonic aircraft

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Transonic flight
The most difficult flight condition is represented by the transonic regime. During a transonic
flight the aircraft airspeed is included between Mach 0.8 and Mach 1.2, while near the surface
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it may present the passage of the faster point at supersonic speed. Thus, some airflows passing
over the wings are subsonic and some supersonic.
In the transonic regime some imbalances of forces acting on the aircraft as well as great
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changes in stability may occur. In these cases the aerodynamic centre moves backwards and
goes from 25% to 50% of the chord. An important aspect to be taken into account is the trend
of the drag coefficient. In fact, initially, this value increases but then decreases with the
approaching of the boundary of the supersonic regime. In addition, in this regime shocks
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waves and expansion waves emerge. These waves represent a region when all proprieties of
the fluid change.
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In the transonic flight the problems to face are complex; this because the fluid behavior
depending on the Mach number is very different in subsonic and supersonic regimes.
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Fig. 1.30 - Transonic aircraft

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As the speed of the airflow increases over an airfoil, the air starts to break away from the
surface moving towards the rear. This may start at a very low airspeeds in a position called
transition point.
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Fig. 1.31 - Transition point
At about Mach equal to 0.75 an incipient shock wave is generated. This occurs at the point of
maximum camber and causes a sudden rise in pressure and density as well as a drop in
velocity. There is a tendency for the turbulent wake to start at the point where the shock wave
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attaches itself to the airfoil.
The shock wave causes a sudden increase in drag and a loss of lift. The change in pressure
distribution around a conventional aerofoil causes a pitching moment of the aircraft and the
turbulent airflow behind the shock wave causes severe buffeting.
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The effects are similar to those of a stall and this condition is often called a shock stall. This
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status is not confined to the aerofoil but can occur to any part of the aircraft. The ordinary stall
is often referred to as a high incidence stall to distinguish it from the shock stall.
As the aircraft becomes transonic, there is a considerable change in the longitudinal trim,
usually a nose down pitch.
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This is accompanied by buffeting, lack of effectiveness of the trimming devices and a
considerable increase in the force required to move the controls.
The aircraft may:
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 Snake: yaw from side to side.
 Porpoise: pitch up and down.
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 Dutch roll: a combination of roll and yaw.
The aircraft might become difficult to control. Since control surfaces are usually behind the
shock wave and places in a turbulent area, they may not be completely efficient.
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As the speed increases, the shock wave moves back over the aerofoil and over the control
surface making it difficult to move.
In some cases control surface reversal occurs. This is because of a lack of rigidity in the
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structure so that the control surface acts in a similar way to a trim tab.
This tends to move the structure to which it is attached around its flexural centre line.
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13.1.C.1 Terminology
Aircraft are diversified according to types and functions. A first simple classification can be
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made grouping aircraft according to their weight compared to air:
 The aircraft lighter than air are called aerostats, such as hot-air balloons and airships.
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 The aircraft heavier than air are called aerodynes. In this category aircraft with fixed
wings, helicopters and rockets are included.
Aerodynes with a power unit can be classified in two main groups:
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 Aerodynes with fixed wings, such as airplanes, seaplanes and amphibians.
 Aerodynes with rotary wings, such as autogiros, gyrodynes and helicopters.
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The autogyro is a particular aerodyne with rotary wings. The main rotor at vertical axis is not
connected to an engine. So, it develops the lift only if it is in autorotation by the relative speed.
The thrust is provided by a conventional propeller linked to a power plant.
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Fig. 1.32 - Autogyro

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The gyrodyne configuration is similar to that of the autogiro: however, in this case the main
rotor at vertical axis is activated by an engine.
The propeller and the rotor may be activated by the same engine or by two different power
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units.
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Fig. 1.33 - Gyrodyne

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The helicopter is a particular aerodyne with rotary wings, in which the propulsion and the
sustentation are generated by one or more rotors at vertical axis.
The rotors are activated by the power unit of the helicopter. The turbine that activates engines
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connected to the rotor reaches 30000 RPM.
Nevertheless, the operational RPM of a helicopter rotor cannot be so high: for this reason
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between the engine and the rotor there is a transmission able to reduce RPM.
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Fig. 1.34 - Helicopter

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A conventional helicopter is equipped with two rotors having different specific purposes. The
first rotor at vertical axis is the main one and has a big diameter.
This rotor provides the sustentation and permits the translated flight.
The tail rotor at horizontal axis is the second one and has a smaller diameter.
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This rotor allows to equilibrate the reaction torque of the main rotor and to directionally
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control the helicopter.

The rotors are made of a shaft, a hub and some blades connected to it.
The hub is the central part and is generally composed of some ball bearings to permit the
rotation of the element assembled on it. The hub is installed on the shaft.
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The shaft is the element that transmits the rotational motion. It can freely spin or be actuated
by an engine.
One or more blades are attached on the hub: they are the lift surfaces of the helicopter.
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Rotors can be generally divided into 3 principal categories, according to the number of hinges
in the hub:
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 Rigid rotors have only one hinge, which permits the rotation of the blade around its
longitudinal axis. This hinge is called pitch hinge. When it turns the blade around this
pitch hinge, the angle of attack of airfoil along the same blade varies, increasing or
decreasing in relation with the imposed rotation.
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 Semi-rigid rotors have two hinges: the pitch hinge and the flapping hinge. The flapping
hinge permits the blade rotation in the vertical plane.
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 In articulated rotors 3 types of hinges are present: the pitch hinge, the flapping hinge
and the lead-lag hinge (or drag hinge). The drag hinge permits the blade movement in
the plane of rotor rotation. This movement is indicated as lead-lag motion or drag
motion.
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There are also rotors without hinges, that in order to operate employ the elastic proprieties of
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materials. In this case a flexible blade must be installed.
It is important to give some definitions regarding the helicopter:

 Advancing blade: the blade is that side of the rotor disc where the movement is in the
same direction as the movement of the helicopter. If the helicopter is moving forward,
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the advancing blade will be in the right half of the rotor disc.
 Anti-torque pedals: foot pedals used by the pilot to control the pitch of the tail rotor of
a single rotor helicopter. These allow the pilot to control movement of the helicopter
on the vertical axis.
 Aspect ratio: the length of the helicopter blade (span) to the width (chord). The aspect
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ratio of a tapered blade is found by dividing the square of the blade span by its total
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area.
 Autorotation: descent of the helicopter with the power off. Air flowing upwards
through the main rotor blades causes them to rotate in their normal direction. Pilot
will control the helicopter at a rather fast rate of descent. The kinetic energy stored in
the rotating blades together with the use of the collective helps to flare out to a gentle
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touch-down.
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 Axis of rotation: the line through the rotor head at right angles to the plane of
rotation. The blades rotate around this axis.
 Blade angle: the angle between the chord line and the plane of rotation. This angle
may be altered by the pilot through the movement of the collective and cyclic control
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levers.
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 Blade area: the total area of all the rotor blades of the helicopter. Blade area is a
constant for each helicopter.
 Blade damper: a damping device installed on the vertical hinge to diminish or dampen
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blade oscillation around the drag hinge.
 Blade loading: the load of the rotor blades, determined by dividing the gross weight of
the helicopter by the blade area. Since blade area is a constant, blade loading is
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governed by aircraft mass and flight loads.
 Collective pitch control: the control of the pitch of all rotor blades equally and
simultaneously. The collective pitch control lever placed aside the pilot's seat, is
moved up, down or held steady to control the total rotor thrust.
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 Coning angle: the angle between the blade feathering axis and the plane of rotation or
tip path plane.
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 Coriolis effect: the tendency of a mass to increase or decrease its angular velocity
when its radius of rotation is shortened or lengthened.
 Cyclic pitch control: changes the pitch angle of the rotor blades during a revolution to
control the tilt of the rotor disc and therefore, the direction and velocity of horizontal
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flight. Cyclic pitch control is exerted via fore/aft/left/right movements of the cyclic
stick positioned in front of the pilot's seat between his/her knees.
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 Disc area: the area of the tip path plane swept by the rotor blades. The tip path is a
circle with its centre at the hub.
 Disc loading: the gross weight of the helicopter divided by the disc area.
 Dissymmetry of lift: the unequal lift across the rotor disc resulting from the difference
in the velocity of air over the advancing blade and retreating blade of the rotor.
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 Droop stop: stop fitted to the main rotor hub to limit the amount of downward droop
of the blades.
 Flare: the final nose up pitch of the helicopter during landing to reduce the rate of
descent to nearly zero just before touch-down.
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Flapping: vertical movement of the blade on the plane of rotation. When rotating, the
blades will flap to equilibrium; in this way lift and centrifugal forces balance and the
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blade will achieve a certain coning angle.

 Freewheeling unit: a component part of the transmission or power train which
automatically disconnect the main rotor from the engine when the engine stops or
slows below the equivalent or rotor RPM.
 Hunting: the tendency of a blade to oscillate ahead of or behind a position which
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would be determined by the centrifugal force alone.
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 Lead-lag (dragging): movement of a blade forward or aft in the plane rotation. Lead lag
is facilitated by a lead-lag hinge in the rotor system or through rubbers that allow
individual rotor blades to move back and forth in their plane of rotation. This helps to
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balance the blade system and reduces vibration. The drag brace or drag damper resists
the movement of the blade around its lead-lag hinge on a semi-rigid rotor system.
 Rotor brake: a brake engaged to stop the rotation of the rotor blades when the engine
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is shut down on the ground. It is usually manually operated from the cockpit.
 Transient droop: when the pilot increases the collective control the main rotor RPM
decreases momentarily and the blades droop. As automatic power compensation kicks
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in, RPM is restored to a new value, higher than the transient value but lower than the
value registered before the collective was applied. The blades now take up a new
position called static droop. The difference between the transient droop position and
the static droop position is called underswing.
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 Wash out: the decrease of the blade angle from root to tip. Designed into the blade,
this twist reduces the local angle of attack to reduce the amount of lift produced.
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Wash out reduces the lift along the blade to ensure an even or controlled lift
distribution along the blade length.
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13.1.C.2 Basic operation of helicopters
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The helicopter and the airplane use the same basic aerodynamic principles.
Both are heavier than air and obtain the sustentation from the effect due to the relative
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motion of appropriate lift surfaces in respect to the air.
In airplanes these surfaces are fixed and correspond to the wings. In helicopters the lift airflow
is obtained by spinning the main rotor blades.
Moreover, in the case of airplanes the thrust is created by the propeller or by the gas stream
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reaction; while on helicopters the main rotor can also generate the thrust.
Unlike airplanes, helicopters can vertically take-off as well as backward and laterally fly and
hover.
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Helicopters and airplanes are subjected to 4 main forces: weight, lift, thrust and drag. We can
draw 3 imaginary axis:
 The roll axis or the longitudinal axis. It is the imaginary straight line that joints the nose
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with the tail of the helicopter. It passes through the centre of gravity. Around this axis
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the roll movement happens, as in the case of airplanes. The stability associated to this
axis, is called transversal stability.
 The yaw axis or vertical axis. It is an imaginary line that vertically passes through the
head of the main rotor and the centre of gravity. This axis is perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the helicopter. Around it the yaw movement happens. The stability
associated to this axis, is called directional stability.
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 The pitch axis is perpendicular to the other two axis and around it the pitch movement
happens, as in the case of the airplane. The stability associated to this axis, is called
longitudinal stability.
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Fig. 1.35 - Helicopter axis
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The main rotor is one of the principal elements of a helicopter. This device has the aim to
generate the lift force and the thrust.
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The main rotor has a vertical axis near its centre of gravity. The main rotor is rotated by the
engine, which applies through the shaft a motor torque Cm. At this action corresponds a
reaction applied on the rotor (the reaction torque Cr).
The tail rotor, also called anti-torque, has the purpose to balance Cr of the main rotor and to
contribute to the directional control of the helicopter.
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The tail rotor geometry is similar to that of main rotor: however, blades have a littler diameter
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and the rotation axis is approximately horizontal.

Without the tail rotor the helicopter is not maneuverable because the effect of the reaction
torque is not balanced. The tail rotor generates an aerodynamic force, called simply thrust.
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The thrust, being at a distance from the CG, creates a moment equal to the product between
the force and the arm. This moment opposes to the reaction torque Cr. This is completely
balanced only if its value is equal to that of the moment.
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Fig. 1.36 - Basic functioning of the helicopter
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13.1.C.3 Operation and effect of cyclic, collective and anti-torque
controls
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The helicopter is unstable in flight both in the hover and translational modes. The only
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exception being that it is directionally stable on the normal axis in forward flight, all other
disturbances require corrective actions by the pilot through the flying controls. Helicopters
have three primary flying controls in the cockpit:
 Collective pitch lever
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 Cyclic control column
 Tail rotor pitch control pedals
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Fig. 1.37 - Helicopter controls

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Cyclic and collective controls
The pilot has an only one possibility to control the blade lift by varying the pitch. For example,
by increasing the pitch, the pitch angle of the blade section increases and consequently the
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produced lift increases too.
The pitch variation can be obtained through the rotation of the blade around its longitudinal
axis.
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The control of the cyclic pitch allows changing in a cyclic way the blade pitch angle of the main
rotor on the whole turn of rotation. During their rotation the blades present, in the same
moment, a different angle of attack in respect to the flow.
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The cyclic pitch determines a different inclination of the rotor disk, and thus it allows
controlling the translation movements of the helicopter, controlling the direction of the lift,
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generated by the rotor.

The command of the cyclic pitch is so essential to move the helicopter in any direction and it is
located between the legs of the pilot. If it changes forwards or backwards the inclination, the
helicopter will move forward and backward. Instead, if the helicopter flies towards left and
right, the blades inclination happens sideways.
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Fig. 1.38 - Cyclic pitch

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The control of the collective pitch permits to change, simultaneously and in the same sense,
the pitch angle of blades of the main rotor, and it is located on the left side of the pilot.
This command allows the vertical control of the helicopter, because the value of the generated
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lift is increased and decreased, according to if the angle of attack of blades is increased or
decreased. However, increasing the pitch, the blade drag increases, and so to maintain a
constant RPM, it must increase the power.
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It is clear that the collective pitch control and the throttle level must be correlated in some
ways.
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Fig. 1.39 - Collective pitch sw

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The swashplate is the main device used to transmit controls to symmetrical blades of the
helicopter. It is composed of two rings with a ball in the middle.
The upper ring can swing forwards-backwards and sideways. It is pushed by the lower ring and
is in agreement with the crankshaft and with the control of collective and cyclic pitch. The
lower ring does not rotate.
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A swashplate is also used for the tail rotor, where the collective pitch is changed with a rudder
bar.
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Fig. 1.40 - Swashplate
It is interesting to analyze how the speed changes along different sections of rotor blades.
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The blade airfoils have a rotational speed equal to the product of the angular velocity of the
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rotor by the radius, which is the distance of the airfoil to the rotor centre.
The rotor angular velocity represents its RPM. In normal operational conditions the angular
velocity of the rotor is constant, this in order to obtain the best performances of the rotor and
to avoid problems of vibrations.
Since the angular velocity is constant, the speed of airfoils along the blade changes
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proportionally to their distance from the rotational axis. It varies with a linear law: it is null on
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the rotational axis and maximum at the blade tip.

As an effect of the variation of the airfoil speed along the blade, the values of lift and drag
forces along the blade are not constant but are influenced by the trend of this velocity.
It is important to remember that this is true in case of helicopters in stationary flight.
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Fig. 1.41 - Blade speed in stationary flight

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Fig. 1.42 - Blade lift in stationary flight

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If the helicopter is in a straight flight and you want to obtain the relative speed of each blade
section, the translation speed of the helicopter must be summed, in a vector way, to the
rational airflow velocity.
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The translational speed of the helicopter is constant for all sections of the blade.
In a straight flight the relative speed of rotor blades cyclically changes in a sinusoidal way
during the operation of the rotor. This deviation causes a cyclical variation of the lift. During
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the rotation, the blade lift passes from a maximum value to a minimum one; in this situation
the advancing blade creates a bigger lift than the back one.
The total lift of the blade is the sum of all local lift forces generated by different sections of it.
Similarly, the total drag of the blade is the sum of all local drag forces created by different
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section of it. Airfoils at blade tips develop higher values of drag.
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Fig. 1.43 - Blade lift in straight flight
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The flapping is the motion which allows blades to vertically rise and go down. In this way, it is
possible to eliminate the lateral lift dissymmetry, thanks to the flapping effect on the angle of
attack.
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This freedom of movement is very important for a helicopter rotor because the advancing
blade and the back one of the main rotor create a lateral dissymmetry of lift; the resultant
force is thus localized on the side of the advancing blade. This is an undesired effect that would
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cause the forward turnover of the helicopter and must be annulled by the flapping movement
of the rotor.
In order to obtain the forward straight flight, the rotor must be inclined, so that its blades,
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when they are at the fore of the helicopter, reach the lowest point of their trajectory; while,
on the contrary, when they are at the tail, they reach the highest position. These movements,
on the vertical plane, are called flapping movements.
Applying the flapping hinge, to the rotor hub, it permits the angular movement of the blade.
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Thanks to this effect, the flapping hinge has the important aims to eliminate the lift
dissymmetry typical of the straight flight. In other words, it is the introduction of the flapping
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hinge that makes the helicopter controllable.
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Fig. 1.44 - Flapping

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The inclination of the rotor in all directions happens in relation to one of the fundamental
principle of the rotating bodies: the gyroscopic precession. According to this principle “a force,
applied to a rotating body acts at 90° after the application point of the same force in the
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direction of the rotor spin”. For example, in order to obtain the forward translation flight the
rotor must be inclined so that the blades, when they are at the helicopter heading, are at the
lowest point of their trajectory; while, on contrary, when they are at tail, they reach the
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highest point. This is obtained by applying the downwards necessary force on the blade, when
it is at the right side (for rotors that rotate anticlockwise). In this way, it instantly produces a
decrease of lift, then producing the maximum reduction of lift the same blade when it is at
nose position, that is 90° after the application point of the force. On the contrary, to obtain the
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maximum lift of the blade when it is at the tail, it is necessary to instantly increase the blade
lift, when it is at the left side.
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Anti-torque controls
The thrust of the tail rotor varies by changing the collective pitch setting of the tail rotor
trough the control system linked to the tail rotor pitch control foot pedals. When the tail rotor
thrust balances torque reaction, any decrease of pitch applied to the tail rotor will result in the
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torque reaction overcoming tail rotor thrust and causing the helicopter to yaw in one
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direction. Conversely, an increase in tail rotor thrust will result in a yaw in the opposite
direction. So, the function of the control of the tail rotor pitch is that of determining the
direction towards which the helicopter must be orientated.
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Fig. 1.45 - Effect of yaw pedal operation

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When a couple is opposed by a moment, a residual translation thrust force is induced in the
body. In the case of a helicopter, since torque reaction forms a couple whose turning effect is
eliminated by a moment (tail rotor thrust), the residual translational force causes the
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helicopter to drift sideways in the direction determined by the tail rotor thrust. In any given
mode of flight, tail rotor drift causes the helicopter to drift sideways in the direction of the tail
rotor thrust. To prevent this the pilot would need to tilt the main rotor slightly in a direction
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opposite to the drift.
However, to protect the pilot form the trouble of constantly holding the cyclic control column
to the side, a permanent tilt is normally given to the main rotor, either by rigging the cyclic
pitch system or by tilting the main drive shaft or the hub in respect to the shaft.
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13.1.C.4 Other aspects related to the operation of helicopters
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When studying the operation of an helicopter, it is necessary to analyze some common flight
conditions.
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Ground effect
When the helicopter is at a distance from the ground less than the diameter of the main rotor,
it is said that the helicopter is in ground effect (IGE). In the opposite case, the helicopter is out
of ground effect (OGE).
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Comparing the IGE and OGE conditions of a stationary flight, it can be noted that the induced
velocity is smaller when the rotor is near the ground. Due to the induced velocity reduction,
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the same value of the rotor lift is obtained with a smaller collective pitch.
It is important to remember that when the helicopter starts translating, the airflow is deflected
downward and the ground effect progressively decreases with the increase of the translational
velocity.
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Fig. 1.46 - IGE and OGE conditions

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Rotor and blade stall
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The helicopter has operative, structural and aerodynamic limitations. The rotor stall is the
main phenomenon that imposes a limit both for the helicopter translational speed and for the
rotor RPM. Now, we will analyze the case of an advancing blade and the case of a rear one.
Calculating the distribution of the relative speed of the air investing blade airfoils -considered
as the vector sum of rotational velocity of the blade and of the helicopter translation speed- it
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can be noted that the root of the rear blade is invested by the airflow with a negative speed. In
this region there is a negative lift and a turbulent airflow. The area with reverse airflow
increases when the translation speed becomes bigger in relation to the rotational velocity.
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Therefore, the translational speed of the helicopter is limited in order to avoid that the reverse
airflow region extends to a big percentage of the back blade.
The rotor has another aerodynamic limitation. The rear blade is subjected to the stall of its tip
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airfoils. It is important to underline that the airfoil angle of incidence of the back blade is
increased to cover its lower velocity and it increases at the increase of the flight airspeed.
The area of stall on the rear blade extremity is generated when the translation speed is so high
to make the speed on the rear blade too small, so that it is not able to create lift. The area of
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stall progressively increases when the flight velocity becomes bigger and extends to other
rotor regions. For these reasons, the value of the maximum translation speed of the helicopter
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must be limited to avoid the total rotor stall.

It is important to keep in mind that contrarily to the case of the airplane, that meets the wing
stall at low speeds, the rotor stall happens at high speed.
Vortex ring state

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The vortex ring state (VRS), also known as settling with power, is a hazardous condition for a
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helicopter in flight. This occurs when the helicopter is descending with a rate of descent equal
to the value of the speed induced by the rotor.
The main rotor of the helicopter typically directs airflow downwards to create lift with a low
horizontal airspeed, in this way it induces a vortex ring, which creates high vibrations and the
loss of the helicopter control. Moreover, by increasing the collective pitch the velocity of this
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flow will increase and the situation will get worse.
To stop the vortex ring state, it is necessary to move the helicopter in straight flight and to
reduce the collective pitch.
The helicopter is leaded in autorotation, if the altitude permits it and it is moved forwards
reducing the collective pitch. Then, the pilot can increase again the control of the collective
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pitch.
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Fig. 1.47 - VRS condition

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Autorotation
If during the flight an engine failure happens, the rotor is automatically unhooked from the
engine through a mechanism called free wheel. In this way the rotor is completely free to
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move. The rotor is maintained in rotation by the air which strikes it and it said to be in auto-
rotation. In this way the rotor creates a lift that, even if less than the weight, is enough to
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brake the descent and to guarantee the landing in safety conditions.
For the helicopter the auto-rotation is similar to the glide without engine for an airplane. Any
helicopter must be able to descent in auto-rotation. However, there are some dangerous
velocity fields, that is some flight conditions in which the auto-rotation does not guarantee a
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good result such as a flight at low speed and low altitude and a flight under a definite altitude
from the ground.
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Fig. 1.48 - Autorotation

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Transient and static droop
The transient droop is the initial fall in a helicopter rotor RPM when the collective pitch is
increased within the normal-powered flight range. In other words, the transient droop is the
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reduction in rotor speed following a sudden increase in power demand. This fall in RPM occurs
despite the increase in fuel flow and power. The transient droop is dependent on the amount
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by which the collective-pitch lever is raised.
For instance, a recovery from the condition of autorotation will produce for a short time an
under-swing in rotor speed below the nominal value before the engine governing system
reacts and recovers the rotor speed to nominal value.
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On the contrary, the static droop is the variation of the RPM, which the rotor suffers when it is
stabilized before and after a collective pitch change.
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Fig. 1.49 - Transient and static droop

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Vibration
Vibrations are a typical problem in helicopters. It is a problem lying in the machine itself,
where many rotating parts are installed. Their rotation with different RPM causes some
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vibrations at different frequencies and magnitudes, sometimes very high. Both the dynamic
and static missed balancing can cause vibrations. Generally, the vibrations are classified
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according to their frequency of oscillation:
 Low frequency vibrations (until 500 cycles per minute) that are caused by the rotation
of the main rotor. These vibrations are often called 1 per g or 2 per g vibrations (that is
one or two vibrations for each turn of the rotor).
 High frequency vibrations (more than 2000 cycles per minute) that are caused by the
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rotation of high speed component, such as the engine and the tail rotor.
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The vibrations generate structural fatigue, reduction in reliability of the equipment and disturb
the crew and the passengers.
For example, the Active Control for Structural Response (ACSR) system continually measures
the structural response of the forces generated by the main rotor and stresses the structure
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with damping forces, which efficiently minimize the vibrations.
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PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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Cat. B2 - 13.2 Structure – General concepts
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13.2 Structure – General concepts
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13.2.A.1 Fundamentals of structural systems: classification of
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structures
The structure is that part of an airplane or of a helicopter, which has the functions to provide
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fixing points to different elements and systems and to support the set of strength produced in
static and flight conditions.
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The structures must respond to aerodynamic and mechanical resistance requirements as well
as to reliability conditions. The airframe is built according to very specific requirements, it
makes up around 40% of the total aircraft mass and provides the aircraft strength.
These requirements are:
 Adequate strength
 Adequate stiffness
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 Minimum mass
 Adequate mechanical properties such as toughness, fatigue resistance etc.
 Smooth aerodynamic shape
Generally, the parts of the structure can be classified in 3 main groups:
 The primary structure
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 The secondary structure

 The tertiary structure
The primary structure is a critical load-bearing structure on an aircraft. If this structure is
severely damaged, the aircraft cannot fly. The primary structure is the structure which carries
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flight, ground, or pressurization loads and whose failure would reduce the structural integrity
of the airplane.
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The primary structure must be strong because it receives stress from devices providing
sustenance and thrust to the aircraft. The primary structure of the airplane and of the
helicopter must satisfy very strict reliability and strength requirements, due to its function.
Thus, it is object of a very careful study in planning phase.
The support of aircraft or helicopter systems and equipment, such as flight controls,
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lubrication systems and radio apparatus, is committed to some substructures called secondary
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structures. They are fixed to the main frame of the primary structure. The secondary
structures meet different and less severe requirements because they are not stressed in the
same strict way as the primary structure.
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The tertiary structure includes all aircraft parts that must support limited strengths. If the
tertiary structure is damaged, the safety of the flight is in danger.
13.2.A.2 Fundamentals of structural systems: design concepts
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The design concepts used to project and construct aircraft structures and components can be
classified in three categories:
 The fail safe concept
 The safe life concept
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 The damage tolerance concept
Fail safe concept

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The fail safe criterion sets that the structure should be able to have a certain residual strength,
even in case of a component failure. The structure must be able to tolerate the failure of one
or more main components of the airplane or of the helicopter.
A damaged structure, built according to the fail safe criterion, must have the possibility to
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support specific load without compromising the airplane or helicopter efficiency. This ensure a
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high safety level to the mission. In other words, if one member of a complex structure fails,
some other members would assume the load of the failed device. To this criterion is added the
concept of inspection.
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Fig. 2.1 - Example of aircraft part designed according to fail safe concept
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Safe life concept
The safe life design technique is employed in critical systems, which are either very difficult to
repair or may cause severe damage to the life and property of the structure. These systems are
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designed to work for years without any repairs.
The safe life concept sets that a structure must be able to remain intact for a certain number
of flight hours; then, it will be removed from service, even if it does not present any failure.
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In order to guarantee an adequate safety margin, it is necessary to preventively execute some
trials through a load simulation. These trials verify that the structure is able to resist without
damage for a time longer than the designed time of use. Although it guarantees a safe life of
the component, this criterion has some insufficiencies because it imposes very high safety
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coefficients penalizing economic and weight aspects.
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Fig. 2.2 - Example of aircraft part designed according to safe life concept
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Damage tolerance concept
The damage tolerance admits the possibility to have some cracks in structures, such as fatigue
cracks, without compromising the safety of an aircraft during its planned mission. In this case,
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the following conditions must be met:
 If some cracks are generated, the structure must be able to support them without
catastrophic effects.
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 The crack identification will happen in reasonable time and its speed of propagation
must be slow, in order to detect it in useful time.
This concept requires some periodic controls and a specific maintenance program. This
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imposes the use of the safe life design in less accessible parts.
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13.2.A.3 Fundamentals of structural systems: stresses
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Every single member of the structure of an aircraft is designed to carry a load or to resist a
stress. It may be subjected to a combination of stresses too.
The stress is the internal force of a substance, which opposes or resists to an external force. It
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is a measure of the average amount of force exerted per unit area of a surface within a
deformable body. The strain is the deformation of a material consequent to the application of
that force.
The relation between stresses and induced strains for linear elastic materials is expressed by
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the Hooke’s law. This law affirms that the stress (σ) is linearly proportional to the strain (ε) by a
constant factor (the modulus of elasticity E):
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Fig. 2.3 - Stress-strain diagram

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There are 5 kinds of stress to which all aircraft are subjected:
 The tension
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 The compression
 The torsion
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 The shear
 The bending
When we consider the aircraft structure, another important aspect is the fatigue.
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Compression and tension
The compression is the stress that tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft parts. The compressive
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strength of a material is measured in Newton per square meter [N/m2]. The compressive
strength is the capacity of a material to withstand pushing forces that act in axially direction.
When the limit of this value is reached, materials are crushed.
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Fig. 2.4 - Compression
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The tension is the stress that acts axially on the structure. It is the opposite of the
compression. The tensile strength of a material is measured in Newton per square meter
[N/m2] and it is calculated by dividing the load required to break the material by its cross-
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sectional area.
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Fig. 2.5 - Tension

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There is also the Hoop stress that is a circumferential stress in a cylindrically shaped part. The
Hoop stress is the mechanical stress defined for rotationally-symmetric objects.
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Shear
The shear is the stress that resists to the force, which tends to cause one layer of a material to
slide over an adjacent one. The shear stress is defined as the parallel or tangential stress
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applied to surface of a material. The shear is opposed to a normal stress perpendicularly
applied. Some aircraft parts, especially screws, bolts and rivets are often subjected to a
shearing force.
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Fig. 2.6 - Shear
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Torsion and bending
The torsion is the stress resulting from forces which tend to twist an object. For example, if the
extremes of a bar are rotated in opposite directions, the bar will be subjected to the torsion
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stress.
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Fig. 2.7 - Torsion
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The bending stress occurs when an elements is subject to a load, which has a component
perpendicular to longitudinal axis. This component creates a bending moment that causes the
curvature of the element. The bending stress is a combination of compression and tension
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loads: some areas of the structure work under compression and others work under tension.
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Fig. 2.8 - Bending
Fatigue
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The fatigue occurs in presence of a cyclically applied load. It causes an irreversible and
cumulative attrition of internal bonds of the material. Each load application, followed by a
total or partial relaxation of the structure, is defined as a cycle. A cycle causes, from the first
operational day of a component, a microscopic crack on the weakest crystalline bond, present
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inside the material. Cycles in series generate an advance of the crack, which progresses,
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attacking the next weakest bond of the material. The velocity of propagation of the defect
depends on the intensity of the strain imposed on the material during every cycle. The final
phase of the phenomenon is represented by the gradual concentration of the load on an
always smaller material section, until the definitive collapse of the structure is reached. In this
case the break load, calculated in the design phase, acts on the structure.
For example, in the case of the aircraft fuselage the fatigue and the structural obsolescence
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are connected to the number of pressurization cycles, which the fuselage supports. The term
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‘pressurization cycle’ indicates a cycle in which the aircraft pressure varies. Normally, the
pressurization cycle coincides with a normal flight (take-off, cruise and landing).
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13.2.A.4 Fundamentals of structural systems: fuselage
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Fuselage structure
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft. It provides space for cargo,
accessories, passengers and other equipment.
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There are 3 general types of fuselage construction:
 The truss type
 The monocoque type
 Semi-monocoque type
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Truss type
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The truss type is made up of a system of beams, connected by struts and bars, which provides
rigidity. These elements provide a framework which is normally covered.
The fuselage framework is usually made of steel tubing or aluminum alloy and it is welded,
riveted or bolted into one rigid piece.
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Fig. 2.9 - The truss type

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Monocoque type
The monocoque fuselage uses frames and bulkheads to provide the shape of the fuselage to
which a skin of metal is riveted. The skin of large aircraft is usually made of aluminum alloyed
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2024. According to this method of construction, the skin must have enough strength to keep
the fuselage rigid and also to carry all stresses.
Bulkheads are structural elements crosswise to sections of the aircraft fuselage. Generally,
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bulkheads have circular shape and give resistance to the airframe. Moreover, bulkheads divide
the fuselage into different compartments. For example, the forepart of the cabin of a single-
engine aircraft is separated from the engine compartment by a firewall, which has the aim to
protect the personnel by the potential blaze that could occur inside it.
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In the aircraft-structure there can be two kinds of frames: former frames, and force frames.
Former frames are elements perpendicular to the roll axis of the airplane. In this way, they
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provide the desired shape to the structure. Force frames instead, are placed along the fuselage
where concentrated loads are applied.
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Fig. 2.10 - The monocoque type

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Semi-monocoque type
A variant of the true monocoque construction is the semi-monocoque fuselage, in which the
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skin must support a part of the loads. In this case, in addition to frames and bulkheads some
longitudinal members are used, such as longerons and stringers.
A longeron is a thin strip of wood, metal or carbon fiber, to which the skin of the aircraft is
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fastened. Longerons (called spars in the wing structure) are attached to former frames, in the
case of the fuselage or ribs in the case of wings or empennages. Sometimes the terms
"longeron" and "stringer" are used interchangeably. The longeron is the main element of the
aircraft structure arranged longitudinally (and parallel to the motion direction). Also stringers
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are positioned longitudinally but they usually have a smaller size. Longerons often carry larger
loads than stringers and help to transfer skin loads to internal structure. Stringers are generally
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attached to the skin, where they perform the duty of preventing the skin from deforming. If
this happens, it could create stress risers that could destroy the structure. It is not uncommon,
to have a mixture of longerons and stringers in the same structure. The main advantage of a
semi-monocoque construction lies in the fact that loads and stresses are spread over the
whole structure. Stronger bulkheads are used at those points where concentrated loads are
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applied: for example, at the attachment location of wings.
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Fig. 2.11 - The semi-monocoque type

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Doors
In analyzing fuselage doors it is necessary to distinguish between those of an aircraft and those
of a helicopter.
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The aircraft doors are structural components and they are made up of riveted aluminum alloy.
They provide accesses to the cockpit, the passengers cabin and cargo area.
The doors of the passenger cabin, used to board passengers and crews, are generally
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positioned on the left side of the aircraft.
The opening occurs through hinges. The door can be opened from inside as well as from
outside the aircraft. All these doors are equipped with a control handle used for door
operations and other handles in order to enhance safety. For this reason, the door
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unlocked/locked status is checked through a mechanical indicator. Moreover, in aircraft an
evacuation device is generally stowed in a container on the lower part of the door.
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Fig. 2.12 - Example of airplane door

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Instead, the doors of a helicopter are auxiliary components of the structure, and they are
made by aluminum alloy. They provide the access to the fore compartment of the fuselage, to
the cockpit, to the passenger cabin and to cargo compartment. The careening of the fore
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sector allows to access to the electronic compartment. The pilot and co-pilot doors permit the
access to the cockpit. The doors of the passenger fuselage are generally positioned on the left
and right side of the helicopter, and they permit the access to the cabin. The opening can
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happen through hinges or sliding elements, according to the helicopter type. In more modern
applications, the use of the sliding type is most common, because it permits an easier and
more useful opening.
The sliding doors run on appropriate platforms, visible by the external, thanks to some small
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rollers, positioned on upper and lower sides. The movement of the door is designed so that a
perfect insertion in the helicopter structure happens when the door is closed.
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The doors can be open and closed by the inside and the outside, and they have a lock.
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Fig. 2.13 - Example of helicopter door

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Windows
From a structural point, a fuselage window is made of two transparent elements: an external
glass and an internal one. The structure also permits the presence of a structural element of
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reinforcement, called window frame. It is made of a frame riveted on the panel of the
fuselage, along the edge of the window opening. The window frame has a horizontal flange
and a vertical one. The horizontal flange has an external part, where the riveting on the
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fuselage is effected, and an internal part that forms the zone of the glass cue. In the window
there is also a gasket, which has the aim to seal the entity.
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Fig. 2.14 - Aircraft window

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13.2.A.5 Fundamentals of structural systems: lift surfaces
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Airplane wings
The wing design, for any aircraft, depends on a number of factors, such as size, weight and use
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of aircraft. The wings of some aircraft are cantilever design: they are built so that no external
bracing is needed. In these cases, the skin of the wing structure carries part of the wing
stresses. On the contrary, the wings of other aircraft use external bracings (struts and wires) in
order to provide a support and carry the external loads. Both magnesium and aluminum alloy
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are used in wing constructions.
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Fig. 2.15 - Different wing designs

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The main elements of the internal wings structure are spars, ribs and stringers. The spars are
the most important structural members of the wing. They run parallel to the lateral axis, from
the tip to the root of the wing. The spars support loads and weights. The stringers are
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spanwise members too but they are smaller than spars. These elements have to support wing
stresses.
The ribs are the structural crosspieces, which make up the framework of the wing. They usually
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extend from the wing leading edge to the trailing edge. The ribs give the wing its cambered
shape and transmit the load from the skin and stringers to the spars.
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Fig. 2.16 - Internal structure of the wing
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Blades of helicopters
In the case of a helicopter, the device that provides the sustenance is the rotor, which is
generally made of more blades.
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The blade is a wing surface having a symmetrical biconvex section. The same aerodynamic
laws, which describe the behavior of the wing immersed in the airflow are applied to the
blade. The blade is considered the most critical element of the helicopter and in the past it has
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undergone many changes, passing through three main stages:
 Wooden blade. The first blades of rotors were realized with wood. The most common
wood types were birch, fir and pine.
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Fig. 2.17 - Wooden blade

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 Metallic blade. The aluminum alloy is the common material used in this case. The spar
that runs along the blade length is an extruded of aluminum alloy. It forms the
structural components of the blade, of which it is also the leading edge. The rest of the
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blade is made of some upper and lower aluminum alloyed skins glued to the main spar
or to the trailing edge. The space between two skins is filled by glued aluminum
honeycomb.
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Fig. 2.18 - Metallic blade
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 Blade of composite materials. All modern helicopters use some blades that are totally
or partially constructed by composite material. The technique used for the assemblage
of this type of blade is similar to that employed for the construction of the metallic
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blade. The main difference is represented by materials, which are fiberglass, fiber of
carbon, Kevlar TM and Nomex TM.
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Fig. 2.19 - Composite materials blade

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13.2.A.6 Fundamentals of structural systems: tail
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Airplane tail
The empennage forms the tail section. Most aircraft designs identify it as a tail cone added to
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some fixed and movable surfaces. The tail cone is used to close and to streamline the aft end
of most fuselages. The cone is made up of structural members like those of the fuselage.
However, the cones are usually of lighter construction, since they receive less stresses than the
fuselage. Other components of a typical empennage have a construction heavier than the tail
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cone. These members include fixed surfaces (the stabilizers), which help to steady the aircraft
and movable surfaces (the rudder and the elevator), which help to direct the flight. Their
structures are similar to those of the wings: each member absorbs parts of the stresses and
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passes the remaining to other members. The overload of stress reaches the spars, which
transmit it to the fuselage structure.
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Fig. 2.20 - Airplane tail structure

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Helicopter tail
The rear section of the helicopter fuselage is called tail beam. It receives more complex
stresses than those felt by the tail unit of an aircraft. In fact, on the top of the tail beam the
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anti-torque rotor and the horizontal stabilizer are installed. The horizontal stabilizer during a
straight flight must exert a downward force in order to compensate an undesired effect of the
main rotor.
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Due to all these loads, the tail beam is normally built according to the principle of the
monocoque structure.
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Fig. 2.21 - Different helicopter tails

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13.2.A.7 Fundamentals of structural systems: landing gear
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The landing gear of airplanes and helicopters has the aim to support the weight of the
structure, when the aircraft is not on flight. The choice regarding the typology of landing gear,
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which must be installed on airplanes and helicopters, is made in function of the type and main
employ of the machine.
The landing gears designed for airplanes have remarkable differences if compared to those
used for helicopters. In fact, the airplane needs wheels that permit movement on ground as
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well as take-offs and landings. Conversely, helicopters can be designed both with landing gears
endowed with wheels and with fixed skid landing gears.
In the case of landing gears with wheels the most common configurations are those of the tri-
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cycle landing gear. In the tri-cycle configuration the two legs, called main legs, are located as
near as possible to the centre of gravity. The third leg, called secondary leg, is located as far as
possible to the centre of gravity, positioned under the tail (rear try-cycle), or more frequently
under the nose (fore try-cycle). Configurations with more than 3 legs are adopted for heavy
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aircraft, when it is convenient to increase the number of legs, so to divide its weight.
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Fig. 2.22 - Different configurations of tri-cycle landing gears

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The landing gears with wheels can be both fixed and retractable. But, since in flight, the
landing gear produces a big increase of aerodynamic drag, it prefers to install the retractable
type, which can be retreated in a particular fuselage bay, during the cruise phase.
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Landing gears of airplanes
On airplanes it prefers installing the fore tri-cycle. In fact, this configuration presents some
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advantages:
 On the ground the airplane can have an horizontal attitude, with visibility advantages
for the pilot
 During the braking, the fore wheel obstructs the forward overturn of the airplane.
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The landing gear of an airplane is made of a series of components:
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 The shock absorber

 The brake
 The wheel
 The tire
 The torque link
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 Some possible devices of extraction and retraction.
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The main elements of the landing gear are the shock-absorber and the torque-link. The shock
absorber has the function to absorb energy through its deformation, giving back only a part
and dissipating the rest in heat.
The system, most used in aeronautic field, is that of the oleo-pneumatic type. Instead, the
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torque link keeps the landing gear pointed in a straight-ahead direction: it has the purpose to
ensure that at all times the wheel is aligned correctly with respect to the airframe.
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Landing gears of helicopters
For helicopters, the two constructive solutions of the landing gear are:
 The skid landing gear
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 The landing gear with wheels.
The skid landing gear has the advantage to can operate also on not prepared ground and on
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slope surface.
A skid landing gear is basically made of two longitudinal skids, and two transversal curved
pipes. They connect the skids to the fuselage and they provide the dumping, through their
elasticity.
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These components are made by light alloy. Moreover, in the rear area of skids, some attacks
for the positioning of maneuvering wheels are installed.
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The wheels are necessary to move the helicopter on ground. Nowadays, the skid landing gear
is commonly used on the majority of helicopters of small dimensions.
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Fig. 2.23 - Helicopter skid landing gear

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Instead, on helicopters of medium and big dimensions, it is preferred installing the gear with
wheels (often of retractable type), because it permits the taxing of the machine, and so it
facilitates the ground operations.
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On helicopters both the solution of fore tri-cycle and that of the rear tri-cycle are widely used.
For example, the configuration with fore wheel is used on all helicopters that have a normal
landing attitude. Instead, the gear with rear wheel is installed on the helicopters, which during
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the landing phase have a nose up attitude, in order to avoid the contact between the tail rotor
and the ground. Some of the main components of this type of landing gear are the shock-
absorber and the torque-link, as happening for airplane.
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Fig. 2.24 - Helicopter landing gear with wheels

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13.2.A.8 Fundamentals of structural systems: regulations
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Airworthiness
The airworthiness certifies the ability of an aircraft to fly. Airworthiness refers to the status of
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an aircraft, which is congruent with the approved standards, modified according to
specifications approved by the authority or which is in accordance with the mandatory
maintenance and has no inadequate parts installed. All these conditions are mandatory. The
certificate of airworthiness attests that, in a specific moment, the aircraft has been checked
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and declared able to fly by an assigned subject. An aircraft with an expired certificate must not
fly.
The national and international aeronautical authorities established some rules in relation to
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the design, construction and maintenance of aircraft in order to guarantee the

accomplishment of the airworthiness requirements.
Moreover, it is established that the national authority can emit specific recommendations,
called Airworthiness Directive (AD), to inform about any problems found during the use of a
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particular model of aircraft. An AD is a notification to owners and operators of certified aircraft
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concerning a known safety deficiency that must be corrected. If a certified aircraft has some
outstanding ADs that have not been complied with, the aircraft is not considered airworthy.
The ADs usually result from service difficulty reporting by operators or from aircraft accident
investigations.
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In order to guarantee the respect of the structural limits of materials as well as the
physiological limits of people transported on aircraft, the aeronautical requirements define
two important load conditions, which must be taken into account during the design phase of
an aircraft. These loads are defined as Design Limit Loads (DLLs) and Design Ultimate Loads
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(DULs).
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The Design Limit Loads are those loads that the structure is supposed to support in all normal
operative conditions. Under these design limit loads, the structure must not present plastic
deformations, which could threaten the correct and safe operation of the aircraft.
The Design Ultimate Loads are those loads that the structure must be able to support even if
through a permanent alteration of its shape. Under the action of these loads, the structure can
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plastically deforms but it must not break. In order to guarantee a safe flight, the design
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ultimate loads are calculated multiplying the design limit loads by a safety factor (generally
close to 1.5).
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13.2.B.1 Zonal and station identification systems
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To facilitate the location of specific wing frames, such as fuselage bulkheads or any other
elements of an airplane or helicopter, various reference systems are employed. A zonal
location system or a frame station location system are used for this purpose.
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The zonal location system works by giving each zone of the aircraft an identification number.
The frame station system numbers all frames and stringers.
The zonal location system identifies major zones, which are then divided into subzones.
For example, in the zone diagram of Boeing 777 there are:
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 Major Zone: the first digit is represented by a number ranging from 1 to 8 followed by
two zeros.
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 Subzone: the first digit is the Major Zone number, the second digit is a number
between 1 and 9 and the third digit is a zero.
 Zone: the first two digits are the Subzone number and the third digit shows a
component or group of components in the Subzone.
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The number sequences for different zones and subzones are as follows:
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 Wings: inboard to outboard and front and back.

 Horizontal stabilizer and elevator: inboard or outboard and front to back.
 Vertical stabilizer and rudder: root to tip.
 Fuselage: front to back and away from the floor line.
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In the frame location system the main manufacturer’s reference system includes 3 relevant
coordinates:
 Station line
 Buttock line or butt line
 Water line
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Fig. 2.25 - Aircraft reference system

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The station line is numbered in inches starting from a reference point, also called zero point
and known as the reference datum. The reference datum is an imaginary vertical plane located
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at or near the nose of the aircraft from which all horizontal distances are measured.
The origin of the reference system is commonly positioned on the fore fire-wall of the aircraft.
The distance is measured in parallel to the centre line extending from the aircraft nose to the
centre of tail cone.
The buttock line is a width measurement, left or right, from a longitudinal centre line.
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The water line is the measurement of height in inches, perpendicular from a horizontal plane
located at or below the bottom of the aircraft fuselage.
In any case, the manufacturer’s terminology and the location of the reference systems should
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13.2.B.2 Electrical bonding
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The bonding is the electrical connection of two or more conducting objects, which otherwise
would not be adequately connected. This technique is executed with the purpose to avoid the
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weakening of any part of the structure. Thus, the main purpose of this bonding is to cancel the
potential differences among different points of the structure, bringing all of them at the same
potential.
For example, in the case of aircraft, in order to connect different points of the primary
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structure an adhesive connection is employed. This process is effective to connect thin metallic
sheets at the same potential.
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In addition, all electrical systems on board must be adequately ground connected. This in order
to:
 Protect aircraft and personnel from the hazards of lighting discharge.
 Protect personnel from shock hazards.
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 Prevent the development of potential radio interferences.
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Bonding of pipes
The process described below is used for the bonding of the light alloy and corrosion resistance
steel fuel pipes in the fuselage centre tanks.
 Connect one end of the bonding lead to the clamp.
 Attach the other end of the bonding lead to a bonding lug welded on the other pipe or
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to a clamp connected to the structure.

 Apply lacquers to the bare metal areas and the fasteners (except in the case of clamp
and pipe made of corrosion resistance steel). Make sure that the product fully covers
the bare metal areas and the fasteners. sw
 Make sure that the resistance is correct.
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 Fit the clamp.

 Install the clamp on the pipes to be attached to the structure.
 If floating clamp is used, connect the clamp nut and bolt with a bonding lead.
 Make sure that the resistance is correct.
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Examples of minimum resistance values to obtain when carrying out bonding tests are given as
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a reference. These reference values are important to have an idea of the values that
commonly apply to major parts of the airframe.
It is always necessary to check the Aircraft Maintenance Manual for the details of the test to
be carried on and the maximum resistance values allowed.
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The primary bonding test results are taken considering the control surface and external metal
components between the part of the primary structure as near as possible to the aircraft nose
reference point and the:
 Structure of the engine (2 milliOhms)
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 Structure of the APU (2 milliOhms)
 Radar antenna (5 milliOhms)
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 Actuators and uplock assemblies of the landing gear (500 milliOhms)
The primary bonding test results values are reported considering the fuel system between the
adjacent structure and:
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 Internal equipment of the fuel tanks (10 milliOhms)
 External equipment of the fuel tanks (50 milliOhms)
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 Stainless steel pipes (100 milliOhms)
The primary bonding test results values are reported considering hydraulic system between
the adjacent structure and the:
 Electrical equipment (50 milliOhms)
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 Equipment that is not electrical (500 milliOhms)
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 Light alloy, stainless steel and titanium pipes length higher than 1m (500 milliOhms)
The primary bonding test results values are reported considering pneumatic system between
the adjacent structure and the:
 Electrical equipment (50 milliOhms)
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 Equipment that is not electrical (500 milliOhms)

 Metal pipes length higher than 2m (500 milliOhms)
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13.2.B.3 Lightning strike protection provision
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The lightning is a potential source of interference and it can be dangerous when encountered
unexpectedly during the flight. Nowadays, both airplanes and helicopters receive a rigorous
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set of lighting certification tests to verify the safety standard of their designs before going into
passenger service. Many regulations are also in force during the design and manufacture of
aircraft.
Generally, modern airliners are constructed with aluminum outer skin or with conductive
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paints, which conduct the electricity very well, because it is important that there isn’t gap in
this conductive path, so that the lighting current doesn’t remain on the aircraft exterior, but it
is dispersed in the atmosphere. Moreover, for this scope on wings some discharges of
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electricity are installed.

The functions of the protection system are to:
 Prevent penetration of the exterior skin into fuel vapor and other critical safety of
flight areas
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 Prevent puncturing of low conductivity composite structures such as fairings and
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control surfaces
 Prevent arcing and sparking or limit the movement of electrical charges to the exterior
surfaces of the aircraft
The following protective devices are used to provide a low resistance current path between
structural components and the metal airframe:
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 Bonding jumpers/leads
 Diverter strips and rods
 Conductive coatings
 Metal sheets or grids adhesively bonded to dielectric type structures.
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Fuel tanks are considered to be safety of flight items requiring protection either by the
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installation of lightning protection devices or engineering design that limits the flow of
electrical charges to the exterior surfaces of the aircraft. Fuel tanks include:
 Access doors
 Measuring sticks
 Over wing refueling caps
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 Wing integral fuel tanks
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 Wing skin joints

 Vents
 Electrical wiring within fuel tanks.
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The following items are considered to be high maintenance cost components and require
careful attention during removal or installation to preserve the integrity of their shield against
lightning strikes.
 Control surfaces, hinges, bearings and actuators
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 Nose radomes
 Tail cones
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 Wing tips
 Trailing edges
 Antennas
 TAT probes
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 Fuel probes
 Navigation lights
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 Weather radar
 Pitot heads
 Strobe lights.
Most of the external parts of the aircraft are made of aluminum alloy with sufficient thickness
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to be resistant to lightning strikes and to provide protection to internal areas and components.
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The metal skin also gives protection from the entrance of electromagnetic energy into the
electrical wires of the aircraft. However, the metal skin does not prevent all electromagnetic
energy from getting into the wiring but it keeps the energy to a reasonably save level.
If a lightning strike is reported, the structure must be carefully inspected to find the areas of
the lightning strike entrance and exit point, and all system must be checked for correct
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operation.
The aircraft Maintenance Manual will have details of where the lighting is likely to hit and
these areas must be inspected first, but it is important to check also the other areas.
Strikes can occur to any part of the aircraft, to include the fuselage, wing trailing edge panels,
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In metal structures, lightning damage usually shows as pits, burn marks, discolored skin or
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small circular holes. These holes can be grouped in one location or spread around a larger
area. In composite structures, solid, laminate or honeycomb, damage shows as discolored
paint, burned, punctured, or delaminated skin plies.
Damage can also occur within the panel that is not visible. This damage can extend around the
area and signs of arcing and burning can also occur around the attachments to the supporting
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structure.
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Aircraft components made of ferromagnetic material may become magnetized when

subjected to lightning currents which flow through them. These have to be replaced or
demagnetized. If the aircraft has become magnetized then it must also be demagnetized.
A lightning strike usually hits the aircraft in a zone and leaves at a different place in the same
zone.
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Frequently, a lightning strike can enter the nose and go out of the aircraft at one of the
horizontal stabilizer trailing edges.
The external components most likely to be hit are:
 Nose radome
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 Nacelles
 Wing tips, tips of tail-plane and fin
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 Elevators, ailerons and rudder
 Ends of the leading edge flaps
 Trailing edge flap track fairings
 Landing gear
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 Drain masts, Pitot probes.
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Any damage to the structure must be repaired or replaced. Any components found damaged
beyond limits must be changed and tested in accordance with the Aircraft Maintenance
Manual.
Lightning strikes can cause problems to the electrical systems. These are designed to be
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resistant to lightning strikes, but a strike of unusually high intensity can damage wiring and
components, relays, TRUs, etc.
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A lightning strike may be referred to as a static discharge. This is incorrect as static discharge is
the discharge of a static electricity built up as the aircraft flies though the air, caused by the
air/dust particles/water particles rubbing along the aircraft skin.
Static wicks/ static dischargers are for bleeding off static charge only, they have no lightning
protection function.
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As the aircraft flies through the air, it will pick up a static charge. If large enough it will bleed
off the aircraft via the dischargers on its own, without radio noise interference. If the charge
does not bleed off on its own, it will usually result in noise on the VHF or HF radios.
The static dischargers are frequently hit by lightning.
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The dischargers have the capacity to carry only a few micro Amps of current from the collected
static energy. The approximate 200000 Amps from a lightning strike will cause damage to the
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discharger.
After a lightning strike they are often found burnt-off and must be replaced.
The maintenance practice can be split into three sections:
 Examination of external surfaces for lightning strike damage
 Examination of internal components
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 Inspection and operational check of the radio, navigation and other systems.
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The examination of the external surfaces includes:

 The examination of the external surfaces carefully to find the entrance and exit points
of the strike. Moreover, it is important to check areas where one surface stops and
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another surface starts and to examine the metallic structure for holes or pits, burned
or discolored skin and rivets
 The examination of the internal and external surface of the nose radome for burns,
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punctures, and pin holes in the composite structure. The examination of the external
surface of the composite components for discolored paint, burned, or delaminated
skin piles.
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Moreover, it is important to examine all the static dischargers:
 Visually examine all dischargers to make sure they are in place, not broken and
installed correctly on their mounting retainers
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 Examine the dischargers for broken, bent, or blunt tungsten discharge pins
 Examine the dischargers for damage as shown by a burned or rougher coating and pits
in the metal dischargers retainers
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 Check for the deterioration of the discharger coating or damage to the tip cup.
Deterioration to the leading edge of the discharger must not extended back more than
1/3 of the width of the discharger
 Carry out a resistance test if damage within replacement allowances or if unit is
changed.
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The examination of the internal components contemplates a check of the standby compass
system if the flight crew reports a large compass deviation.
A compass swing will be required if the deviation is excessive, or if the unit has to be changed.
Ensure that the fuel quantity system is accurate by carrying out a BITE check.
Regarding the radio and navigation system, the level of the checks after a lightning strike to
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the aircraft is determined by flight crew information and the aircraft condition after the
accident.
For example, if all the NAV/COM systems are exercised by the flight crew in flight after the
lightning strike and no anomalies are found, then ground crew checks would not normally be
required.
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For systems not used by the flight crew in flight or systems where anomalies are found,
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additional checks to that system will be required.

In addition, even if a system were exercised in flight after the lightning strike and no anomalies
were found, but subsequent inspections showed lightning damage near that system antenna,
additional checks of that system would be required.
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Cat. B2 - 13.3 Autoflight
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13.3 Autoflight
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13.3.1 Introduction
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An Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) is a system designed to automatically lead a flight
and maintain the aircraft on a pre-determined path without the need for continuous pilot
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actions on controls. This system is commonly called autopilot.
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The first auto-pilot was developed by Lawrence Sperry in 1912. He designed a system that
connected an artificial horizon and a magnetic compass to the main control surfaces. This
rudimental system allowed aircraft to fly straight and at a constant altitude without any pilot
action. This solution allowed the aircraft to cover more than 80% of the time span of a typical
flight.
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Nowadays, autopilot is an essential equipment for most military and civil aircraft, including
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helicopters. The advent of the micro-processor enabled to install sophisticated systems on

most modern aircraft. The main purposes of a modern autopilot are:
 An increase in the aircraft stability control.
 A precise and constant maintaining of the aircraft attitude. The autopilot is able to
follow a more precise flight path than the pilot.
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 A safe flight conduct. The response of the pilot can be affected by fatigue and stress,
while the response of the system is always consistent. The reaction time in case of an
attitude variation is considerably decreased too. Normally, a pilot responds in about
0.8 seconds, while an autopilot detects and corrects the smallest variation in about
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 The possibility for the pilot to concentrate on other flight functions. The autopilot
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relieves the pilot from the fatigue and tedium of exerting a continuous control on
aircraft commands. In this way, the pilot is free to pay attention to other management
tasks of the mission, such as communications, analysis of the equipment on board or
meteorological situation.
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The autopilot system can be divided into sections.
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Fig. 3.1 - Autopilot system selections
The first section provides data, mainly concerning the position and the aircraft attitude.
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Generally, the Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) is included in this section.
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The second section is designed for the processing and analysis of data. The heart of an
autopilot is essentially a computer, usually called FCC (Flight Control Computer) that controls
the aircraft. The pilot can access this system through some particular cockpit devices, such as
the control panel of the system. The calculator examines the aircraft position and the
orientation in action and compare these values with the required parameters. This has the
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aim of opportunely moving the control surfaces, if needed. If the flight attitude or the heading
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differ from those planned, some electrical signals are generated and processed as errors by the
system. These signals, opportunely analyzed, are used to control the operation of servo-
actuators of different control surfaces.
The actuators are the third section of the autopilot and their purpose is that of converting
electrical energy into mechanical motion. In some systems in addition to classic flight controls,
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the autopilot commands also the thrust in order to optimize the speed and the transfer of the
fuel from a tank to another and balance in this way the aircraft.
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The autopilot system is generally composed of:
 Sensors able to detect the aircraft movements.
 Comparators and amplifiers for the generated signal.
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 Control units. Generally, two identical control units linked to other aircraft systems are
installed. The processing of data is carried out by these units, able to receive
information about navigation aspects such as details of airfields, navigation aids,
airways, routes, waypoints and different procedures as well as information concerning
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aircraft performances. It is very important for autopilot to perform its functions
efficiently that all the possible information about flight development and airplane
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attitudes are gathered and transmitted. The autopilot system is usually connected with
different system, such as AHRS (Attitude Heading Reference System), ADC (Air data
Computer), CDU (Control Display Unit) of the FMS (Flight Management System), FADEC
(Full Authority Digital Engine) and all navigation systems.
 Some servo-actuators connected to control surfaces.
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 A control panel, through which the pilot manually inserts data in the system.
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All information processed by the autopilot system are also sent to the Electronic Flight
Instrument System (EFIS), which is responsible for making them visible. On modern systems
the autopilot is linked to the EADI (Electronic Attitude Director Indicator) and to the EHSI
(Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator). The former provides information about the aircraft
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attitude, while the latter reproduces all information concerning navigation. Through these
screens the pilot verifies all essential parameters of the aircraft.
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Fig. 3.2 - Example of modern AFCS interface diagram (Airbus A320)

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13.3.2 Servomechanism and control theory principles
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Before approaching the study of AFCS, we will deal with servomechanism and control theory.
These elements are involved in the electrical control of AFCS.
In general, the control logic can be:
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 Open-loop control
 Closed-loop control
In an open-loop control chain a control signal is sent to operate a component, with no
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feedback signal returned to indicate the actual configuration of the system. This configuration
is the simplest possible configuration of a control system.
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Fig. 3.3 - Open-loop control system
In an open-loop system, due to the lack of a feed-back line the accuracy of control is limited by
several factors that affect the output. One of these is a variation in the output load, a kind of
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variation that cannot be controlled. For this reason, open-loop control systems are almost
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never used in AFCS systems.
In a closed-loop system a feedback signal is sent back to the origin in order to indicate the
configuration of the component. In other words, with a closed-loop system it is possible to
check the condition of the load and make in this way the appropriate corrections at the input.
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Common feedback parameters in AFCS control chains could be:
 Speed
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 Position
 Acceleration
 Environmental data (as temperature)
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There are two kinds of feedback:
 Positive feedback (rare, if the returning signal increases the original signal).
 Negative feedback (reduces or negates the original signal).
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Fig. 3.4 - Closed-loop control system
The essential features of a closed-loop control are:

 The feedback of information concerning the behavior of the load.
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 The comparison of information related to the load with the behavior of input demand.
 The generation of an error signal proportional to the difference between the desired
behavior and the real one.
 The possibility of amplification of the error signal to control the power into a
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servomotor.
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Moreover, with a closed-loop control the movement of the load by the servomotor is in such a
direction as to reduce the error signals to zero. At this point the output will be the same as the
input demand.
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In practice, the closed-loop control chains of AFCSs are realized through the use of amplifiers
and servomotors.
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Fig. 3.5 - Practical closed-loop control system
The input demand sets the angle of the transmitter rotor. The resulting field in the control
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transformer stator induces a voltage in the transformer rotor. Consequently, this voltage is
fed, as an error or misalignment signals, to the amplifier, whose output is used to drive an AC
servomotor turning the output shaft and the rotor of control transformer. When the output
shaft is turned into alignment with the setting of the input shaft, the transformer rotor is at
right angles with the transmitter rotor. In this position, there is no error signal induced and no
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input to the amplifier and as a consequence the motor stops. Now, the output has now taken
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up the position demanded by the input control signal.
Servomechanism
An automatic control system is classified as “servomechanism”, when it has the following
features:
 Closed-loop control
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 Error actuation
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 Continuous operation properties

 Power amplification
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Error actuation means that the actuation is started by the error between the output
demanded by the input and the actual output. Continuous operation properties are typically
known as “follow-up”. This means that if the load is disturbed from the demanded position, it
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always tends to return to the original position. This feature is very important in a
servomechanism design.
Amplification is required in order to drive heavy loads. The servo typically includes an amplifier
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which supplies the necessary driving power to the servomotor.
There are two main groups of servomechanism:

 Remote Position Control (RPC) servos
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 Speed control servos
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RPC servos are generally used to control the angular or linear position of a load, while speed
control servos are typically used to control the speed of a load. In this latter case, the speed of
the driving motor is proportional to the input demand.
Performance of servomechanism
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The performance of a servomechanism could be evaluated taking into account the servo
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response that is the pattern of behavior of the load when the input condition changes. The
response of a system can be evaluated according to the classical types of input:
 Step input, when the input shaft is suddenly rotated from an angular position to
another.
 Ramp input, when the input shaft is rotated at a constant angular velocity.
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Fig. 3.6 - Step input and ramp input

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First of all, it is important to focus on the response of a servo in case of no friction. If the
system is supplied with a step input, the resulting response is a load oscillation in the area of
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the demanded position. In this case, we can demonstrate that the load stops when overshot
by the initial error and from the performance is repeated. On the contrary, in case of a ramp
input, the error signal grows as the lag increase and the outcome is a continuous oscillation
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along a ramp behavior. The response to step and ramp input in case of no friction are shown in
the following figure.
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Fig. 3.7 - Response to step and ramp inputs in case of no friction
Obliviously, the oscillatory responses are not desirable and restraints on the load have a
stabilizing effect. Some inherent factors will oppose to load movement, such as:
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 Static and kinetic friction
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 Eddy currents
 Air resistance
 Viscous lubricants
The general effect is a reduction the amplitude of each successive swing until the output
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gradually becomes steady. So, the oscillations of the system became (and are known) effective
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only during a period called “transient response time” or “settling time”.

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The presence of various restraints would show that their effect is due to the following forces:
 A small constant magnitude force known as “coulomb friction”, that tends to diminish
the sensitivity of the servo.
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 A viscous friction, which decreases with speed; the error necessary to overcome the
friction is called “velocity lag”.
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In most modern servos, the coulomb friction is very small and its effect is often neglected. In
presence of a step input, the output come to rest within a band error, known as “error band”
or “dead space”.
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Fig. 3.8 - Settling time and error band (in case of step input)
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In case of ramp input, the coulomb friction may be considered small if compared to viscous
friction but it contributes to this error too. In any case, the greater part is due to viscous
friction and since this increases with speed, the error is generally reckoned to vary directly
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with speed.
It is clear that in a servo system it is necessary to have an adequate damping on the generated
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output. For many servo applications the basic servo, which uses its inherent friction for
damping is adequate; however, in case of large load servos the transient response is
unsatisfactory. In this latter case it is necessary to improve the transient response by reducing
the number of oscillations; in fact, too much oscillation results in time and energy wasted
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causing an increase in wear.
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There are two main methods used to improve the transient response:
 Viscous damping, obtained by inserting damping devices in the system, such as eddy
current dampers.
 Velocity feedback damping, obtained through the addition of a compensation
proportional to the velocity (or rate of movement) of the output.
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Eddy current damping used for viscous damping are basically thin disks of metal with a high
electrical conductivity (usually aluminum) attached to the servo output shaft. This device
induces eddy currents of magnitude proportional to the field strength and to the velocity of
the disk. This situation generates forces closely proportional to the disk velocity and parallel to
inherent viscous forces.
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Velocity feedback damping has the advantage of consuming little power. The velocity feedback
is aimed at reducing to zero the net input to the amplifier and then to reverse it before the
output shaft reaches the required position.
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Moreover, in step input and ramp input systems there are several methods to reduce the
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velocity lag. These are:

 Transient velocity feedback: it is used in angular velocity systems and implies the
addition of a differentiating network inserted between the tacho-generator and the
amplifier.
 Phase advance damping: this method is used in RCP systems and adds a correction
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network (phase-advance network) between the error detector and the amplifier.
 Error rate damping: this method implies the addition of a second tacho-generator on
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the input that produces a voltage proportional to the input speed. This element reduce
the velocity lag because the input of tacho-generator cancels the tacho output signal
in steady-state.
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 Integral control: this method requires the use of an integrator in order to provide an
additional signal to drive the load to the alignment position.
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Fig. 3.9 - Velocity feedback damping circuit

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Servomechanism used in automatic flight control systems
Servos are important elements in AFCS. Servomotors drive the control surface or the selection
of hydraulic units and can be of different types:
 Basic displacement systems: these servos have a position feedback only. They are the
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simplest type of servos and their disadvantage is represented by the stability of the
response.
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 Rate/rate systems: in a rate/rate system if the aircraft is subjected to a disturbance,
this will be detected by the rate gyro, which output is proportional to the rate of
disturbance. The signal will be applied to the amplifier and then to the servomotor.
The applied signal will be proportional to the rate of disturbance: a small signal coming
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from the gyro, when amplified, will push the servo to run at high speed and vice versa.
If a disturbance is detected in a rate/rate system, the servo runs and the tacho-
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generator opposes the servo amplifiers output and modifies the amplifier output; so
that the servo speed is always proportional to the rate of disturbance.
 Displacement/rate systems: they are combinations of basic displacement systems and
rate/rate systems. In the following figure an application of this type of system in a
classical autopilot scheme is shown. In this system the combination of the two gyros
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gives a large initial response from the rate gyro, then as the displacement gyro senses
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displacement, this becomes the dominant signal. When the correction is applied, rate
signal reversing provides damping and no overshoot occurs when returning to the
position.
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Fig. 3.10 - Rate/Rate system

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Fig. 3.11 - Example of autopilot servo system

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13.3.3 Fundamentals of automatic flight control
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Automatic flight control is achieved using several components, each of these cover a dedicated
and specific function. In this section we will present the main AFCS components and the
related functions.
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Flight Director
A fundamental component of the autopilot system is the Flight Director (FD), which is
generally connected to the Flight Control Computer (FCC). It processes command signals for
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the capture and the conservation, in automatic or manual way, of the radio navigation path,
the conservation of the horizontal and vertical flight and the conservation of the altitude. In
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other words, the flight director ensure the running of a safe flight.
In modern installations, this component constitutes a specific and complex system called Flight
Guidance (FG) system, which, connected to the Flight Management System (FMS), provides all
short- and long-term guidance tasks on-board.
The FD is a system consisting of electronic components that will compute and indicate the
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flight attitude required to maintain a preselected flight condition. The command indicators on
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the instruments show how much and in which direction the attitude of the aircraft must be
changed to achieve the desired result. In this way, the command indications provided by the
calculator relieve the pilot of most mental calculations required for instrument flights, such as
interception angles, wind drift corrections and rates of climb or descent.
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The Flight Director is usually made of 4 components:
 A FDC (Flight Director Computer). It processes all information flowing in it and gives as
outputs the attitude and steering commands. These indications are sent to the cockpit
displays and to the AFCS (Automatic Flight Control System).
 A signal amplifier. This unit is the device responsible for the conversion of the
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computer outputs into commands of position.
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 A MSU (Mode Selector Unit). Through this device the pilot can select the mode of
functioning of the FDC.
 A FMA (Flight Mode Annunciator). This unit provides a visual reminder of the Flight
Director operative mode selected and the related information. The following figure
shows an example of modern FMA integrated in an EFIS screen.
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Fig. 3.12 - Example of Flight Mode Annunciator integrated in EFIS (Bombardier Challenger 605)
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On the EFIS screen, the Flight Director typically provides integrated pitch and roll guidance by
means of magenta inverted V-shaped (V-BAR) or cross pointer (X-PTR) command bar on the
EADI of the Primary Flight Display (PFD). The command bars are always visible when the Flight
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Director is used and not visible when the Flight Director in turned off or flagged.
The pilot can manually fly the aircraft by following the command bar guidance cues. When the
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autopilot is engaged, the FCC issue steering commands the aileron and the elevator servos
according to the flight director guidance instructions.
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Fig. 3.13 - Flight Director command bar

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AFCS actuators
AFC actuators are used in order to move or control the AFCS mechanisms and sub-systems.
They are operated by a source of energy, usually in the form of an electric current, hydraulic
fluid pressure or pneumatic pressure and convert that energy into motion.
Actuators can be:
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 Electro-hydraulic
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 Electro-mechanical (servomotors)
 Electro-pneumatic
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Motors are mostly used to produce circular motion; however, they can be employed for linear
applications as well. In this latter case, they transform a circular motion into a linear one with a
bolt and screw transducer.
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Electro-hydraulic actuators
Typically, an electro-hydraulic actuator used in AFCS consists of:
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 An actuator piston
 A pressure regulator
 A relief valve
 A filter
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 An electro-hydraulic transfer valve
 A detent spring and piston
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 A linear transducer
A typical autopilot actuator scheme is shown below.

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Fig. 3.14 - Example of electro-hydraulic autopilot actuator

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In autopilot, the hydraulic actuator has the task of converting the electrical control signal
coming from the autopilot computer unit into a hydraulic one, in order to drive the main
piston. The follow-up signal is provided to the autopilot computer by the autopilot actuator
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position sensor, called Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
The operation sequence of autopilot hydraulic actuator can be explained as follows:

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 Prior to autopilot engagement, the actuator solenoid and the detent solenoid are de-
energized. If the system is not supplied (without hydraulic pressure), the detent piston
spring moves the detent pistons away from the output crank, which is free to move as
the control signal is sent from the pilot.
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 When the autopilot is engaged, the actuator solenoid energizes, pressurizing the
transfer valve and the detent solenoid. A flow restrictor provides protection against
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overpressure by limiting the maximum flow to the pressure regulator and providing a
time delay to allow synchronization.
 After the synchronization, the detent solenoid energizes, pressurizing the detent
piston which moves inwards and clamps the internal crank. In this phase no kick occurs
because the synchronization centralized the piston with the external and internal
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crank. The hydraulic pressure to detent piston is maintained at around 600 PSI by the
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pressure regulator. This supply line also operates the hydraulic pressure switch that is
part of the autopilot engage interlock.
 At this point, any signal from AFCS computer to transfer valve results in hydraulic
pressure to one side of the main piston, which moves the internal and external crank
to move the control valve of the PCU and the control surface. The movement of the
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main piston is limited by the rate orifice.
If needed, the autopilot control can be override by applying a pure mechanical force on the
detent piston. During the dual channel operation, the override feature prevents a hard over of
one channel by limiting the command output to the least input command.
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In some transport airplanes the primary flight controls are operated through Power Control
Unit (PCU) employing the hydraulic power to activate the electro-hydraulic actuators. It is
possible to design these units so that they respond to signals of the AFCS. In this way, there is
no need for independent electro-hydraulic actuators connected only to the autopilot system.
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The PCU includes an external input link and an internal control valve (called servo-valve),
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which directs hydraulic pressure to drive the actuator. The mechanical input is sent to the PCU
from the pilot control through rods and cables; in modern installation this happens through
the Fly-By-Wire (FBW) system electrical signals. The input link positions the control valve,
which directs pressure to the main piston to give the powered output.
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The figure below shows a simplified scheme of a PCU. PCUs generally incorporate provision to
allow fluid to pass unhindered from one side of the main piston to the other, in order to be
used in the event of hydraulic supply failure. Input links to PCU also have provision to allow the
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rest of the control system to move in the event of a PCU jamming. This provision typically
occurs in the form of a spring link, which allows the pilot to move the control system against
the springiness of the spring link.
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Fig. 3.15 - Example of PCU simplified schematic
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Electro-mechanical actuators (servomotors)
The electro-mechanical actuators (or servomotors) may be powered either by direct current
(DC) or alternate current (AC).
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The typical AFCS AC servomotor is two-phase induction motor. This device drives a clutch
assembly through a reduction gearbox; the solenoid-operated clutch engages and disengages
the motor from the output shaft. The drive is obtained via a torque limiter inserted into the
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output splined drive shaft. An excessive torque causes the opening of a torque cutout switch
that disconnects the supply to the clutch solenoid. In Fig. 3.16 you can see an AC servomotor
(Bendix PB-20D) used in heavy aircraft installation.
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Fig. 3.16 - Schematic of an AC servomotor (Bendix PB-20D)

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The servomotor is bolted to a servo mount containing an adapter and a pulley assembly on
which the connected flight control surface cable runs. The mount is also bolted to the airframe
structure in such a position that the unit can be removed without disturbing the control run
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rigging. In some applications AC hysteresis motors are also used.
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Fig. 3.17 - AC servomotor assembly

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DC servomotors typically include a DC torque motor with reduction gearing, a rate generator
that provides two rate output signals and an electromagnetic clutch. The servo-mechanical
drive forms an in-line assembly and the electromagnetic clutch couples the drive to output
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shaft, while an override slip clutch couples the output shaft to a capstan in the servo mounting
unit. The image below represents a cutaway view of this servo and mount assembly.
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Fig. 3.18 - Example of DC servomotor cutaway

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When the crew engages the autopilot, the electromagnetic clutch is engaged too and torque is
transmitted through the clutch to the output shaft. Torque limiting is accomplished within the
associated servo amplifier. If a malfunction occurs, the override slip clutch allows the use of
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the manual override control.
Modern smart DC actuators are brushless actuators commanded by a CAN BUS Digital
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Interface, with an internally packaged Dual-Microprocessor Electronics Module that controls
the motor. This combination provides the fail-passive characteristics needed for Instrumental
Landing System (ILS) CAT.3B operation.
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Fig. 3.19 - Example of AFCS brushless DC actuator

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Electro-pneumatic actuators
In the electro-pneumatic actuators the energy is supplied through a pneumatic power taken
from a source, such as an engine driven by pump or a compressor connected to the turbine
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engine.
AHRS and CDU

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The Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) is made of a series of 3-axis sensors that
provide information about the heading, attitude and yaw of the aircraft.
The AHRS is designed to replace traditional mechanical flight instruments and to provide a
superior reliability and accuracy. Generally, the AHRS system is connected to the AFCS, to
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which it provides as input signals all data related to the aircraft attitude.
A modern AHRS is a strap-down system that exploits solid state gyros and accelerometers. A
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strap-down system is a system in which the sensors, often gyroscopes, are in agreement with
the aircraft axis. In this way all hinges linking the sensors to the structure are eliminated and as
a consequence the reliability of the measurements increases.
The pilot can manually insert other input data into the autopilot system through the Control
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Display Unit (CDU). The crew uses the CDU to enter data concerning the flight plan routing or
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the aircraft performance parameters. All the data that the pilot inserts are taken into account
by the central computer of the autopilot system in order to ensure a correct maintenance of
the aircraft during the flight.
ADC
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The air data computer (ADC) is an essential avionic component installed in modern glass
cockpits. The ADC is mainly constituted by a calculator, which takes care of the processing of
various air parameters. Modern ADCs employ a microprocessor.
The ADC receives the air data parameters from the Pitot tube or other sensors. For example,
the ADC receives as input both the total and static pressures, which are then corrected for
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instrument errors and converted into two digital electrical signals.
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These signals are processed with other air data (for example the air temperature) in order to
calculate the aircraft main parameters, such as the calibrated airspeed, the Mach number, the
altitude and altitude trend data.
All these data are sent to the autopilot system, which processes them in order to safely
conduct the aircraft according to the planned mission.
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Fig. 3.20 - ADC block schematic
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FADEC
The Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) is a system consisting of a calculator and
many sensors, which control all aspects of aircraft engine performance during their operation.
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This system receives as input the multiple variables related to the current flight condition,
including air density, throttle lever position, temperatures and pressures measured in the
characteristic engine points. These inputs are then analyzed up to 70 times per second.
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The FADEC carries out the following main functions:
 The thrust control and the control of the thrust reversers.
 The fuel flow control as input to combustion chambers.
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 The engine protection against all possible out of tolerance operations (for example the
stall and over-speeding).
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 The control of manual and automatic engine starting sequences.

 The integration with other aircraft systems, among which the autopilot system.
The connection of the FADEC system with the autopilot is very important to guarantee the
efficient response of the engine in any flight condition and to ensure that the aircraft does not
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do maneuvers out of the operational range of the engine.
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PSEU
The Proximity Switch Electronic Unit (PSEU) is a system that communicates the position or the
state of different aircraft system components (such as for example flaps, gear, doors, etc) to
control and management systems, such as the autopilot.
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The autopilot in order to guarantee a safe flight conduction must know the state of all airborne
devices, which could negatively influence the aircraft performances when inadequately
positioned.
If the aircraft presents a wrong configuration for a given flight phase, the system generates an
alarm and informs about the detected inconsistency, this in order to solve the anomaly in a
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time as short as possible and to guarantee a safe functioning of all aircraft systems.
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The PSEU communicates the position status of various airplane systems such as flight controls
to other airplane systems. An example of a PSEU interface is shown in the following figure.
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Fig. 3.21 - PSEU interface schematic

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Radio altimeter
The radio altimeter provides the distance between the aircraft and the ground.
The basic functioning principle of this system is similar to that of the radar. When some radio
waves are vertically transmitted towards the ground, the time they spend to be reflected and
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to return back to the aircraft is measured. Since velocity, distance, and time are interrelated
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factors, the distance, which determines the reflection, can be calculated by knowing velocity of
propagation and time.
The radio altimeters are generally connected to the autopilot system and provide it with
precise data about the aircraft height. These data are very important especially during the
runway approach phase in order to commence and carry out correctly the final descend and
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the flare before the landing.
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Example of modern AFCS architecture
In order to summarize all the topics we have dealt with in the previous pages, we will now
describe a basic architecture of a modern AFCS (Airbus A380). This system has:
 Three primary flight control and guidance computers, that operate the autopilot, the
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FD and the auto thrust.
 Three FMCs, that operate 2 FMSs.
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The flight crew dialogues with the AFCS via some dedicated control panels, the EFIS system,
the Primary Flight Displays (PFDs), Navigation Displays (NDs) and dedicated pushbuttons on
each side stick and thrust levers.
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Fig. 3.22 - Example of a modern AFCS (Airbus A380)

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13.3.4 Command signal processing
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Autopilot classification and redundancy
The degree of complexity of the autopilot system depends on many factors, among them:
 The size and the age of the aircraft.
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 The type of use at which the aircraft is destined to.
 The structural complexity of the aircraft.
A first classification of modern autopilot systems is based on the number of controlled axis:
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 1 axis (roll axis).
 2 axis (roll and pitch axis).
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 3 axis (roll, pitch and yaw axis).
When taking into consideration the autopilot and systems connected to it, it is important to
define when a system is fail-passive or fail-active.
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A system is called fail-passive (or fail-soft), when it is able to withstand a malfunctioning
without endangering passenger safety and without producing excessive deviations from the
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flight path. A system is called fail-active (or fail-operational), if its malfunctioning does not
reduce the total functionality of the system. In a fail-active system a failure can occur but the
entire system is still able to work without degrading its performances.
It is frequent that for each control channel 2 or 3 or 4 circuits of operation are installed, this in
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order to guarantee a safe functioning of the system. In this case, we talk about duplex, triplex,
quadruplex channels and dual-dual systems.
The duplex systems present 2 complete control systems for each channel. They employ
independent sensors, computers, actuators and power supplies. The two control systems are
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connected to the control surfaces. In the event of a fail in one line, the other line will sense a
disturbance and will apply a corrective input to actuators.
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The triplex systems are developments of the duplex systems. They use 3 lines on a control
channel. These systems can operate as a duplex system being designed as a fail-active system.
The quadruplex systems are fail-active systems too because they ensure 4 lines on each
control channel.
Some dual-dual systems are designed with a twin fail-active control system. They should not
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be considered as a variant of duplex systems; in fact, they can work both simultaneously or
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individually.
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Basic control loop
The basic loop through which the autopilot controls the aircraft flight path is shown in the
above diagram.
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Fig. 3.23 - Basic control loop of autopilot systems
The autopilot exercises a guidance function in the outer loop and then generates commands to
the inner flight control loop. These commands are generally attitude commands which act on
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the aircraft control surfaces. In this way the aircraft rotates around the pitch and roll axis, until
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the measured rotations equal the angles imposed by the FCC (Flight Control Computer).
The inner loop of the autopilot is also called short period loop, due to the fast flight dynamic
that characterizes the variation of the parameters in time. The outer control loop, called long
period loop, is instead characterized by a slower dynamic.
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The outer loop includes a feedback line, which is very important in order to guarantee the
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correct operation of the whole system. The feedback is the capacity of dynamic systems to
analyze the generated outputs in order to modify the characteristics of the system. The
feedback line is realized through the computer analysis of the autopilot system output. The
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aim of this process is that of verifying if the actuated command has been effective or not,
modifying the input if needed.
13.3.5 Autopilot modes of operation: roll, pitch and yaw channels
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The control channels of an autopilot are:
 The pitch channel
 The roll channel
 The yaw channel
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In general, each autopilot control channel consists of an attitude detector, a signal processor (a
computer), a servomotor or an actuator and a feedback line.
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The detector unit is the source of the error signal. When the airplane changes attitude, for
example in case of some aerodynamic disturbances, an electrical pitch off carries the
displacement error signal to the signal processor. This device processes the datum and
determines the corrective control input to oppose against the recorded displacement.
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The signal computation works as follows:
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 Amplification: it boosts the power of the detected signal to a higher level.

 Integration and differentiation: they are mathematical processes used to derive
information such as changes in aircraft attitude.
 Limiting: it restricts the range of parameter change.
 Shaping: it translates the computer outputs into maneuvers, so that the required flight
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path is achieved.
 Programming: it instructs the airplane to follow calculated maneuvers.
Once the computation process is concluded, the computer sends the appropriate command to
the actuators, which move the control surface in an appropriate direction. The, in order to
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maintain a stable system, a feedback line is included. In this way the computer is informed
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regarding any control movement.

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Fig. 3.24 - Channels computation process of autopilot systems

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Roll channel
The roll channel connected to ailerons of the aircraft controls the movement around the
longitudinal axis, analyzing the commands that are generated by the FCC (Flight Control
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Computer) and determining when and how the ailerons will be moved.
The first input signal of the roll channel is a course signal, while the second one signals any
undesired rotation of the aircraft around its longitudinal axis. These signals, proportional to
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the flight airspeed and to attitude deviation, are processed by the computer FCC and then sent
to the actuators connected to ailerons. The actuators adequately move the control surfaces in
order to stabilize the aircraft on the set course. When the ailerons move in order to guarantee
the feedback, a signal in opposition to the input one is emitted. Once the two signals are equal
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in magnitude, the servo actuators stop moving.
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Basically, the roll channel generally works in two ways:

 For guidance purposes (turning action).
 For roll attitude stabilization (wing leveling function).
The autopilot roll channel operation involves the use of relays and servomotors. However, the
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actual technology employed has no influence on the required action and the same functions
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will be carried out in an all digital systems. A typical roll-channel autopilot system includes:
 A computing unit (roll computer) that provides the control signal.
 A rate gyro that produces a signal opposed to the movement only when the bank
angle changes (that is, it generates a negative feedback that dampens the aircraft
movement).
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 A bank angle command limiter that limits the maximum possible command signal to
the value, which causes a specific maximum bank angle.
 A tacho-generator, used to provide a negative velocity feedback, which dampens the
action of the inner loop.
 Roll accelerometers, mounted at the top or bottom of the fuselage (in modern
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installation they are included in the AHRS).
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 A roll command limiter that imposes a lag on the roll command signal, thus limiting the
rate of change of the command signal itself. This device is very important because it
imposes to ailerons a maximum rate of change. The outputs of the roll command rate
limiter typically range between 1,5° per second and 7° per second.
 Actuators (LVDT), connected to the ailerons.
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The following figure shows how the roll channel works. The signal coming from the control
panel is fed to the bank angle limiter. The limiter acts on the roll rate limiter combining the
signal with the position feedback. The rate limiter output is fed to a summing point and then
summed with both the negative rate signal from the lag filter and the negative damping signal
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from the tacho-generator. The final signal is then amplified to drive the servomotor. The
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transfer valve causes the autopilot actuator to move until the LVDT feedback is equal and
opposite to the command signal.
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Fig. 3.25 - Roll channel operation
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Consequently, the aircraft rolls and the vertical gyro roll synchro output causes the control
transformer stator field to follow the rotor. This rotation is necessary in order to maintain the
ailerons at their displaced position. When the servomotor has driven the resolver rotor and
the control transformer rotor to the maximum position allowed, the output of the sine winding
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cancels the bank angle limiter output, so that there is no input to the servo amplifier or from
the accelerometers. The servomotor stops and the tacho-generator signal is zero.
Remember that the aircraft bank angle is equal to the control transformer rotor displacement,
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thus there is no output to the transfer valve and the ailerons are aligned.
In modern installations the control transformer is replaced by a resolver, so that when the
aircraft attitude is at wing level, the roll error is null.
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The roll computer provides command to the Flight Director system in order to construct the
guidance signal. Below is an example of a AFCS roll channel interface (Boeing 747 autopilot).
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Fig. 3.26 - Example of roll channel schematic (Boeing B747)

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The roll channel acts in several autopilot modes, such as:
 Heading selection mode
 Heading hold mode
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 Attitude hold mode
 Control wheel steering mode
 VOR/LOC mode
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 ILS and Approach mode
 Inertial Navigation System (INS) mode
 Go-Around (GA) mode
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Each mode is implemented in the AFCS through a signal fed by FCCs and is actuated following a
logical path that could be different according to the system manufacturer.
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Fig. 3.27 shows the aileron channel schematic of the BAC 1-11 with an operational choice of
clutched synchrony heading hold or a servo loop heading hold.
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Fig. 3.27 - Example of aileron channel schematic (BAC 1-11)

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Pitch channel
The pitch channel connected to the elevator of the aircraft controls the movement around the
lateral axis and analyzes commands generated by the FCC (Flight Control Computer)
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determining when and how the elevator will be moved.
The first input signal of the pitch channel is a course signal, while the second one signals any
undesired rotation of the aircraft around its lateral axis. These signals, proportional to the
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flight airspeed and to the attitude deviation, are processed by the computer FCC and then sent
to actuators connected to the elevator. The actuators adequately move the control surfaces to
reach the planned altitude or to provide the aircraft with stability. To guarantee a feedback, as
the elevator moves, a signal is generated in opposition the input one. When the two signals
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are equal in magnitude, the servo actuators stop moving.
The operation of a typical autopilot pitch channel involves the following elements:
 A computing element (pitch computer)
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 A vertical gyro
 A control transformer
 Actuators (LVDT) connected to the elevator
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Instead of the vertical gyro, modern systems use the attitude input. The following figure shows
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a basic simplified circuit of the autopilot pitch channel, which maintains the pitch attitude
present at the time of engagement.
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Fig. 3.28 - Basic pitch attitude hold circuit

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The stator of the control transformer is fed by the pitch attitude signal coming from the pitch
attitude control transmitter in the vertical gyro. Errors are amplified and used to drive the
servomotor and the transformer rotor until a null position is achieved.
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The control transformer position always corresponds to the pitch attitude of the aircraft. On
engagement of the output of the CT, the rotor is switched to the transfer valve amplifier and
the servomotor is clamped in its current position. From this moment on, any change in the
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aircraft pitch attitude results in an error signal being fed to the transfer valve and in the
elevator moving in a direction useful to restore the aircraft original pitch attitude.
The autopilot pitch channel is widely used to implement the altitude hold function too. In this
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case, the speed of the servomotor is reduced and a large negative velocity feedback is present.
When altitude hold is selected, the altitude error signal from the FCC is switched into the pitch
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computer. The altitude error signal is produced from a synchro whose rotor is spring-loaded to
null, when its clutch is disengaged. If the aircraft moves away from the altitude measured at
the time of the engagement of the altitude hold mode, an error signal is generated in the FCC
and fed directly to the transfer valve This provokes a displacement of the elevator that brings
the aircraft back to the original altitude. The servomotor loop drives the control transformer
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rotor to a position corresponding to the required pitch attitude to hold (over a long period) the
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desired altitude.
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Fig. 3.29 - Basic attitude hold circuit

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The pitch computer provides the Flight Director system with commands in order to construct
the guidance signal. In the figure below it is possible to analyze an example of a AFCS roll
channel interface (Boeing 747 autopilot).
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Fig. 3.30 - Example of pitch channel schematic (Boeing B747)
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The pitch channel acts in several autopilot modes, some of these are:
 Altitude hold mode
 Selected Altitude Capture mode
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 Vertical speed hold mode
 Indicated Air Speed (IAS) hold mode
 Mach hold mode
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 ILS Glide slope (GS) and flare modes
 Go-Around (GA) mode
Each mode is implemented in the AFCS through a signal fed by FCCs and is actuated following a
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logical path in accordance with the system manufacturer.
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Remember that all autopilots require the elevator position input coming from position
transmitters located in the top of the tail. They must be synchronized each other within
50mvac, have less than 50mvac (the closer to zero the better) null at neutral position and their
respective nulls must be on the same side of zero. This fact is the most common cause of pitch
oscillation.
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Yaw channel
The yaw channel connected to the rudder receives two signals that determine when and how
the rudder will moved.
The first signal is a course signal, while the second signal provides information anytime the
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aircraft rotates about its vertical axis in an undesired way. When the aircraft attempts to turn
off course, a signal proportional to the yaw and one proportional to the amount of the
displacement are generated. The two signals are sent to the rudder channel amplifier, where
they are combined and sent to the rudder servo actuator.
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The servo actuator will turn the rudder in the proper direction, in order to stabilize the aircraft
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to the selected heading. As the rudder moves, a signal opposing the input signal is generated,
this in order to guarantee a feedback. When the two signals are equal in magnitude, the servo
actuators stop moving.
Most large airplanes require very little rudder input for the great part of the flight; moreover,
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the yaw channel is widely used in swept-wing aircraft in order to improve the directional
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stability.
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Control panel
The Mode Control Panel (MCP) is the control panel of the autopilot system of the aircraft. It is
also called Glareshield Control Panel (GCP) because of its glareshield cover, which shields the
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panel from direct sunlight. The GCP is used by pilots to select the autopilot modes of
functioning for pitch, roll and thrust control and to select targets for all these modes.
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The main available functions and modes in modern autopilot systems are:
 WLV (Wing leveling): this command simply maintains the leveled wing
 HDG (Heading holding): this command permits to follow the selected heading.
 V/S (Vertical Speed): this command holds a constant rate of climb and descent, set by
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the pilot.
 ALT HOLD: this command holds the actual altitude or the altitude pre-selected by the
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pilot.
 SPD (Speed): this command holds the pre-selected airspeed through the movement of
the flight control actuators.
 LVL CHG (Level change) and FLCH (Flight level change): this function calculates the best
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ratio of climb or descent in order to reach the desired altitude or an altitude pre-
selected by the pilot
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 LNAV (Lateral navigation): this command allows conducting the aircraft in the
horizontal plane, using information provided by the ground radio aids.
 VNAV (Vertical navigation): this command allows conducting the aircraft in the vertical
plane.
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We will now explain the most common horizontal and vertical modes implemented in modern
autopilots. It is important to keep in mind that the name of each mode may vary according to
different manufacturers.
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Common horizontal modes of autopilots are:
 INS: this mode causes the aircraft to track between two waypoints that are being fed
to the autopilot from the external Inertial Navigation System (INS).
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 TRK HDG (Track or Heading): The selector dial on the bottom row is either pulled for
Heading mode or pushed for Track mode and the aircraft will follows the Track or
Heading selected by the pilot on the dial. A heading will follow a compass direction,
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while a track will follow a direct route to the selected position taking into account wind
speeds.
 VOR LOC: this mode will cause the aircraft to turn and track the selected VOR beacon
or localizer. It is a Prime mode and a small triangle under the button will light up, when
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the capturing is in progress.
 BACK BEAM: it is a Flight Director mode and will only operate when the Autopilot is
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disengaged. It permits the tracking of a Back Beam localizer.
Common vertical modes of autopilots are:

 PITCH HOLD: this is the basic mode of the vertical autopilot and will hold the existing
aircraft pitch when engaged. It comes on as default, when the Autopilot is engaged.
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 MACH HOLD: This function will hold the current Mach number by pitch changes and
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not by throttles ones.

 MAX CLIMB: This is selected at or near Vmo (Maximum Operating speed) and will hold
the airspeed to a figure close to Vmo. As the speeds approached Vmo at the top of the
climb, it will disengage and hold the speed with pitch changes.
 IAS HOLD: Holds the current indicated airspeeds by means of pitch changes.
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 ALT HOLD: Holds the aircraft existing altitude.
 VS (Vertical Speed): This mode allows the aircraft to hold a vertical speed as set up on
the vertical rate of climb indicator.
 ALT ACQ (Altitude Acquire): a preset altitude to fly that can be programmed through
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the selector, so that when the ALT ACQ Button is pressed, the aircraft will fly to the
given altitude. The prime light will light during the operation and the button will light
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when the given speed is achieved.

 GA (Go Around): Indicates that an automatic ‘go around’ has been initiated.
In the MCP the autopilot modes are generally grouped according to a logical path. For
example, the horizontal modes are commonly installed together in a dedicated section of the
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panel, while the vertical modes are placed in another one.
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In the following figures you can see two examples of an autopilot control panel.
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Fig. 3.31 - Example of autopilot MCP (Boeing 747)
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Fig. 3.32 - Example of autopilot Flight Control Unit - FCU (Airbus A320)
In some installations the cockpit presents also another panel, called AFS Control Panel or
Reconfiguration Panel. It is used by the crew for specific functions, such as the reconfiguration
of the system in the event of a failure.
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13.3.6 Yaw dampers
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The yaw damper is a device used on some aircraft in order to limit the yaw oscillations of low
frequency, which can start during particular maneuvers. The necessary requirement for this
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device is an associated automatic control system, which operates on 3 axis. The yaw damper is
needed in order to avoid the undesirable yaw associated with the Dutch Roll phenomenon.
The yaw damper is made of some gyroscopic yaw sensors, which measure in real time the
aircraft yaw oscillations and send a signal to a calculating unit. This device processes the
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correction to be done and automatically controls the rudder actuators in order to damp the
oscillation.
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The yaw damper is decoupled to the autopilot system. The sensor of this system is a rate gyro
having its sensitive axis in the vertical plane. This is placed in a unit known as yaw damper
coupler, which also contains a computer.
This computer has these following functions:
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 Filtering the detected error signals.
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 Integration of the filtered signal in order to form the signal input.

 Amplification of the signal.
The amplified signal is fed to the transfer valve in the damper rudder actuator. As the transfer
valve moves, the hydraulic fluid under pressure passes to the yaw damper actuator. Moreover,
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a feedback is provided so that, when the yawing motion has been stopped, the rudder will be
returned to its normal position. This is important because the operation of the yaw damper
does not provokes the movement of the rudder pedals. The yaw damper signal for a given rate
of oscillation varies inversely according to the aircraft airspeed.
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Fig. 3.33 - Computation process of yaw dampers
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Fig. 3.34 represents a schematic of yaw damper system of a commercial heavy aircraft (B737).
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Fig. 3.34 - Example of yaw dampers system (Boeing 737)

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A signal from the yaw damper computer to the transfer valve causes the movement of a spool
valve. When the yaw damper selector in the cockpit is activated, the yaw rate gyro (or the
related AHRS signal if present) senses the oscillation in the yaw axis. The signal is then filtered,
and the gain, inversely proportional to the airspeed, is programmed by the central computer
(CADC). This signal is consequently applied to the transfer valve allowing the hydraulic
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pressure to move the yaw damper actuator.
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The yaw damper actuator output is summed to the rudder pedal input to move the main
actuator connected to the rudder.
As the yaw damper actuator moves, the position transducer supplies the feedback signal in
order to erase the signal from the yaw rate gyro. When the oscillation stops, the feedback
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signal returns the rudder to the original position. In any case, there is no mechanical feedback
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that moves the rudder pedals.
The total authority of the yaw damper is approximately +/-2.5 degrees. In the system, it is
incorporated a test switch that may be used to simulate an oscillation by torquing the gyro.
The 737-NGs also have a standby yaw damper powered by the standby hydraulic system.
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In some systems, the yaw damping computation is associated to the turn coordination
computation. In this way, the turn coordination signal is added up to the yaw damping signal in
order to set the rudder position to eliminate the side-slip. Turn co-ordination is provided by
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reducing the gain of the yaw-rate gyro in proportion to bank angle detected from the inertial
reference unit or the AHRS. In this way, during a turn the yaw damper coupler is led to believe
that the aircraft is yawing into the turn and as a consequence it provides an increased rudder
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input.
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13.3.7 Automatic trim control
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In the AFCS the auto-trim control is usually provided only for the pitch axis. When the AFCS is
active, the aircraft trim is delegated to the AFCS. The main goal of the trim actions is that of
setting the hinge moment on the equilibrator at zero. The AFCS must always be synchronized
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with the trim system.
When the AFCS system requests specific attitude conditions, the pitch control channel causes a
displacement of the elevator. At the same time the pitch control channel will send a signal to
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the trim circuit. This circuit has a threshold depending on the relative positions of stabilizer
and elevator. If this threshold is reached, the trim circuit will be activated together with a
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hydraulic motor, which repositions the control surface. The feedback of the circuit will allow
the system to evaluate the new neutral position of the elevator.
We will now explain the operation of the automatic trim control of a commercial heavy aircraft
(Boeing 737).
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Fig. 3.35 - Example of a stabilizer trim system (Boeing 737)
In this system, the trim control action is operated by the FCCs using the speed trim system
(with the autopilot disengaged) or the autopilot automatic trim (when the autopilot is
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engaged). The signal from FCC is fed to a control logic that merges the signals from the FCCs
and the manual control. Then, the output is sent to a limit control provided with a feedback
position line and consequently to the trim motors for the command actuation. In the cockpit
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the trim wheels follow automatically when the main electric trim or auto trim is in operation
and the stabilizer trim indicator displays the trim unit setting.
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On some aircraft we also have a Mach trim system. This system is attached to the pitch
channel. It is designed as a sub system and is operation is not influenced from whether or not
the AFCS is active. The Mach trim is used when the value of the flight Mach number is very
high. This system sends to the elevator a signal proportional to the flight Mach number in
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order to correct the aircraft attitude and eliminate the phenomenon of the “tuck under”.
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In detail, as an aircraft increases its speed towards the transonic range, the main disturbance
in airflow occurs at the wing roots and reduces lift in this region. Consequently, the centre of
pressure of each wing tends to move towards the wingtips. In swept wing aircraft this means a
rearwards longitudinal movement of the centre of pressure. This movement combined with
the normal rearwards chord-wise movement of the center of pressure at all points along the
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wing results in the aircraft increasingly pitching nose down. This phenomenon is known as
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“tuck under” and progressively increases reaching a Mach value between 0.7 and 0.82. The
Mach trim system is designed to prevent this to occur by progressively moving the horizontal
stabilizer in the mentioned speed range.
In modern applications the Mach trim system is an integral part of the AFCS. We will now
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explain the operation of the Mach trim system of a commercial heavy aircraft (Boeing 737).
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Fig. 3.36 - Example of a Mach trim system (Boeing 737)

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Below are the basic elements of a Mach trim system:
 A Mach trim coupler
 An actuator
 A test switch
 A failure light
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The actuator consists of a 115 Volt / 400 Hz single phase AC motor, which drives a screw-type
shaft through a gear train. The shaft connects the neutral shift mechanism and the actuator
body with the elevator feel and centering unit. A brake mechanism is unlocked from the trim
coupler to allow actuator moving in the operating region. The limit switch operates in the fully
extended and retracted position.
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When airspeed is below Mach 0.715, the actuator is not operative and the shaft is in the fully
extended position. The Mach signal from the central computer is processed by the command
channel of the Mach trim coupler. When airspeed reaches Mach 0.715, the Mach region
detector provides a signal to release the brake in the actuator. The command signal is
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amplified and sent to the actuator motor that runs until the position feedback signal is equal
and opposite to the command signal.
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As the speed increases (until Mach 0.815), the shaft retracts and the actuator body moves the
elevator feel and centering unit providing a direct input to control the valve of the associated
PCU. This causes the elevator to move upwards in order to provide a nose up moment to
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counteract the nose tuck. If the autopilot is engaged, the autopilot actuator locks the PCU
input, so that it cannot be moved directly; in this case, the movement of the Mach trim
actuator body causes the rotation of the elevator feel and centering unit together with the
shift sensor (neutral shift signal). The generated signal is then sent to the pitch computer that
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generates an output signal to move the elevator.
Moreover, a second Mach signal is processed and compared in the logic section to the position
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feedback signal. If these signals do not agree, the Mach trim fail light is turned on.
A Mach trim test switch is also included in this system. The test circuit simulates a Mach input
above Mach 0.715; this checks the operation of the system causing a rearward movement of
the control column (Mach trim fail light indication comes on view).
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13.3.8 Autopilot navigation aids interface
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Nowadays, there are many navigation systems available to help the pilot in following a given
flight route.
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Installed on modern aircraft there are some equipment, which are able to control constantly
the aircraft position and follow the more convenient route. These equipment are able to
communicate directly with the aircraft control system releasing the pilot from the task of
continuously setting the route.
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In order to conduct the aircraft on the planned routes as detailed in the flight plan, the
autopilot must be able to receive and process the signals generated by different navigation
systems. These signals are essential to conduct a safe flight and be aware of the aeronautical
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traffic.
The main navigation systems, which interface with the autopilot system, are:
 The VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range)
 The GPS (Global Positioning System)
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 The INS (Inertial Navigation System)
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 The weather radar

 The radio-altimeter
 Airport approach aids, such as the ILS (Instrument Landing System) or the MLS
(Microwaves Landing System)
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For example, when the airborne systems capture the ILS signal, the autopilot automatically
turns the aircraft on the correct descent path, following the signal transmitted by the ground
station.
The AFCS shares information among its subsystems and interfaces via serial data bus and
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discrete information lines. The data bus system allows invalid information to be automatically
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replaced by a redundant information source, allowing the AFC to remain operational even in
case of a component failure. In the following images there are some examples of AFCS block
diagrams, which shows how the system components and interfaced systems are connected.
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Fig. 3.37 - Example of a typical AFCS interface schematic (Dash8-200) - part 1

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Fig. 3.38 – Example of typical AFCS interface schematic (Dash8-200) - part 2

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13.3.9 Auto throttle systems
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The auto throttle system is an electronic circuit that controls the engine thrust within engine
design parameters.
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The auto throttle system is independent of the autopilot system but it is typically coupled with
it. The auto throttle system is interfaced with the automatic flight control system because it
permits to use the ideal quantity of fuel to power the engine in a given flight condition. The
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auto throttle operates in response to flight crew inputs provided through the mode control
panel or through automatic FMC (Flight Management Computer) commands.
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The auto throttle system mainly controls the RPM (Rate Per Minute), the fuel consumption of
the engine, and the EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio). The EPR is defined as the total pressure ratio
that crosses the engine and is an important index to know the value of the generated thrust.
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Most aircraft have a single or dual auto throttle system that controls the thrust levers during
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all phase of the flight. When the system is engaged, it automatically moves the thrust levers.
The auto throttle works in a similar way as the autopilot. In fact, it receives reference and error
signals from the aircraft systems, computes the information according to the auto throttle
control law and generates command outputs to servo motors connected to the bottom of each
control level.
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The auto throttle system can always be overridden by pilots. Disconnecting switches are
typically fitted to each control level: the pilot can disconnect the system without moving his
hands from the throttle levers.
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Fig. 3.39 shows how various components are interconnected in a typical aircraft installation.
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Fig. 3.39 - Example of simplified schematic of an auto throttle system
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The heart of this system is the auto throttle computer (at the center of the picture): it receives
inputs from the pilot and the aircraft sensors. The auto throttle computer computes the
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correct throttle command output using the control laws programmed in the memory. The
command is constructed according to the following logical elements:
 The EPR control law that based on the engine EPR value and its real-time monitoring.
The EPR is the engine reference of the system; some systems uses the N1
measurement instead of the EPR one.
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 The Mach control law related to the Mach hold function of the autopilot.
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 The IAS control law that works comparing the selected IAS with the real one, including
the airspeed error.
 The flap position limiter connected to the flap position sensor giving an indication of
the aircraft configuration.
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Other inputs in the system are:
 The air data input coming from the central air data computer.
 The angle of attack input coming from the angle of attack sensor.
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 The EPR limiting signal coming from the engine control.
On the cockpit the auto throttle switch is usually incorporated in the autopilot panel. Modern
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systems also have a Thrust Management System (TMS) included in the Flight Management
System (FMS). In this case, the information is sent directly to the AFCS via the Control Display
Unit (CDU).
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The auto throttle can be set in two main modes:
 To maintain or to reach a determined velocity (SPEED mode).
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 To maintain a desired thrust (THRUST mode).
In the SPEED mode the throttle is positioned in order to reach a given speed. This mode
controls the aircraft speed according to the safety requirements. For example, if the pilot
selects a speed which is slower than the stalling speed or a speed faster than the maximum
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allowed, the auto throttle will maintain a speed as close as possible to the set speed but
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within the safety range.
In the THRUST mode, the engine is maintained at a fixed power set according to the different
flight phases. For example, during the take-off, the auto throttle maintains a constant take-off
power until the phase is completed. During the climb the auto throttle maintains a constant
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climb power; in landing the auto throttle manages the thrust during the different phases,
gradually decreasing it until reaching the IDLE position during the flare position. When the
auto throttle is working in the THRUST mode, the speed is controlled by the pitch (or the
control column) and it is not protected by the auto throttle. Thus, the auto throttle and the
autopilot works together to maintain the speed and the vertical path of the aircraft. For
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example, with the auto throttle ON and the autopilot ON, the airspeed is maintained
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independently by one of the systems. When the autopilot mode is controlling the airspeed, the
auto throttle maintains the engine thrust to a specific value. When the autopilot mode is
controlling the vertical flight path, the auto throttle maintains the airspeed through the thrust
control.
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In addition, some systems incorporate also the following additional modes:
 The Take Off mode that maintains a set EPR until the target climb is reached.
 The Overboost Protection mode that continuously monitors the EPR limits, overrides
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IAS and Mach and acts on the throttle movements.
 The Minimum Speed Protection mode that ensures the presence of a safe angle of
attack at low speed values by adjusting the throttles bases on the angle of attack
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sensor input.
 Flap speed limit mode that limits the maximum speed as a function of flap position.
 Go Around mode used in case of go-around.
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In most modern systems the auto throttle is integrated as part of the AFCS system and it is
used throughout all phases of the flight, including the take-off roll. On these aircraft the
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standard Go Around mode switch has been replaced with a “TOGA” (Take-Off and Go Around)
selector.
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13.3.10 Automatic landing systems
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Modern autopilot systems are also able to manage the landing procedure in a completely
automatic way. To do this, they employ the signals of the Instrument Landing System (ILS).
The ILS is an approach guidance system, installed on the major airports. It provides a guidance
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during the approach to the runway, even in poor visibility conditions. Moreover, on a small
number of airports the MLS (Microwave Landing System), a system more precise than the ILS,
is installed.
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The ILS system comprises a localizer transmitter and a glide slope transmitter located near the
airport runway and two or three radio marker beacons located at set distances along the
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approach to the runway. The airborne equipment of the aircraft includes receivers and
antennas for the localizer, glide slope and marker transmissions.
The localizer provides information regarding the lateral approach path of the aircraft and
indicates whether it is flying on the left or on the right side of the centre line of the landing
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runway. The localizer signal, received by the airborne equipment, is proportional to the
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angular deviation of the aircraft from the localizer beam centre line that corresponds to the
centre line of the runway. The glide slope provides the aircraft with information concerning its
approach vertical path and it indicates whether it is flying above or below the defined descent
path. The glide slope signal, received by the airborne equipment, is proportional to the angular
deviation of the aircraft from the centre of the glide slope beam.
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Finally, the markers provide information concerning the aircraft distance from the threshold of
the runway in use. This can happen because they are positioned at particular distances,
defined by the aeronautical rules. The most external marker is called outer marker, the central
one is the middle marker, while that nearer to the runway is called inner marker.
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The ILS system can be divided into three categories (cat I, cat II and cat III), according to the
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values of the decision height and the runways visual range (RVR) present on the runway in use.
The visibility conditions deteriorate with the increasing in the category.
The automatic landing systems, also called auto-land systems, are able to automatically land
an aircraft. A landing can be considered completely automatic, when the autopilot is
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uncoupled by the crew during the taxing-in phase. In fact, some systems are able to conduct
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the aircraft until the touch-down point is reached and then to execute the braking on the
runway.
The runway approach guidance signals of the localizer and the glide slope, received by the
aircraft at an height of 1500 ft (about 450 m), are coupled with the autopilot, which then
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automatically conducts the aircraft during the whole approach phase, so that it is aligned on
the correct descent path.
The decision height limits and visibility conditions in which the autopilot can be used coupled
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with the ILS system depend on the category the autopilot system is certified to operate with as
well as on the type of ILS ground installation, on the runway lighting installation and on the
airport traffic capability. Hence, when the decision height is reached, the pilot can decide how
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to carry out the landing, whether in a manual or automatic way.
The auto-land system requires also the use of a radio altimeter to determine the aircraft height
in a very precise way.
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A standard automatic landing procedure can be divided into some phases:
 The final approach. This phase covers the approach from the outer marker to the inner
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one. At the inner marker the aircraft flight path should be aligned with the glide path,
defined by a height of 100 ft above the ground. The aircraft should also be aligned with
the centre line of the runway. During this phase the autopilot controls the aircraft
flight path using the guidance signals from the ILS system.
 The phase at constant attitude. The guidance signals of the ILS are disconnected from
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the autopilot when the aircraft reaches a height of 100 ft. The autopilot then controls
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the aircraft in order to maintain it aligned with the runway and with a preselected
attitude, until it reaches the height at which the flare is initiated.
 The flare. The aircraft pitch attitude is controlled by the feedback on the height,
provided by the radio altimeter, in order to produce an exponential flare trajectory.
The flare is initiated at a height close to 50 ft, where the aircraft is over or very near
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the runway threshold. In this case, the autopilot uncouples the glide slope signal.
During the flare the aircraft attitude is changed, so that the flight path angle changes
from a negative value, at the start of the flare, to a positive value specified for the
touch-down. In this way the aircraft have a nose-up attitude and consequently its
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 The kick-off drift. Just prior to touch-down, a kick off drift maneuver is initiated
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through the rudder control, so that the aircraft is rotated about the yaw axis in order
to align with the runway. This ensures that the wheels of the landing gear are parallel
to the runway centre line.
Moreover at any time, according to the meteorological conditions and the possible problems
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of aircraft or runways, the pilot can decide to abort the take-off and to carry out a go-around
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maneuver; this in order to attempt again a landing or divert to an alternative airport. To

execute this maneuver the pilot can push the corresponding button on the thrust level, move
it forward and increase the aircraft altitude.
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Fig. 3.40 - Automatic landing procedure
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If the auto-land system detects any data inconsistency, the writing “Approach only” will appear
to the pilot, informing him about the impossibility to land; while if the system is unable to
couple the ILS signal, the warning “Autoland fault” will appear. If this problem arises above the
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Decision Height (DH), the pilot can land in a manual way or regain altitude and retry landing
later.
For example, when the autopilot loses the localizer signal, the aircraft must be parallel to the
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last beam received. However, if the signal loss occurs at an altitude of 400 ft (about 120 m),
the procedures impose that the pilot carries out a go-around. In case this problem occurs
below the decision height (DH), the aircraft will just be few meters from ground and will be
busy in the touch-down. This situation is very critical and redundancy plays an essential role to
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prevent the system operation to degrade excessively.
In order to give an example of the system architecture the following figure shows a typical
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schematic of the auto-land system arrangement.
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Fig. 3.41 - Schematic of an auto-land system arrangement

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Considering the importance of the auto-land system, its reliability and its precision must be
such that the frequency of the aircraft accidents, caused by a failure of this instrument, is less
than 1 · 10-7. This requirement imposes that the design and testing phases of these systems
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must be done in a very accurate way with high costs of realization. In case of a fail-passive
system, the automatic landing system coupled with the autopilot is discontinuous and the
landing must be executed in manual mode. In a fail-active system instead, the automatic
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landing can be carried out by the second autopilot. In fact, an essential requirement of a fail-
active system is the redundancy.
If an aircraft is certified to perform an automatic landing, the coupling between the auto-land
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system and the auto throttle system is mandatory. With these systems, pilots have the only
task of setting the parameters in a correct way and control the situation, this results in a
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consistent reduction of the workload.
The auto throttle is inserted before the take-off procedure and is generally maintained for the
whole flight time. During the landing phase, the auto throttle system automatically
disconnects 2 seconds after the touch-down. In this case the thrust reversers are manually
engaged.
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However, during the flight it is possible to operate on controls with manual corrections. A
release of manual override allows auto throttle to regain control and the throttle will go back
in the commanded positions, with the exception of 2 modes: IDLE and THR HLD. The IDLE
position is the position of minimum engine rate of turn, while that of THR HLD is the position
that maintains the thrust on a set value. In these two modes the throttle will remain at the
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manual commanded position.
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13.3.11 Stability augmentation system in helicopters
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The autopilot systems for the helicopters are different from those of airplanes, this because
the control commands are different too.
On the main rotor we find the commands of the collective and cyclic pitch. The command of
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the cyclic pitch acts on the rotor through two different controls: the command of the lateral
cyclic pitch and that of the longitudinal cyclic pitch. Acting on the lever of the cyclic pitch
positioned in the centre of the pilot position, the lateral cyclic pitch permits the movements of
the helicopter in the lateral plane, while the longitudinal cyclic pitch controls the movements
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in the longitudinal plane. The collective pitch, controlled by the lever located on the left side of
the pilot position, is used to command the helicopter vertical movements.
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The rudder bar, instead, controls the movement of the helicopter yaw, acting on the tail rotor.
According to the number of commands, which the system is able to control and manage we
have:
 Tri-channel systems, with 3 control channels (channel of lateral cyclic, channel of
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longitudinal cyclic and channel of the rudder bar).
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 Quadri-channel systems, with 4 control channels (channel of lateral cyclic, channel of

longitudinal cyclic, channel of the rudder bar and collective pitch channel).
In the following figure we have an example of a 3-channels helicopter autopilot installation

(Agusta Westland A109E). This installation includes a flight director and two independent
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stabilization systems. The system receives input from the main on-board avionic systems, from
the EFIS system and from two vertical gyros. The actuation of the command is obtained
through electro-mechanical actuators included in the cyclic and the tail rotor actuation chains.
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Fig. 3.42 - Example of helicopter AFCS (Agusta Westland A109E)

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The installation choice mainly depends on the Flight Director (FD) generally coupled with the
helicopter autopilot. If the Flight Director is a 4-channel system, the autopilots have the
possibility to carry out, at constant speed, some precision maneuvers, such as a possible ILS
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approach; in fact, they are able to act on the collective pitch that controls the height. In a tri-
channel system the control of the vertical movement of the helicopter is limited. For example,
to maintain the ILS descent path, the flight director can only operate on the cyclic pitch by
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slowing or accelerating the helicopter in order to loose or to gather altitude, it is therefore
impossible to conduct a precision approach in an automatic way. In Fig. 3.43 you can see a
schematic of a quadri-channel system (installed on Agusta Westland AW139).
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Fig. 3.43 - Example of helicopter 4-channels AFCS (Agusta Westland AW139)

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On helicopters the autopilot is inserted by pushing a particular button on the lever of the cyclic
pitch or through an appropriate selector, generally positioned on the central console of the
cockpit. The operational modes of the autopilot depend on the used system. The most
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common operational modes of the helicopter autopilots are:
 HDG (Heading). This button is used to intercept and maintain the selected heading.
 NAV (Navigation). This button allows the capture of navigation radio-paths, connected
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to the radio aids (such as the VOR).
 AS (Air Speed) o IAS (indicated Air Speed). This button permits to maintain constant
the horizontal speed.
 ALT (Altitude Hold). This mode permits to maintain the helicopter altitude.
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 RTH. The engagement of this mode permits to control the helicopter height based on
radio altimeter information.
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 VS (Vertical Speed). This button permits to reach and maintain the selected speed for
climb and descent.
 GS (Glide Slope). This button permits to intercept and follow the radio-path of descent
and is coupled with the ground approach system (ILS).
 DCL (Deceleration). This button permits the slowing of the helicopter. It is mainly used
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during precision approaches.
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 ALTA (Altitude Acquire). Pushing this button, a constant rate of climb or descent is set,
with the aim of reaching a selected altitude.
 HOV (Hovering). In this mode the helicopter maintains at the same time its horizontal
and vertical position. But this button is not present on all autopilot types.
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The Stability Augmentation Systems (SASs) can operate in coupling with the Flight Director
system. These systems have the purpose of maintaining constant the helicopter attitude and
increasing its stability and maneuverability, especially in particular situations. For example, the
SASs are very important when operating in presence of external disturb, such as wind or
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turbulence or in case of an imperfect piloting technique, during maneuvers at low speed, and
in hovering.
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The SASs are equipped with some sensors that generate signals proportional to the rotational
velocity around the pitch and roll axis. The signals sent by these sensors act on the command
actuators, which move the swashplate in order to dump the helicopter movement. The
stabilization is obtained through some electro-mechanical actuators, positioned in series of the
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cyclic pitch and the control of the tail rotor. These actuators are generally controlled by two
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independent stabilization systems. In correspondence to each control channel some actuators

are installed and connected to synchro-transmitters. The actuators, in order to opportunely
incline the rotor blades, receive from the synchro-transmitters some control inputs, which are
calculated by the central computer of the system that analyzes all different flight parameters.
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Every actuator inserted on the longitudinal cyclic command has an authority of about 5.28%,
the actuator connected to the lateral cyclic command has an authority of about 5.34% and the
actuator inserted on the rotor pitch command has an authority of about 7.12%. During their
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operation the actuators do not cause the displacement of the control and rudder bar.
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Cat. B2 - 13.4 Communication and Navigation
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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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13.4 Communication and
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Navigation
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13.4.1 Fundamentals of radio wave propagation
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The radio communications and the functioning of the navigational systems are based on the
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use of electromagnetic waves. Thus, it is important to know the main characteristics of the
electromagnetic waves and their propagation. An electromagnetic wave is a perturbation that
spreads into the space carrying energy. The essential aspects of an electromagnetic wave are
the amplitude, the period, the frequency and the wavelength.
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Fig. 4.1 - Electromagnetic wave

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The amplitude is the maximum distance from the balance condition that the wave takes during
a cycle.
The period (T) is the time spent by the wave to do a whole cycle. Usually it is measured in
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seconds.
The frequency (f) is the number of cycles done in a second. It can be defined as the opposite of
the period and is measured in Hertz.
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The wavelength (λ) is the distance between two next wave peaks of maximum amplitude.
The electromagnetic waves spread in the vacuum with a constant propagation velocity of
about 300000 Km/s (about 161842 NM/sec). This speed is called speed of light (Vlight), and is
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defined as the ratio between the wavelength and the period or as the product of the
wavelength by the frequency:
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Since the propagation velocity is constant for any value of wavelength and frequency, these
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two parameters are inversely proportional. This is why the wavelength may be expressed as
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the ratio between the speed of light and the wave frequency.
The electromagnetic waves can be classified according to their frequency and wavelength.
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Fig. 4.2 - Classification of electromagnetic waves

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In the aeronautic field, it is important to know the behavior and characteristics of the radio
waves, especially of those waves that have a frequency value ranging between few Hz and 300
GHz; in fact all radio-aid systems work using radio frequencies.
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According to their frequency, radio waves can be divided into:
 Extremely Low Frequency waves (ELF), which have a wavelength greater than 100 Km.
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 Very Low Frequency waves (VLF), which have a wavelength included between 100 Km
and 10 Km.
 Low Frequency waves (LF), which have a wavelength included between 10 Km and 1
Km.
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 Medium Frequency waves (MF), which have a wavelength included between 1 Km and
100 m.
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 High Frequency waves (HF), which have a wavelength included between 100 m and 10
m.
 Very High Frequency waves (VHF), which have a wavelength included between 10 m
and 1 m.
 Ultra High Frequency waves (UHF), which have a wavelength included between 1 m
and 10 cm.
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 Super High Frequency waves (SHF), which have a wavelength included between 10 cm
and 1 cm.
 Extremely High Frequency waves (EHF), which have a wavelength included between 1
cm and 1 mm.
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Fig. 4.3 - Classification of radio waves
The manner in which radio waves travel after leaving a transmitting aerial is complex and
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depends to a great extent on their frequency. If radio frequency power is fed into a
transmitting aerial, electromagnetic energy at the same frequency will be radiated from the
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aerial at the velocity of light. This energy can be considered as made up of an infinite number
of rays, all propagated away from the aerial in straight lines and in a number of directions as
established by the radiation pattern of the aerial itself.
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The radiated energy may reach the receiving aerial through different modes of propagation.
According to the mode of propagation employ waves are classified in:
 Ground waves
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 Sky waves
 Direct waves.
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Fig. 4.4 - Modes of electromagnetic wave propagation

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Ground waves
The ground waves leave the transmitter and travel close to the ground, following the curvature
of the Earth and using the property of the diffraction. The diffraction is a physical phenomenon
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connected to the deviation of the trajectory of waves, when they meet an obstacle on their
travel. The amount of diffraction and wave attenuation depend on wavelength. The wave
attenuation steadily decreases as wavelength decreases and as frequency increases.
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In particular conditions, it is possible for ground waves to receive signals beyond the visible
horizon. The range at which ground waves can be received depends upon:
 The used frequency.
 The nature of the terrain over which they pass (for example the water surfaces
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obstruct the passage of the wave less than mountainous terrains).
 The power of the transmitter.
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 The height of the aerials.
The radio transmission through ground waves is possible only for VLF and LF waves; in fact, the
wave attenuation, caused by the ground surface, increases in a way proportional to the
frequency of the transmitted wave. Moreover, the ground waves are affected by the
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interference of electromagnetic waves generated by atmospheric phenomena, such as
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thunderstorms.
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Fig. 4.5 - Ground waves

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Sky waves
Sky waves return to Earth through the refraction that interests different layers of the
ionosphere. The ionosphere is that part of the Earth atmosphere where the solar radiation
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removes electrons from the molecules and atoms of gasses generating positive ions. It is
important to remember that the number and height of the ionized layers of the ionosphere
vary according to the solar radiation reaching the Earth: during daytime the height of the
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ionosphere increases, while at night it decreases. Consequently, the propagation of the sky
waves varies from day to night and according to season variation: the radio waves reaching the
ionosphere may be completely attenuated, if the layer thickness is high or they may be
refracted, if the thickness is low. The development of these phenomena depends also on the
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frequency of the transmission, on the angle of incidence of the wave and on the density in the
ionosphere. Moreover, the sky waves are affected by the interference of the electrical charge
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of thunderstorms.
The radio transmission through sky waves can be used mainly with equipment, which operate
in the MF and HF bands. sw
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Fig. 4.6 - Sky waves
Direct waves
The direct waves follow a path similar to the line of sight, and so their range is limited by the
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curvature of the Earth.
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The radio transmission through direct waves is only possible in the VHF and UHF bands, and
for microwaves in general. At high frequencies the propagation via ground waves isn’t possible
due to the strong attenuation of the transmitted signal by the ground surface, and normally
also the propagation via sky waves doesn't occur for the absence of the wave’s refraction,
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caused by the ionosphere. For these reasons the VHF and UHF waves are mainly used for the
transmission of the radiotelephony communications and for the signal of radio-navigation,
because they aren’t affected by the interference of atmospheric phenomena, such as
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thunderstorms. Instead, the microwaves are used in the radar applications, because they have
the propriety to be reflected by solid bodies.
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The range of the direct waves, at which the signal can be received, depends on:
 The height of the transmitted aerial
 The height of the receiver aerial
 The power of the transmitter
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 The terrain and other obstructions between the transmitter and the receiver.
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In normal propagation conditions, the maximum theoretical range (MTR) for VHF and UHF
direct wave communications can be calculated by:
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where ht and hr are the heights in ft of transmitter and receiver aerials. The range value is
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expressed in NM.
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Fig. 4.7 - Direct waves

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13.4.2 Fundamentals of antennas
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Antennas are devices made of conductor materials. They have the purpose to irradiate or to
pick up the electromagnetic waves. The antennas are able to convert the electromagnetic field
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into an electrical signal or vice versa in order to irradiate the electrical signal they are powered
with. When the antenna is connected to a transmitter, it is able to radiate the produced
electromagnetic energy into space, while when it is connected to the receiver, it is able to pick
up the radio waves and carry them into the receiver circuit.
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The antennas are based on the physical principles of magnetic irradiation and magnetic
receipt. These principles affirm that variable electrical currents, which run on a conductor,
irradiate electromagnetic waves with the same frequency, thus generating an electromagnetic
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signal. On the contrary, an electromagnetic wave that meets a conductor produces a variable
electrical current on the same conductor and generates an electrical signal. This
transformation allows the use of antennas in the radio communication applications. Moreover,
the principle of reciprocity guarantees that any antenna can be indifferently used as a
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transmitter aerial or as a receiver aerial, if it is connected respectively with a transmitter or a
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receiver device.
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Fig. 4.8 - Electric field surrounding an aerial

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Characteristics of antennas
The main characteristics of an antenna are:
 The directivity
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 The gain
 The polarization
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 The opening and the polarization diagram
 The efficiency
 The characteristic impedance
 The length of the antenna
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The main characteristics of an antenna are its directivity and its gain. The directivity of an
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aerial is its capacity to irradiate or to pick up signals in a specific direction. If the antenna
irradiates or receives a signal equally in any direction, it is called an omni-directional antenna.
If the antenna tends to receive signals mainly from a defined direction, we talk about a
directional antenna. The orientation of an aerial in a particular direction is defined as the ratio
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between the intensity of the radiation sent in this direction and the total power irradiated in
all directions. The value of the gain of an antenna provides information about the capacity of
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transmission and reception of the analyzed antenna compared with an omni-directional aerial.
The gain is a logarithmic measure expressed in dB and defined as the ratio between the power
irradiated by the analyzed antenna in a particular direction and the power that should be
irradiated in the same direction by an omni-directional antenna powered with the same
energy. For example, if an antenna has a gain of 20 dB, this value indicates that in a particular
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direction the antenna sends or receives a power 100 times greater.
According to their polarization antennas can be divided into: aerials with horizontal
polarization and aerials with vertical polarization. An antenna operates with horizontal
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polarization, when it irradiates the signal in parallel to the ground plane; while an antenna
works at vertical polarization, when it irradiates the signal perpendicularly to the ground plane
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and is vertically installed.

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The opening of an antenna is the angle portion where the gain remains within 3 dB far from
the maximum value, while the polarization diagram is the 3-d representation of the gain.
Usually, antennas present a main lobe, where the maximum gain zone is placed and some side
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lobes, which represent a gain peaks lower than the main one. These side lobes limit the quality
of the aerial.
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Fig. 4.9 - Polarization diagram an antenna
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The efficiency of an antenna is defined as the ratio between the irradiated power and the
input power accepted by the feeding cable of the antenna. The length of the antenna is related
to this aspect. To obtain the most high efficiency of the antenna, the length should be ½ of the
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wavelength. However, the majority of antennas actually used have a length inferior to the
ideal value.
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where Rr is the radiation resistance of the aerial and RL is the total loss resistance. The aerial
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efficiency can vary from 15% at low frequencies to 90% and above at higher frequencies.
The characteristic impedance of an antenna is the impedance measured at its terminals. Each
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type of antenna has its characteristic impedance to be known in order to adapt it to the
transmission line (usually 50, 75, 300 Ω). The characteristic impedance can be easily made
suitable for the transmission cable through the use of particular impedance transformers, such
as baluns. These devices guarantee the maximum transfer of energy between the antenna and
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the transmission line and vice versa, modifying the impedance value of the antenna its.
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Tuning
In many installations the operation of an aerial over a band of frequencies is required. When
the frequency of the transmitter varies, the electrical length of the aerial varies too as does the
impedance at its input. It is desirable that the aerial impedance is resistive for all frequencies in
order to obtain the maximum radiated power.
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The electrical length of an aerial can be effectively increased or diminished by the insertion
into the circuit of appropriate inductors or capacitors, so that the aerial can resonate at the
correct frequency.
If a vertical quarter wave grounded aerial is less than a quarter wave length long, the input
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impedance at its base will be both resistive and capacitive. This aerial can be electrically
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lengthened by adding an inductor of the right size in order to cancel the capacitance, thus
leaving the aerial only resistive.
If the vertical quarter wave grounded aerial is more than a quarter wave length long, the input
impedance at its base will be both resistive and inductive. The aerial can be electrically
shortened by adding a capacitor of the right size in order to cancel the inductance, thus leaving
the aerial resistive.
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Because of the excessive length of low and medium frequency aerials, they are rarely
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constructed of resonant physical length and usually made electrically resonant through the
inductive loading of the aerial.
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Type of antennas
Nowadays, there are many types of antennas, each one with different directional and
operational characteristics.
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The simplest kind of the antenna used for the radio communications is called dipole or dipole
antenna. It is made of two arms of equal opening realized with an electrical linear conductor.
Moreover, since it is simple and easy to build, it is often used as a term of comparison for all
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other type of antennas.
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Fig. 4.10 - Dipole antenna

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Other common types of aerials used in the aeronautical field are the vertical whip antennas
and the loop antennas.
The vertical whip antenna is typically omni-directional because its emission is equal in all
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directions. Generally, the vertical encumbrance of on antenna of this type is ¼ of the
wavelength of the signal, which must be transmitted or received.
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Fig. 4.11 - Vertical whip antenna

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The loop antenna is highly directional. The strength of the transmitted radio waves is at its
maximum when the waves are in line with the antenna plane, while it is at zero when the
waves are perpendicular.
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Fig. 4.12 - Loop antenna

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Radome
A particular device, called radome (radar antenna dome cover), is often connected to the
antenna. The radome is a structure used to protect antennas from atmospheric phenomena,
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such as wind, rain and ice.
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Fig. 4.13 - Example of ground antenna radome

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The radome can have different shapes (spherical, geodesic, planar, etc.) according to its
particular application and to the type of material they are made of (fiberglass, PTFETN-coated
fabric, etc.). It is important to remember that the radome is transparent to radar or radio
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waves. For this reason, it is also used on aircraft in order to cover some antennas and to
facilitate transmission and reception, reducing the aerodynamic resistance.
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Fig. 4.14 - Example of aircraft antenna radome
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13.4.3 Fundamentals of transmission lines
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In order to feed electrical power at low frequencies, you can use two wires, so that the current
and voltage at the two ends are the same. The only loss which occurs is due to resistance. At
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high frequencies this does not apply, in that situation, in fact, the inductance of the wires
becomes important as well as the capacitance between them. Indeed, the voltage drop along
the wires is due to the inductance, while the current flowing between them is due to the
capacitance. When used at high frequencies these wires are called transmission lines.
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In radio systems transmission lines and wave guides are used to transfer radio frequency
energy from a transmitter to an aerial or from an aerial to a receiver. In any of these cases the
loss must be kept to a minimum. In other word, a transmission line is a system of metallic
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conductors and dielectric media, which are able to lead the energy transfer from a generator
to an user.
In the first case any loss of energy is wasteful and involves a needless use of power at the
transmitter, while in the second case a loss of radio frequency energy could mean a serious
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loss of signal at the receiver input. Thus, in any transmission line system, actions must be taken
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to ensure that any energy loss is negligible, if compared to the magnitude of the energy being
transferred.
A transmission line consists of two wires of variable length suitably insulated from each other.
The wires will have a small amount of resistance, and since no insulator is perfect, there will be
a certain amount of leakage current between the conductors. In any practical transmission line
the insulator resistance is high and conductance is therefore small. In addition to resistance
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and conductance, each conductor presents inductance and a capacitance exists between the
two wires. The value of the inductance depends on the diameter of the wire and the
capacitance on the distance between the wires.
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At radio frequencies the inductive reactance of the line is much greater than the line
resistance, which is therefore negligible. The small capacitive reactance between the lines is
less than the conductance, which is negligible too in comparison. Thus, at radio frequencies, a
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transmission line can be seen as a series of inductors and capacitors, the entire line consisting
of a series of LC networks.
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Fig. 4.15 - LC representation of a transmission line
If a radio frequency generator is connected across a transmission line, the generator will set up
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a voltage across the line, which causes a current flow. The amplitude of this current is
determined by the transmission line impedance, made up of the resistance, inductance and
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capacitance of the line.

If the input voltage is divided by the magnitude of the input current, the input impedance of
the line can be found.
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The input impedance of a unit length of transmission line has a fixed value. As further units of
length are added, the input impedance of the line reduces rapidly to a constant value known
as the Characteristic Impedance. Characteristic Impedance is represented by the symbol Z0,
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and is defined as the input impedance of an infinitely long transmission line.
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Remember that the transmission line termination must be resistive. A reactance cannot
dissipate power and if the line is terminated by a reactance, energy will inevitably be reflected
back from the termination to the source.
Transmission lines are seldom terminated by a resistors and are usually terminated by a
practical load such as an aerial or a receiver. Whatever the actual load however, it must be
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resistive, having load voltage and current in phase so that power is dissipated. The resistance
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value must equal to the characteristic impedance so that all the power is dissipated.
When a transmission line is matched to a load, the voltage measured across the line at any
point will be the same, without considering the slight voltage drop in the line caused by its
resistance. The current measured at any point in the line will also be the same.
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If a line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance, it is considered as mismatched and
not all the radio frequency energy travelling down the line will be absorbed at the load end.
The amount of absorbed energy depends on how close the value of the load impedance is to
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the characteristic impedance of the line.
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Fig. 4.16 - Energy reflection on a transmission line
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Since the load of a mismatched line does not absorb all the energy coming down the line, the
part of the energy which is not absorbed must be reflected back up the line. This energy is
called the reflected wave.
A mismatched line therefore has two waves flowing through it: the forward wave and the
reflected wave. These two waves combine all along the line to form a resultant wave called
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Standing Wave. The magnitude of the Standing Wave indicates how close the load impedance
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value is to the characteristic impedance of the line. The magnitude of the Standing Wave can
be measured using a suitable instrument and it is therefore usually easy to determine whether
or not a transmission line is correctly terminated. The result of a mismatch is the Standing
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Wave and the rms voltage or current will vary from point to point, rising and falling as the
meter moves along the line.
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Fig. 4.17 - Effect of termination on standing wave ratio

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In a short circuited transmission line complete reflection occurs and the reflected wave is
equal in amplitude to the incident wave, so that the standing wave on the line has a maximum
amplitude of twice the value of the incident voltage and a minimum amplitude of zero.
For any termination between an open or short circuit, some energy is absorbed and some is
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reflected, so that the amplitude of the reflected voltage is less than that of the incident
voltage. Therefore, the rms value of the resultant standing wave of voltage never attains a
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maximum amplitude of twice the value of the incident voltage or a minimum amplitude of
zero.
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The range of variation gives information about the extent of mismatch and is usually expressed
in terms of Standing Wave Ratio (SWR).
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where Standing V max is the sum of the incident and the reflected voltages, while the Standing
V min is the difference between the incident and reflected voltages. If SWR=1 there is no
reflection, whilst a very high SWR indicates that the reflected voltage almost equals the
incident voltage. Assuming zero attenuation along the line, the SWR will be infinite when the
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line is terminated in either an open or short circuit.
There are many different types of transmission lines, whose application depends on the
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frequency of functioning and on the use the antenna is destined to. The main transmission
lines for the radio waves are:
 Bifilar
 Coaxial
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The bifilar lines are made of two parallel conductors, placed at a specific distance. In the past
they were widely used, but nowadays they have been replaced by coaxial lines, which are
much more reliable.
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Fig. 4.18 - Bifilar line

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The coaxial cable employed to join the generator to the antenna is made of:
 A central conductor, generally a copper conductor.
 A dielectric, to guarantee the insulation between conductor and mesh.
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 A metallic stranded layer, called mesh, which stops interferences.
 An external sheath generally made of plastic material. This element is used to protect
the system.
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Fig. 4.19 - Coaxial line
Power losses occur in any practical transmission line, resulting in an attenuation of the
travelling wave. There are three main kinds of loss:
 Copper loss: one form of copper loss is power loss resulting from I2R, this because the
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resistance of the conductor never equals zero. Another possible loss is the result of
skin effect. Skin effect is the tendency of alternating current to flow near the surface of
the conductor. Since the resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the
cross-section, when the effective cross-section is small, the resistance is increased.
 Dielectric loss: this loss results from the heating of the dielectric material between the
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conductors. Heating is caused by disturbance of the orbits of the electrons, as a result
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of a potential difference between conductors. The losses can be reduced by selecting

materials whose atom structure is readily distorted. Such a material is polyethylene,
which is used extensively in coaxial cables.
 Radiation and Induction loss: these losses result from the fields surrounding
conductors. When the field about the conductor is cut by a nearby metallic object, a
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current is induced in the object, resulting in a power dissipation. The power lost is
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13.4.4 Fundamentals of communication, receiver and transmitter
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System of communication
The concept of communication involves the presence of an interaction between different
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subjects. In other words, communication is an activity that requires a certain degree of
cooperation. Each process of communication is bi-direction, being a unidirectional
communication flow impossible.
Generally, the elements that compose a system of communication are:
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 A transmitter device, which is the source of information. It is responsible for the
coding of the information and the generation of a message.
 A receiver device, which receives, decodes and interprets the message.
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 A code, used to form the message.

 A channel, which is the medium of physical propagation of the code. It can be a sound
wave or an electromagnetic wave as well as an electronic bit.
 The contest that is the environment where the communication happens.
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Fig. 4.20 - Communication system

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Modulation
If a signal has a too low frequency, it will not be transmitted in its original form, because its
wavelength is too long and requests a very large aerial. Thus, in order to be used the signal
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must be modified. The process of modification is called modulation.
The modulation is a technique applied on the signal to transmit (called modulating wave) in
order to adapt it to the characteristics of the communication channel, maintaining unchanged
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its information.
Another signal, called carrier wave, is needed to perform the modulation. This signal translates
the frequency of the modulating wave, allowing its transmission. The carrier wave transmits
the information of the modulating wave at high frequency: for this reason, the carrier wave
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has a frequency greater than that of the modulating wave. The signal generated by the
modulation is called modulated wave.
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The most common modulations used in the aeronautical field are:

 AM (Amplitude Modulation)
 FM (Frequency Modulation)
 Pulse modulation, which can be divided into three types: PAM Pulse Amplitude
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Modulation, PWM Pulse Width Modulation e PCM Pulse Code Modulation.
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The AM modulates the amplitude of the carrier wave in a proportional way to the amplitude of
the modulating signal. It is important to underline that the modulated signal has the same
frequency of the carrier wave.
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Fig. 4.21 - AM technique

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The FM modulates the frequency of the carrier wave, in a proportional way to the amplitude
of the modulating signal. The frequency modulation has the advantage of being less sensitive
to disturbances and of permitting a better quality transmission. Moreover, the frequency
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modulation has a greater efficiency, because the power of the modulated signal is that of the
carrier wave; thus, the information signal does not request any additional power to be
transmitted. However, the main disadvantage of the frequency modulation is the need for
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much more complex circuits for the signal generation and its reception.
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Fig. 4.22 - FM technique
In the pulse modulation the information is codified by a series of impulses. The main kinds of
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pulse modulation are:

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 PAM, Pulse Amplitude Modulation.
 PWM, Pulse Width Modulation.
 PCM, Pulse Code Modulation.
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The PAM is a type of modulation in which the amplitude of the information wave is codified by
a series of pulses. This method uses a reduced band quantity, but its main problem is the
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reduced immunity to disturbance that can compromise the integrity of the signal.
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Fig. 4.23 – PAM technique

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The PWM is a type of modulation in which the information is codified as pulses with different
time intervals. A duty cycle is the ratio between the duration of the “high” signal and the total
period of the signal: it is used to express the time span in which the signal is at high level (or
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active level). For example, a duty cycle of 0% indicates a pulse of null duration, that is a signal
absence; while, a value of 100 % indicates that a pulse finishes by the time the next one starts.
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Fig. 4.24 - PWM technique

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The PCM is a method of digital representation of an analogue signal. This method uses a signal
sample with regular time intervals. The obtained values are digitized and generally codified in a
binary form.
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Fig. 4.25 - PCM technique

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When we consider the signal modulation, it is important to study the sidebands. A sideband is
a frequency band higher or lower than the frequency of the carrier wave. The sideband
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contains part of the power resulting from the modulation process. All modulation processes
have side bands, but in AM they play an important role.
The AM of a carrier wave is normally characterized by two sidebands. The frequencies above
the carrier frequency constitute the Upper SideBand (USB) and those below the carrier
frequency constitute the Lower SideBand (LSB). Every frequency of the upper sideband is the
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sum of the carrier wave frequency and a modulating frequency, while every signal of the lower
sideband is the difference between the carrier wave frequency and a modulating frequency.
Generally, a useful portion of the signal (around 50%) is transported by the sidebands. The
remaining portion of the signal is transported by the carrier wave.
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Transmitter
A transmitter is an electronic device able to transmit signals at a certain distance, through the
emission of electrical signals, electromagnetic waves modulated at high frequency or
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ultrasounds, according to the goal and modalities of the transmission. The fundamental
components of a transmitter are: oscillator, modulator, amplifier and antenna.
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Fig. 4.26 - Transmitter
The oscillator is essential to generate the carrier wave on which the real signal will travel. It is
an electronic circuit that generates numerous wave shapes. There are two categories of
oscillators:
 Harmonic oscillator, also called sinusoidal
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 Oscillator at relaxation
In the radio transmitters the generated wave has a sinusoidal shape and a frequency generally
included between 100 KHz and 10 GHz. sw
The modulator is used to modulate the carrier wave, in order to permit the signal
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transmission. The type of modulation to be performed depends on the characteristics of the

signal to send (a voice analogue signal or a digital one).
The wave, generated by the oscillator and modulated by the modulator, results weak if we
consider it in relation to the power necessary for the transmission. So another stage has to be
performed: the amplification. The amplifier is the device able to perform this process and it
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must have characteristics adequate to the frequency of the carrier wave. The amplification is
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essential in order to avoid the attenuation of the useful signal.
There are two basic types of power amplifiers used in transmitters:

 Linear
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 Class C
Linear amplifiers provide an output signal that identical to the input but enlarged. Their output
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is directly proportional to their input, they therefore reproduce an input at a higher power
level. Linear RF amplifiers must be used to increase the power level of varying amplitude RF
signals, such as low level AM or SSB signals.
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Frequency modulated signals do not vary in amplitude and may thus be amplified by non linear
class C amplifiers. A class C amplifier is biased, so that it conducts for less than 180° of the
input. It will typically conduct between 90° and 150°, which means current flows through it in
short pulses.
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At the end of the process, the antenna transforms the carrier wave in an electromagnetic
wave, which can be irradiated in the space.
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One of the simplest form of transmitter is the CW Oscillator. This oscillator generates a carrier
of the desired frequency, determined by the crystal. The information to be transmitted is
expressed in a special code using dots and dashes to represent letters and numbers, this code
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is known as Morse code. The information transmitted in this way is referred to as Continuous
Wave CW transmission.
A key is used in the emitter to turn the oscillator on/off and to produce dots and dashes. The
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oscillator will produce a short burst of RF energy for a dot and a longer RF burst for a dash.
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Fig. 4.27 - CW oscillator transmitter

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Receiver
The receiver is the reception terminal of the communication system. The receiver is a device
able to pick up a signal and perform on it the same operations executed before the
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transmission, but in inverse sequence. Thus, the receiver must select a particular carrier
frequency among all those caught by the receiver antenna, then it must amplify the signal and
extract from the carrier wave the signal containing the information. This last step is generally
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called demodulation.
The demodulation is the re-establishment of the original characteristics on the modulating
wave. During the demodulation the whole signal spectrum is carried back in the low frequency
field.
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The receiver is composed of an antenna, a filter, which permits the passage of the desired
signal only and stops interferences, an amplifier and a device able to execute the
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demodulation.
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Fig. 4.28 - Receiver
The sensitivity of a radio receiver is represented by its ability to amplify weak signals. It is
defined in terms of the voltage that must be applied to the receiver input terminals in order to
obtain a standard output power, measured at the output terminals. Sensitivity is normally
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expressed in microvolts or in decibels below 1V.
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The selectivity of a receiver allows to differentiate between the desired signal and all
unwanted adjacent channel signals. Sensitivity is expressed as a curve showing the attenuation
which the receiver offers to signals at frequencies close to the one to which it is tuned.
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Another important characteristic of the receiver is the fidelity, which is the ability to reproduce
the original modulation without distortions.
Turned Radio Frequency TRF Receiver
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A common and efficient kind of receiver is the Turned Radio Frequency receiver. Two or
perhaps three RF amplifiers, all tuning together, are employed to select and amplify the
incoming frequency and simultaneously reject all the others. After the signal is amplified to a
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suitable level, it is demodulated and fed to a speaker after passing though the appropriate
audio amplifying stages.
TFR receivers are simple to align at lower frequencies, but they present difficulties in case of
higher frequencies; this is mainly due to the risks of instability associated with the fact that
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high gain is achieved at a certain frequency by a multistage amplifier. If an amplifier has a gain
of 40000, you will find 1/40000 of the last stage output just at the first stage input. In this case,
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oscillations will occur at the frequency at which polarity of the superiors feedback is positive.
This is almost unavoidable at high frequencies and does not lead to good receiver operation.
The TRF receiver suffers from a variation in bandwidth over the tuning range and from an
inability to achieve sufficient selectivity at high frequencies, this is partly a result of the use of
single tuned circuit.
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Double RF amplifiers are not used due to the fact that all amplifiers have to be tunable and the
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difficulties of making several double tuned amplifiers tune in unison are too great.
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Fig. 4.29 - TFR receiver

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Superheterodyne
The technique of conversion called superheterodyne is used in numerous receiver devices able
to receive and demodulate a big set of frequencies. A system, which uses this technique, is
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able to convert the received frequencies to a fixed frequency, which can be processed in a
more effectively than the original frequency of the carrier way.
In order to execute the process, the superheterodyne receivers use a particular circuit, called
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mixer. The mixer consists of three main parts: a local oscillator, a frequency mixer and a tuned
amplifier. Thanks to this circuit the superheterodyne receivers have superior characteristics
regarding frequency stability and selectivity.
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Fig. 4.30 - Superheterodyne receiver

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Squelch
The squelch is a function of the receiver circuit, which acts to suppress the ground noise in
absence of a sufficiently strong desired input signal.
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The squelch is a circuit that silences the receiver when there is no input signal or when the
input signal is too low, in order to eliminate the continuous rustle. When the signal has an
intensity greater than the set value, the squelch reactivates the audio of the radio, so that the
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pilot can hear the communications. The value of the signal intensity able to reactivate the
audio is regulated through a knob placed on the cockpit communication control panel.
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Fig. 4.31 - Communication control panel

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13.4.5 Working principles of VHF and HF communication system
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VHF communication system
The VHF frequencies include radio frequencies ranging between 30 and 300 MHz. In the
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aeronautical field, the VHF communications are the most used for the short-range
communications, especially for all ground-board-ground communications with the Air Traffic
Control (ATC) and for air-air communications too. Moreover, the VHF frequencies are used by
some radio-aids. The VHF radio waves spread in a direct way, because they are not reflected
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by the ionosphere layers.
Consequently, the VHF waves have a relatively short coverage range and are affected by
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obstacles. However, the VHF radio waves have some advantages: they guarantee a clear
transmission of the information and are less influenced by noise and atmospheric
interferences than other radio waves of lower frequency.
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For international agreements the VHF band, destined to civil aviation communications, is
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comprised between 118 and 137 MHz, with a specific canalization. The first canalization
adopted and still in use in some Countries is done in intervals of 25 KHz. This canalization is
mandatory for all VHF frequencies, with the exception of the emergency frequency (121.5
MHz), which results separated of 100 KHz from the next frequencies in order to avoid
interferences and disturbs.
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However, in the nineties the necessities to provide a more accurate air traffic control and to
have more available channels have requested the development of a new system with the aim
of modifying the VHF canalization. The idea is that of shifting from the standard canalization of
25 KHz to that of 8.33 KHz. sw
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The picture represents which European countries have agreed to the new canalization of the
VHF. The countries in blue fully apply the spacing at 8.33 KHz, those in green apply it with
some recommendations, while the Countries in yellow still apply the standard canalization.
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Fig. 4.32 - Canalization of VHF
A typical VHF system consists of a transceiver, a control panel and an aerial.

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Transceiver. It is composed of a combination of transmitter and receiver, which share certain

circuits. The frequency ranges between 118 and 136.975 MHz, while the typical output power
is between 25 and 40 Watts. The receiver is normally ON unless a push to talk (PTT) button in
pressed. The received amplitude modulated signals are amplified, mixed and converted as
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necessary, then they pass through detector, squelch and amplifier circuits. The audio output
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of the receiver is fed to the audio selecting system through the VHF volume control. The same
selected frequency is used for both transmission and reception. By pressing the PTT button the
aerial relay, which switches the aerial to the transmitter circuits, is energized. The transmitter
is amplitude modulated by audio signals from the flight interphone system, after crystal
oscillator frequencies are mixed and multiplied as required to obtain the final output radio
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frequencies. Transmitted audio is passed through the receiver and sent back to the transceiver
side tone output circuits, where it is connected to output circuits of the VHF control panel and
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then to the audio selector panels.

Control panel. It provides frequency selection and frequency display for the VHF
communication radios. It consists of a dual set of frequency selection knobs, a test button and
a transfer switch.
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Fig. 4.33 - VHF control panel

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Each section of the dual set of frequency knobs controls the VHF system. A different frequency
may be set up in each section. By positioning the transfer switch to the left, the frequency set
on the left will be used by the VHF transceiver and a transfer flag will negate the right
frequency window. By positioning the transfer switch to the right, it will cause the VHF
transceiver to tune to the frequency set up on the right and the left window will be flagged.
Pressing the COMM TEST button disables the receiver squelch circuits allowing an increase in
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background noise, thus indicating whether the receiver is operating correctly or not.
Frequency selection is performed following the two out-of-five method. For any digit selected,
two-out-of-five outputs will be connected to the frequency selected and the other three will
be open.
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Aerial. The purpose of the VHF aerial is to radiate and intercept radio signals in the VHF
frequency range. The aerial is vertically polarized, has an omindirectional radiation pattern and
has 50 Ohm impedance.
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Fig. 4.34 - VHF communication aerial
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HF communication system
In the aeronautical field the HF communications between 3 and 30 MHz are used for long
range communications such as oceanic communications, where the VHF transmissions are not
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very efficient due to their reduced wavelength or to the intercontinental transmission in the
Morse code.
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The HF radio waves guarantee a long range of the signal, which is caused by the signal
refraction of the high layers of the ionosphere and by the execution of the HF transmissions in
the sidebands of the carrier wave, both in the upper (USB), and lower one (LSB). However, the
disadvantage of the HF waves is that of being very susceptible to external disturbs, which can
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damage the quality of the transmissions. Furthermore, since all operations occur in the
sidebands of the carrier wave, the lack of a part of the wave causes negative effects on the
quality of the transmitted signal. Usually, the channel spacing in the HF band is of circa 3 KHz.
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Consequently, a HF radio is installed on aircraft operating on long range route. This radio can
operate in 3 different modes, selectable through a specific knob: AM, USB, e LSB.
A typical HF system consists of a transceiver, a control panel, and an aerial.
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Transceiver. It is a Single Side Band (SSB) transmitting 400 watts PEP output in SSB and 125
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watts carrier in AM. The transmitting and the receiving range is between 2 and 30 MHz. The
receiver is normally ON unless a keying circuit is completed. Mic audio is completed through
two audio amplifiers, one of which supplies sidetone audio to the interphone system after a
push to talk circuit is completed. A balanced modulator then combines the audio with a 500
kHz signal from the RF oscillator producing an upper and lower sideband output of 500 kHz on
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each side. The sidebands are amplified and fed through one of two mechanical filters. The
selection of filters is controlled by the mode selector switch on the control panel. One filter
passes only the upper sideband and the other only the lower one. When the transceiver is
operated in the AM mode, the upper sideband is passed through and a 500 kHz carrier is
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reinserted at the filter output. The output is then amplified and heterodyned as necessary to
obtain the final transmitting frequency. A driver and power amplifier then supply the signal to
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the aerial. A received signal is amplified and heterodyned as necessary to produce a 500 kHz IF.
The 500 kHz IF is then fed to both SSB and AM IF amplifiers. In the SSB mode, the 500 kHz IF is
fed to one of two mechanical filters. Each filter has a bandwidth of 3 kHz. One filter passes only
through the upper sideband and the other filter crosses only the lower sideband depending on
which mode is selected at the control panel. The filter output is then amplified and fed to a
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product detector, where the audio signal is recovered. In the AM mode, the 500 kHz IF is fed
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through a mechanical filter with a 6 kHz bandwidth to obtain both sidebands. Filter output is
then amplified and fed to on AM detector which recovers the audio signals. Amplified signals
are then coupled to the audio circuits of the interphone system.
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Control panel. The HF control panel can select any of 28000 channels spaced 1 kHz apart in the
2 to 30 MHz range. The mode selector switch turns the system OFF, selects upper sideband
USB, lower sideband LSB and amplitude modulation AM modes. The RF SENS knob is a linear
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potentiometer, which provides a manual receiver gain control. The potentiometer is
connected to the receiver squelch circuit.
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Fig. 4.35 - HF control panel

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Aerial. The purpose of the aerial is to radiate the modulated RF energy and receive the
incoming signals. Depending on the type of installation the HF aerial may be a notch or wire
aerial. The wire aerial have a tension take up assembly, which adjusts the length of aerial to
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maintain proper wire tension. The aerial wire is attached to the chuck body at the forward end
of the assembly. The inner barrel is attached to the end of the spring and is free to move along
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the plunger to adjust the aerial length as required to maintain proper tension in the aerial
wire. The spring is preloaded to the required tension during installation.
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Notch or cavity aerials are used in high speed aircraft. The aerial is formed by providing a
recess or notch in a suitable part of the aircraft skin and tuning the inductance of the notch to
resonance at the required operating frequency. The dimensions of the notch are arranged to
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give an inductance of about 1 micro Henry and best results are obtained if the shape of the
notch is approximately square.
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Fig. 4.36 - HF Aerials
SELCAL
In aviation the SELCAL is very important. This device works on the HF or VHF frequency bands.
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The SELCAL is a selective-calling radio system able to inform the crew that a ground radio
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station wishes to communicate with the aircraft, even when the aircraft radio has been muted.
The system SELCAL uses a ground-based encoder and a radio transmitter that broadcasts an
audio signal, which is picked up by a decoder and a radio receiver installed on aircraft. Each
aircraft has its own assigned SELCAL code. The radio operator of the ground station inserts the
aircraft SELCAL code into the system encoder, which converts the four-letter code into four
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audio tones. Then the operator broadcasts in sequence these audio tones on the radio
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frequency of the aircraft he wants to contact.

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The transmitted sequence is composed of:
 A first pair of tones, each lasting half a second.
 A silence of about 0.2 seconds.
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 A second pair of tones, each lasting half a second.
This code is received by the receiver of all aircraft monitoring the radio frequency on which the
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SELCAL code is broadcasted. When the SELCAL decoder, connected to the aircraft receiver,
receives a signal containing its own assigned SELCAL code, it alerts the flight crew by sounding
a chime and activating a light.
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13.4.6 Audio
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A typical airborne communication system is made of transmitter-receivers, audio systems,
some headphones, microphones, control panels and antennas.
Through the control panels the transmitter-receivers are activated on the frequency and on
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the modality selected by the pilot. On modern aircraft the operational frequencies are
selectable also through the CDU (Control Display Unit), called DKU (Display and Keyboard
Unit), which is generally connected to the flight management system (FMS).
The antennas are used to transmit electromagnetic waves and receive them. Clearly, these
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operations are not performed at the same time.
The audio systems control all audio signals generated on the aircraft, such as the voice or aural
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signals connected to the system malfunctioning. The audio system sends signals directly to the
pilot’s headphones and to different cockpit speakers, making the different ground-board-
ground communications manageable. Moreover, the audio system, through an intercom
circuit, allows the pilot to speak with passengers to inform them about the flight conduct and
to communicate with the cabin crew.
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In large passenger aircraft, with two or more flight crew members and many different radio
systems an Audio Integration System is fitted and must fulfill the following requirements:
 Radio System Selection
 Flight Interphone
 Service Interphone
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 Cabin Interphone
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Radio System Selection
Facilities must be provided for the various crew members to select any particular system. The
choice of the system is dictated by the immediate operational requirements. In order to
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accomplish a given operation the selection of more than one facility may be necessary. The
audio integration system feeds the selected receiver outputs to the telephone and also feeds
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the microphone inputs to the selected transmitters.
Flight Interphone
To enable the various crew members to communicate with each other and monitor different
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radio systems, intercommunication facilities are provided.
Service Interphone
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It is often necessary that communication is carried out between flight deck and various points
on the aircraft, this in case of specific maintenance procedures, engine starting and towing etc.
The ground crew positions are thus provided with facilities to stay connected with the flight
interphone circuit.
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Cabin Interphone
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Facilities are provided by the same audio equipment for different cabin crew positions through
an interphone link. A switchable link is available for the cabin crew circuit to be connected to
the flight interphone circuit.
In order to allow the flight crew to transmit or receive on the radio communication systems,
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the audio selector panel is used. The aircraft VHF navigation, DME, marker beacon and ADF
receivers may also be monitored. One audio selector panel is fitted at each crew position.
Hot mic (a microphone which is permanently in use) is used irrespectively of selector panel or
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column switch selections. It is an additional amplifier which installed inside the selector panel.
This amplifier has its own regulated power supply, derived from the aircraft 28V dc supply to
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ensure power supply when no transmitter is keyed.

The block unwanted signals, V or R, can be selected on the V/B/R (Voice/Both/Range) switch.
Whit the switch in V, all DME audio signals are shorted to ground, and the voice/range filter is
connected to pass VOR and ADF voice type signals and block VOR and ADF range type signals.
Whit the switch R, the voice/range filter is connected to pass VOR, DME and ADF range type
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signals and block voice type signals. With the range switch in B, the voice/range filter is not
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connected.
Both pilots control wheels have an int/mic switch, spring loaded to the OFF position from the
MIC position side and latched onto the INT position until either MIC or OFF is selected. The
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purpose of the switch is to provide the boom mask microphones with PTT inputs. In the MIC
position, MIC audio is directed to the selected communication system. In the INT position, MIC
audio is connected directly to the flight interphone system without INT on the ASP.
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Fig. 4.37 - Audio selector panel

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13.4.7 Working principles of ELT
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The ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter) is an emergency self-contained and self-powered
radio transmitter, designed to transmit a signal on the international emergency frequency. The
ELT is made of a transmitter, some antennas and a charger unit. The ELT automatically
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activates in case of aircraft impact. However, the transmitter can also by activated by a remote
switch in the cockpit.
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Fig. 4.38 - ELT (Ameri-King AK-450)

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The transmitter can be located anywhere within the aircraft, but its ideal position is that as far
as possible from the nose of the aircraft. Moreover, it must be accessible to permit
maintenance actions, such as for example the replacement of the battery. Instead, the
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external antennas of the ELT must be installed as far as possible from other aircraft antennas,
in order to prevent interactions with the avionics systems.
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Fig. 4.39 - ELT installation position
The batteries are the only power source for the ELT and for this reason the maintenance and
replacement actions are very important. When the ELT activates, the batteries must be able to
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supply power, necessary for the signal transmission, for at least 48 hours. The batteries may be
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nickel-cadmium, lithium, magnesium dioxide, or dry cell batteries. It is important that when
replacing the batteries, it is use only types recommended by the manufacturer of the ELT
device.
The most important aspect of an ELT is the mode of signal transmission. There are two
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transmission methods: digital and analogue. The digital transmission at 406 MHz in UHF has
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usually a longer range, while the analogue one at 121.5 MHz is more reliable.
The devices working at 406 MHz transmit sequences of digital information to orbiting
satellites, and they can also contain a small integrated analogue 121.5 MHz beacon. Moreover,
advanced ELT are capable of transmitting their highly-accurate GPS location, within their
emergency message.
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A typical emergency message, send by the ELT and encoded in 30 hexadecimal characters,
usually contains the following information:
 The country from which the beacon originates
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 A unique 15-digit hexadecimal identification code of the device
 The encoded identification of the aircraft in distress. It can be either the aircraft
registration or its ICAO 24-bit address, associated with Mode-S transponder
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 The GPS position.
The device of the analogue type emits a simple analogue siren tone, continuously transmitted
on the frequency of 121.5 MHz, until the battery dies. This signal can be picked-up by other
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aircraft that fly over the area of the accident.
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False alarms
The false alarms, which can be generated, are caused by different ELT problems. For example,
the battery damage can cause either a complete failure of the ELT equipment or an unwanted
signal transmission. Moreover, another type of unwanted transmission is caused by the
careless handling by the operators.
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In order to identify the unwanted ELT transmission, a little receiver is generally mounted in the
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cockpit. This device has the purpose to warn the pilot if the ELT is transmitting.
Equipment tests
The operation of the ELT can be verified by turning the communication receiver on the civil
emergency frequency and by activating the ELT, so that it can transmit a signal. If the system
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correctly operates, the communication receiver detects a signal. At this time, the ELT must be
switched off immediately.
These tests are to be conducted in the first 5 min of any UTC hour, and transmissions must be
limited to a maximum of 5 seconds.
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13.4.8 Working principles of FDR and CVR
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On aircraft some recording devices are installed with the scope to study the happened
accidents and to prevent their repeated occurrence. After an aircraft incident or accident the
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investigators have the main aim to establish which problems caused it, and to do this, they
must piece together the flight and analyze all different aircraft parameters.
The recording devices are installed with the scope to facilitate the recovering of flight
information.
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The recording devices are divided into:
 FDR (Flight Data Recorder)
 CVR (Cockpit Voice Recorder).
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The FDR is designed to record features of all aircraft systems, while the CVR records all vocal
communications in the cockpit. These devices are also commonly called black boxes.
Due to their importance in investigating accidents, these devices are carefully engineered and
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constructed in order to withstand the force of a high speed impact and the heat of an intense
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fire. Contrary to the "black box" term, the exterior of the FDR and CVR is coated with heat-
resistant bright orange paint, in order to improve its visibility among wreckage.
These units are generally mounted in the aircraft's empennage, where it is more likely that
they survive after a crash, also severe.
Moreover, they are designed to emit a locator beacon for up to 30 day after the accident.
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Fig. 4.40 - Circuits of aircraft recording devices

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FDR
In accordance with JAR-OPS 1, a commercial transport airplane must carry a FDR, which uses a
digital method of recording and storing flight data.
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Fig. 4.41 - FDR

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The parameters, which must be recorded, vary according to the maximum certificated take-off
mass and to the age of the aircraft. All parameters must be recorded with a common reference
time scale. The data must be obtained from various airplane sources, which will have accurate
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correlation with the information displayed to the flight crew.
In order to record all necessary parameters, the number of sources will vary according to the
sophistication degree of the airplane. Some of the parameters, recorded by the FDR are:
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 The altitude
 The airspeed and the acceleration
 The heading, the attitude and the angle of attack
 Engine parameters
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 The air temperature
 The use of particular systems, such as the AFCS (Automatic Flight Control System)
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 Positions of primary and second flight controls

 Navigation information
 Cockpit warnings sw
Each parameter is usually recorded a few times per second, in order to guarantee a continuous
flow of information.
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The FDR is powered by 28 V in direct current or by 115 V in alternate current. The FDR
automatically starts its operation before that the airplane starts up the engines and
automatically stops when the airplane, reached the assigned parking bay, turns off the
engines. It is important to remember that the crew cannot switch the system off. Moreover,
the FDR must be able to record and store data for 25 consecutive flight hours.
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The FDR is contained in a shockproof box able to sustain extremely high impact forces and high
temperatures. It is completely waterproof and fitted with a device that makes its localization in
deep water easy. This device is called ULB (Underwater Locator Beacon) and transmits an
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The heart of the system is a circular unit, called CSMU (Crash Survivable Memory Unit) that
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must survive to the impact in order to protect the memory board on which all aircraft
parameters are recorded.
The memory board is protected by 3 layers: the first layer is made of a thermal material, the
second one uses an insulating material, while the last one is a steel armor.
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In most modern systems, the data of the FDR is recorded on a solid state device, which will be
periodically analyzed in order to monitor the general operation of the aircraft, even if no
accidents occurred.
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CVR
In accordance with JAR-OPS 1, a commercial transport aircraft must carry a CVR able to record
4 channels of audio data:
 All radio voice communications transmitted from or received by the flight crew
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members.
 The audio environment of the cockpit, including the cockpit conversation without any
interruption.
 Voice communications occurred through the airplane interphone system between the
cockpit and the cabin.
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 All voice signals or other audio signals related to the identification of navigation or
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approach aids.
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The container where the CVR is located must be shockproof, fireproof and waterproof.
Moreover, as in the case of the FDR, also the CVR is fitted with a device that facilitates its
localization in deep water (ULB, Underwater Localizer Beacon).
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Fig. 4.43 - CVR

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The CVR is powered by 28 V in direct current or by 115 V in alternate current. The CVR starts
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recording as early as possible during the cockpit check, before the flight start, often just before
the engine start. Then, the system continues the voice recording until pilots check the aircraft
parameters after the engine shut down at the end of flight. The CVR must be able to retain the
recorder information so that the previous two hours of registration could be recalled at any
time.
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The earliest CVRs used analog wire recording, later replaced by analog magnetic tape.
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Nowadays, the latest designs employ solid-state memory and use digital recording techniques.
In this way, these devices are more resistant to shock, vibration and moisture. Moreover, since
solid-state recorders require less power to operate, it is common to incorporate in the unit a
battery, so that recording is ensured, even if the aircraft electrical system fails.
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13.4.9 Working principles of NDB and ADF
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The definition of bearing
The word “radio navigation” refers to the set of systems and techniques used by ground radio-
aids and necessary to conduct the aircraft on the correct and planned route. In fact, the radio
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navigation uses radio signals emitted by the radio-aids, in order to determinate the aircraft
position. Depending on the type of radio-aids, the position can be expressed in angles or
distances.
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In radio navigation the concept of “bearing” acquires great importance. A bearing is the
direction of a particular point, such as the radio-aids, in relation to the aircraft position. In the
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aeronautic field the bearings are commonly expressed by angular values. They can refer both
to the direction of the true or magnetic North and to the direction of the aircraft longitudinal
axis. In this last case, we talk about relative bearing or Rilpo.
When the bearing is measured from the ground station to the aircraft, the bearing is called
direct bearing; while, if the aircraft detects the station, we talk about reciprocal bearing.
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These bearings are usually expressed through a code:

 QDR, which is the magnetic direct bearing.
 QDM, which is the magnetic reciprocal bearing.
 QTE, which is the true direct bearing.
 QUJ, which is the true reciprocal bearing.
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Fig. 4.44 - Bearings

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NDB and ADF: operating
The Non Directional Beacon (NDB) is a ground-based transmitter that transmits radio waves
equally in all directions. In order to operate the NDB must be coupled with an airborne system.
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The airborne equipment is called Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) and operates as a simple
radio direction finder. The ADF measures the angle between the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft and the line that connects the aircraft with the NDB station.
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Fig. 4.45 - ADF bearing
The NDB operates in the LF band, between 200 and 1750 KHz. However in this range, around
the frequency of 500 KHz, the NDB doesn’t transmit, because this frequency is the emergency
maritime frequency. The signal transmitted by the NDB station propagates along ground wave
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and sky wave paths.
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The NDB transmission uses a radio frequency oscillator, which provides the carrier wave, and
an audio frequency oscillator. The carrier wave is the NDB signal used by the airborne
equipment to determine the direction of the transmitting station. The signal produced by the
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audio frequency oscillator provides the identification signal of the tuned station; this signal is
called IDENT.
The produced LF signal is obtained by modulating the carrier wave. Usually, two different types
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of modulation are used:
 One for long range NDB (A1A).
 One for short and medium range NDB (A2A).
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It is important to remember that above the NDB station there is a conical space, called “cone
of silence”, in which the signal may be too low to be used. The diameter of this cone
proportionally increases with the aircraft altitude.
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The airborne ADF equipment detects the signal transmitted by the NDB station and calculates
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the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the line that connects the aircraft
and the NDB. The ADF receiver works on MF and LF frequencies between 190 and 1999 KHz.
The airborne ADF system consists of a receiver, a sense aerial, a loop aerial and an indicator.
The loop and the sense aerials are normally combined in a single antenna, installed under the
fuselage. This antenna is electronically rotated and derives the bearing of the aircraft from the
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station, combining information of the captured signals.
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The information is based on the measurement of the induced current in two antennas. The
current induced in the loop antenna is at its maximum when the plane of the antenna is
parallel to the received signal, which is parallel to the propagation direction of the radio waves
too. If the loop aerial is rotated until it is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
radio waves, the resultant signal will be null.
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For each 360° rotation of the loop antenna, the receiver will detect two maximums and two
minimums, which cause ambiguity in the bearing indication. This aspect is sustained by the fact
that the polarization diagram of the loop antenna is composed by two tangent circles.
However, this problem is solved by using a sense antenna, whose polarization diagram is a
unique circle. The resulting polarization diagram is called cardioid. Thus, by adding the signal of
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the sense aerial to the alternating signal from the loop antenna, the bearing information can
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be emitted without ambiguity.
Sense aerial
The sense aerial provides the ADF system with omni directional receiving capability. The aerial
normally consists of a rectangular conductive coating flame-sprayed over a ground plane on
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the surface of the aircraft. The aerial is capacity matched to the receiver and there are several
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standard values of capacity used under the ARINC system. Being matched in a capacitive way
implies that the aerial is sensitive to the E field of the received signal.
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Loop aerial
The fixed loop aerial is sensitive to the magnetic component of a vertically polarized radio
wave and provides an output for the goniometer field coils in the ADF receiver. The aerial
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consists of four ferrite cored coils, two parallel and two perpendicular to the fore aft line of the
aircraft. Each set of parallel coils is connected in parallel to provide additional gain.
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The loop aerial provides information necessary to determine the direction of the received
radio signals. For each direction of incoming radio waves, there is a particular combination of
voltages induced in the two sets of coils.
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The output from the crossed coils of a fixed loop aerial is an electrical analogue of the
magnetic component of the electromagnetic field acting on the aerial. When the output is
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connected to the field coils of the goniometer, the magnetic characteristics of the original field
are reproduced within the goniometer and act on the search coil as if it were a miniature
rotatable loop aerial in the original field. Both the sense and loop aerial are have a specific
length, which must not be modified in any way. A shortening in the cables can generate many
problems and will adversely affect the direction seeking capabilities of the system. Therefore,
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if a feed cable is damaged, it must not be repaired in situ but replaced.
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Fig. 4.46 - Phase and magnitude relationships of induced loop aerial voltages
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ADF receiver
The ADF receiver receives and processes the signal from the selected radio station. The
processed data is applied to the RMI, which visually displays relative bearing to the selected
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station. The receiver audio output is applied to the audio distribution unit for the station
intended to be heard when selected on the ASP. A typical ADF receiver provides two modes of
operation: ANT and ADF. In ANT mode the loop aerial circuits and the bearing servo system are
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disabled. The signal received by the sense aerial is applied to the receiver and processed to
produce an audio output. In ADF mode, a signal received by the loop aerial is applied to the
receiver through the quadrantal error corrector. The signal received by the sense aerial is also
applied to the receiver. The loop aerial and sense aerial input signals are combined and
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processed in the receiver to produce an audio output information.
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ADF: control panel

The classic receiver control panel is located on the instrument cockpit panel and is used by the
pilot to dial the frequency corresponding to the selected NDB. There are different types of ADF
control panel. The most common is shown in the following picture.
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Fig. 4.47 - ADF control panel

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The upper part of the panel shows the selected frequency and operational mode, while in the
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lower part there are some buttons for the selection of different instruments functions. The
farthest knob on the right is used for the frequency selection, while the smaller and nearer
knob is used to regulate the volume.
The standard functions are OFF, ADF, ANT and BFO. The ADF function represents the normal
operation of the system and it is selected when the bearing information has to be
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automatically displayed by the needle of the instrument.
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The function ANT (antenna) is selected when the only signal provided the sense antenna is
used and so no direction information of the station is generated. In the ANT mode the needle
will remain stationary and doesn’t indicate the NDB station.
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This operational mode provides the best audio reception, which permits an easy identification
of the NDB station.
The BFO mode (Beat Frequency Oscillator), sometimes also called TONE, is necessary to
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identify the NDB that uses A1A transmissions.
Nowadays, on modern aircraft all these operations are executed through the airborne
computers of the different aircraft systems.
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ADF: indicator
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The ADF indicator is generally installed on the instrument cockpit panel and consist of a needle
and a bearing scale (calibrated in degrees), in order to measure the aircraft bearing in relation
to the ground station. The needle always indicates the direction from which the signals of the
selected NDB station are received and it thus indicates the direction where the ground station
is located.
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The ADF indicators can have 3 different types of bearing scale:

 A fixed scale or relative bearing indicator (RBI).
 The manually rotatable scale.
 The radio magnetic indicator (RMI).
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The bearing displayed on the RBI is a relative bearing, measured clockwise. For example, if the
needle points to 90°, it means that the station is 90° to the right of the aircraft nose. While, if
the needle points to 330°, the station is 30° to the left of the aircraft nose.
However, using this type of ADF, the pilot must be always able to calculate the QDM and the
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QDR. To calculate the QDM the pilot must add or subtract to the bearing, indicated by the
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needle of the instrument, the value of the magnetic heading of the aircraft. To calculate the
QDR the pilot must add or subtract the aircraft magnetic heading to the value of the bearing,
subtracted of 180°. This bearing is indicated by the tail of the needle of the instrument.
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The indicator with a manually rotatable scale is similar to the RBI, but in this instrument the
scale can be rotated in order to indicate the aircraft heading. In this way, the needle of the ADF
will indicate the heading that must be followed in order to reach the selected NDB.
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Fig. 4.48 - RBI indicator

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Also the RMI indicator combines in a unique instrument the relative bearing information with
the aircraft heading information. However, in this case the operation is done in a completely
automatic way. The RMI has normally two needles. The bigger needle provides the information
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concerning the NDB station. The tip of the needle always points to the beacon, directly
indicating the QDM, while the tail of the needle gives the QDR. The small needle provides the
VOR indications.
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Fig. 4.49 - RMI indicator
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In the glass cockpit instrumentation these instruments are substituted by the monitors of the
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) that display information in a clearer and simpler
way.
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NDB and ADF: advantages and disadvantages
The use of the low frequencies permits the radio waves propagation on long range, even if
there is no optical line between the ground station and the aircraft. Moreover, the ADF-NBD
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system is easy to use by the pilot and has the advantage of having low installation costs.
However, this system has some important disadvantages:
 Night effect. The transmission of the waves of the NDB is subjected to the variation of
the height of the ionosphere between day and night. For this reason, during the night
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the ADF data are not reliable, due to the big thickness of the ionized layer that does
not allow the passage of the waves.
 Ground effect. During the flight in mountainous areas the low frequency signal can be
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reflected by the present mountains. Consequently, this phenomenon causes some

errors in the data provided by the ADF, which might be unreliable.
 Coast effect. The coasts have the propriety to refract the LF radio wave. Consequently,
passing from the ground to the water, and vice versa, some variations on the ADF
information can occur
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 Thunderstorm effect. When approaching to the thunderous areas, the needle of the
ADF can indicate the sources of electromagnetic perturbations, such as lightings,
instead of indicating the NDB ground station.
 Turn effect. During a turn, the ADF indications are subjected to errors, which are
proportional to the value of the bank angle.
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ADF Errors
When installed in an aircraft, ADF equipment may not indicate the correct direction of the
selected station. The difference between the indicated direction of the station and the actual
direction of the station is error. There are three types of error, which may be due to incorrect
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ADF installations:
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 Quandrantal Error: the electric and magnetic fields of the signal cause RF currents to
flow in the metal structure of the aircraft. The loop aerial is subjected to induction of
the reradiated field from these currents and the field of the distant transmitter. The
effect is that of reinforcing the signal produced by the fore aft or athwart ship coils of
the loop aerial. Therefore, the RF field produced in the goniometer will not give a
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correct indication of the stations relative bearing. These errors are called Quadrantal
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Errors as their maximum deviation occurs roughly at the centre of each of the
quadrants formed by the horizontal axis of the aircraft
 Loop Alignment Error: a constant error may be found in ADF installations due to the
loop aerial not being correctly aligned with the fore and aft axis of the aircraft.
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 Field Alignment Error: if the loop aerial is installed offset from the aircraft centerline,
the re-radiated field due to the RF currents will not be cancelled. When the station is
directly ahead or astern of the aircraft, the ADF pointer will indicate that it is on the
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left or right side of the aircraft heading.
The direction and amount of such errors throughout the working range of the equipment must
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be known in order to applied the requested corrections.
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13.4.10 Working principles of VOR and DME
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VOR: operating
The VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range) is a very versatile navigational aid, which is used as
radio-aid in short and medium range navigation and in the precision approach procedures.
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The VOR operates in the VHF band, on frequencies ranging between 108 and 117.95 MHz, with
a channel separation of 50 KHz. The VOR frequency band can be divided in two sub-bands:
 The frequencies between 108 and 111.95 MHz are primarily used for the localizers of
the Instrument Landing System (ILS) and for the short-range VORs. The localizers use
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only the frequencies with odd numbers at the first decimal digit, while the short range
VORs use only those with even numbers.
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 The frequencies ranging from 112.00 and 117.95 are solely used by medium-range
VOR, both on odd and even decimals.
In this frequency band the waves travel only in a straight-line and are not influenced by
atmospheric phenomena. This fact imposes that the VOR can operate only at distance inferior
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to 240 km. The range of the VOR, expressed in NM, can be calculated multiplying the square of
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the aircraft altitude above the transmitter by 1.23:
The signals transmitted by the VOR provide radials. The radials are tracks originating from the
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ground transmitter and numbered from 1 to 360. For example, the radial 360 is the track
leaving the VOR station towards the north, the radial 90 points to east, the radial 180 points to
south, while the radial 270 indicates the west. All these directions are expressed in relation to
the magnetic north. Thus, the main characteristic of the VOR is that of transmitting a signal,
which contains directional information. sw
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Fig. 4.50 - Radials

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VOR: ground station and aircraft equipment
The VOR ground station is composed of two aerials: one omni-directional and one directional.
These aerials transmit two signals. The first signal, modulated in amplitude at 30 Hz and
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transmitted by the omni-directional antenna, transmits the station identification in Morse
code. This signal is called REF (Reference Signal). The second signal is instead modulated in
frequency of 30 Hz and emitted by the directional antenna, which rotates at 1800 rpm. This
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signal is called VAR (Variable Signal).
Both signals change their phase in the space of 360°. The phase difference between these two
signals is directly proportional to the angular position of the aircraft, in relation to the ground
station and it is different on each radial. For example, on the radial 360 the phase difference is
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0°. The airborne equipment is able to measure the bearing of the aircraft in relation to the
ground station, comparing the phases of the signals emitted by the ground stations.
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Fig. 4.51 - Phase differences
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The airborne equipment of a VOR installation consists of 4 main elements:
 An aerial
 A receiver
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 An indicator
 A control panel
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The control panel of the VOR system allows the pilot to select the frequency of the desired
ground station.
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Fig. 4.52 - VOR control panel

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The aerial is a small horizontal dipole designed to receive the signals transmitted by the ground
stations. The antenna must be installed in a position that offers a 360° reception of radio
signals, usually on the aircraft fin.
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Fig. 4.53 - Airborne VOR antenna
The signal received by the antenna is filtered, so that only the desired signal of the VOR station
passes through. The receiver compares the reference signal (REF) and the variable signal (VAR),
in order to detect their phase difference. The difference obtained is then sent to the indicator,
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which identifies the radial of the desired VOR.
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The traditional airborne indicators can have many different forms. The simplest indicator
consists of 4 main elements:
 A Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)
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 An Omni Bearing Selector (OBS)
 An OFF flag
 A little triangle, which indicates if the shown radial is TO or FROM the station
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Fig. 4.54 - VOR indicator

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The CDI is a vertical white needle that indicates the course variation in relation to that
selected. If the CDI is in the centre of the indicator, the aircraft is flying exactly on the caught
radial. If the CDI is on the left or on the right side in respect to the centre of the dial, it means
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that the aircraft is moved away from the radial. In this case, the CDI indicates which direction
must be followed to intercept again the signal.
The OBS is a knob that allows the selection the VOR radial. The OBS knob is turned to rotate
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the compass scale of the instrument, in order to read the value of the caught radial in
correspondence of the CDI pointer. The OFF flag is a warning flag appearing when no signal is
received. The TO/FROM triangle indicates if the selected radial will take the aircraft to or away
from the VOR station. If the triangle tips up, the aircraft is flying towards the station (TO or
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inbound). If the triangle is turned towards the low, the aircraft is moving away from the station
(FROM or outbound). The indication will change from TO to FROM and vice versa, when an
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aircraft flies over the station.
In the glass cockpits, the VOR indicator is integrated in some monitors of the Electronic Flight
Instrument System (EFIS), which displays in a clearer and simpler way the information.
VOR: procedures
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In order to use the VOR information the pilot inserts in the control panel the frequency of the
station that he must fly over. Once the receiver picks up the signal of the selected station, the
cockpit indicator provides all information concerning the aircraft position, in relation to the
station location.
If the aircraft is flying towards the station, the little triangle, which tips up, will appear on the
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instrument. In this case the information displayed on the system is the QDM. The QDM is the
course that the aircraft should follow in order to head to the station. In this situation the CDI
displacements provide instinctive information. If it is on the right side of the instrument, it
means that to come back on the radial the pilot must turn the aircraft on the right. When the
aircraft is moving away from the station and is on the same radial that conducted it to the
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station, the overturned triangle appears on the instrument. In this case the information
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provided by the instrument is the QDR: if the pilot wants to come back to the station, he must
set a heading that differs from the QDR of 180°. In this situation too, the CDI displacements
provide instinctive information.
Moreover, two important aspects must be taken into account:

 The VOR operates even if the aircraft approaching the station is on a FROM radial. In
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this case, the opposite happens and the indications supplied from the CDI are not
instinctive.
 During the over-flight of the station, the instrument does not provide any indications
due to the cone of silence, which is present above the beacon.
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DME: operation
The DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) is a navigational radio-aid that provides the aircraft
distance from a ground station. Usually, the DME is used in conjunction with a radio-aid that
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gives bearing information. In civil aviation the DME ground station has been designed to be co-
located with a VOR. In order to ease the workload of pilots and simplify the planning of
frequency allocations, the frequencies of the VOR and of the DME are coupled together, so
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that when the pilot selects the VOR frequency, he automatically selects the associated DME
frequency too. The DME operates in the UHF band, from 960 to 1215 MHz, at 1 MHz intervals.
The DME is based on the direct wave propagation. The maximum real range of the DME is
around 200-300 NM. The DME accuracy decreases with the increase of range.
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The airborne equipment of aircraft transmits a short period pulse pair towards a DME ground
beacon. After a delay of 50 microseconds (called station delay), the ground station replies with
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a similar pulse pair on a different frequency. The aircraft transmits on a frequency within the
DME band and the ground station replies on a frequency differing from the interrogation
frequency by +/- 63 MHz. The airborne equipment, by multiplying the speed of light by the
time spent in the signal round trip and subtracting the station delay, calculates the distance of
the aircraft from the ground station plus the distance of the ground station from the aircraft.
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The half of this distance is the distance of the aircraft from the DME station.
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Fig. 4.55 - DME operation

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The choice to use a pulse pair guarantees that the DME pulse has a distinctive character, which
protects it from pulses of other systems or from random noise.
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The reasons that lead to the use of different frequencies for the air/ground and ground/air
transmission are:
 Transmissions of other aircraft do not trigger the aircraft receiver.
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 Reflections, generated by objects around the ground station, do not re-trigger the
ground transmitter when replying to an aircraft.
Each DME ground station replies to many aircraft, using similar transmission pulses on the
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same frequency. Thus, each airborne receiver must identify its own reply among all other
aircraft replies. This is performed using a procedure known as “jittering”. Through this
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procedure, the DME airborne receiver can identify the replies of its own interrogations,
employing a variable delay technique: the aircraft pulses, received back via the ground station,
are synchronized with the original transmitted sequence in order to identify its own signal. So
the capability of the DME ground beacon is limited due to this technique of operation. The
ground transmitter is capable of replying at 2700 pulse pair per second and to circa 100
aircraft at the same time.
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It important to underline that the DME measures the oblique distance (or slant range) of the
aircraft from the ground station. This slant range can be converted to plan range using the
Pythagoras’ Theorem formula.
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DME: aircraft equipment
The airborne equipment is made of a transmitter, an antenna, a display and a control panel to
select the frequency. This panel is usually the same used for the VOR radio-aid. The antenna is
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a simple type omni-directional aerial, usually located underneath the aircraft.
The display indicates the distance between the aircraft and the station, measured by the
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system, the time necessary to cover this distance and the detected speed of the aircraft. It is
important to remember that the cockpit instrument shows the distance, travelled by the
emitted signal, that is the slant distance between the aircraft and the station.
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Fig. 4.56 - DME display
In the glass cockpits the DME indicator is integrated in monitors of the Electronic Flight
Instrument System (EFIS), which display information in a clearer and simpler way.
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13.4.11 Working principles of Flight director system FDS
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The flight director system provides the pilot with visual information on the Attitude Director
Indicator (ADI) and the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) regarding the aircraft position and
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attitude with respect to ground based navigational aids and computed bank and pitch data.
The steering command signals are generated within the computer and fed to command bars
within the ADI. The pilot follows the commands in order to:
 Fly on a selected heading.
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 Capture and fly on a selected VOR radial.
 Capture and fly on a selected LOC radial.
 Fly at a pre-set attitude.
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 Capture and fly on a glide slope beam.
For example, if the pilot wants to change heading, he/she selects the new heading and the
computer generates signals to the command bars on the ADI, so that the pilot flies the aircraft
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to the commands displayed. Once the command is performed, the aircraft will be on the
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heading selected.
The main components are:

 Attitude Director Indicator (ADI)
 Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
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 Flight Instrument Amplifier (FIA)
 Flight Steering Computer (FSC)
 Vertical Gyro (VG)
 Compass System
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 Mode selector
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Fig. 4.57 - Layout of basic FDS

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Horizontal Situation Indicator
In more recent systems, computer and amplifier will be in one black box and in some cases the
computer, amplifier and indicators are all placed in a single unit.
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Regarding ADI and HSI, there is no standard instrument, however the instruments shown
below present the main features usually found on most ADI/HSI aircraft instruments.
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Fig. 4.58 - HSI

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When related to the movable parts of the course indicator, the fixed miniature aircraft symbol
located in the centre of the course indicator window shows aircraft position and direction. The
course arrow is the white arrow rotated against the azimuth ring by the course control knob to
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a magnetic heading, which coincides with the desired VOR radial or localizer course. When one
of the radio modes is selected, the V-bar command indicator in the ADI displays steering
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commands to capture and track the selected radio course.

The course counter in the upper right corner of the instrument improves the accuracy and
speed of route selection by giving a digital repeat of the VOR radial or localizer course,
indicated by the course arrow.
The to-from pointer is a movable delta shaped symbol, which always indicates the direction TO
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the VOR station along the radial selected with the course arrow. This is a dc meter movement
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fed from the navigation VOR receiver.
The movable centre section of the course arrow represents the centre line of the selected VOR
radial or localizer course. The miniature aircraft represents the position of the aircraft with
respect to this selected course. As the navigation receiver is tuned to a VOR frequency,
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initiated movement of the lateral deviation bar begins when the aircraft is approximately 16°
from the VOR radial centre; the deviation scale dots represent approximately 5° and 10°
deviation from radial centre. As the navigation receiver is tuned to a localizer frequency, initial
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movement of the bar begins when the aircraft is approximately 4° from the localizer beam
centre. The dots represent approximately 1.25° and 2.5° deviation. This is a dc meter
movement fed from the navigation receiver (VOR/ILS).
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Gyrostabilized magnetic compass information is repeated by rotating azimuth card. Aircraft
heading is read on the card under the lubber line at the top centre of the instrument.
The heading marker, a movable orange triangular symbol, is set to the desired heading against
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the azimuth card by rotating the heading control. In the heading mode, the V-bar command in
the flight director indicator displays bank commands to turn to and maintain this selecting
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heading.
The glide slope pointer repeats the glide slope vertical position indication in the attitude
director indicator. It is visible only when the navigation receiver is tuned to a localizer
frequency. This is a dc meter movement fed from the navigation (ILS) receiver.
A digital readout of DME slant range distance in nautical miles is given by the miles counter in
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the upper left corner of the instrument face.
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Note that the HDG and course knobs may be not on the HIS, but on a completely separated
panel.
If the pilot will change heading using the FDS, he has to rotate the heading knob to move the
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heading marker (bug) to the desired position; note that as well as moving the heading bug, it
moves the rotor of the heading error control transformer (B4) too.
Before rotating the heading knob, the compass heading was fed to the stator of B4 and its
resultant field cut the rotor at 90° and no emf have been induced into the rotor. Now that the
rotor has been moved away from the null position, an emf will be induced, this signal is known
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as the leading error signal and would be fed to the ADI to generate a command to change the
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aircraft to the new heading.

As the aircraft changes heading, the compass output to Azimuth Control Transformer (B7) will
change. This creates an error signal which is fed to the instrument amplifier and back to the
HSI to drive the servo motor. The motor drives the compass card and also the rotor of B7.
When the aircraft is on the new heading, the rotor of B7 is in the null position, the motor stops
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and the HSI shows the new heading. The new compass output will be fed to B4, the resultant
field will be cutting the rotor at 90° once again and error signal is zero.
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A similar action occurs when the course knob is rotated. The pilot uses the course knob to
operate the FDS in order to select and fly onto a VOR or LOC course. This time, the error signal
is generated from the Course Datum Control Transformer (B5) and fed to the ADI as a
command signal.
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Fig. 4.59 - HSI system schematic
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Attitude Director Indicator
The aircraft is represented by a fixed, delta shaped symbol. Aircraft pitch and bank attitude are
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displayed by the relation of the aircraft symbol and attitude card. Pitch and bank commands
are displayed by the relation of the command bars and the aircraft symbol. A pilot can
instinctively maneuver the aircraft symbol into the command bars to satisfy pitch and bank
commands.
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Fig. 4.60 - ADI

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The bank attitude is represented by the rotation of the attitude tape relative to the aircraft
symbol. A full 360° bank presentation is possible. The bank angle pointer and scale near the
top of the indicator both display bank angles of 10, 20, 30, 45 and 60 degrees. By comparing
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the aircraft symbol to the attitude tape, a realistic picture of the bank attitude is obtained.
Pitch attitude as previously stated, is represented by the vertical position of the attitude tape
pitch scale relative to the fixed aircraft symbol.
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The command bars display computed bank and pitch commands. A selected heading or radio
course may be followed by observing and reacting to the blank commands. Pitch attitude,
selected altitude, or glideslope beam tracking may be followed by observing and reacting to
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the pitch command. The command bars move up or down to command a climb or descent and
move clockwise or counter clockwise for bank commands to provide lateral guidance, such as
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capturing and tracking a VOR radial. Simultaneous servo inputs for these commands enable
the pilot to respond to pitch and bank commands by viewing a single, integrated instrument.
The glide slope pointer represents the centre of the glide slope beam and displays vertical
displacement of the aircraft from beam centre. The pointer is in view whenever a localizer
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frequency is selected on the navigation receiver, regardless of the mode of selector position.
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The centre line of the glide slope scale represents aircraft position with respect to the glide
slope pointer. If the pointer is displaced upward, the aircraft is below the glide path.
The runway symbol represents the centre of the localizer beam and is visible whenever the
navigation receiver is tuned to a localizer frequency. When the symbol moves left, the aircraft
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is to the right side of the localizer beam. On a back course ILS, the runway symbol senses in
reverse and should not be employed for a back-course approach.
The runway symbol displays lateral displacement from the centre of a localizer beam and
represents an expanded portion of the localizer scale. The outside reference dots of the
miniature runway scale are equivalent to the dots on a smaller scale on the course indicator.
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They provide an expanded lateral display of aircraft position in relation to the centre of the
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localizer beam. This is a dc meter movement fed from the navigation ILS receiver.
Coordinated turns to new heading are monitored by the slip indicator, a weighted ball in a
liquid filled tube. A pointer on the right side of the flight director display indicates the radio
altitude up to 200 feet. The RAD ALT pointer is deflected out of view, when not in use.
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An optional speed command indicator may be displayed on the right side of the flight director
indicator. The display indicates aircraft speed as SLOW or FAST. The following schematic
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diagram of an ADI shows the pitch and roll circuitry. Pitch and roll data are fed from a vertical
gyro, INS or IRS.
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Fig. 4.61 - ADI system schematic
Assume Pitch displays the stationary aircraft pitch attitude. The pitch attitude control
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transformer B6 rotor will be at null position, i.e. the pitch attitude signal from the vertical
reference system is fed to the stator of the synchro, the resultant magnetic field cuts the rotor
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90° and no emf is induced into the rotor. If at this point the aircraft changes its pitch attitude,
the signal from the vertical reference unit will change, its resultant field will cut the rotor at a
new angle and an emf will therefore be inducted into the rotor. This error signal is fed to the
instrument amplifier and then to a monitor within the ADI. The motor drives the tape up or
down as appropriate; when the rotor is driven so that it is once again at 90° to the new stator,
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the error signal is zero, motor stops and display reads the new pitch attitude of the aircraft.
The bank attitude system works exactly in the same way.
Many of the ADIs have a test button, usually in the left hand bottom corner of the instrument.
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When pressed, it injects a test signal, the display goes 10° Pitch and 20° Roll right and the ATT
flag becomes visible.
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The inputs used by the system are determined by the position of the mode selector. Command
information is provided, enabling the pilot to accomplish the following:
 Fly a selected heading.
 Fly a selected VOR or localizer course.
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 Fly a glide slope beam.
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 Capture a selected VOR or localizer course from a selected heading or fixed angle
intercept.
 Maintain a selected pitch attitude.
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HDG mode
When the pilot wishes to change heading using the FDS, the HDG knob is employed to move
the heading marker on the HSI to the required heading. As already discussed, the movement of
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the heading knob moves the rotor of the CT (Control Transformer) in the HSI to create a
heading error signal. This is fed to the command bars on the ADI, the pilot flies the aircraft
following the command bars; once a command is performed, the aircraft is on the desired
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heading.
The following figure shows an aircraft on a heading of 90°, which changes to a heading of 180°.
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Fig. 4.62 - HDG mode

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We will now consider how the electrical signal works. The heading signal generation is fed to a
command limiter. The heading error signal could be very large and command a large bank
angle, but this is not optimal for aircraft and passengers. The signal is thus limited, within the
limits of aircraft performance and passenger comfort. If a large heading error signal is
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generated, the limiter transmits a signal to command a maximum allowable bank angle, until
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the error signal reaches below the bank limit. This signal is an AC signal generated from the
synchro in the HIS, which is fed via the limiter to the mixing point.
The roll attitude input is an AC synchro input from the vertical gyro amplified and fed to a
mixing point. At the mixing point you thus have the roll attitude signal and the heading error
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signal. The gyro signal opposes the bank command signal. The resultant signal is fed to an
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amplifier and a phase detector, where a dc steering right turn signal is generated. The phase of
the error signal is determined by the direction of the error, if the signal commands a right roll,
then the output from the phase detector is positive with respect to ground, for a left roll the
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output would be negative. The dc signal from the computer is converted to ac in the
instrument amplifier and fed to the command bars in the ADI. When the pilot responds to the
commands and banks the aircraft in the direction indicated, the vertical gyro generates an
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error signal, whose phase opposes the bank command signal. The two signals are cancelled
when the aircraft is at the commanded bank angle. As the aircraft turns, the bank command
signal decreases and the opposing gyro signal appears greater than the original command
signal, while the command signal is now roll out of the turn. As the pilot follows the
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commands, the horizon and command bars move back to level flight indication.
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VOR and LOC modes

VOR and Localizer are both angular systems with the beam widening as the distance from the
station increases. The distance from the beam is given in degrees rather than miles.
This result in an apparent gain change in the VOR/LOC receiver, when compared to a fixed
distance.
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Changing the interception angle, will change the rate at which an aircraft crosses angular
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radials. As an aircraft flies at a fixed angle to its desired course, it crosses adjacent radials at an
accelerating rate. Furthermore, the localizer signals change at a rate 4 times higher than that
of a VOR signal.
In conclusion, these problems are due to:
 Airspeed
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 Angle of intercept
 Distance from the station
 Differences in VOR/LOC characteristics
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A major problem in tracking a beam is crosswind. It is necessary to fly with a constant crab
angle in order to maintain a track along the radio beam.
To overcome this problem a modification of the radio signal, taking into consideration closing
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rate and aircraft performance, is necessary as well as an adjustment of the commanded turn
point. Once capture is obtained, a steady course error can exist without generating a steering
command.
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Fig. 4.63 - Modification of a radio signal
In past systems this modification of the radio signal was achieved by taking all the input signals
in this mode, feeding them through rate adjust circuits and then applying them to a
complimentary filter. The filter high bypass section blocked the steady state signals, so that the
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rate signals were the only output. The output of the filler was a rate signal and a complement
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of the acceleration component of the original radio signal. This 180° out-of-phase signal was
then mixed with the radio at a summing point. The resultant signal was a modified radio signal,
i.e. a radio signal, which has the acceleration component removed. This gives a radio signal
decreasing at a linear rate proportional to the rate at which the aircraft is approaching the
radial. It is now possible to command the turn onto a radial at the right time, regardless of the
distance from the station.
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There were two possible methods of approaching in these kinds of system: ‘any angle of
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approach’ or ‘fixed angle approach’.

In the first method the mode selector switch is switched directly from HDG to VOR/LOC. The
important aspect in this case is that the aircraft stays in the HDG mode until VOR captures. The
aircraft must obviously be within a certain distance from a VOR station and tuned to the VHF
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frequency of that station. The pilot puts his heading marker to the present aircraft heading
using the HDG knob and then selects the required route by using the COURSE knob and the
mode selector, directly chosen from HEADING to VOR/LOC.
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The aircraft stays in the HDG mode until VOR capture, then there is a smooth intercept
command to the radial. Note that the central section of the deviation bar gives deviation from
radial in degrees: 1 dot = 5° deviation, 2 dot = 10° deviation; while, the annunciator give the
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pilot indication related to the arming of the mode and the capture of the VOR radial.
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Fig. 4.64 - VOR any angle approach

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The second method present a main difference: the Flight Director is placed immediately in the
VOR mode, rather than remaining in the HDG mode until the capture. Rotating the mode
selector switch from HDG to GS (Glideslope) and back to VOR, i.e. going past VOR and then
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back to VOR, tells the computer that a fixed angle mode is wanted. So, the HDG mode is
switched out and the command bar signals a 20° interception of the selected course.
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Fig. 4.65 - VOR fixed angle approach
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The inputs to the system are route error, radio deviation from the navigation receiver and roll
attitude from the vertical gyro.
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Fig. 4.66 - VOR/LOC mode signal path
The two controlling signals are Course Error and Radio Deviation. Assume an aircraft is flying
onto a radial using fixed angle capture. The capture is represented as occurring at two dots
deviation on the HSI, intercepted angle is 45°, with a selected course of 90°.
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The Course Error Signal calls for right wing down, the radio deviation signal calls for left wing
down, these two signals are combined at mixing point 2 and are in opposition between each
other. The resultant signal is fed through the bank limiter, where at mixing point 3 it is mixed
with the roll attitude of the aircraft to give the final dc steering signal to the command. This
final signal ensures a smooth interception of the radial, taking into account the distance from
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the station, airspeed, angle of interception and pilot’s response time.
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The LOC mode enables the pilot to pick up a localizer route on approach. It uses exactly the
same circuits as in the VOR mode, except from the fact that gains and limits within the
computer are tightened up considerably, as LOC signals change at a rate four times higher than
VOR signals. When the NAV RCVR is tuned to a LOC frequency, a discriminator circuit in the
receiver signals it to the computer.
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Glide slope mode GS
The pilot selects the GS mode and commands will be generated to follow the glide slope beam.
The input signals are a vertical gyro pitch and a dc glide slope deviation signal from the
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navigation receiver. Remember that the radio signal is a VHF signal and glide slope deviation is
displayed on the side of the HSI and ADI, with a typical value close to 0.35° per dot.
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Fig. 4.67 - GS mode
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As the aircraft flies down the glide slope, the signal gets stronger and stronger due to the
beam convergence; therefore, at certain points down the glide slope the gain of the receiver is
reduced, usually triggered by a radio altimeter signal.
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The two inputs signals are the gyro pitch and the glide slope deviation.
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Fig. 4.68 - GS mode signal path at capture

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The glide slope is normally captured after the localizer, its range being typically in the region of
10 nm. The beam capture mode point is normally reached from below the beam and the
deviation creates a nose up command. The desired condition is a nose down command. This is
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achieved by an internally generated pitch down bias signal of 2°, which is mixed with the gyro
pitch signal to cancel the nose up command and initiate the descent as the beam capture
occurs.
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Once the aircraft is established on the glide path in a nose down attitude, it is essential to
wash out the gyro pitch signal. This because such a signal attempts to command the aircraft to
return to flight level. This is achieved by an integrator circuit similar in action to that already
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discussed for the VOR mode. This time, the vertical gyro pitch signal is the signal washed out.
The glideslope deviation signal is gain adjusted, fed to command limiter and then mixed with
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the direct signal from the gyro. The output is then fed to the command bars on the ADI, as a
command signal via the amplifier and phase converter.
Many of the flight directors incorporate other operation modes, such as:
 ALT: the command bars provide vertical guidance to hold the aircraft at the desired
altitude.
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 IAS: selected to maintain a particular indicated airspeed during climb out after take-off
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and during let down over a VOR station.

 MACH: as for IAS, but selected at higher altitudes.
 V/S: selected to maintain a vertical speed. The command bars provide vertical
guidance.
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13.4.12 Working principles of ILS
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ILS: operation and ground equipment
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is the primary precision approach facility for the civil
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aviation. It provides glide path information both for the glide slope and for the course
guidance. The ILS provides approach guidance also in poor visibility conditions.
On ground, the ILS system comprises three different elements, each of which requires ground
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transmitters and airborne receivers:
 A localizer: provides lateral steering signals for front course and back course
approaches to the runway.
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 A glide slope: provides vertical steering signals for landing in one direction on the
runway.
 Two or three radio markers beacons with a vertical transmission, called outer, inner
and middle markers: provide spot checks of position at predetermined distances from
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the threshold of the runway.
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Fig. 4.69 - Locations of ILS ground antennas
Localizer
The localizer antenna consists of a variable number of dipole and reflector elements. It is
located in line with the runway centre line, at a distance of approximately 300 m from the
threshold of the runway, opposite to the landing direction. The localizer aerial is designed to
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receive very high frequency radio signals, between 108 and 112 MHz. The aerial is horizontally
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polarized half wave folded dipole and has a characteristic impedance of 50 Ohms. It exhibits a
VSWR of 2:1 or less over the localizer frequency range. The localizer supplies approach
guidance along the prolongation of the centre line of the runway in use. The localizer transmits
in the VHF band, between 108.10 and 111.95 MHz, only on frequencies with the first decimal
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odd, because those with the even number are used by the VOR.
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Fig. 4.70 - Localizer and glide path paired frequencies
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The radio signal transmitted by the localizer creates two overlapping lobes, which are
conventionally called blue lobe and yellow lobe. These two lobes are transmitted on a single
localizer frequency, but in order to ensure their distinct reception, they are modulated
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differently. This difference in modulation is called Difference in Depth of Modulation (DDM).
For an aircraft approaching, the left yellow lobe is modulated at 90 Hz, while the right blue
lobe is modulated at 150 Hz. If the aircraft is positioned at the left side of the centre line of the
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runway, it will easily detect the 90 Hz signal. On the contrary, if the aircraft is at the right side
of the runway centre line, it will capture the blue signal at 150 Hz. The line of the correct
approaching path has a DDP null and is defined by the centre line of the localizer signal, which
coincides with the centre line of the runway used for landings.
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The coverage of the localizer should provide adequate signals for a distance of 25 NM, within
10° on either side of the runway centre line. However, from a distance of 17 NM, the localizer
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coverage must be guaranteed between 10° and 35 ° on either side of the runway centre line.
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Fig. 4.71 - Localizer lobes

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The ILS localizer course sector is nominally 700 feet wide at the threshold of the runway. The
ILS localizer is adjusted so that the difference in depth of modulation (DDM) corresponds to
15.5% for a deviation of 350 feet left or right from the centerline at the centerline at the
runway threshold.
A difference in depth of modulation of 15.5% detected by an aircraft localizer receiver
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produces an output of 150 microamps to each course indicator, provoking a full-scale
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deflection to the left or right. The variation or difference in depth of modulation, with respect
to angular displacement from the course line, is linear from 0 to 18% DDM, corresponding to
angles between 0 and 3° off the route. At larger angles the difference in depth of modulation is
maintained above 15.5%, so that the aircraft course indicator never indicates less than the full-
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scale deflection outside the course sector.

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The back course, at 180°, allows the localizer to be used for landing in a direction opposite to
the front course, even if without a glide slope and with reversed needle indications.
The ICAO requires that for Category II landings, within the last 3500 feet preceding the
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threshold, the localizer beam bends less than 0.005 difference in depth of modulation,
corresponding to 15 feet, 0.07° off the course and 5 microamps at the indicators.
The localizer receiver is essentially a VHF receiver in the frequency band ranging from 108.10
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to 111.95 MHz. In the receiver, the amplitude modulation of the localizer carrier is detected
and filtered into its 90 Hz, 150 Hz and audio frequency components.
The audio frequencies are amplified to allow the identification of the transmitter by the Morse
code ident at 1020 Hz. The 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones are amplified, reflecting and compared in
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amplitude by a comparator circuit, which controls the left/right pointer of a deviation
indicator.
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Fig. 4.72 - Localizer receiver sw

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The circuit is adjusted to give zero output for a receiver RF input, which is modulated to depth
of 20% by each of the two tones. This corresponds to a null difference in depth of modulation:
the on-course condition.
A flag alarm circuit is included in the receiver to warn the pilot of any malfunctioning. The flag
is usually operated by a moving coil mechanism. The current obtained is the sum of the
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rectified 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones producing 250 microamps. The flag remains out of view as
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long as these currents are maintained.

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Glide slope
The glide slope transmitting aerial is usually placed at the side of the runway, at about 300 m
(1000ft) from the runway threshold and at 150 m from the centre line. The glide slope aerial is
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a horizontally polarized half wave folded dipole and has a characteristic impedance of 50
Ohms. It exhibits a VSWR of 2:1 or less over the glide path frequency range.
The glide slope provides the approach guidance in the vertical plane. It transmits in the UHF
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band from 329.15 to 335 MHz, in order to guarantee a more accurate and narrower signal
beam. The frequency of the localizer and the glide slope are coupled, so that when the pilot
selects the frequency of the localizer, the airborne system is able to pick up automatically also
the signal of the coupled glide path.
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The glide slope signal is transmitted in the vertical plane and can be conventionally divided
into two lobes, in a similar way as in the case of the localizer. The upper lobe is modulated at
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90 Hz, while the lower lobe is modulated at 150 Hz. Both signals are transmitted on a single
frequency of the glide slope. In this case too, the modulation difference is called Difference in
Depth of Modulation (DDM). The airborne instrument is able to detect this DDP and to indicate
if the airplane is following the correct glide path. The correct glide path is the line along which
the two modulations are equal in depth. The correct glide path is generally of 3° from the
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horizontal plane, but it could be modified between 2° and 4°, in order to suit the particular
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local conditions.
The coverage of the glide slope, along the landing direction, extends of 8° on either side of the
centre line of the runway, until a distance of 10 NM. In the vertical plane the coverage of the
glide slope exceeds from 0.45 times to 1.75 times the nominal glide angle, above the ground
surface.
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Fig. 4.73 - Glide slope lobes

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The glide slope receiver is essentially a UHF receiver in a frequency band ranging from 328.6 to
335.4 MHz with 150 kHz spacing between channels.
The 90 Hz and 150 Hz tones detected from the carrier are amplified, rectified and compared in
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amplitude by a comparator circuit, which controls the up/down pointer of a deviation
indicator. The circuit is adjusted to give zero output for a receiver RF input that is modulated to
a depth of 40% by each of the two tones. This corresponds to a zero difference in depth of
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modulation, the on-glide path condition and the pointer are centered on the scale.
The flag circuit is the same as in the localizer receiver.
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Fig. 4.74 - Glide path receiver
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Since the localizer and glide path receivers are similar, a single block diagram can represent
them.
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Fig. 4.75 - Amplitude comparator deflection circuit

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With normal RF signal strength, the receiver AGC maintains the carrier signal at a constant
level. The detected 90 Hz and 150 Hz components are therefore directly proportional to the
respective depths of modulation. The signals is amplified by an audio amplifier and applied to
90 Hz and 150 Hz pass filters that separate the frequencies. Each frequency is rectified by a
bridge rectifier and a positive dc voltage, directly proportional to the depth of modulation of
the input signal, is developed.
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An input signal with equal modulation depth for 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulations develops a
positive dc voltage out of each rectifier, so that voltages are equal.
The rectifier output voltages are applied to a meter movement, which is zero-center
microampere meter and requires 150 microamperes for a full-scale deflection. When the
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voltages on both sides of the meter are of the same polarity and magnitude, there is no
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difference in potential across the meter and therefore no current flows through the meter and
the meter will remain in zero position.
When one signal is greater than the other, one output voltage from the rectifiers is greater
than the other and a potential difference exists across the meter. The magnitude of the
potential difference exists across the meter. The magnitude of the potential difference
depends on the difference between the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals. The greater the potential
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difference, the greater the deflection of the meter pointer.
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The resistor marked adjust flag is common to both rectifiers and the current through the
resistor is the sum of the currents produced by the two rectifiers. Since the current is
proportional to the audio voltage applied to each rectifier and the audio is proportional to the
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depth of modulation, the total current through this resistor is proportional to the sum of the
two currents and is called flag current.
The meter movement connected across the adjust flag resistor responds to changes in current
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through the adjust flag resistor. This is a 1000-Ohm movement that actuates a flag, which is
visible until the movement reaches a predetermined value. A flag condition known as Peeping
Flag, where the flag is almost hidden by a mask, occurs with 240 microamps of current. When
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the flag is visible, it indicates the pilot that the RF field strength or total modulation is not
sufficient to provide valid deflection readings.
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Fig. 4.76 - Comparator and indicator movement
The current resulting from the voltage developed across the 150 Hz rectifier flows through R1,
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R2 and the deviation indicator meter to deflect the deviation bar to the left and produce a
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positive voltage at P1.

Current resultant from the voltage developed across the 90 Hz rectifier flows through the
deviation indicator meter to deflect the deviation bar to the right and produce a positive
voltage at P2. The failure warning flag is supplied with the sum of the deviation bar operating
currents and is not visible as long as these currents are maintained.
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Markers
The purpose of the markers is that of providing distance information, while the aircraft is doing
the approaching procedure. Generally, the ILS installations are equipped with two markers,
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called outer marker and middle marker. The third marker, called inner marker, is installed only
for particular ILS system. The antennas of the markers are located at variable distance from
the runway threshold, along the extension of the runway centre line and exactly under the
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correct glide path.
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Fig. 4.77 - Marker beacons
The marker beacons operate on a frequency of 75 MHz, in the VHF band. However, the signals
of the 3 markers are modulated on different frequencies, in order to facilitate its identification
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during the approach procedures. The signal of the outer marker is modulated at 400 Hz, that
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of the middle marker at 1300 Hz, while the signal of the inner marker is modulated at 300 Hz.
The marker beacons are frequently co-located with an NDB and they appear in the cone of
silence of the radio-aid.
An aircraft performing an instrument landing procedure meets first of all the outer marker,
which is generally positioned at a distance ranging from 7 to 12 Km before the runway
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threshold. When the aircraft flies over this marker, the airborne receiver detects the signal and
the cockpit systems give the pilot visual and aural indications. On the control panel of the
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system or on the display of the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS), a blue light switches
on and an audio Morse tone related to the identification of the marker is audible.
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As the aircraft continues the approaching process, it meets the middle marker, which is usually
located at a variable distance, 1 to 2 Km before the runway threshold. When the aircraft flies
over this marker, the airborne receiver detects the signal and the cockpit systems give the pilot
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visual and aural indications. On the control panel of the system or on the EFIS display an amber
light switches on and an audio Morse tone related to the identification of the marker is
audible.
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When the aircraft is very close to the runway used for landings, it flies over the inner marker,
generally installed at about 75-450 meters from the runway threshold. When the aircraft flies
over this marker, in the cockpit a white light switches on and an audio Morse tone for
identification of the marker is emitted.
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The ideal flight path of approach is that where the localizer plane and the glide slope signal
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intersect. The marker beacons provide accurate distance information along the runway.
The marker beacon receiver processes signals from a ground station and provides visual and
aural signals to indicate the passage over the ground beacon.
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Fig. 4.78 - Marker beacon receiver

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The marker beacon receiver is fixed tuned to receive 75 MHz amplitude modulated signals.
The 75 MHz incoming signal from the aerial is applied through a selective LC filter to a crystal
controlled converter, where it is mixed with a local oscillator signal to generate an
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intermediate frequency IF signal. This IF signal is filtered and amplified, before being applied to
the detector stage, where the audio component (400, 1300 or 3000 Hz) is detected. The
detected signal is amplified in the audio amplifier, the output of which divides and drives the
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audio power amplifier.
The output signal from the audio power amplifier is fed through an output transformer to the
headphones for aural monitoring of the marker beacon system. Audio output from the audio
light driver is fed through a three-stage frequency selective filter, separating the audio into its
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400, 1300 or 3000 Hz components, which turn on the corresponding marker beacon lights.
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The sensitivity and automatic gain control of a marker receiver are important in determining
the period of time during which a visual indication is obtained when flying over a marker
beacon. A switch is provided to allow the pilot to adjust the sensitivity of the marker beacon
receiver. The HIGH sensitivity setting is used at high altitudes and the LOW sensitivity setting is
used at low altitudes. The changeover is often made at 10000 feet. On LOW sensitivity the
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aerial input required to light the marker lamps is typically 10 dB greater than on HIGH
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sensitivity.
ILS: aircraft equipment

The airborne equipment comprises some receivers and some antennas for the localizer, the
glide slope and the markers receivers, a panel to select the frequencies of the system and a
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cockpit instrument. However, in the glass cockpits this indicator is substituted by some
monitors of the EFIS, which display information in a clearer and simpler way.
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The traditional ILS indicator is similar to that of a VOR, with the difference of having two
needles, one vertical and one horizontal.
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Fig. 4.79 - ILS receiver
The localizer signal displaces the vertical needle, while the glide slope signal moves the
horizontal one. When the airborne receiver of the localizer detects that the 150 Hz signal is
stronger, the vertical needle moves to the left. This configuration indicates that the centre line
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of the localizer signal is on the left of the aircraft during the approaching. Instead, if the 90 Hz
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signal predominates, the needle displaces to the right, indicating that the pilot has to turn right
to get back on the correct approach path.
The operation of the horizontal needle is based on the same principle. If the aircraft is too high
in comparison to the centre line of the glide slope signal, the needle moves downwards. On
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the contrary, if the aircraft is too low, the needle goes up and informs the pilot regarding he
maneuvers to perform, in order to re-conduct the aircraft on the correct vertical path of
approach.
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When the aircraft is on the correct glide path, both the vertical needle and the horizontal one
are at the centre of the instrument.
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However, some localizers also transmit in a direction opposite to the classic approach
direction. In this case, the aircraft can adopt an opposite approach, called back course. The
aircraft has the signal modulated at 150Hz on its right and the signal modulated at 90 Hz on its
left. Consequently, the instrument provides anti-instinctive information. Generally, the back
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course is used in the instrument procedures prior to a first runway approach in a direction
opposite to that of landing, followed by a course inversion of 180°, which must lead the
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aircraft on the real approach.
ILS: critical and the sensitive areas

When dealing with the ILS, it is important to define what the critical and sensitive areas are.
The ILS critical area is an area of defined dimensions, identified around the localizer and the
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glide slope antennas, from where vehicles, including aircraft, are excluded during the
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operation of the system. This area protects the functioning of the ILS from unacceptable
disturbances caused by the presence of vehicles.
The ILS sensitive area extends beyond the critical one. In this sector the movements or the
parking of aircraft are controlled, in order to prevent any interference with the system
operation. The dimensions of the sensitive area depend on the size of aircraft entering the
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sector. The bigger the aircraft, the larger the sensitive area.
ILS: errors
Even if all ILS ground equipment are strictly monitored, some false signals may develop.
The development of false signals is associated with the glide slope transmission and consists in
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the reflection of 90 Hz and 150 Hz lobes. This reflection is due to the aerial height above the
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reflecting ground surface and to the propagation characteristics of the antenna. However, the
false signals only occur at multiples of the nominal glide path and thus, for a glide path of 3°,
the first false signal occurs at approximately 6° above the horizontal. It is important to
underline that there will never be any false signals below the true signal. In order to reduce or
to eliminate the possibility to meet a false signal, the interception of the glide slope must be
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always performed starting from the bottom, holding the aircraft at the height indicated by the
procedure, until the interception can be considered done.
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However, false signals of the localizer may be encountered, especially outside its coverage
area. In this case, the angle between the centre line of the signal and the false beams will vary
according to the elements number of the localizer antenna. For example, an aerial with 6
elements produces a false beam at approximately 40°.
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ILS: categories
With reference to the degree of reliability of the ILS, the systems can be divided into 3
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categories: cat I, cat II e cat III. The parameters, which characterize every category, are the
values of the decision height (DH) and of the runway visual range (RVR).
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A system of CAT I provides information below a decision height of 200 ft (about 60 m), when
the RVR is greater than 550 m. A system of CAT II can be used until a decision height of 100 ft
(30 m) is reached, when the RVR is greater than 300 m. The category III of the ILS can be
divided in 3 sub-categories: III A, III B, III C. The system of CAT III A can be used when the
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decision height is less than 100 ft and when the RVR is greater than 200 m. The system of CAT
III B provides guide information until a decision height of 50 ft (about 15 m), when the RVR is
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less than 200 m, but not less than 75 m. The system of CAT III C operates without limitations
regarding the decision height and the RVR.
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13.4.13 Working principles of MLS
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MLS: operation and equipment
The Microwave Landing System (MLS) is a precision approach system that provides the pilot
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with very accurate information about the glide path. The system is also capable of transmitting
other types of information to the aircraft, such as the station identification, the system status,
the runway information and weather conditions.
The MLS is originally designed to replace or supplement the ILS. Although some MLS systems
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actually became operative in the 90s, the widespread initially envisioned by its designers has
never come true. The MLS operates on 200 channels, on frequencies comprised between 5.03
and 5.09 GHz, in the SHF band. It is a completely digital system that is less influenced by
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weather and by common sources of disturbances. The basic ground installation consists of five
main elements:
 An azimuth transmitter, which executes the same task of the ILS localizer.
 An elevation transmitter, which executes the same task of the glide slope of the ILS.
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 A precision DME, used as a normal DME, in order to provide accurate distances from
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the runway threshold.

 A flare elevation station.
 A back azimuth station.
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Fig. 4.80 - MLS airfield components

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The principle on which the MLS is based is called Time Reference Scan Beam (TRSB). This
method, in order to define the angular position in azimuth and in elevation, is based on two
scanning beams. These scannings are made by the ground beam, on all coverage range. The
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first scanning is that of departing (TO), immediately followed by the second one of return
(FROM).
The airborne equipment is able to measure the time that passes between the reception of the
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first signal (TO scanning) and that of the second one (FROM scanning). The airborne
equipment is then able to transform the measured time difference into positional information,
providing the value of the radial on which the aircraft is flying. Moreover, this information is
coupled with the datum related to the distance of the aircraft from the runway threshold,
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generated by the DME. In this way it is possible to determine the 3-dimensional position of the
approaching aircraft.
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In the cockpit, the display of the MLS instrument can vary according to the complexity of the
installed equipment. The simplest type is represented by the indicator, opportunely modified,
which is traditionally used for the ILS. The most sophisticated airborne systems have the
possibility to reproduce the approach information in 3 dimensions, using the monitors of the
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS).
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MLS employs a Time Multiplex signal format. All ground stations transmit on a single frequency
allocated to a certain approach and time multiplexing is used to separate the various angle and
data functions. The transmissions from the various aerial are sequenced in time.
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Fig. 4.81 - MLS time multiplexed signal format
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The function blocks, such as azimuth, elevation, flare, back azimuth and auxiliary data can be
arranged in any combination, the only requirement being that a minimum data rate is to be
maintained for each function. The reason a function can be transmitted in any order lies in the
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fact that a preamble function identification message is associated with each function.
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Fig. 4.82 - MLS function block format
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The preamble is transmitted from a wide beam aerial at the beginning of each function block.
The first part of the preamble is a synchronising burst of unmodulated carrier. Then, a code is
transmitted and allows a time reference to be established in the airborne receiver. The final
part of the preamble is a function code, which identifies the transmission block as being either
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azimuth, elevation, flare, back azimuth or auxiliary data.
The selector signal transmitted after the preamble is made up of three distinct parts. The first
part is a four-character identification code for the particular station and have the same
function as the ILS ident. After the ident code, a constant amplitude limited duration signal is
transmitted and is used by the aircraft receiver to decide which of its aerials is receiving the
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strongest signal. The last part of the sector signal is the Out of Coverage Indication pulses,
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which are transmitted by the azimuth and elevation systems to provide proper flag indication,
when flying outside the system coverage sector.
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After the preamble and sector signals have been transmitted, the TO and FROM pulses used to
determine the approach angles are radiated. The auxiliary data generally consists of
environmental information such as equipment siting geometry, runway visual range and wind
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information.
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Fig. 4.83 - Aircraft MLS system

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MLS: comparison with the ILS
The MLS system, even if not very common, has some remarkable advantages, if compared to
the ILS system popularly installed on airfields.
Its great advantage is the possibility for aircraft to perform the runway approaches with
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trajectories different from the straight one. This fact is very important especially for
helicopters and military jets.
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Moreover, some installations can have a back azimuth signal and a flare element too. The back
azimuth is perceived beyond the end of the runway in use: for this reason it is used to provide
navigational guidance during take-offs and during missed approach procedures.
Another advantage of the MLS is the possibility to use smaller antennas, because the
frequency of the transmitted signal is very high. These antennas do not need to be placed at
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specific points of the airfield and their placement is thus simpler that the ILS installation.
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13.4.14 Working principles of VL frequency and hyperbolic navigation
systems
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Hyperbolic systems: operation
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The hyperbolic systems of radio-navigation are all navigational systems using the geometric
proprieties of the hyperbole in order to calculate the aircraft position.
In geometry, the hyperbole is a curved line, whose main characteristic is that all its points have
the same distance difference between two fixed references, called focuses.
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The airborne equipment is able to get information about the aircraft position in the space,
calculating the distances of the aircraft from the selected focuses, which are represented by
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ground stations. Multiplying the time between two next signals receipts by the propagation
velocity of the radio wave, it is possible to obtain the aircraft position. This position will results
from the intersection of two hyperboles.
In order to guarantee a correct calculation of the aircraft position, the main characteristic of all
hyperbolic navigational system is the synchronization of different ground stations.
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The main hyperbolic navigation systems are:

 The Loran
 The Omega
 The Decca
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Loran
The Loran system (LOng RAnge Navigation) is a system of hyperbolic navigation at long range.
The first type of Loran system is called Loran A, while the following are the Loran B and the
Loran C. The Loran C is the most modern system. It becomes operative in the '70s and
transmits signals in the LF band, at a frequency of 100 KHz. sw
The functioning of the LORAN system is based on a series of chains of ground stations that
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emit a signal, which is then processed by the airborne equipment of aircraft. The LORAN uses
27 chains of stations. Each chain is made of a main station, called master and of a variable
number of secondary stations, called slave. The minimum number of the slave for each chain is
two, while the maximum number is four. Each slave can belong to one or more chains of the
system. Each master and slave station of a chain represents the focus of a series of hyperboles,
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everyone identified with a number. The line, which connects the master station with each
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slave, is called base line.

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Since all chains of the Loran C system transmit on the same radio frequency, in order to avoid
possible interferences, each chain is identified by a different GRI (Group Repetition Interval).
The GRI parameter indicates a different time delay that passes between the transmission of a
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signal and another by the master.
The GRIs are chosen on the base of:
 The base line length between the master and the slaves.
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 The number of slaves connected to the master.
 The ground orography.
Thanks to the GRI parameter, the transmissions of the slave signals are synchronized with
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those of the master. The master station transmits an omni-directional signal, made of a series
of 9 pulses, which permits the identification of the transmitting station. This signal is received
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both by the slave stations and by the airborne aircraft receiver.

After the receipt of the signal emitted by the master, each salve station transmits its own
omni-directional signal, made of series of 8 codified pulses picked up by the airborne receiver.
This signal is transmitted with a particular time delay of few microseconds, in relation to the
moment in which each slave receives the master signal.
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The delay of codification, called secondary coding delay, is typical for every station of the chain
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and has the scope to permit that the airborne receiver always feels the master signal before
the slave pulses, in order to guarantee a correct identification of the aircraft position.
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Fig. 4.84 - Operational principle of the Loran system

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The airborne receiver determines the aircraft position measuring the time difference between
the receipt of the master signal and the reception of the slaves signals. In this way, the aircraft
equipment calculates the distance difference between the master station and every slave
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stations of which it has received the signal and it identifies the hyperboles on which the
aircraft is. The aircraft position is represented by the cross point of two calculated hyperboles,
also called LOP (line of position). Thus, in order to find the aircraft position, one master station
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and at least two slaves are required.
The airborne equipment of the LORAN system can be divided into two main categories.
Devices of small dimensions and low cost are installed on light aircraft of the general aviation.
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Usually, these panels put together the receiver, the indicator and the control panel of the
system in an unique instrument. These equipment are installed together with the other radio
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devices in the cockpit. On aircraft of bigger dimensions, the more expensive devices of greater
sizes are installed. These equipment have the receiver circuits installed in the fuselage,
together with other avionic components and the control panel and the indicator placed in the
cockpit, between the pilots’ seats. In the glass cockpit information related to the LORAN
system are integrated in the displays of the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS).
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The LORAN system can present some errors about the determination of the aircraft position,
which are caused by the incorrect measuring of the time interval spent by signals to reach the
receiver. Below are the main causes of errors:
 The propagation of the signal is influenced by the dawn and sunset effect. The dawn
and the sunset induce some reactions on the ionosphere, which disturb the
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functioning of the LORAN.
 The transmission of the signal is influenced by the electric discharges of the
atmospheric phenomena, such as the lightning and the magnetic storms.
It important to underline that the employment of the Loran system is possible only when the
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receiver is within the coverage area of a chain of transmitting stations. With the scope to
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enhance these limitations, another system, called Enhanced LORAN or E-LORAN, has been
designed. This system increases the accuracy and utility of the traditional LORAN system,
giving it the possibility to compete with the Global Positioning System (GPS). The E-LORAN
receivers do not limit themselves to a unique chain, but are able to receive data from a
maximum of 40 different stations. Because of its characteristics the E-LORAN system
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represents a possible replacement of the GPS system, for all situations in which this is not
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effective or available.
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Omega
The OMEGA system was the first global long-range navigational system, used by aircraft. It was
managed by the USA, in collaboration with other 6 partner countries. Its development was
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approved in the sixties.
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Fig. 4.85 - Ground stations of the Omega system
The OMEGA system was only made up of 8 transmitters, that is 8 ground stations. The range of
an OMEGA station was about 4000 NM, with a precision capacity in calculating the position of
about 6 Km. The OMEGA stations, through large antennas, transmitted a signal at very low
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frequency (VLF), between 10 and 14 KHz. This signal was made of a series of 4 tones and was
unique for each station. This signal was repeated every 10 seconds.
An airborne OMEGA receiver could find the position of the aircraft by using the signals coming
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from 3 stations and applying the principle of the phase comparison of the received signals. The
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airborne receiver, comparing two of three signals, generated a first line of position (LOP),
which was then crossed with a second LOP, calculated considering also the third received
signal. The intersection of these two lines represented the aircraft position. However, thank to
the GPS success, the use of the OMEGA system has decreased over the nineties, becoming
inoperative in 1997.
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Each Omega ground stations transmits sequentially a series of three VLF continuous wave
pulses, followed by a station identification signal, whose frequency is specific to the emitting
station.
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Fig. 4.86 - Omega signal format
The three VLF pulses are transmitted at 10.2 kHz, 11.33 kHz and 13.6 kHz. The length of each
pulse varies between 0.9 and 1.2 seconds according to the station and frequency in use. There
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is a silent period of 0.2 seconds between the end of one set of 3 transmissions and the start of
the next set. The complete sequence takes 10 seconds. All Omega stations are phase locked to
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a nearly absolute time standard and the extreme accuracy in timing is made possible by the
use of atomic clocks. At very low frequencies the noise levels are high and thus, in order to
receive long-range signals, the receiver must be extremely selective. The basic phase
difference measurement is performed on the 10.2 kHz signals and the 11.33 kHz and 13.65 kHz
signals are applied to the 10.2 kHz signals to resolve anomalies.
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The phase relationship of the signals is a function of the position of the aircraft with regard to
the position of ground stations. The receiver predetermines corrections for propagation
anomalies and resolves the phase relationship into a latitude/longitude position.
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Fig. 4.87 - Omega system block diagram

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Decca
The Decca was a hyperbolic radio-navigational system, initially used in Northern Europe during
the Second World War. This system transmitted continuous radio waves at low frequencies
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(LF). In order to determine the aircraft position, the Decca used a comparison of the received
signals phases, operating in a way similar to the OMEGA system. The Decca used 4 ground
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stations: a master, two slaves and a control station.

The range of the system was about 400 NM during the day and 200 NM during the night,
according to the different propagation conditions. The Decca system fell into disuse in the
spring of 2000, undermined by the new systems of global positioning, such as the GPS.
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13.4.15 Working principles of Doppler navigation systems
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Doppler effect
The Doppler effect is an apparent variation of the frequency of radio waves, due to the relative
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motion of the waves source in relation to an observer.
A classic example of this effect is the study of the ambulance siren. While the vehicle is moving
towards the observer, he hears a sound higher than the effective alarm emitted. Conversely,
the sound seems to be lower while the ambulance is moving away from the observer. This
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phenomenon happens because as the sound source (the ambulance) approaches the observer,
the distance between two successive waves becomes shorter and the frequency appears
higher. On the contrary, when the ambulance goes away from the observer, the waves reach
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the observer in a longer time interval. In this case, the wave frequency seems lower than the
original one. sw
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Fig. 4.88 - Doppler effect

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This apparent frequency variation is proportional to the relative velocity and inversely
proportional to the wavelength of the emitted signal. This effect is employed in diverse fields,
such as the medical, aviation and meteorological sector.
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Doppler navigation: operation
The Doppler navigation is a navigational self-contained method independent from the ground
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radio-aids. The Doppler navigational system uses the Doppler effect to calculate the position of
the aircraft in the space.
The airborne system, by sending some radio wave beams towards the ground, is able to
calculate the apparent frequency variation of the return signal, which is reflected by the
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ground. Knowing this variation, the Doppler navigational system is also able to determine the
relative velocity of the aircraft in relation to the ground. The new position of the aircraft can be
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calculated by integrating the relative velocity and summing it up to the previous reporting
point.
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Fig. 4.89 - Beams transmitted by a Doppler navigation system

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The heart of the aircraft inertial navigation system is represented by a Doppler transmitter and
a Doppler receiver.
The Doppler transmitter sends towards the ground 3 or 4 inclined narrow beams, modulated
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in frequency. When these signals meet the ground, they are reflected in the direction of the
emitter.
Each reflected signal, with a frequency different from those of the original one, is picked-up by
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the airborne receiver. The frequency of the reflected signals is compared with the frequency of
the transmitted signal, in order to provide an accurate decoding of the quantity and direction
of the frequency shift, which is caused by the aircraft movement in respect to the ground.
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This frequency shift is processed by the aircraft computer, in order to obtain the values of the
components of the longitudinal speed, the lateral speed and the vertical speed. These values
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are compensated from the pitch and roll effects of the aircraft. Then, the computer processes
the other information, such as the travelled space and the new position of the aircraft.
Moreover, the Doppler navigation system is also able to calculate with precision the
transversal component of the wind, from which the drift angle is deduced. The receiver
translates the frequency variations, between each transmitted wave and the corresponding
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reflected one, into electromotive force. This force activates an electric motor that moves the
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airborne antenna of the system around a vertical axis. The electromotive force acts until a
frequency shift is present between the transmitted wave and the received one. This force
stops when the axis of the antenna is parallel to the motion direction: the angle by which the
antenna rotates is equal to the angle between the direction of the aircraft heading and the
direction of the motion. This motion is the drift angle.
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Doppler navigation: control panel
The airborne Doppler system is managed by the pilot through an appropriate control panel.
The system is integrated with a digital indicator, installed on the instrument panel, which is
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similar to that of the DME. The panel provides the pilot with information about the distance in
nautical miles, with a maximum of 399 NM, the ground speed in knots and the time,
approximated to minutes, for the selected destination.
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The control panel is also connected to a circuit of attenuation, which automatically regulates
the luminous intensity of the indications in relation to the environmental conditions.
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Fig. 4.90 - Control panel of Doppler navigation system
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Doppler navigation: limitation

The most serious problems, connected to the use of a system based on the Doppler navigation,
are associated to the different reflection capabilities of various types of terrain, to the
increasing of the signal attenuation as height increases and to the fact that the beam reflected
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by the ground may not be received by the airborne equipment.
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For example, in the case of military aircraft the extreme condition, in which the system does
not correctly operate, is that of the inverted flight. Typically, the correct functioning of a
Doppler navigational system is limited to positive and negative attitude, with roll and pitch
angles of about 30°. However, this value decreases, when the flight altitude increases, due to
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the attenuation of the signal. Moreover, the emitted radio signal can be easily picked up from
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the ground stations and this disadvantage represents an important limit for the military
applications of the system.
Because of these limitations, the Doppler navigation system is replaced by the Inertial
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Navigation Systems (INS), by the area navigation systems (RNAV) and by the satellite systems,
such as the GPS (Global Positioning system).
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Doppler VOR
The Doppler effect is also used by some ground radio-aids, such as the Doppler VOR.
The REF signal of the Doppler VOR is modulated in amplitude, while the frequency of the VAR
signal is modulated too. In this case the modulations are opposite to the conventional VOR. In
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a Doppler VOR the REF signal is omni-directional, while the VAR signal is rotated, in an
electrical way, at a speed of 30 revolutions per second, so that the phase of the received signal
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depends on the radial on which the aircraft is. Moreover, in this way a Doppler frequency shift
is caused, because the distance between the transmitter and the receiver is cyclically changed.
The ground station of the Doppler VOR is made of a metallic platform, mounted at open sky on
a support structure. At the centre of this structure there is an omni-directional antenna,
surrounded by 50 loop aerials, in order to form a circle with the diameter of about 13 m. Each
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loop aerial is cyclically powered by electrical energy, so to simulate the rotation of a unique
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antenna along the circumference.

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Fig. 4.91 - Ground station of Doppler VOR
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The Doppler VOR presents two important advantages:
 It improves the accuracy of the signal.
 It improves the stability of the signal. The Doppler VOR reduces the errors caused by
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the reflection of radio waves, due to the presence of objects near the ground station.
For these reasons, the Doppler VOR stations are replaced by the conventional VOR stations.
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The airborne receiver of the VOR can receive both a signal emitted from a conventional station
or from a Doppler station.
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13.4.16 Working principles of area navigation and RNAV systems
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RNAV: operation
The area navigation (RNAV) is a method that allows the aircraft to move freely within a limited
geographic area. This method permits the aircraft operations on every flight path within the
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coverage of the ground radio-aids or within the limits of the capability of self-contained
systems. In other words, the term “area navigation” refers to all navigational systems that
permit to follow routes constructed between any couple of pre-determined points, called
waypoints, without the necessity to fly over different ground radio-aids. The waypoints are
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defined either in terms of latitude and longitude or as a radial and a range of a VOR/DME
beacons.
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The area navigation was introduced in order to respond to the problems of high traffic
congestion on the airways and it quickly replaced the traditional navigation systems. This
method has the aim of enhancing the capability of the air spaces and the efficiency of the ATC
(Air Traffic Control).
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The RNAV systems can be divided into three categories:

 The systems in which the information is provided by airborne navigation equipment.
This system is independent of every external information source, such as the radio-
aids. For example, a system of this type will use the output signals of an Inertial
Reference System (IRS).
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 The systems connected to the external ground stations. In these systems the
information, necessary to follow the desired flight path, is provided by the ground
radio-aids.
 The hybrid systems that use information, provided both by the self-contained system
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and by the external sources. On commercial airplanes, the majority of installations of
area navigation equipment are based on this principle. So, these systems are able to
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provide a navigational guidance even when they are out of the coverage range of the
ground radio-aids.
The area navigation based on VOR and DME is a navigation system which uses, as its input
signal, the VOR bearing and the DME distance, in order to calculate the track and distance of
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the aircraft from a specific waypoint. The aircraft equipment is made of a normal VOR/DME
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receivers and a computer.

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In a typical RNAV system the navigational computer solves navigation problems, in terms of
routes, speed and times.
Besides data provided by radio-aids, other different information is processed:
 All air parameters, necessary to calculate the aircraft altitude.
 The data concerning the actual aircraft position, generally provided by the GPS (Global
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Positioning System).
 The flight plan, inserted in the Flight Management System (FMS) by the pilot.
Moreover, most modern systems also use a navigational database, which contains all the
necessary information regarding the routes between main airports, the characteristics of the
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VOR/DME stations and the location of waypoints. The computer, after to calculate the new
parameter of the aircraft, sends the main information to the displays of the Electronic Flight
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Instrument System (EFIS) and to the autopilot system of the aircraft. In this case, the area
navigation system sends lateral steering commands to the roll channel of the autopilot, in
order to correct aircraft course deviations.
If an aircraft takes a flight plan between two airports, it flies form one VOR station to another
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in a zigzag line from departure to destination. This is not ideal, but it is not possible to have
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VOR stations all in a straight line between stations.

Using area navigation the aircraft can fly a direct route to its destination using waypoints,
associated with VOR/DME stations.
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Fig. 4.93 - Flying from A to B without area navigation
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Fig. 4.94 - Flying from A to B with area navigation
The navigation base stored in the computer contains the latitude, longitude, altitude,
frequency of its associated VOR/DME stations and the magnetic bearing from the station of
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each en route waypoint. If the VOR/DME system is used, the aircraft NAV system can, by using
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DME distance and VOR bearing, work out its position with reference to the VOR/DME station.
In the Rho-Theta mode, the NAV Computer knows the length of side A of the triangle (DME
distance) and the length of side B (from navigational database stored in the computer).
Therefore, it can compute the angle A. The computer can also compute the length of side AB,
i.e. the distance to the waypoint, and angle B, i.e. the Course or Track Angle to the waypoint.
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Fig. 4.95 - Rho -Theta mode
To gain improved position accuracy most area navigation systems use the Rho-Rho mode. This
mode uses two DMEs. In this way the computer, integrating the two DME distances with the
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data stored in the navigation display (the distances between the two stations and the
waypoint), can provide an accurate position fix.
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Fig. 4.96 - Rho-Rho mode
RNAV: advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages, derived by the use of the systems of area navigation, are:
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 The opportunity of tracking a direct route.

 The possibility to navigate directly to a specific point, bypassing the over-flight of
radio-aids.
 The possibility to set up a new flight path, if the ATC requires it.
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 The opportunity of approaching an airfield that is not equipped with radio-aids.
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However, the accuracy of systems based on VOR/DME suffers the same limitations of the
VOR/DME equipment. For example, they have a maximum range limit of about 200 NM. In a
hybrid system, in which data are provided by different sources, the information is
electronically compared and only the best parts are used. This method enhances the accuracy
of the navigational system. The pilot must always check that information, provided by the
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airborne system, has reasonable sense.
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13.4.17 Working principles of FMS
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FMS: operation
The Flight Management System (FMS) is an avionic system able to organize and manage all
flight phases, interfacing with all avionic systems of the aircraft. The FMS combines navigation
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data with aerodynamic and performance parameters, taking into account also the
environmental conditions. Then, it determines the flight profile, which is the most convenient
for the given flight phase.
The main task of the FMS is to assist the pilot in the flight management, automatically
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performing many activities that would otherwise be accomplished manually:
 To integrate and manage the information provided by all used navigational systems.
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 To calculate in real time the aircraft performances, in terms of ground speed, fuel
consumption, endurance.
 To manage in an interactive way the flight plan, according to the information provided
by the airborne systems.
 To manage the autopilot system, in coupling with the data of the flight plan, in order
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to follow the calculated and planned route in a fully automatic way.
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The FMS of the more complex aircraft is also closely related to the AFDS (Automatic Flight
Control System), the auto-throttle, all navigational systems and main aircraft systems.
Moreover, the FMS also permits to manage the lateral navigation (LNAV) and the vertical
navigation (VNAV).
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The LNAV function provides steering command on the lateral plane, while the VNAV function
provides speed and altitude targets, optimizing the vertical path of the aircraft.
The LNAV is made of two guidance types: the linear guidance and the angular guidance. The
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linear guidance indicates the left and right deviations of the aircraft actual position in respect
to the desired track. The angular guidance indicates the error in degrees of the aircraft position
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in respect to line that connects the aircraft with the selected ground radio-aids.
The VNAV controls vertical movements of aircraft both for the climb/descent phase and for
the cruise. The FMS builds the vertical profile according to the initial aircraft empty weight, the
fuel weight, the centre of gravity and the cruise altitude, plus the lateral flight plan. The
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implementation of an accurate VNAV is difficult and expensive, but it allows fuel savings,
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particularly in the cruise and descent phase.

It is important to remember that these functions operate in accordance with the flight plan
inserted or built by the FMS.
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FMS: components
The FMS is made of 2 main components: a Control and Display Unit (CDU) and a Flight
Management Computer (FMC), in which different database are inserted.
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Generally, there are two CDUs, one for the pilot and one for the co-pilot, and 2 CMCs in order
to ensure the redundancy of the system. The two CDUs, also called MDUs (Multifunction
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Display Units), allow the crew to insert into the FMC the data of the course as well as the
performance parameters. The CDU of the FMS represents the interface of the system with the
pilot. Through the CDU, the pilot can insert and modify the flight-plan, insert some data, such
as the aircraft weight, the speed, the cruise flight level and interface with other systems of the
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aircraft.
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Fig. 4.97 - CDUs

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Each CDU is made of:
 A coloured display, on which there are all data concerning the aircraft performances,
the airborne systems, the flight plan and all data manually inserted by the pilot.
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 An alphanumeric keyboard, which allows the pilot to insert some data and select the
different pages of the system.
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The display is located in the upper part of the CDUs, while the keyboard is in the lower sector.
The keyboard is usually made of:
 Some alphanumeric buttons, used to insert data in the system.
 Some buttons that permit a quickly selection of the pages concerning different
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functions of the system.
 Some buttons, called lateral buttons and placed around the displays. These buttons
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have a variable function and help the management of the system.
The position of the buttons on the CDU keyboard can vary according to the constructor and
the type of aircraft on which it must be installed.
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Fig. 4.98 - Different types of CDUs

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The FMC is the heart of the FMS, because it performs the navigational and performance
computations, provided by all aircraft systems in order to provide the control and guidance
commands of the aircraft. Moreover, it displays the calculated parameters through the screens
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of the aircraft Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS).
An important part of the FMC is represented by databases. Generally, a FMC has three
databases, all stored on an EEPROM memory card:
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 The software options database (OP PROGRAM), which includes the operational
program of the system and its updates.
 The model/engine database (MEDB), which contains all data concerning the aircraft
performance, such as the certified speeds, min and max speeds in climb, cruise and
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descent, fuel consumptions, etc.
 The navigation database (NDB), which includes the data concerning the reporting
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point, the navigational aids, the airports and the runways. This database is made of
three main parts: the Permanent part, which cannot be modified by the crew, the
Supplemental part (SUPP) and Temporary part (REF).
All databases must be updated via the data loader every 28 days, in order to ensure that their
contents are correct.
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FMS: advantages and disadvantages

The main advantages concerning the functioning of the FMS can be resumed as follows:
 Economical benefits, which is the optimization of the course and performances of the
aircraft, with an importance reduction of operational costs.
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 The support for the satisfaction of the requirements requested by Air traffic Control
(ATC).
 The possibility of combined employment with all navigation systems.
 A very efficient interface with other aircraft systems and a simple visualization of the
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 Remarkable calculation and memorization ability of digital data.
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13.4.18 Working principles of GPS and GNSS
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GPS: segments
The GPS (Global Positioning System) is a global navigational satellite system, which provides
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the aircraft position in every point of the Earth and in every meteorological conditions, using
the radio signals transmitted by a constellation of Earth orbit satellites.
The preliminary studies of the GPS started in the late 60’s. At the beginning, the system was
developed for the military aviation of the USA, but nowadays it is also used for civil
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applications in various sectors, among which the commercial aviation. However, today the GPS
is still managed by the Department of the Defense of the United States.
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The GPS is composed of 3 main segments:

 The space segment, made of a satellite constellation.
 The control segment, which includes a net of ground station.
 The user segment, which is formed by antennas and receivers able to precisely detect
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the position and velocity of the user.
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Space segment
Initially, the space segment of the GPS was composed by a constellation of 24 satellites,
positioned on 6 orbits with an inclination of 55° compared to the equator.
During the years the number of satellites has increased, until March 2008 with a number of 31
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satellites. These satellites are still placed in 6 orbital planes at 55° to the equator. Their orbits
are arranged so that at least 8 satellites are always visible from any point on the Earth.
The satellites orbit at an operative altitude of about 20183 Km above the Earth. Each satellite
covers its orbit in about 12 hours.
The satellites are developed so that they have an operative life of circa 7 years. For this reason,
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the GPS system is maintained operative through the launching of new satellites that replace
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the old and damaged ones.

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Each satellite has on board:
 3 or 4 very precise atomic clocks.
 A control computer.
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 A radio transmission system.
 An attitude control system.
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Each satellite emits a signal in the UHF frequency band, at frequencies of 1.2 and 1.5 GHz.
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Fig. 4.99 - Space segment of GPS
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Control segment
The control segment of the GPS comprises a Master Control Station, located at Colorado
Springs (USA) and other 4 monitor stations located worldwide. The control segment is
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managed by the Department of the Defense of the United States.
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Fig. 4.100 - Control segment of GPS

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The control segment tracks the satellites, predicts their future orbital position data, it
calculates the required correction parameters of the satellite clock and updates each satellite,
when it passes over a station.
The dialogue between the satellites and the ground stations happens on 2 UHF frequencies:
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 The 2227.5 MHz, used to send the signals from ground towards satellites.
 The 1783.74 MHz, used to receive in the stations the signals transmitted by the
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satellites.
The GPS accuracy is only available when the control segment is functioning. However, the
satellites of the GPS are designed to operate for a period of 180 days, even if the control
system is inoperative: in this case the system has a gradually degraded accuracy.
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User segment
The user segment of the GPS is entirely passive and is made only of a GPS receiver. Nowadays,
a wide variety of compact, lightweight and inexpensive GPS receivers, to be used in different
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sectors, are available.
Generally, a GPS receiver consists of an antenna, a processor, an LCD display and a high
stability clock (normally of quartz clock). For example, in the aeronautical sector, the receiving
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antenna, installed on aircraft, is an omni-directional aerial, circular polarized, located on the
top of the aircraft fuselage, near the centre of gravity in order to minimize the masking of the
satellite signals caused by reflections generated from the aircraft structure.
When the GPS receiver is operative, it starts to search for and track satellites. The information,
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coming in the receiver, identifies the number of used satellites, locates the satellites in the
space and establishes the system time and position of the receiver.
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One of the main characteristics of the GPS receiver is the number of channels. This
characteristic shows the number of satellites that the receiver can control contemporaneously.
Originally, the first receivers had a limited number of channels, generally 4 or 5. That number
has been gradually increased, up to reach 18-20 channels in modern receivers.
GPS: operation
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The basic principle, used by the GPS in order to determine the user position, is to measure the
spherical distances of the receiver from the positions of the satellites. The procedure used to
calculate the position is called trilateration.
Each satellite transmits a navigation message, which contains its orbital position data, known
with high accuracy, and the time of the signal transmission. The receiver picks up the
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transmitted signal and measures the delay of synchronization between the satellite clock and
its internal clock. This time difference represents the time spent by the signal to go from the
satellite antenna to the GPS receiver. The receiver then calculates the spherical distance
between the user and each satellite, by multiplying this time delay by the speed of light, with
which the signal propagates in the space. In this way, knowing the exact position of at least 3
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satellites and the time spent by their signals to reach the receiver, it is possible to determine
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the correct position of the receiver in the space.

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Since the measure of the position is based on the time measurement, it is necessary to
perfectly synchronize the emitter and the receiver in order to obtain precise results. For
example, a little error of 10 ns in the calculation of time delay corresponds to a position error
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of 3 meters in the user position. In order to obtain a perfect synchronization, an atom clock is
necessary also in the receiver. Since the installation of a clock of this type would make the cost
of receivers very expensive, the problem is solved by using 4 satellites instead of 3. Thus, with
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4 satellites the ambiguities due to imprecision in time measurement are eliminated. Therefore,
to calculate a tridimensional position, it is necessary to receive the signal at least by 4 satellites
of the constellation.
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Fig. 4.101 - Aircraft GPS simplified block diagram

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GPS: navigation messages
The navigation message, transmitted by each satellite, consists of 25 data frames. Each
individual data frame contains 1500 bits of information and is divided into 5 per 300 bits sub-
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frames. Each frame takes 30 seconds to be transmitted and so the entire 25 data frames are
repeated every 12.5 minutes.
A typical navigation message consists of three parts:
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 The almanac, which contains data concerning the orbit and the state of satellites.
 The ephemeris, which contains data concerning the astronomic position.
 The exact time in which the message is transmitted.
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The codification of the navigation message, transmitted by the satellites, can be performed
according to 2 pseudo-random codes:
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 The Coarse/ Acquisition code (C/A), employed for the civil applications of the GPS
system.
 The Precise code (P), used for the military applications of the GPS system.
Moreover, each satellite uses two UHF transmissions at 50 Hz modulation to transmit the
navigation message:
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 The L1 transmission at 1575.42 MHz.

 The L2 transmission, at 1276.6 MHz.
The carrier of the L1 transmission is modulated both by the C/A code and by the P code. The L2
transmission is modulated only by the P code and so only military users can decode it. The L2
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transmission guarantees a greater precision in the calculation of the position.
GPS: accuracy and errors

The main error sources of the system are due to waves propagation in the ionosphere and
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troposphere as well as to calculation error caused by the imprecision of some component of
the system. These errors are partially compensated using 4 satellites in the determination of
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the position.
The accuracy of information provided by the GPS has constantly improved during the years. At
first, the GPS accuracy available to civil users was deliberately degraded to 100 m, because the
full accuracy of 16 m could be obtained only by military users, which had the access to
information encrypted in P code of the L2 transmission. However, this limitation, called
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selective availability, was removed in 2000. Nowadays, the GPS signal provided to public users
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has a precision of 15 meters. Moreover, this precision can be refined using auxiliary systems to
the GPS, such as the DGPS, the LAAS and the WAAS.
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DGPS
In order to improve the accuracy in the position calculation of the civil system, a
supplementary navigation system, called Differential GPS (DGPS), has been developed. The
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DGPS uses the same satellite constellation of the GPS and a network of fixed, ground reference
stations, which have the task of detecting the difference between their positions as indicated
by the satellites and their known true positions. Thus, computers of the reference stations
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must be able to continually quantify with great accuracy the errors in position contained in the
signal of each satellite. When this error is calculated, the reference stations transmit a
correction signal, which will be picked up by the user’s receiver. Consequently, in order to
determine the correct position, the DGPS receiver must be able to connect at least with 4
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satellites and 1 reference station. In this way, the accuracy of the position calculation becomes
close to 1 m.
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Fig. 4.102 - DGPS

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LAAS
The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is an augmentation system of the GPS, based on
real-time differential correction of the GPS signal. The LAAS is used in the airport area.
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This system uses the GPS satellite constellation and a net of local reference receivers, which
are located around the airport in defined locations. The GPS signal is received by the local
reference receivers and used to calculate their position. These data related to the position are
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then sent to a central station of the airport that compares them with the data concerning the
known positions of the reference receiver. In this way, the positioning errors are corrected and
a correction message is provided. This message is transmitted to users via a VHF data link, so
that the aircraft receivers can use it in order to correct the received GPS signals.
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The information provided by the LAAS system is used during the approach and landing phases,
because the precision reached by the LAAS systems is close to 1 m.
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Fig. 4.103 - LAAS

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WAAS, EGNOS and MSAS
The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a system of navigation, developed by the
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Federal Aviation Administration in order to improve the GPS, its accuracy (until to 1 m) and its
availability.
The WAAS is used in North America and Hawaii. Besides the WAAS, there are other two twin
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systems, one used in Europe (called European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service,
EGNOS) and one dedicated to the Far East (called Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation
System, MSAS).
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Fig. 4.104 - WAAS, EGNOS and MSASsw

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The WAAS is based on:

 The satellite constellation of the GPS.
 A net of geostationary satellites.
 A net of ground station, called WRS. These stations process the delay of the signals
emitted by the GPS and of the signals of the geostationary satellites. Moreover, these
stations transmit the data to the central stations.
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 Some central stations, called WMS, which elaborates the data. These stations generate
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the correction messages, which are sent to the WRS stations and to the satellites, in
order to update the transmitted signals.
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GNSS
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is a project still under development that should
join the operation of all the navigation satellite systems, such as the American system (GPS),
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the Russian GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System) and the European system (Galileo),
in order to allow the true global navigation. This big system should allow navigation in any
point of the Earth and in any flight phase through a unique system.
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The idea of the GNSS system was born in the second half of the eighties, when the ICAO admits
that the GPS was in need for augmentations, in order to fulfill to requirement of the civil
aviation and to guarantee the accuracy of the information provided by the satellites.
The net of system GNSS is planned for being constituted by receivers and satellite antennas,
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able to decode the signals of many constellations. The net of the GNSS includes also a 24h/24h
control centre, which has the function to make available the differential corrections of the
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data.
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13.4.19 Working principles of INS
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INS: operation
The Inertial Navigation System (INS) is a self contained airborne system that provides accurate
information concerning the navigation, without any reference derived by ground stations. An
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INS neither transmits nor receives any signal.
The INS executes the position calculation, using data provided only by the airborne sensors of
the aircraft. If an aircraft must move from a point A to a point B, the INS of the aircraft is able
to determine the final position, only knowing the starting point and measuring the aircraft
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accelerations. The airborne system detects the aircraft accelerations and integrates them, in
order to obtain the value of the flight speed. Then, the system integrates this value of speed
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with the purpose to determine the space travelled by the aircraft. At the end, the system is
able to determine the coordinates of the arrival point B, adding the space covered by the
aircraft to the co-ordinates of the starting point A.
In the basic system two accelerometers are used, one which measures the aircraft
accelerations in the north-south direction and the other one which measures accelerations in
the east-west direction.
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Fig. 4.105 - North & East accelerometers
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There are two systems: one measuring distance travelled towards North and the other
distance travelled in the Eastern direction. These signals are fed to a computer, which can
compute the distance travelled and indicate the actual position on the flight deck knowing the
initial latitude and longitude of the departure point.
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One of the main components of the INS is the platform. As the platform tends to tip off level,
this causes a precession of the gyro. Movement of the gyro is sensed by the pickoff in the gyro,
this signal is amplified and fed to a gimbal drive motor to restore the platform back to the
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levelled position. As the accelerometer is kept levelled at all times, it does not sense any
component of gravity and only senses horizontal accelerations of the aircraft.
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Fig. 4.106 - Gyro control
INS: components
The four basic devices of the INS are:
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 A stable orientated platform, which maintains the accelerometers horizontal to the

Earth and orientated towards the North.
 Some accelerometers arranged on the platform, which must provide the components
of aircraft acceleration.
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 Some integrators, which receives the inputs from the accelerometers and provides, as
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outputs, the values of velocity and distance.

 A calculator, which receives signals from integrators and converts distance values in
latitude and longitude data.
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Accelerometers
The accelerometers are an essential part of all INS. The accelerometers detect the
accelerations of the aircraft. There are different types of these devices, but the simplest
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accelerometer consists of a small weight suspended between two springs, with an electrical
pick-up that converts the compression of one of the supporting springs into an electrical
output. The accelerometers cannot calculate the velocity and distance performed by the
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aircraft but they simply register the spring displacement, which is directly proportional to the
accelerating or decelerating forces acting on the aircraft.
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Fig. 4.107 - Force balance accelerometer

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Generally, in an INS two or three accelerometers are used. The first one measures the aircraft
acceleration in the North-South direction, the second one measures the acceleration in the
East-West direction, while the third one detects the vertical displacement.
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Platform
The most critical element for the correct functioning of the INS system is not the sensibility of
accelerometers, but the stability of the platform on which the accelerometers are installed.
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This platform, called inertial platform, must be constantly maintained stable in the horizontal
plane and oriented towards the North. In order to maintain these positions, the platform is
mounted on articulations that allow the motions around the three axis. The stabilization of the
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platform is realized through three gyroscopes with two degrees of freedom: the gyroscopes
prevent the platform to assume some incorrect positions, because once one of the gyroscope
feels a misalignment, a servo-mechanism, which rotates the desired hinge, operates.
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Fig. 4.108 - INS platform

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In the modern INS, with the introduction of digital calculators more and more powerful, the
inertial platform was eliminated and substituted by a strap-down system. In this system the
accelerometers and the gyroscopes are directly fixed on the aircraft structure and the
stabilization is electronically guaranteed by an elaborator. Moreover, in strap-down system,
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the classic mechanical gyroscopes are substituted by laser ring gyroscopes (LRGs) or by fibre
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optic gyroscopes (FOGs). The laser gyroscopes are made of a two laser beams, which run inside
a guide in two different directions. If the gyro is aligned, both the laser beams spend the same
time to run the guide, while if the gyro is rotated, the two times will be different. Instead, in
the FOG a unique laser beam enters in the system. This beam is then divided into two parts,
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which run in two optical rings. Also in this case, if the gyro is aligned, the two travelling time on
the two rings will be the same, while if the gyro is rotated the times will be different.
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Integrators
The integrators of the INS are some microprocessors that integrate the detected accelerations,
in order to calculate the velocity and the space travelled by the aircraft.
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The signals produced by the accelerometers are sent as input to the integrators, where they
are integrated. In the INS there are two stages of integration and usually there are 4
integrators: 2 for the longitudinal axis and 2 for the lateral axis. For each axis, the first
integrator takes an input voltage proportional to the acceleration detected by the
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accelerometers. The system integrates this value, multiplying it by the spent time, and
produces an output voltage, proportional to the velocity of the aircraft. This signal is then sent
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to a second integrator, where it is again multiplied by the spent time, in order to calculate the
distance covered by the aircraft.
Calculator
The computer, associated with the INS, has in memory the longitude and the latitude of the
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position of the aircraft, at the previous reporting point. This calculator has the main aim to add
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to the known position the data of covered distances, calculated by the process of integration.
In this way, the computer identifies the new position of the aircraft, which is then used as the
starting position for the next calculation.
The INS computes navigation data to enable the pilot to fly the aircraft manually or
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automatically on a predetermined course to a preselected destination. The navigation data is
displayed on the HSI and INS Control & Display Unit. Attitude information is displayed on ADI.
The heading information is fed to the compass system. It should be noted at this point that
pitch, roll and heading information is obtained from synchros on the INS platform. The main
components of the systems are: sw
 Control Display Unit (CDU)
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 Mode Selector Unit (MSU)

 Navigation Unit (NU)
 Battery Unit.
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Fig. 4.109 - INS system operational layout

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The only inputs to the system are altitude and True Air Speed (TAS) from the ADC. TAS is used
to determine wind speed and direction, while the barometric altitude is used for damping in
the altitude computation circuit.
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The data, calculated by the airborne INS, can be displayed on control panel of the system. The
classic control panel is made of a display on which the navigational data is presented and of
little keyboard through which it is possible to insert some information.
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Fig. 4.110 - INS Control Display Unit

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The information calculated by the system is displayed in the upper window. The displayed data
are controlled by the data selector placed on the panel. The keyboard is used to enter the
flight plan by using the latitude and longitude coordinates of departure, reporting points and
destination. Moreover, on this panel there are also some warning lights, which inform the pilot
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regarding all possible errors and malfunctioning of the system and which signal when two
minutes are left before the following reporting point.
On aircraft of big sizes, three inertial navigational platforms are usually installed, in order to
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guarantee the redundancy of the system. The pilot can select which platform he wants to use,
through a selector knob present on the control panel of the system. Near this knob there are
the letters L, C and R.
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Generally, above this panel there is also another panel, called MSU (Mode Selector Unit),
which is used by the pilot to select the operational mode of the system. The MSU has a five
position rotary switch to select the following modes of system operation:
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 OFF.
 STBY: it is an optional mode which prepares the INS for automatic alignment but
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prevents alignment from being initiated.

 ALIGN: it may be entered by pulling out and rotating the knob from standby or direct
from OFF mode.
 NAV: it is the navigation mode.
 ATT: it is the attitude mode.
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The Navigation Unit is a temperature controlled unit which produces all INS output signals. It
contains the platform and gyro assembly, a computer and an electronics section. Cooling of
the unit is achieved by fans located beneath the unit. The Battery unit provides back up power
to the system. It is a 24 V 19 cell nickel cadmium battery. Should the normal 115 V ac supply
fail this will sustain INS operation for up to 15 minutes.
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Fig. 4.111 - INS power requirements
INS: initialization
The first INSs have a precision of around 4 NM per hour: it means that the indicated position
may present an error of 4 NM after the first hour of navigation, 8 NM after the second, etc.
The modern INS, used on airliners, are able to provide an approximation of about 1.7 NM per
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hour, while the military systems reach a precision of about 0.2 NM per hour. The accuracy of
the INS also depends on the accuracy of the initial position information programmed into the
system. Consequently, the system initialization executed before flight is very important.
All civil INSs must be initialized on ground, with the aircraft steady in a position of which co-
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ordinates are known. The initialization of the system is a long and complicated process, if we
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consider what happens inside the system, but it is relatively simple from the point of view of
the operations that the pilot must carry out. The whole operation proceeds in an automatic
way after the pilot has inserted the data, the UTC time and the co-ordinates of the parking bay
in which the aircraft is positioned. The process of the initialization lasts about 10 minutes,
according to the temperature, the type of used gyroscope and the latitude. When there are
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low temperatures and they are at high latitudes, the gyroscopes employ more time to reach
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the spin regime, because they take longer to feel the rotation of the Earth. Moreover,
generally, the laser gyroscopes are faster than the mechanical ones, because they have their
own inertia.
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INS: errors
The INS is subjected to some errors, caused by different factors. In-flight errors arise from
imperfections of the gyroscopes, of the accelerometers and of the airborne computers.
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Moreover, an initial misalignment may cause other errors.
The main errors of the INS are the following:

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 Leveling of the platform. If the platform of the system is not correctly leveled, the
accelerometers feel the effect of gravity and thus the obtained outputs will be greater
than the true aircraft accelerations. The result of this is a distance error.
 Gyroscopes. The precession of gyros will tend to turn the platform away from its
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neutral position, causing velocity and distance errors.
 Earth movement interference. The detection of the accelerations in an INS is disturbed
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by the rotation and revolution of the Earth. The vectorial sum of the two velocity
components, connected to the two movement of the Earth, is equal to a resultant
angular speed of about 15° per hour, which weights upon the inertial platform. The
airborne computer compensates this effect by subtracting this fixed value to the signal
measured by the gyros.
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 Earth shape. The spherical shape of the Earth introduces an error in the system. When
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an aircraft travels with reference to the Earth surface, the projection of its position on
the Earth is not a straight line, but it is an arc of circumference. Consequently, the
pitch gyroscope will be subjected to a rotating component, called transport rate, which
must be subtracted to the value measured by the gyroscope.
 Computer Errors. These errors are linked to hardware limitations and approximations
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made during the integration process.
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Fig. 4.112 - Leveling

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13.4.20 Working principles of transponder and secondary surveillance
radar
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Radar: introduction
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The radar is an object detection system that uses radio waves to identify the distance, altitude,
direction, or speed of both moving and fixed objects such as aircraft, meteorological
precipitation or terrain.
The radar is used in diverse sectors, from the meteorological field to civil and military aviation
and daily life. In the aeronautical field 2 main types of radar are used:
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 The surveillance radar, which is divided into primary and secondary. These radars are
used by the Authority of the Air Traffic Control, in order to guarantee a safe service.
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 The weather radar, which is used to detect the area of precipitations dangerous for
the flight.
PSR
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The Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR) is the first instrument to perform the Air Traffic Control
(ATC). The PSR operates receiving the signal reflected by the aircraft.
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The PSR has the advantage to detect and determine the position of every not cooperative
target that reflects the radio signals. Despite of the advantage of the non-cooperation of the
target, the primary radar is limited by the non-identification of the target.
Moreover, the intensity and quality of the reflected signal depend on the shape of the
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reflecting surface, and thus on the aircraft attitude.
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Fig. 4.113 - Base principle of PSR

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On the screen of the primary radar the aircraft presence is represented only by a luminous
point, called blip, which is always the same for all detected aircraft. All information, displayed
on the PSR screen, is very accurate regarding bearing and distance of the aircraft in relation to
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the station.
SSR and transponder: operation

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The Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is the main instrument for the exercise of the Air
Traffic Control (ATC). Unlike the PSR, the SSR requests the active collaboration of the aircraft,
which must receive the signal and respond with another one.
When the PSR was the unique existing system, the identification was only possible through the
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knowledge exerted by the controller in relation to the maneuvers the aircraft is performing.
The need for easily and safely identifying the targets, has enhanced the development of the
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war technology, called Identification Friend or Foe (IFF), which is an instrument able to
distinguish the friendly airplane from the enemy ones. This instrument, known as the
secondary surveillance radar in civil applications, is based on an airborne instrument, called
transponder.
The SSR ground aerial consists of the parabolic antenna of the PSR and an additional long flat
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aerial, placed on the top. The SSR aerial have a main lobe and some side lobes, which can
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create problems to aircraft receivers, especially at closer distance. To counteract this trouble, a
transmission process called Side Suppression Lobe (SSL) is used.
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Fig. 4.114 - Ground antenna of SSR

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The transponder is made of a radio receiver and a radio transmitter that operate on the radar
frequency. The transponder of the target aircraft responds to signals of the SSR interrogator,
transmitting an encoded response. The interrogator of the ground radar transmits pulse pairs.
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The airborne receiver (the transponder) receives the transmitted pulses and decodes them
within the interrogation beam. Then the transponder responds to the ground interrogator
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transmitting back a pulse train. The pulse train contains the aircraft identification and the
aircraft information, according to what the interrogator requested.
All radar interrogations are transmitted at a frequency of 1030 MHz, while all transponder
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responses are transmitted at a frequency of 1090 MHz.
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Fig. 4.115 - Base principle of SSR

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The SSR interrogations are sent in the form of a group of 3 pulses, called P1, P2 and P3. The
spacing between the P1 and P2 is constant and is equal to 2 microseconds. The spacing
between the P1 and P3 instead changes according to the classification of the system.
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Fig. 4.116 - Pulses of SSR interrogation

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In order to avoid that the side lobes of the ground aerial interrogate the aircraft equipment, it
is necessary that the transponder recognizes the main lobe interrogation. The function of the
P2 pulse is that of allowing the identification of the type of received signal. In the main beam
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of the radar, the P1 and P3 signals are stronger than the P2 pulse, while P2 signal is stronger
than the P1 and P3 pulses in the side lobes of the antenna. Thus, according to the ICAO rules,
the transponder does not respond, if the P2 signal is greater than the P1 pulse, but it must
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respond only if the P1 is greater than P2 + 0.9 dB.
The airborne transponder automatically responds to all interrogations received by the SSR. The
response of the airborne transponder to the SSR interrogation is made of 13 pulses, comprised
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between two brackets, called F1 and F2. The pulses and the brackets extend for 0.45
microseconds, with intervals between the end of an impulse and the beginning of the
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successive one of 1 microsecond. The responses use only 12 pulses of the 13 available, always
leaving an unused pulse.
Moreover, a Special Identification Pulse (SPI) after the F2 signal can be present. This pulse is
activated upon a request of the Air Traffic Control (ATC).
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Fig. 4.117 - Pulses of transponder response

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SSR and transponder: codes
The identification of the aircraft response is connected to the insertion of a 4 digits code in the
transponder by the pilot. This code is assigned to each aircraft according to the air rules
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established by the ICAO, for a maximum of 4096 different codes.
For example, in Europe, for the flight conducted in accordance with the Visual Flight Rules
(VFR), all aircraft must insert the code 7000.
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Instead, for the flight conducted in accordance with the Instrumental Flight Rules (IFR), the
pilot inserts a particular code, called squawk code, with which the aircraft is identified. This
code is provided by the ATC.
Moreover, in the case of particular needs, the flight controller can ask to push a button, called
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IDENT, which generates on the monitor of the ground radar a flashing pulse, in order to
facilitate its identification.
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However, if any aircraft is in emergency conditions, the pilot must insert one of the three
standard codes, according to the encountered emergency:
 7500 in case of hijack
 7600 in case of radio failure
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 7700 in case of generic emergency.
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Fig. 4.118 - ATC transponder control panel

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SSR and transponder: classification
The spacing between P1 and P3 pulses, transmitted by the radar antenna, is set at a value that
depends upon the type of response of the transponder.
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There are 2 standard modes:
 The mode A with a spacing of 8 microseconds
 The mode C with a spacing of 21 microseconds.
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Fig. 4.119 - Transponder interrogation modes
These modes can be selected by the pilot directly on the transponder panel, through the left
knob. If the transponder is set on the ON position, it will respond to the mode A interrogations,
sending only the aircraft identification. Instead, if the transponder is set to ALT position, it will
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respond to Mode A and Mode C interrogations, sending the aircraft identification and
automatic altitude information.
Nowadays another transponder is commonly used. The most modern model of the
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transponder is that which operates in the mode S. The transponder of mode S has been
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adopted from the ICAO in the nineties and its task is that to communicate with the SSR,
guaranteeing a selective interrogation.
The transponder of mode S is able to respond only if the SSR interrogation is addressed in a
correct way. Moreover, this device has also the task of permitting the exchange of messages
(datalink), in a binary code, between the aircraft and the ground stations, or between aircraft
in flight.
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The transponder of mode S is born as answer to the limitation of the codes, available for the
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areas to great density of traffic, and as instrument for the implementation of the Airborne
Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) and the Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS).
The transponder of mode S works in a similar way than the other transponders. The ground
radar station transmits a general signal that stimulates all transponder, which receive it. In
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their turn the transponders respond with a message, which contains the information
concerning position and altitude, the call sign and the identification code of the aircraft. The
computer of the ground station analyzes the different received responses and it identifies the
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aircraft of its interest: consequently it continues to converse only with them. Moreover, unlike
of what happens for the traditional transponder, where the ATC assigns an identification code
for every aircraft, the aircraft equipped with a transponder of mode S have an own individual
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permanent code, formed by 24 hexadecimal digits. This code is called ICAO 24 bit address and
it becomes an integral part of the aircraft Certificate of Registration.
SSR and transponder: radar screen
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In general on the radar ground screen, the SSR information is presented together with the
information provided by the PSR.
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Fig. 4.120 - SSR ground screen
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The information of the SSR provides data concerning the identification and the altitude of the
aircraft. Near to each aircraft, represented by a luminous point, there is a little label that
contains the main aircraft information. A typical label is shown in the picture.
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Fig. 4.121 - Example of typical radar label
The upper code of the label represents the aircraft call sign, while the second code is the
squawk code, inserted in the transponder. Instead, the number of 3 digits indicates the flight
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level or the altitude of the aircraft and it is expressed in hundreds of feet. The little arrow, near
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this number, indicates if the aircraft is changing its height: if it points up the aircraft is climbing,
while if it points down it represents a descent. The last number indicates the Ground Speed
(GS) of the aircraft, expressed in tens of knots.
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13.4.21 Working principles of TCAS
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TCAS: operation
The TCAS (Traffic Collision Avoidance System) is a system that operates in connection with a
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normal transponder informing the flight crew about the presence of other aircraft in the
surrounding airspace. The TCAS of the aircraft, if coupled with a transponder of mode S, scans
the surrounding airspace to detect potential aircraft on a collision course and alerts the pilot
generating both an audio tone and a visual alarm message in the cockpit.
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All aircraft equipped with an operating transponder (both of A, C or S mode) will be detected
by the TCAS interrogator. On the contrary, the aircraft not equipped with a transponder will
not be identified.
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The TCAS transceiver of an aircraft periodically interrogates the transponder of the other
aircraft, in order to identify the presence of the airplane and recognize its characteristics. The
answer of the detected aircraft, called intruders, enables the TCAS to calculate the following
information:
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 The distance between the aircraft and the intruder.
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 The relative bearing to the intruder.

 The altitude and vertical speed of the intruder.
 The closing rate between the intruder and the aircraft.
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Using these data the TCAS identifies the airplanes in a potential collision route and predicts the
time and distance to the closest collision point. If the system detects a dangerous situation, it
automatically generates one of the following alarms, in order to resolve the threat:
 The Traffic Advisory (TA).
 The Resolution Advisory (RA). sw
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TCAS: types
The first generation of TCAS is the TCAS I, still used in general aviation. This system is able to
monitor traffic in approach within a radius of 40 NM from the aircraft, providing approximated
information about the detection and altitude of the aircraft on a collision course. This version
is able to provide only the TA message.
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The second generation is represented by TCAS II, which, besides having the same functions as
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the previous generation, is able to provide information on corrective actions in the vertical
plane. The TCAS II is able to provide both the TA message and the RA warning, only for the
vertical plane. The TCAS II is used in commercial aviation.
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The TCAS II processor interrogates the intruder aircraft transponder and from the responses
computes the range, range-rate, relative direction, height and change in height to produce
visual and aural information to the flight crew in the form of TA and RA. Visual information is
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presented on either an integrated display or a dedicated IVSI.
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Fig. 4.122 - TCAS II system
The TCAS a processor unit is a transmitter/receiver, similar to ground based ATC Transponder
equipment. It performs airspace surveillance, intruder and aircraft tracking, threat detection
and resolution as well as advisory generation. Pressure and ratio altimeter inputs and other
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aircraft configuration discrete inputs are used by the processor to control the collision
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avoidance logic parameters that determine the protection volume around the TCAS aircraft. If
the tracked aircraft is a collision threat the processor selects the best avoidance maneuver.
The latest generation of the system is the TCAS III, which combines the characteristics of TCAS
II and the opportunity to provide corrective actions to be implemented in the horizontal plane.
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The TCAS III is so able to generate, besides the TA message, the RA warning, both for the
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vertical plane and horizontal one. However, this development is still under initial testing.
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TCAS: messages
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Fig. 4.123 - Messages emitted by TCAS
The TA alarm, generated by all TCAS generations, provides the pilot with the direction of
arrival and relative distance of the intruder. This type of alarm will be generated on cockpit
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displays, in the case in which the estimated collision point is between 20 e 48 seconds, in
accordance to the speed and altitude of the aircraft. The TA message is displayed on the
cockpit electronic indicator of the system. In this way, the crew is facilitated in the visual
identification of the aircraft; however, no graphic representation associated with a
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hypothetical elusive manoeuvre is generated. Moreover, when a TA message is generated, a
“traffic traffic” vocal announcement is heard in the cockpit. Generally, the TA alarm precedes
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an RA warning of about 10 or 15 seconds.
The RA message is provided only by the TCAS II and III. This message is generated when the
intruder is at around 15-35 seconds form the hypothetical collision point, according to the
altitude of the aircraft. On the cockpit electronic system, the generation of this alarm
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generates a graphical representation of two types of elusive manoeuvres: one corrective and
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one preventive. The scope of these manoeuvres is that of providing a route correction, in
order to avoid the possible collisions. The pilot should smoothly initiate any required vertical
maneuver within 5 seconds from the time in which the RA alarm is posted.
In this case the TCAS integrates the visual representation with a vocal warning in the cabin. For
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example, if an elusive vertical maneuver is requested, a synthetic voice announces the vertical
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maneuver command to be executed, such as for example “climb, climb” or “descent descent”.
Moreover, even if the intruder is equipped with a mode S transponder, the RA message will be
emitted for both aircraft, with the proper elusive maneuvers.
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TCAS: displays
On modern aircraft, the TCAS information is shown on the screens of the Electronic Flight
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Instrument System (EFIS), according to the same modality used on classic display. The page
regarding the TCAS information shows the relative position and altitude of the intruding
aircraft, in respect to the aircraft that detects them, represented in yellow.
The altitude information, expressed in hundreds of feet, is shown in a little label placed near
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the intruder. If the altitude value is preceded by a minus sign, the intruder is below the
aircraft, while if he number is preceded by a plus sign, it indicates that the intruder is above
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the aircraft. Near the altitude value, there is an arrow, which indicates whether the intruder is
climbing or descending with a ratio greater than 500 ft per minute.
If the transponder of the intruder is not able to report the altitude, only the symbol
representing the aircraft appears on the T CAS display.
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Usually, the symbols used to indicate the intruders change in shape and colour in order to
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show the different traffic situations detected by the TCAS.

 An open white or cyan diamond indicates that the altitude difference of the two
aircraft is greater than 1200 ft or that their horizontal distance is beyond 6 NM. This
situation is not yet considered a threat.
 A filled white or cyan diamond indicates that the altitude difference of the two aircraft
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is less than 1200 ft or that their horizontal distance is less 6 NM. This situation is not
considered a threat too.
 A filled yellow circle indicates that the intruding aircraft is potentially hazardous. In this
case a TA message is produced.
 A filled red square indicates that the intruding airplane represent a collision threat. In
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this case a RA message is produced.
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TCAS: limitations
Nowadays, the use of the TCAS has become mandatory for all aircraft with a maximum take-off
mass (MTOM) of more than 5700 kg (12586 lbs) or authorized to carry more than 19
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passengers. However, the technical and operational potential of the TCAS is not fully exploited
due to some limitations:
 Aircraft performances are not taken into account during the calculation and
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generation of RA messages.
 The TCAS displays do not provide information about the RA issued to other aircraft.
 The lack of awareness about the terrain and obstacles. For this reason, the RAs, which
recommend a descent, are inhibited between 700 and 1000 ft far from the ground
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(considered as radio height). Similarly the RAs, which recommend an increase in
descent, are inhibited below a radio altitude of 1450 - 1800 ft.
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 In some cases the TCAS advisories might be coordinated with other alerts, such as the
wind-shear signal and warning of the GPWS (Ground Proximity Warning System).
 The ATC can be automatically informed about RA issued by TCAS only when the
aircraft has a transponder of mode S. In all other cases, the air traffic controllers may
be unaware of TCAS warnings.
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 The TCAS is not installed on most small aircraft because of its high cost.
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13.4.22 Working principles of weather avoidance radar
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Weather radar: operation
The weather radar is a type of radar able to locate precipitations, calculate their behavior,
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estimate their nature (rain, snow, hail, etc) and forecast their future position and intensity. The
first goal of the weather radar is that of detecting potential turbulent clouds (especially the
cumulonimbus) to be avoided during the flight.
The weather radar is a primary radar, whose functioning is based on the reflection of its
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emitted signals by precipitations. Unlike most aircraft systems, the weather radar requires a
pilot able to interpret it. This kind of radar sends some directional pulses in the band of
microwaves. The frequency commonly used is 9375 MHz. When the signals, emitted by the
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weather radar, meet some precipitations, they are reflected and again picked up by the
aircraft system. The information, which appears on the airborne radar screen, is a
representation of the electromagnetic energy reflected by precipitations.
The reflected energy depends on the intensity of the detected precipitation and on the
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dimension of the water drops. For example, the hail has the highest reflecting power, while the
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dry snow has the smallest one. Often precipitations with small reflectivity are not detected by
the weather radar. It is important to remember that the Clear Air Turbulence (CAT), very
dangerous for the flight safety, cannot be detected by the weather radar, because it is not
associated with any meteorological phenomenon.
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Fig. 4.124 - Clouds and precipitation identification

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The weather radar has another function, called ground mapping. It is able to check the aircraft
position in relation to the ground. When the radar aerial is directed towards the ground, the
instrument represents the different elements of the terrain, according to their ability to reflect
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with variable intensity the received waves. For example, buildings and mountains produce
large bright echoes, while valleys absorb lot of energy and produce less bright echoes. Water
surfaces instead do not produce echoes, because they do not reflect any energy.
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Fig. 4.125 - Ground mapping
Severe weather is always associated with precipitations; the more intense a storm cell is, the
greater the rate of rainfall is. Luckily, a significant rate of rainfall means a better reflective
target for weather radar systems to detect.
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Weather radar detection of a storm severity is performed by the enlightenment of the target
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through its transmitted pulses. When the transmitted pulses hit a raindrop, three things occur:
 Depending on the angle of incidence, some of the energy will be refracted straightly.
 The raindrop will absorb a small amount of the energy.
 The remainder will be reflected back to be picked up by the antenna.
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The ability of the rainfall, or other form of precipitation, to reflect the transmitted energy is
measured through the reflectivity level, represented by the letter "Z". This Z factor is used to
relate rainfall levels to the strength value of the returning signal.
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Since the Z factor depends on a number of factors, it cannot be considered as an exact
measurement of the rainfall; however, it is able to measure the severity of the weather. In
addition, the reflectivity factor of dry particles, water coated particles and melted particles, is
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variable in shape and does not provide a consistent return. Water reflects about five times
more radar energy than solid ice particles of the same mass. Detecting snowfall is difficult too,
unless the moisture content of the snow is enough to provide a reflection of the transmitted
pulse.
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In order to provide the flight crew with the best possible weather information, the Z factors for
various precipitation forms have been optimized and standardized ensuring display
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consistency between all manufacturers of weather radar systems.
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Fig. 4.126 - Rainfall rates
Fig. 4.127 shows a block diagram of a modern weather radar system. The transmitted pulse is
generated within the transmitter/receiver. In older systems this is achieved by using a
Magnetron. Most modern systems now use a frequency multiplication design to obtain the
transmitted frequency. This may be obtained by using a crystal oscillator generating an L-band
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frequency, which is then multiplied up to an X-band or C-band frequency through a
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multiplexer. An IMPATT Diodes or Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SRCs) might be employed for the
same purpose.
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Fig. 4.127 - Block diagram of a typical weather radar system
The different in power outputs between modern systems and those manufactured in the past
is enormous. Traditional systems used a magnetron to develop the transmitter frequency, thus
generating a lot of electrical noise. To ensure a return signal strong enough to overcome this
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noise, the transmitter had to output many kW of energy. Modern semiconductor devices do
not generate an amount of noise close to that of a magnetron, the transmitter output levels
have thus been reduced down to about 100W.
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Fig. 4.127 shows a frequency multiplication system generating a signal, which is then
amplified, and its frequency multiplied to develop the appropriate C band or X band frequency.
This signal is then modulated into a series of pulses.
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Most modern weather radar systems have a selectable transmission pulse width based on the
selected operation mode. In this way, the Tx/Rx can optimize the system performance for each
selected range and operational mode. This provides a better weather target resolution and
makes sure the transmitter is used efficiently.
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In addition, the majority of transmitters can also vary their Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF),
i.e. the number of times the pulse is transmitted in one second. In this way, when the system is
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selected to the short ranges, the receiver portion of the Tx/Rx is not listening for an
unnecessarily long period of time. In this way, the transmitter section can increase the number
of transmitted pulses per second and this results in a faster update of any weather targets.
Once the PRF and pulse width are set, the transmit signal is applied to the antenna through a
duplexer, which radiates it away from the aircraft in a directional beam as the scanner moves.
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Any energy reflected back to the antenna during the listening time between pulses, is applied
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to the receiver section of the Tx/Rx through the duplexer. This energy is amplified and mixed
with a reference frequency to produce an Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal, which makes the
design and construction of the processing circuits simpler. If the signals were left at their X
band or C band values, the circuits would be very complicated in design, because of the need
for shielding circuits in order to prevent cross modulation. In addition, the cost of components
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that can be operated at X or C band levels are high, as most electronic components are
designed to operate at lower frequencies.
The IF is then amplified, before being decoded and applied to range and azimuth computation
circuit filters. The range filter processes any returned signals with respect to range, using the
radar mile formula: sw
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The azimuth circuits compute the returns position with respect to the scanner position at time
of transmission.
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In the most recent digital systems, the range filter also digitalizes the analogue return signals
and integrates them into range "bins". This process is repeated for each azimuth bearing, then
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divided into data bins for an easier data handling.

Each data bin represents the reflectivity Z level of the returning signal at their respective
ranges.
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In analogue systems the range and azimuth information is sent to the receiver
encoder/decoder as a video signal. This is processed together with information from the
controller and forwarded onto the display, again as a video signal.
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Weather radar systems come in all shapes and sizes; some have combined
controller/indicators, some have several LRUs to process data, but most systems usually
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consists of the following components:
 Transmitter/receiver
 Weather radar presentation
 Control panel
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 Antenna
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Depending on the size of the aircraft some of the above components may be combined with
integrated units to save space or simplify installation.
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Fig. 4.128 - Typical weather radar installation
Weather radar systems currently used operate on two frequency ranges: the 4000-8000 MHz C
band or the 8000-12500 MHz X band range.
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Weather radar: Transmitter/receiver
Typically, the transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) has three basic sections:

 Transmitter
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 Receiver
 Data processor
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Each section has self-monitoring circuits to check the signal validity, circuit integrity and
performance parameters. The transmitter section produces a multi pulse, RF signal at X band
or C band frequencies, powerful enough to illuminate targets at ranges up to approximately
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300 NMs. This signal is fed to the antenna through a duplexer that also couples the receiver
section of the Tx/Rx to the antenna feed via a waveguide. The duplexer must operate quickly
in order to protect the receiver circuits during pulse transmission.
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The receiver section contains the signal detection and amplification circuits necessary to
process the returned echo RF signal into a useable signal, which can be processed by the data
processing circuits of the Tx/Rx. Most radar receivers incorporate a balanced mixer stage to
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prevent electrical noise generated in the Tx/Rx from reaching the received signal.
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The data processing circuit uses the received RF return signal to produce a data signal
encoding the range, bearing and target information to be displayed on the system indicator. In
other words, these circuits decode the analog RF return signal, i.e. the signal reflected from a
target, and then digitally encode the information into a format, usually a video one, that will
be decoded by the indicator.
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Weather radar: antenna
The weather radar antenna, connected to the transceiver of the system, is usually installed in
the aircraft nose.
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Fig. 4.129 - Weather radar antenna
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This antenna is stabilized by a vertical gyro or by the inertial reference system to a maximum
of about 20°, in order to compensate the pitch and roll movements of the aircraft. Moreover
the antenna can swing from 60° to 90° on one side to the other of the longitudinal axis and the
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pilot can also move it of 10° up or down from its neutral position.
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Fig. 4.130 - Movements of weather radar antenna

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The antenna can produce both a pencil-shaped beam and a fan-shaped beam. The type of the
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signal employed depends upon the use of the system. The pencil-shaped beam is used for
weather and longer range mapping (greater than 60 NM), while the fan-shaped beam is used
for short-range mapping.
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Weather radar: displays
The echoes of clouds containing precipitations are shown the pilots through a dedicated
indicator, placed in the cockpit.
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In the glass cockpit this indicator is included in the monitors of the Electronic Flight Instrument
System (EFIS). In the weather page of the ND display, at the bottom of the screen, there is a
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representation of the aircraft with precipitations shown in different colors, in order to
facilitate the recognition of their position and intensity.
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Fig. 4.131 - Weather radar display

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If the screen of the weather radar remains black, the reflected signal is too faint and the
intensity of precipitation is less than 0.7 mm/h.
The color scale employed is composed of green, yellow (or amber), red and magenta:
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 The green color identifies light precipitations, usually between 0.7 and 4 mm/h.
 The yellow color identifies precipitations of medium and moderate intensity, usually
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between 4 and 12 mm/h.
 The red color identifies precipitations of high intensity, usually greater than 12mm/h.
 The magenta color identifies very heavy precipitations, usually greater than 12mm/h.
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The red or magenta areas that appear on the radar screen are dangerous and should be
avoided by the pilot.
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Fig. 4.132 - Color code of weather radar
The five mode switches at the top of the indicator control the weather radar system. They are:
 OFF: the system is not energized.
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 STBY: the system is energized to warm up the magnetron and other circuits, but there
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is no transmitter output.
 WX: normal weather radar operation.
 CYC: normal weather radar operation but with a flashing contour function.
 MAP: the system operates in a ground-mapping mode, but usually only on the 10 NM
and 25 NM ranges.
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13.4.23 Working principles of radio altimeter
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Radio altimeter: operation
The radio altimeter measures the vertical distance between the aircraft and the ground, with
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the aim of providing the pilot with information about the underneath terrain. The functioning
of the radio altimeter is particularly important when the aircraft is flying close to the ground,
especially during the final approach phase.
The operational principle of the radio altimeter is based on the continuous transmission of a
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signal and the altitude is determined by measuring the time spent by the transmitted signal to
reach the ground, to be reflected and to go back to the aircraft.
The radio altimeter is a transceiver, in which the transmission antenna (Tx) and the receiver
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one (Rx) are installed close to each other. They are installed under the aircraft fuselage. To
keep the length of the antenna cables to a minimum, the radio altimeter is placed close to the
antennas.
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The radio altimeter operates in the SHF frequency band, ranging between 4200 and 4400 MHz.
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Modern radio altimeters transmit a frequency-modulated carrier wave at 4300 MHz. When the
signal is reflected by the Earth surface, it is received back by the aircraft transceiver. The radio
altimeter compares the frequency of the received signal with the frequency of the one
transmitted: this difference is proportional to the time and distance travelled by the emitted
signal. Since the velocity of propagation of the waves is a known value, if we calculate half of
the time spent by the signal to reach the ground and to come back to the aircraft, it is possible
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to determine the aircraft height in respect to the underneath ground.
It is important to remember that although the radio altimeter is an instantaneous and accurate
instrument, it gives no indication of the height of underneath ground elements.
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Fig. 4.133 - Typical radio altimeter system

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Fig. 4.134 - Radar altimeter operation

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Radio altimeter: indicator
The radio altimeter or radar altimeter sends the information about the calculated height to an
indicator, placed in the cockpit.
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The height measured by the radio altimeter is shown on a cockpit altimeter, and is generally
used by other aircraft systems, such as the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) and by
the autopilot.
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The most common display of the radio altimeter is made of a fixed scale and a moving pointer.
The scale is usually linear up to 500 ft and it is logarithmic from 500 to 2500 ft.
This instrument has also a setting-knob used to select the Decision Height (DH). When the
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aircraft is descending below the set decision height, the instrument provides an amber visual
alert and an aural message to inform the pilot.
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On the instrument there is a pointer mash, which hides the pointer when the instrument is
inoperative, either because the airplane is beyond the equipment height limit or because the
instrument has a failure.
In the modern glass cockpits, the information of the radio altimeter is shown by the screens of
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the airborne Electronic Flight Instrumentation System (EFIS). In these screens, the position, in
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which the data of the radio altimeter are shown, varies according to the type of screen used.
A common configuration displays the information of the radio altimeter on the right bottom
corner of screen. There are two different representations of the radio altimeter, according to
the type of the used screen.
The first representation of the radio altimeter alerts the pilot every time that the aircraft is
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operating within a height of 550 ft above the ground level. In this case the pilot is directly
informed regarding the height of the aircraft. The indicator of the instrument is displayed as a
white pointer, in which the value of the aircraft height is shown in green.
The second representation of the radio altimeter provides instead the information about the
aircraft height in relation to the value of the DH inserted in the system. In this case, the green
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value, placed inside the white indicator, signals whether the aircraft is above or below the
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selected DH.
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Fig. 4.135 - Radio altimeter indicator
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Fig. 4.136 - Information of radio altimeter on EFIS screen

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Example
Although different manufacturer may use other frequencies and stages or sections in their LRU
systems, the overall principle is the same. In the following example a typical system that
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operate with a Carrier Wave of 4.25-4.35 GHz and frequency modulated at a rate of 100 Hz
(FM) is shown.
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The transmitter oscillator generates the CW, which is then modulated by a 100 Hz signal. The
FM modulated CW is amplified by the power amplifier and fed to a coupler. The coupler has
two functions:
 It feeds the modulated signal onward to the isolator
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 It takes a sample of the transmitted signal and applies it to the receiver decoder.
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The isolators in the transmitter and receiver circuits are there for protection to prevent any RF
leakage feeding back from either antenna. The FM modulated signal leaves the transmitter
antenna, strikes the terrain below the aircraft and is reflected back to the receiver antenna.
The amount of reflected power will depend on the type of terrain beneath the aircraft, in
example concrete, water, wooded areas etc. Water and heavily wooded areas do not provide
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the best returns. The return signal from the receiver antenna is applied through its associated
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isolator to a mixer stage. The mixer reduces the CW to a lower Intermediate Frequency IF that
is then amplified and applied to a tracking filter.
The tracking filter has a narrow bandwidth, like a small window, which only allows through
frequencies that are similar in value to those before it. This eliminates unwanted frequencies,
but more importantly, it also prevents signals that have been reflected more than once from
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being processed. This signal then passes on to the noise filters that eliminate any unwanted
"glitches" that may occur. The received frequency is then fed with the original transmitted
frequency to the frequency decoder. The frequency decoder determines the difference
between the transmitted and received frequencies and sends its output to the altitude
converter. The altitude converter converts the frequency difference in the proper analogue
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and digital signals for the Rad-Alt Indicator and various other aircraft systems.
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The radio altimeter system uses these signals to measure the time taken for the signal to travel
to the terrain and back again.
As already described, the example generates a CW of 4.25 -4.35 GHz, frequency modulated at
a 100 Hz rate. This means that it takes only 0.005 s to alter frequency across its range. As radio
waves travel at the speed of light the transmitted signal could cover over 800 NMs in this time
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period and so at its maximum range of 2500 ft it can compute the aircraft's radio altitude
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many, many times in the 0,005 seconds period.

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Fig. 4.137 - Typical radio altimeter system block diagram

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13.4.24 ARINC communication and reporting
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The data bus systems are essential technologies for all avionic systems of the aircraft. In
particular, the serial digit data buses are used to interconnect different units and different sub
systems.
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ACARS is a solution to problems caused by an overcrowded VHF communication band. The
domestic VHF system tends to run out of channels for operational control when operating in
high-density airports, this result in communications congestion. Furthermore, much of the
voice communication between flight crew and flight operations control is composed of routine
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messages regarding aircraft status and departure/arrival times.
ACARS is an addressable digital data link system, which permits exchange of data, and
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messages between an aircraft and a ground based operations centre using the VHF
communication band.
Downlink messages from the aircraft are transmitted in digital form to ARINC data link ground
stations. The data is then sent to a central ARINC data link control computer, which is
connected via land lines to the company communications control centre.
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Fig. 4.138 - ACARS general layout

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Downlink messages from the aircraft may consist of position updates, weather data or details
of aircraft system faults. Uplink messages from the ground network may consist of weather
data, flight plan or other information relevant to the flight crew.
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Downlink messages contain the aircraft registration and flight number in order to identify the
source of the message. Similarly, uplink messages are addressed to a specific aircraft
registration and the airborne processor ignores messages not addressed to the aircraft where
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the equipment is fitted.
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Fig. 4.139 - ACARS aircraft system scheme
The management unit provides control of airborne data and transmits downlink data to the
ground through the VHF transceiver. It also accepts uplink data from the VHF transceiver and
controls the distribution and display of data. The MU monitors of the aircraft OUT/OFF/ON/IN
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sensors and labels these as 0001 events. When a 0001 event occurs, the system generated
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GMT is automatically entered into the MU 0001 event memory and is available for recall and
visual display any time after the event occurs. The 0001 times are automatically transmitted to
the ground station at specified times in accordance with the system memory program. The
0001 logic is based on air/ground, parking brake and passenger door discrete signals.
The 0001 times are those at which the aircraft goes OUT of the gate at pushback, goes OFF the
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ground on take-off, back ON the ground at landing and back IN the gate.
The display unit is interactive and uses an infrared LED matrix to detect finger pressure on the
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screen. The display unit provides an interface between the pilot and ACARS.
The printer provides automatic printouts of certain uplink messages and manually initiated
printouts of uplink messages selected from the ACARS display unit.
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A message may be initiated by crew action or generated as the result of a predetermined
event or series of events. The ACARS MU monitors the RF channel before any transmission. If
the channel is not clear, the system waits until the channel is clear again before transmitting.
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When the MU is powered up, it does not immediately have data communications established
with the ground network. This condition is known as NOCOM. In order to establish a
communication link the MU selects the first VHF frequency in its data frequency table and
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tunes its associated VHF transceiver to it. Then the MU interrogates the frequency for valid
uplink messages. If after 2.1 minutes on a frequency, no uplink messages have been detected,
the MU will remain in NOCOM and move on to the next frequency in its table. The MU never
transmits on a frequency unless it has received a valid ACARS uplink traffic on that frequency
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within 2.1 minutes.
The MU transmits a link test message as an attempt to establish contact. In the event of no
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acknowledgement (ACK) from the ground station, the MU retransmits the message for a total
of six times. If no ACK reply is received, after the sixth attempt no further attempts are made
on that frequency. A NOCOM message is displayed on the ACARS display unit and the MU
moves on to the next frequency, repeating the whole process.
When valid uplink traffic is detected and the MU receives a link test ACK from the ground
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station, the MU remains on that frequency and clears the NOCOM message.
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Having established a good frequency for communications, the MU will continue to use that
given frequency until any contact failure occurs. In this last case, the MU will enter a NOCOM
condition and the frequency selection process starts once again.
The MU detects ACARS message for and from all ACARS equipped aircraft in the nearby. All
uplink messages are checked for address and validity. Uplinks addressed to other aircraft are
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ignored by the MU.
ARINC 429
There are many electrical serial digital data bus systems, which are used in civil avionic
systems: ARINC 429 is the most commonly used data bus for commercial and transport
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aircraft.
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ARINC 429 bus is a simple point-to-point bus, in which there is only one main transmitter,
called SOURCE and one or more receivers, called SINK, up to a maximum of 20. This means
that the connection is unidirectional and happens on separated lines.
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ARINC 429 standard implies the use of a word of 32 bits. The word can be encoded as BCD
(Binary Coded Decimal) or as BNR (Binary NumbeR).
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The first 8 bits are identified as LABEL field. The type of transmitted data is BNR, BCD or
Discrete and the encoding is typically octal. The LABEL is generally used to determine the data
type (selected airspeed, ADF frequency, etc.). The LABEL is compulsory. For example, LABEL
103 identifies a selected airspeed.
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The bits from 9 to 10 are identified as SDI field (Source Destination Identifier). The SDI field is
generally used to identify the transmission source in the case of multiple transmissions and is
used to identify the receiver. In some cases it can complete the LABEL content. The SDI field is
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not compulsory.
The bits from 11 to 29 contain the real data, while the bits from 30 to 31 represent the sign or
state of the datum. Bit 32 is dedicated to parity check. The parity bit is used to verify, in an
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easy way, if a digital datum has been transmitted correctly.
It is also important to know the Least Significant Bit (LSB) and the Most Significant Bit (MSB) of
the word.
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The first bit is always the LSB, while the 32nd is always the MSB. This structure is present also
in the data area, which starts from bit 11 and finishes with bit 29. Bit 11 is the LSB and bit 29 is
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the MSB.
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Fig. 4.140 - ARINC 429 word
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All bits eventually unused have to be set to 0, according to a logic called zero padding.
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Cat. B2 - 13.5 Electrical power
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13.5 Electrical power
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13.5.1 Battery installation and operation
Batteries general characteristics

A battery (or “battery pack”) is a device made of a group of electrochemical cells, used to
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transform the stocked chemical energy into electrical one. They are connected in series, so
that the voltage of the single elements is added up. The batteries provide Direct Current (DC).
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In its basic form, every cell consists of two conductors (anode and cathode) immersed in an
electrolyte, from which an electron generates. Electrons move from the cathode (negative) to
the anode (positive), through the external load. The electrolyte represents the physical means
in which the migration of the electrons occurs.
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Fig. 5.1 - The battery concept

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The batteries can be divided into two classes: primary and secondary. The primary batteries,
also called piles, are not rechargeable and they must be replaced once their chemical
substances are depleted. The secondary batteries, also called accumulators, are rechargeable
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and they require a source of DC to restore reactants to their fully charged state. This source
can be the electrical system of the aircraft or a specific device, called battery charger.
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It is also important to know the charging and discharging phases of the battery. The charging
phase is the process that allows the battery to accumulate electrical energy, while the phase of
discharging is the process through which the battery generates electrical current. These two
processes are characterized by the charging and discharging speed, also called C rate.
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The C rate measures the current of charging and discharging, necessary to spend or restore the
capacity of the battery. Usually, the C rate indicates the velocity with which a battery can
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deliver its capacity in 1 hour. For example, the value C/2 indicates that the battery will
discharge its capacity in 2 hours, while 2C indicates that the battery will discharge its capacity
in ½ hour.
In order to choose what type of battery must be installed for a specific application, we have to
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analyze the characteristics of the battery.
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The most significant parameters are:

 The capacity, expressed in Ampere-hour [Ah], indicates the quantity of stored
electrical energy that the battery can provide from its state of complete charge to its
discharged state.
 The produced energy, expressed in Watt-hour [Wh], indicates the product between
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the capacity of a cell and its voltage.
 The energy density, expressed in Watt-hour per Kilogram [Wh/Kg], indicates how
much energy is produced by a single cell of battery for each its kilogram.
For all aerospace applications the most important parameter is the energy density.
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The primary task of the aircraft batteries is that of supplying energy for the engine start-up or
APU start up, when the aircraft is parked and it is not assisted or when it is in emergency
conditions. In the emergency conditions, the batteries must supply the Inertial Navigation
System (INS), the essential flight instruments, the radio communication equipment and the
emergency lightning.
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The aeronautical rules detail the requirements that the battery systems must have. In the case
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of total failure of the main electrical generating system of the aircraft, the batteries should
supply an adequate amount of power in order to support the essential systems (previously
indicated) for a minimum period of 30 minutes. In this way, the continuity of the flight and the
execution of an emergency landing could be safely performed.
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Secondary batteries are the most common, even if the primary cells are sometimes used for
powering critical avionics equipment, such as the Flight Data Recorders (FDRs). The secondary
batteries, typically installed on aircraft, may be:
 Lead acid batteries
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 Nickel-Cadmium batteries
 Silver-Zinc batteries
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Lead acid batteries
The classic lead-acid battery consists of a series of electrochemical cells in which the two
electrodes are made of lead: the positive electrode is made of lead dioxide and the negative
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one is made of pure spongy lead. The electrolyte is a water solution of sulphuric acid.
It is important to note that in order to prevent the plates touching, a micro-porous separator is
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inserted between them. In addition, each cell is equipped with a vent plug in order to permit
the escape of gasses produced during the chemical actions.
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Fig. 5.2 - Lead acid battery components

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A very important parameter that permits the study of the state of these batteries is the
specific gravity of the electrolyte. The electrolyte should have a specific gravity between 1.25
and 1.27. It is important to remember that this parameter is defined as the ratio of a given
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volume of liquid to the weight of a comparable volume of water at the same temperature. In
other words it measures the concentration of the electrolyte. It is also important to remember
that the specific gravity is affected by temperature: it decreases when the temperature
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increases.
During the discharging process, the current flows between the positive and negative
electrodes. In this way, both electrodes are converted into lead sulphate and sulphuric acid
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will be diluted due to the water formation. Consequently, when the battery is in charge, the
specific gravity of the electrolyte increases. The highest value is reached when the batteries
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are fully charged.

The plotting voltage or current versus the discharge time, starting from the fully charged
condition, generally defines the discharge process. The lead acid batteries usually generate
very high current.
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Fig. 5.3 - Discharge diagram of Lead acid batteries

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During the charging process, the batteries are connected to a DC source.
Thus, the lead-acid batteries of aircraft have no need for a dedicated batteries charger.
In this phase the material of the negative electrode is converted back into spongy lead, while
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that of the positive one is converted back into lead dioxide. In addition, the concentration of
the electrolyte is restored to its normal value. Consequently, when the battery is in discharge,
the specific gravity of the electrolyte decreases.
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Great attention must be paid during the charging process. If the process happens at high
current, the battery generally loses the electrolyte.
A battery cell is considered fully discharged when the following two conditions happen:
 The voltage falls to 1.8 V.
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 The specific gravity is reduced to its minimum value, which is established by the
manufacturer.
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Instead, a battery cell is considered fully charged when:

 The voltage reaches 2.7 V.
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 The specific gravity increases until its maximum value.
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 The presence of the gassing phenomenon. This phenomenon occurs in the form of a
constant stream of bubble that rises from the cell surface. In fact, during the charging
process the battery cell mostly absorbs hydrogen and oxygen that are generated.
However, when the battery cell is fully charged, it can no longer absorb them.
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It is important to remember that the battery cell can be considered fully charged only when all
three conditions are stable for one hour.
The lead-acid batteries are designed to guarantee the maximum performances at 25°C. Each
cell of these batteries is able to provide an electromotive force of about 2 V, with an energy
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density of 35 Wh/Kg. Their exposure to low temperatures causes a decline in performance and
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these batteries are reliable until the freezing point of the electrolyte.
Whereas their exposure to high temperatures causes a shorten life cycle. The life cycle of the
lead-acid aircraft batteries depends on frequency of use, environmental temperature
conditions and the care with which they are maintained. Usually, the life cycle of lead-acid
batteries can range from 1 to 5 years. For these reasons, it is important to check the data
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defined by the manufacturer, in order to guarantee the safety and airworthiness of the
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aircraft. Another important advantage of the lead batteries is their low costs.
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Nickel-Cadmium batteries
The Nickel-Cadmium batteries consist of a steel case containing some cells connected in series.
The number of cells depends on the particular application of the battery, usually 19 or 20 cells
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are used. Each cell is made of many sub-cells consisting of two electrodes: the positive
electrode is made of nickel hydroxide and the negative one is made of cadmium hydroxide.
The electrolyte is a water solution of potassium hydroxide. The specific weight of this solution
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is around 1.24 to 1.3 at room temperature.
It is important to note that in order to prevent the plates touching, a triple layer type separator
is inserted between them. In addition, each cell is equipped with a vent plug in order to permit
the escape of gasses produced during the charging process. Instead, during the discharging
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process no gas escape occurs.
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During the charging process, the material of the negative electrolyte loses its oxygen and it is
thus converted into metallic cadmium. The material of the positive electrode reaches a higher
state of oxidation.
During the discharge process the contrary happens. The material of the negative electrode
regains oxygen and is converted back into cadmium hydroxide; the material of the positive
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electrode changes again into nickel hydroxide.
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It is important to remember that the electrolyte does not have an active role in the chemical
reaction. Consequently, the value of the specific gravity does not provide information about
the state of the batteries. In addition, the voltage of the cells cannot be analyzed because it
remains almost constant over a wide range of charge levels (see the diagram concerning the
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operation of Nickel-Cadmium batteries).
The only method to determine the status of the Nickel-Cadmium batteries is to discharge them
at a known current rate to check the discharging time.
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The Nickel-Cadmium batteries are more expensive than the lead-acid battery. The Nickel-
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Cadmium battery is commonly used on aircraft applications because it has many advantages:
 Less maintenance
 Higher efficiency at high rates
 Steadier voltage
 High cycle life
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 Higher energy density
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 Higher pick performances

 Lower internal resistance
 Wider operating temperature range
Moreover, the Nickel-Cadmium batteries last longer than lead-acid batteries and have a very
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low internal resistance, which guarantees that their voltage remains almost constant during
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the discharge until the battery is almost completely discharged. The low internal resistance is
also beneficial during the charging phase, because it allows high charging regimes without
causing any battery damage. Different methods can be used to charge the batteries.
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However, the main disadvantage of the Nickel-Cadmium batteries is that they discharge very
quickly once the process begins.
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Fig. 5.4 - Discharge characteristics of Lead acid and Nickel-Cadmium batteries

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The Nickel-Cadmium batteries are used in the aeronautical sector when there is the necessity
to dispose of high current for a short period of time. The Nickel Cadmium batteries are
designed to guarantee the maximum performances at around 25°C. Each cell of these batteries
is able to provide an electromotive force of about 1.2 V, with an energy density of about 60
Wh/kg. Comparing the Nickel-Cadmium batteries with the lead-acid batteries, we can note
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that the Nickel-Cadmium batteries have a greater capacity at low temperatures and a lower
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one at high temperatures.

Moreover, for the Nickel-Cadmium batteries it is difficult to determine a common life cycle,
because it depends on different operational conditions. The maintenance process is thus
important and is required in order to assure the airworthiness of the aircraft and to maximize
the life cycle. Usually, the maintenance intervals for commercial aircraft can vary from 100 to
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1000 flight hours.
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Silver-Zinc batteries
The silver-zinc batteries are very expensive and used only in the emergency conditions. These
batteries are composed of two electrolytes, one made of silver dust and the other one made of
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zinc. The two electrodes are drowned in the electrolyte, which is a water solution of potassium
hydroxide. The zinc-silver batteries have the highest performances, if compared to commercial
batteries. Each cell of these batteries is able to provide an electromotive force of about 1.7 V,
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with an energy density of about 110 Wh/kg.
Battery installation
On aircraft a single battery or several ones can be installed, according to the emergency
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requirements and essential equipment. When more batteries are installed, they are connected
in parallel.
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Batteries are generally mounted on a tray, which is fixed to the aircraft structure. They must
be installed in areas having adequate heat dissipation as well as an adequate ventilation.
Generally the gases, produced during the chemical actions, are vented in the atmosphere
through some holes located at the sides of the fuselage. The batteries are connected to the
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holes through non-corrodible piping. This system is based on the Venturi effect: the outside
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airflow draws the air from the battery.

However, modern aircraft use the pressurization effect.
Battery maintenance
It is important to remember that the aircraft battery must be inspected at specific periods, as
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detailed by the maintenance schedules. The batteries must be inspected for:
 Signs of electrolyte spillage
 Electrolyte level
 Value of specific gravity
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 Sign of general damages
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 Leakage of the connector pins

 Efficiency of the ventilation systems
In other words, the main purpose of the maintenance is that of maintaining the battery clean,
with their terminals closed and without any sign of corrosion.
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Corrosion
If on the battery terminals or in its container there are traces of corrosion, it is necessary to
suddenly eliminate them, washing the battery with a water solution of baking soda and then
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rubbing the treated parts. During the cleaning you have to avoid the baking soda to enter the
battery and neutralize the electrolyte.
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Electrolyte spillage
In case of electrolyte spillage specific actions must be immediately taken according to the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM). The general rules are:
 Check the cause of spillage and the battery.
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 If necessary, remove the battery.
 Remove the accessible pools of electrolyte using a clean rag. It is important that the
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rag is moistened with water.

 Wash the area with clean and cold water.
 Dry the area with a clean rag.
 Check that the cables are not contaminated by electrolyte. In the case in which the
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cables are contaminated, they must be replaced.
 If there is the suspect that the electrolyte has contaminated the structure, other
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actions should be taken according to the AMM.

 Fit and connect the battery and test the system.
During any process the operators must wear rubber gloves and eye protections. However, if a
skin contact with the electrolyte happens, it is important that the area is washed with clean
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and cold water. If eyes contact occurs, the injured area must be flushed with steriflex or clean
cold water.
Electrolyte level
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The control of electrolyte quantity must be individually performed for every cell of the battery.
If the level is too low, it is necessary to add some distilled or de-mineralized water. This
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addition must be done after a specific time interval from the charging of the battery (usually
after an hour). However, in order to correctly perform this operation, the batteries are often
removed from the aircraft; if a battery cell requires more than a specified amount of distilled
water, the cell is considered defective and the battery must be removed.
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Value of specific gravity
The density (or concentration) of the specific gravity can be checked using a hydrometer,
which differs according to the type of batteries. Since the specific gravity varies according to
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the temperature, the manufacturer establishes its value based on a standard temperature of
15°C.
The instrument measures the specific density at room temperature. The data read on the
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instrument are subjected to corrections, in order to adapt data according to the standard
temperature value.
Battery room tests
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The main tests performed on lead-acid batteries and on Nickel-Cadmium batteries are:
 Capacity test
 Cell balance test (only for Nickel-Cadmium batteries)
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 Insulation test
 Cell vent pressure test
All these tests must be executed following the instructions provided by the manufacturer.
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Capacity test
The capacity test is generally performed every three months. The following steps apply:
 The battery must be fully charged.
 The battery must stand for 15-24 hours.
 The battery must be connected to the discharge test panel.
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 The battery must be discharged at a rate corresponding to the normal rating of the
battery.
 The time spent by the voltage to reach the discharge value must be registered. This
time is called actual time. The discharge value varies according to the battery type: in
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the lead-acid battery it is in the region of 21.6 V, while in Nickel-Cadmium battery is
around 20 V.
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 The capacity of the battery must be calculated through this expression:

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The rated time is usually one hour. For example, if the actual time of the battery is 50 minutes,
the capacity will be:
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The capacity test has a positive result, if the calculated battery capacity is at least 80%.
However, it is also important to check the trend of the previous tests.
Cell balance test

This test can be performed only on Nickel-Cadmium batteries that fail their capacity test. The
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general procedure of this test can be resumed as follows:
 Each battery cell must be put in short out.
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 The battery must stand for 15-24 hours.

 Each cell voltage must be checked.
 The battery is discharged at 1-hour rate until there is an average of 1V per cell.
 The short-circuited cells must be replaced.
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 The battery must be recharged and the cell balance procedure must be repeated in
order to reach the correct capacity value (80%).
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Insulation test
The insulation test must check the effective electrical insulation between the cells and the case
of battery. In fact, if there is a breakdown, a leakage of current can occur; consequently, after
a certain period of time the battery can be discharged.
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The cause of the insulation loss is represented by the electrolyte that exits from the cells and
attacks the battery structure.
This test is performed as follows:
 The battery must be put on a clean corrosion free metal plate.
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 An insulation tester must be connected between the metal plate and the battery
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terminals.
 The tester must be activated.
The minimum acceptable value depends on the battery type. In case of lead-acid batteries it is
about 1MΩ, while in case of Nickel-Cadmium batteries it is about 10 MΩ.
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Fig. 5.5 - Insulation test

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Cell vent pressure test
The test procedure varies according to the type of battery.
Below are the main steps of the procedure for lead-acid batteries:
 The vent caps must be removed.
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 In turn, the tester must be firmly held over a vent in order to pressurize the cells to 2
psi.
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The test has a positive result, if there is no detectable leakages after a minimum period of 15
seconds.
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The general procedure of this test in case of Nickel-Cadmium batteries follows these steps:
 On the vents of the battery a pressure via compressed air line is applied.
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 The pressure is raised.
The test has a positive result, if the valves open between 2 and 10 psi.
Battery charging
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Batteries can be recharged in three different modes:
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 Constant voltage
 Constant current
 Pulse
In addition, some battery systems permit the use of a combination of more than one of these
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methods.
Constant voltage charging

When a battery is charged with a constant voltage, it means that a constant potential is
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supplied to the battery. The devices able to provide constant potential are the voltage
regulator controlled DC generator and the battery charger.
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The charging source produces a constant voltage that is applied to the battery. This voltage
creates a current flow into the battery and so the voltage of the battery gradually increases. As
the charging process continues, the difference between the voltage produced by the charging
source and the rising voltage of the battery decreases and consequently the charging current
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decreases too.
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The advantages of the constant voltage charging are:
 Relatively rapid charging.
 The battery can be directly connected to the main DC bus bars connected to the DC
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generator.
However the constant voltage charging has also some disadvantages:

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 It may cause the cell imbalance.
 It requires periodic reconditioning treatment of the battery.
 It tends to overcharge/undercharge the battery, if the charging voltage is not correctly
set.
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Fig. 5.6 - Example of aircraft charging circuit

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Constant current charging
During this process the battery is supplied with a predetermined and relatively constant
charging current. This method is commonly used to charge the Nickel-Cadmium batteries, even
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if it is usually slower than the constant voltage charging method. This fact represents the most
important disadvantage of this method. In addition, to perform this charging method a battery
charger is requested.
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The advantages of the constant current charging are:
 No excessive gassing.
 The battery cells kept in a balanced condition.
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Pulse charging
The pulse charging method requires particular attention because it must follow a specific
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diagram, similar to that shown below. A battery charger is required in this case too.
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Fig. 5.7 - Example of aircraft pulse charging

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We can notice that the pulsing of the voltage changes with the subsequent changes in the
charging current. For example, the charging of a battery will start at 60 A with 28 V. During the
charging process the current falls, while the voltage rises. When the current reaches 26 A and
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the voltage is 33 V, the charge ceases. At this point the current and the battery voltage slowly
drop. Every time the voltage falls to 28 V, a new pulse is provided. This charging cycle is
repeated for a total of eight pulses.
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13.5.2 Power generation
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The electrical system on aircraft has the function to provide and distribute energy between
different users. It is present on all airplanes in a more or less developed form, depending on
the aircraft category.
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Generators are the main source of power and are commonly driven by the aircraft engines.
However, generators can be driven also by the RAT (Ram Air Turbine) or by the APU (Auxiliary
Power Unit). The generator can provide AC (Alternating Current) or DC (Direct Current)
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according to the aircraft electrical system.
On aircraft there are some systems that require a specific type of electrical power supply and
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others where the type of energy can be selected.

Some preliminary choice about the primary type of generated and used energy must be done.
In fact it is possible to design both DC systems and AC structures. Moreover, it is possible to
design systems with different voltage values.
In order to decide what type of system must be built, it is necessary to analyze different
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electrical users and their needs. In the majority of aircraft both DC and AC are used.
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However, it is preferable to choose which type of current (DC or AC) is convenient to employ
as primary energy. Some devices are then installed to convert the generated energy in the
other one.
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Fig. 5.8 - DC power generation and distribution

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Fig. 5.9 - AC power generation and distribution

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13.5.3 DC power generation
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Dynamo structure and functioning
On small civil aircrafts the primary system is designed in DC. The DC usually has a voltage of 28
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V. The components of the dynamo employed to generate the DC are:
 A rotor, composed of some rotating wires of conductive material. The wires are
generally wound on a steel core, called armature.
 A stator, represented by a fixed magnetic field generated by the two opposite poles.
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 A commutator, in order to obtain a direct current as output. The commutator is a
rotating switch consisting of a cylinder cut in half, whose halves are insulated.
 Some wiggling brushes connected to the commutator. They are usually made of
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graphite carbon having important proprieties, such as low contact resistance, low
specific resistance, low coefficient of friction and good lubricating characteristics.
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Fig. 5.10 - Dynamo
The rotor of the dynamo rotates inside the fixed magnetic field, creating an electromotive
induced force, in accordance with the Faraday law.
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This force varies in a sinusoidal way and generates an AC. However, by connecting the heads of
the wires to the commutator through some wiggling brushes, it is possible to obtain as output
a constant current.
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In fact the commutator keeps the polarity of the brushes constant. If the dynamo is made of
one wire only, the produced DC output is not constant. The output current is DC type, since
the electrons always flow in one direction; however, it is not constant, having points of
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minimum and maximum in a cycle. By employing more than one wire, the output current is
leveled and it has an almost constant value. Each wire requires two connections to the
commutator.
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Fig. 5.11 - Dynamo operation

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The maximum output voltage and current provided by a dynamo varies according to the
different methods with which the wires are connected on to the other. There are two main
modes of connection:
 Lap winding
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 Wave winding
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When the wave winding is applied, there are two paths in parallel and only two poles.
Consequently, only two sets of brushes are installed. Each path provides half of the total
output. In general, the wave wound generators produce high voltage and low current.
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Fig. 5.12 - Wave winding
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On the contrary, when the lap winding is applied, there are many poles and many paths in
parallel. In this case, there are many sets of brushes: their number being equal to the number
of poles of the dynamo. The total output current is equally divided among the different paths.
In general the lap wound generators produce high current and low voltage.
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Fig. 5.13 - Lap winding
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In both cases the brushes represent the main disadvantage of the dynamo: in fact, they tend
to become thin and may cause very dangerous sparks.
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Consequently the maintenance and the substitution of the brushes are very important
processes.
The type of brushes to be used is written on the fatigued brushes installed on the aircraft
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generator: it is important that the new brushes are of the same type as those to be replaced.
Starter-generator
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The dynamo has the main advantage of being reversible. In fact, it is able to produce
mechanical work starting form electrical energy. This advantage is used for the start-up of
turbine engines of small size, both on light aircraft and helicopters.
When the dynamo accomplishes the function of both the generator and the starting device, is
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called starter-generator. The functions of starting and of electrical generation are thus coupled
in a unique device, with a consequent weight reduction.
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For starting purposes, a DC is provided to this device. The starter-generator operates as a

motor. Once the engine has been started, the starter-generator operates as a generator and
supplies current to the system bus bars as well as to the battery in order to charge them.
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In most cases, during the flight the ram air cools the starter-generator.
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A starter-generator is characterized by two important parameters:

 The values of the voltage and the current, which can be provided when the device
works as a DC generator.
 The number of revolutions per minute of the regime of rotation, which defines the
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function of starter.
On large aircraft, the dynamo is not able to work as starter-generator, because the torque
necessary to start the engine is too high and consequently the dynamo becomes too
cumbersome and heavy. sw
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Nowadays, DC is commonly generated through alternators, losing the reversibility advantage

of the dynamo. In this case the output of the alternators is straightened and leveled through
particular devices, called rectifiers.
The most important technical advantages connected to the use of an alternator are:
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 The elimination of wiggling brushes with consequent reduction in the maintenance of
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the machine.
 The possibility, offered by the alternator, to produce AC directly.
 The lower weight of the alternators, which offers the possibility to install less
cumbersome generators that provides the same power.
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Fig. 5.14 - Starter generator

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Maintenance of DC generator
The DC generator should be inspected to check the required features, such as the security of
the attachments, the presence of burning signs and the presence of general damages.
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In addition, insulation tests should be performed on the DC machine.
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Armature and wires

The armature and wires must be checked in order to detect signs of thrown solder, rubbing or
abrasion. In order to perform these controls, the armature and spires must be rotate and
visually inspected.
In addition, it is also important to control that no open circuits are present in the armature,
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causing localized sparking on the commutator. The armature and wires are thus subjected to
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some specific tests.

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Commutator
It is very important that the commutator has a smooth and clean surface. In addition, this
surface should be free from signs of corrosion or burning and should be uniform in color.
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If the surfaces are damaged, the commutator has to be sent to an approved organization for
resurfacing.
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Brushes
The brushes must be checked in order to detect signs of chipping, corrosion, burning and
grease/oil contamination. It is also important to check the length of these elements, by
analyzing the wear indicator line on them.
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Fig. 5.15 - Wear indicator line on brushes

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13.5.4 AC power generation
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AC generator structure and functioning
On large and medium size civil aircrafts the primary system is designed in AC. This system has a
voltage of 115-200 V and a frequency of 400 Hz. In order to generate the AC as the primary
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energy some alternators are used. The alternators operate according to the same principle of
the dynamo: an electromotive force is induced in a metallic body through a variable magnetic
field.
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The alternator is an electric rotating machine made of a rotating part, the rotor, and a fixed
part, the stator. It can be designed according to different operative requirements.
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When it includes a rotating armature (corresponding to the rotor), the associated magnetic
field does not vary in time and represents the stator. Consequently, the rotor of the alternator
rotates in a fixed magnetic field. Conversely, if it is composed of a fixed armature (representing
the stator), the associated magnetic field is variable and represents the rotor.
The variable magnetic field is generated by a permanently rotating magnet. In this way, its
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magnetic field cuts the stationary wires, thus producing an alternating voltage output.
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In this case, the alternators are also called Permanent Magnet Generators (PMG). The main
advantage of PMGs is that the use of brushes is not required.
These alternators present considerable advantages in terms of wear and sparking:
 Less maintenance costs.
 High performance stability.
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 Better performances at high altitude.
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Fig. 5.16 - Alternator
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There are different types of AC generator available without brushes. The AC actual generators
are made of an alternator matched with a small DC generator. The AC output is that of the
system, while the DC output is employed to create the magnetic field. This current is called
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exciting current. The most common configuration consists of three main elements:
 The pilot exciter
 The main exciter
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 The main AC generator
Also a Generator Control Unit (GCU) is connected to this system (this device is detailed
hereafter in paragraph 11.6.6).
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Fig. 5.17 - AC brushless generator design
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Three-phase alternator
If the output of an AC generator consists of a single wire/winding, the AC generator is called
“single phase generator”. On the contrary, if there are two windings at different angles that
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provide two outputs, the AC generator is called two phase generator and so on.
Three phase alternators with three outputs are the most used on aircraft. In a three-phase
system the coils are outdistanced by 120°. In other words, a three phase generator is similar to
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the combination of three separated generators, whose outputs are 120° out of phase one to
the other.
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Fig. 5.18 - The tri-phase generation
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Each phase of the alternators can be connected to separate terminals and loads can be
independently supplied. However, in order to save weight, the three phases can be connected
together according to two main schemes:
 Star configuration
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 Delta configuration
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Fig. 5.19 - Star and delta configurations
In the star configuration the three windings are connected in one point. This point is called star
point. A lead called neutral line (or simply neutral) is taken from the star point, while the
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remaining ends of each winding are connected to a lead that supplies the loads. In delta
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configuration instead the three windings are connected in series, in order to form a closed
mesh. From each connection point a lead is taken in order to provide the loads with energy.
The main advantage of the star connection is the availability of two voltages (typically 200 and
115 V). For this reason this configuration is the most commonly used on aircraft. The delta
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configuration has not neutral line and cannot supply two different voltages; however, this
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configuration provides higher output current if compared to the star configuration.

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Frequency wild system
The aircraft generator can be of two different types depending on the electrical users:
 Frequency wild systems
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 Constant frequency systems
For example, the purely resistive circuits, such as the electrical de-icing, are not sensitive to the
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value of the frequency and so they can be supplied by a generator, whose speed is not
controlled and whose output is characterized by a variable frequency (frequency wild system).
However, most aircraft electrical equipment request a constant frequency, for this reason the
rotational speed of the generators must be kept constant, independently by the seed of the
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engine that drives them (constant frequency system).
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In a frequency wild system the frequency of the generator output can vary according to the
rotational speed of the generator. In other words, the generators provide a frequency that
depends on their rotational speed (RPM, Revolution Per Minute) that in turn depends on the
engine RPM.
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Usually, these generators are preferred to DC system because they have a better power to
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weight ratio. In addition, they are much less affected by poor brush performance at high
altitude.
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Fig. 5.20 - Example of frequency wild system

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Constant frequency system
The constant frequency system is a system where the frequency of the AC generator is kept
constant. This allows the several generators to operate in parallel. The constant frequency
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system supplies most of the aircraft electrical equipment. In fact, inductive and reactive
circuits request a constant frequency.
The output at constant frequency can be obtained in two different ways:
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 Using particular devices such as CSD (Constant Speed Drive) and IDG (Integrated Drive
Generator) that drive the generator at a constant RPM independently from the engine
RPM.
 Using a VSCF generator.
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CSD and IDG
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In aircraft, the different electrical consumer equipment request different values of the
operating frequency. For example, the inductive devices can overheat, if the frequency is too
low, while the majority of avionics equipment operates only in a specific restricted frequency
range.
Consequently, since the aircraft generators are connected to the aircraft engine, it is very
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important to maintain their rotational velocity constant (and hence their output frequency),
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irrespectively of the speed of the engine. The unit responsible for this is called Constant Speed
Drive (CSD) or Constant Speed Drive Unit (CSDU).
The CSD is a type of automatic hydro-mechanical device: it is driven by the engine and it drives
the generator. The CSD guarantees that its output velocity remains constant also in case of
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variable input velocity (connected to the aircraft engine). The CSD is able to change the speed
received from the engine to maintain it in the region of 6000-8000 RPM and at a frequency of
about 400 Hz, with small allowable tolerances. The system CSD controls its output velocity
through a flyweight regulator connected to a hydraulic pump.
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The CSD performs this function through a differential gear arrangement and a variable
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displacement of the hydraulic unit. The hydraulic unit consists of two devices controlled by the
engines: a wobbler plate pump and a hydraulic motor.
The position of the pump wobbler plate is managed by a piston: in this way the output of the
pump is controlled. Since the pump is connected to the hydraulic motor, the pump output
represents the input of the hydraulic motor.
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The output of the hydraulic unit passes through an axial differential gearbox, in which a set of
cyclic gears sums it up to the output shaft of the generator.
The drive input and the output to/from the hydraulic unit goes through an axial differential
gear box composed by a set of cyclic summing gears that sums the output from the hydraulic
unit up to the output shaft to the generator.
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The functioning of the CDU is accomplished in three different modes:
 Straight drive
 Overdrive
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 Under-drive
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Fig. 5.21 - CSD

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The straight drive occurs when the engine input speed is exactly that required by the AC
generator. If the engine speed decreases, a greater quantity of fluid is supplied to the control
piston in order to increase the pump wobbler plate angle. In this way, the pump supplies fluid
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to the motor, generating a rotation: the RPM of the motor is added up to the RPM of the
hydraulic unit in order to identify the output speed. This mode is called Overdrive.
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The contrary is true in the under-drive condition. When the engine is running fast, the control
piston moves the wobbler plate in order to generate a pump output that will cause the motor
to rotate in a direction opposite to that of the hydraulic unit. In this way, the RPM of the motor
are subtracted to the RPM of the hydraulic unit and so the output RPM remains constant at
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the required speed.
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Fig. 5.22 - CSD operation

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In some cases the CSD is integrated to the brushless generator in a single unit. This device is
called Integrated Drive Generator (IDG).
The input speed is normally between 5800 and 9975 RPM, while the output is usually 12000
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RPM for modern alternator and 6000-8000 RPM for older alternators. Consequently, in this
system the CSD only adds RPM to the generator.
The main advantages of the IDG system are:
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 A weight reduction.
 A reduction in structure size.
 An important increase of reliability.
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Fig. 5.23 - IDG

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Non-parallel system with IDG installation
The AC power system can be:
 Non parallel
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 Parallel
Non-parallel system
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A typical non-parallel system includes two main generators (usually IDG left and IDG right), an
APU that represents an alternative source both in flight and on ground and a plug for the
external power ground connection.
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Fig. 5.24 - CSD operation

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When the aircraft is on ground and the external power unit is connected, the EPC (External
Power Contactor) is closed and the aircraft electrical system is powered. On the contrary,
when the aircraft is on ground and the APU is operative, the APB (Auxiliary Power Breaker) is
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closed and the EPC is open. In this condition the GCBs (Generator Control Breaker) are open,
while the BTBs (Bus Tie Breakers) are closed. Consequently, the APU supplies power both to
main buses and to all relevant bus bars.
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When the engines are operative and both generator output are stabilized, the APB and the
BTBs must trip, in order to leave each generator feeding its own bus bar.
However, if during the flight one generator fails, the APU must start and the switches are again
swapped. If the APU cannot provide power the other operative generator must provide the
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electrical equipment.
Since the operative generator cannot give out more than its rated maximum the electrical
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demand must be reduced and consequently some services are cut off. In this situation the GCB
related to the failed generator are open, while those concerning the still operative generator
must be closed in order to provide the current flow.
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Parallel system with IDG installation
The main difference between the IDG installed in non-parallel systems and the IDG installed in
parallel ones is their control circuits. When the IDG is installed in non-parallel systems, there is
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a magnet trim system.
The governor device receives oil in pressure from a charge pump and controls the output
speed of a planetary differential. The flyweight arms are made of alnico. Below there is a coil
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that has an electrical supply from a load controller. The load controller influences the position
of the governor.
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Fig. 5.25 - IDG installation in a parallel system

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VSCF generator
When the VSCF (Variable Speed Constant Frequency) generator is installed, the CSD can be
removed. In fact the VSCF is supplied with a variable RPM engine input, but it is able to
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produce a constant frequency output thanks the presence of a double conversion state solid
system. The VSCF generator are usually installed on military aircraft, but now they are
commonly also on the commercial aircraft.
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It is important to note that the VSCF generators are designed to replace the IDGs, and
consequently they don’t required any changes in the aircraft wiring and plumbing. Other
important advantages of this system are:
 Weight reduction
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 Reduction in direct operating cost
 Reduction of rotating elements
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 Less maintenance
 Improved reliability.
The following scheme resumes the functioning of the VSCF.

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Fig. 5.26 - VSCF operation
T The generator converts the shaft energy at variable speed into a three-phase power at 115V
and variable frequency (from 1370 to 2545 Hz). In fact, at this stage the output frequency still
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depends on the engine speed. Then the rectifier converts the generator output into 270 V DC,
which is provided to an inverter. The inverter, thanks to their transistors, converts the DC
voltage into a three-phase PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) waveform. The waveform passes
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through an AC filter that changes the PWM signal into a three-phase sinusoid at 115V 400Hz.
In the last stage, the sinusoid goes through the Current Transformer/Electro Magnetic
Interference (CT/EMI) filter that monitors the final output current. This device removes the
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unwanted signals from the output too.
It is also important to taken into account the functions of the GCCU (Generator/Converter
Control Unit). This device is supplied by the PMG contained in the generator and has the
following main functions:
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 It controls the generator: the GCCU controls the generator output voltage by sending a
signal to its field.
 It controls the inverter: the GCCU controls the inverter output waveform by making
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the transistors come on and go off at given times.

 It controls the general operation of the VSCF generator.
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13.5.5 Emergency power generation
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Devices able to generate electrical power in emergency conditions must be installed on
aircraft.
In the case in which the DC generators fail, the systems that should maintain an adequate
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electrical supply are separate emergency batteries. The Silver-Zinc batteries accomplish this
function.
In case the AC generators fail, alternative devices must be installed on aircraft, among them:
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 APU (Auxiliary Power unit)
 HMG (Hydraulic Motor Generator)
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 RAT (Ram Air Turbine)

 EPU (Emergency Power Unit)
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APU
The APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) is a small gas turbine engine able to provide pneumatic output
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and electrical power. The characteristics of the APU depend on the type/size of aircraft and
they are detailed in the aircraft manuals.
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Fig. 5.27 - APU

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A dedicated battery connected to battery charger activates the APU. Generally, the APU is
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used to provide energy when the aircraft is on ground during servicing and maintenance
operations. In this way, the aircraft results independent of ground supporting equipment. In
addition, the APU can also be used as an emergency power source during the flight, especially
when the main engines generators fail.
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The APU is connected to a specific generator, called APU generator, which supplies energy to
the aircraft bus bars.
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HMG
The HMG (Hydraulic Motor Generator) is a hydraulic motor that drives the aircraft generator
when a total loss of electrical power occurs.
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A typical HMG is made of the same elements that composed a classic AC generator:
 The pilot exciter
 The main exciter
 The main AC generator
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The main generator has two output windings: one produces an AC output, while the other is
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completely rectified in order to provide a DC output.
RAT
The RAT (Ram Air Turbine) is a small turbine that in case of loss of both primary and auxiliary
power sources will power the vital systems (flight controls and flight-critical instrumentation).
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The RAT generates power from the airstream (or ram air) due to the speed of the aircraft.
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Since the RAT generates power from the airstream, if the aircraft speed is low the RAT will
produce less power.
The RAT can be connected to a hydraulic pump or to an electrical generator. When the RAT
drives a hydraulic pump, it provides hydraulic energy for the emergency operation of the flight
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controls. When the RAT is connected to an electrical generator instead, it represents an
emergency source of AC power, which is then converted in DC by the TRU (Transformer
Rectifier Unit). The capacity of the electrical generator is usually 7.5 kVA.
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In normal conditions the RAT is retracted into the fuselage (or wing), deploying automatically
in case of complete loss of power. In the time between power loss and RAT deployment,
batteries are used. A typical RAT on a commercial aircraft may produce power ranging
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between 5 and 70 kW.
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Fig. 5.28 - RAT sw

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EPU
The EPU (Emergency Power Unit) is a turbine activated by a chemical reaction of hydrazine,
which is used to generate energy when there is a failure of the primary power system of the
aircraft. In this turbine a chemical reaction happens. During this process the hydrazine
decomposes, producing nitrogen and water vapor. The gases, generated by the chemical
reaction, are collected in a turbine acting as a hydraulic pump or an electrical emergency
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generator.
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Big quantity of hydrazine cannot be stored on board, therefore the EPU is able to operate for a
short period of time, which is generally insufficient to perform an emergency landing. This
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turbine is usually installed on military aircraft with the aim of allowing the crew to retry
systems, or, in extreme condition, to safely leave the aircraft.
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Fig. 5.29 - EPU
Back-up generator
On most aircraft some back-up generators are installed. The back-up generators are usually
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frequency wild generators. Their outputs are fed to a convertor in order to provide a constant
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frequency three-phase output of 115 V and 400 Hz.

It is important to remember that since the back-up generators are driven through the
accessory gearbox, they can operate as long as the engines are running.
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13.5.6 Voltage regulation
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In any electronic circuit one of the most important parts is the power supply. For this reason,
some voltage regulators are installed in order to provide the circuit with the correct voltage. In
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engineering, the voltage regulation is the ability of a system to provide constant voltage in a
wide range of load conditions.
All modern electronic voltage regulators operate by comparing the actual output voltage to
some fixed voltage references. The most used voltage regulators can be of the vibration type
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or of the transistorized unit type, which employs transistors and a Zener Diode. Both devices
control the output of the current generator, changing its excitation. If the voltage regulator
decreases the exciting current, increasing the resistance of the exciting circuit, the output
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voltage of the generator will be lower. On the contrary, if the exciting current increases,
decreasing the resistance of the exciting circuit, the output voltage of the generator will
increase.
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Fig. 5.30 - Electrical circuit for DC power generation with voltage regulator
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Fig. 5.31 - Electrical circuit for AC power generation with voltage regulator
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Vibrator type voltage regulator
The majority of aircraft generators are coupled with a vibrator type voltage regulator.
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Fig. 5.32 - Vibrator type voltage regulator with one resistor
By analyzing the circuit we can note that the current output of the generator enters in the
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regulation unit through point G. Then, the current flows through the coils A and B. In this case
the coil E closes and the current can flow to the battery and users.
Conversely, when the generator output voltage rises to a specific set value, the coils C and D
close and the voltage is dissipated through the resistor R, which is in series with the magnetic
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field. In normal operational conditions, the points C and D open and close between 50 and 200
times per seconds, in order to hold the voltage at a constant value.
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In some cases voltage regulators with 2 resistors are installed. With these devices the
dissipation of the voltage happens in two phases, through the resistors R1 and R2.
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Fig. 5.33 - Vibrator type voltage regulator with two resistors

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Transistorized voltage regulator
Transistorized voltage regulators are devices without moving parts. In the transistorized
regulators the output voltage of the generator is sensed by a Zener diode.
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When the voltage at the terminals of the Zener diode ranges between 0 V and Vz, the
component behaves as an open switch. Once the applied voltage exceeds the value Vz (called
Zener voltage or breakdown voltage), the Zener diode permits a high passage of current
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between the two terminals of the device.
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Fig. 5.34 - Transistorized voltage regulator
If we analyze the circuit, we can notice that the output current of the electrical source crosses
the resistors R1, R2, R3. The Zener diode D1 senses the voltage drop across the resistors R1
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and R2. When this voltage is low, no current flows through the transistor T1 and consequently
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no voltage drop happens across the resistor R5. So the current can flow through transistor T2,
reaching the users. The transistor T2 is placed in series with the field of the electrical source.
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When there is too voltage on the Zener diode D1 instead, it conducts the current in the
transistor T1. This transistor allows the current to flow in the resistor R5. In this way the output
voltage of the generator is reduced and no current flows through transistor T2.
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GCU
In modern AC systems, a very important component, called Generator Control Unit (GCU)
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controls the functioning of the AC generator.
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Fig. 5.35 - GCU

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The GCU has the main task of regulating the generator output, detecting the voltage of the
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aircraft electrical system and comparing it to a reference signal. In order to control the output
voltage of the generator, the GCU regulates the flow of the exciting current that determines
the magnetic field of the generator.
If it is necessary to lower the output voltage of the generator, the GCU weakens the exciting
current. Consequently, it produces a reduction of the main current of the generator, from
which the output voltage derives. If instead it is necessary to increase the output voltage of the
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generator, the GCU increases the exciting current that consequently creates a rise of the main
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current of the generator.
Within the GCU there is also a Generator Control Relay (GCR) that automatically activates in
case of fault conditions such as over-current or over-frequency. In case of failure, the GCU
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automatically sends a signal to a specific unit, called BPCU (Bus Power Control Unit), which
isolates the faulty generator and connects the system to an alternative power source.
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Voltage regulation checks follow these steps:
 Run all engines on ground for a certain period of time either to dry out carbon piles, if
the regulator is of the carbon pile type, or to bring the transistors up to a working
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temperature, in case of a transistorized regulator.
 Switch each generator off line and adjust each remote trimmer until voltage is around
28 ±0.5 V using the voltmeter.
 Run each engine through its speed range ensuring the output voltage remains within
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limits.
 Switch on a load of 100 A, vary each engine RPM in turn and check that the voltage
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remains within limits.

 Switch on a load of 200 A, check that load sharing and voltage are within limits.
 If load sharing is out of limits, connect a voltmeter between terminal 5 of the regulator
and earth. Then, switch on each generator and select a load of 100 A in order to adjust
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the equalizing potentiometer until a specific voltage is obtained on the voltmeter
(0.6V). Repeat load-sharing checks with both generators on throughout the speed
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range of the engines.

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13.5.7 Power distribution
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Bus bars
The generated electrical energy is distributed to users through bus bars. A bus bar is a copper
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bar that connects the power generation system to users. The design of these elements varies:
for example, in older aircraft the bus bars were simple copper bar with provision for installing
or connecting fuses and circuit breakers, on modern aircraft instead they have become more
complex. Nowadays, bus bars range from internal-linked terminal block to thick copper strips
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insulated from the aircraft to which they are connected.
An electrical system presents various independent bus bars. Each of them powers a specific
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number of users according to their importance in the flight safety:

 Vital or emergency services include all equipment that are required during and after an
emergency (fire bottles, evacuation lights, shut-off valves).
 Essential services include all equipment that are required to ensure a safe flight and
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safe landing in an in-flight emergency (radio, standby instruments).
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 Non-essential services include all equipment that can be insulated in flight, if particular
situations require it (toilette, galleys, in-flight entertainment).
However, the complexity of the bus bars connection depends on the complexity of the aircraft
electrical system.
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DC distribution system
The distribution system for the DC includes four main sections:
 Main bus, connected to essential equipment.
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 Secondary, connected to non-essential equipment.
 Battery bus, connected to essential and vital equipment.
 Emergency bus connected to emergency equipment.
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These bus bars are connected to appropriate switches and relays and they can receive power
from batteries and/or DC generators or external ground source, as the following figure shows.
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Fig. 5.36 - The GCU

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When the aircraft is on ground and the engines are shouted-off, the DC generators are unable
to provide power. Consequently, the batteries are activated and provide energy only to the
battery bus. This bus bar provides DC to all aircraft elements necessary to start-up the engines.
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Once this operation is completed, the engine is in function and the DC generators can be
activated. These generators supply power to all electrical systems and consequently provide
power to all bus bars. It has to be noticed that generators maintain the batteries constantly in
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charge.
When one or more generators fail in-flight, the batteries represent the unique power source.
Consequently only the bus bars connected to the batteries are still powered and only the
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equipment connected to them are operative. In this case, all electrical loads must be reduced
to a minimum and an emergency landing must be performed as soon as possible. If both
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generators and batteries fail, the pilot must land immediately because there are no electrical
power function sources (except the emergency ones).
AC distribution system
The central element of the AC distribution system is the generator bus, which is a three-phase
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115 V bus bar. An AC generator through the Generator Relay (GR) supplies this bar and it
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provides power to all users directly connected to it. The generator bus is also connected to a
transformer and to a TRU (Transformer Rectifier Unit) in order to respectively provide AC at
low voltage (typically 26V) and DC to all users requesting it.
It is important to consider the functioning of the GR switch. The GR switch is a safety device, in
fact it closes only when the generator is able to provide power to the circuits. It should be
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open when:
 A failure occurs in the generator.
 The generator bus is in short-circuiting or in failure.
Each bus bar is also connected to an electrical generator that is in turn connected to the APU
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(Auxiliary Power Unit), an external power sources and another emergency source.
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AC distribution systems can be designed according to different principles:
 Split bus bar systems, in which each generator supplies its dedicated bus bar.
 Parallel generating system, in which generators operate in parallel.
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 Slip parallel system that is a combination of the previous systems.
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Fig. 5.37 - AC distribution system

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Split bus bar system

The generators installed in this system are characterized by high constant speed. Each of them
is able to provide all power requested by the aircraft, all vital and essential equipment on
board and most of non-essential services.
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The AC power is provided by one of the available sources (generator, emergency sources or
external power) and a synchronization device, which together with a series of breakers,
ensures the correct opening sequence of switches in order to avoid parallel connections.
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The generators or the external AC power source provide AC power to the 115V AC bus bars
those in turn supply non-essential and essential bus bars to which different users are
connected. The essential AC bus bar can also be supplied by a static inverter converting the
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current coming from the battery through the battery bus bar and the essential DC bus bar.
The DC users can be powered either by the essential DC bus bar or by the current coming from
the 115V AC bus bar and then transformed by a TRU.
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You should notice that the 115V AC bus bars are mutually isolated and can be connected only
through the Bus Tie Breaker (BTB) when a generator fails.
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Fig. 5.38 - Slit bus bar system

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Parallel generating system
The generators installed in this system are connected to their own bus bars, which are
connected together in a common synchronizing bus bar. The device that ensures the
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connection between each generator and each bus bar is the GCB (Generator Control Bus bar);
while, the device ensuring the connection between each generator bus bar and the
synchronizing bus bar is the BTB.
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Fig. 5.39 - Parallel AC generatorssw

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When all generators are operative and all GCB and BTB are closed, the generators are
connected in parallel. If all generators provide AC at the same phase, voltage and frequency,
they can distribute the total load among them. However, when a generator is in failure, its
dedicated GCB opens and so the damaged element is disconnected by the system. In this way
the other operative generators distribute the total load among them.
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Split parallel system
In this system every generator is connected to its own bus bar. These bars are coupled and
connected in parallel on a common synchronizing bus.
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Fig. 5.40 - Split parallel system
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This system has the advantage of allowing different operation modes:
 The generators can operate separately.
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 The generators can operate in parallel and in couple.
 The generators can operate all in parallel by closing the SSB (Split system Breaker).
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Cables
Different elements of the system are connected through cables, chosen among a large variety.
Cables are standardized according to MIL rules for the conductivity and insulation reasons.
They commonly employ conductors of copper and aluminum, isolated by PVC, nylon, Teflon
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and glass fiber. Wirings are realized with single cables collected in bunch.
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Cables are characterized by the value of voltage and current that they can support in normal
operations. When choosing a cable, also the environmental conditions (temperature, vibration
problems, etc), in which they must be used, should be taken into account. For example, where
special applications are required (ignition systems and thermocouples), a special cable must be
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used. Consequently, manufacturers must detail which type of cables are to be used for any
particular application and with which alternative type they can be replaced. In addition, the
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design of the aircraft wiring must also be considered in order to:

 Reduce weights and voltage falls.
 Avoid overheating, caused by the Joule effect and use insulation resistant to heat.
 Control the electromagnetic compatibility with the avionics.
 Consider the resistance to mechanical stresses, such as vibrations.
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In order to correctly install them, the aircraft cables are identified through:
 Cable manufacturer identification codes.
 Aircraft manufacturer identification codes. sw
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These codes must be printed on all cables. The cable manufacturer code is printed on the cable
at regular intervals before wounded it onto its storage drum. The aircraft manufacturer
number instead is printed on the cable at regular intervals, as it is installed on aircraft.
It is important to remember that when a cable has to be replaced, you should either choice a
cable having the same cable manufacture identification code or adopt an approved alternative.
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Bonding and grounding
During the flight, the aircraft gains some electrostatic charges form the atmosphere.
Consequently, if the different parts of the aircraft have diverse electrical potentials, a current
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flow is generated between them. This situation can cause sparks between the small empty
spaces in the structure.
In order to prevent this phenomenon to happen, the single parts of the aircraft structure are
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connected together through little copper devices, ensuring continuous low resistance patterns
until the electricity is discharged into the atmosphere.
The copper strips are generally installed where the electrical charges concentrate (such as the
leading edge of the control surfaces) and they run until the tips that have the capability to
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disperse them into the atmosphere.
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When the aircraft is on ground we define it as ‘grounding’. The aircraft is connected on ground
through the pneumatic tires, which are very conductive because made with a large percentage
of carbon. Usually, being very expensive, these tires are installed only on the nose landing
gear.
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13.5.8 Inverters, transformers and rectifiers
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Generally an aircraft is equipped with a primary electrical system in Alternating Current (AC) or
in Direct Current (DC) and with a secondary one, respectively in DC or AC. This secondary
system is obtained by transforming the current of the primary one.
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To satisfy the necessities of DC users, on aircraft that have an AC primary system, some TRUs
(Transformer Rectifier Unit) are employed. They convert the voltage from 115 to 28V. Vice
versa, to obtain AC from a DC primary system some solid-state inverters are used.
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Inverters
An inverter is an electrical device that converts DC to AC and may eventually vary the voltage.
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The input of an inverter is typically obtained from the batteries and the output can remain at a
low voltage, if it is connected to the airborne instrumentation, or at a high one, if it is
connected to mechanical devices. The inverters can be divided in two categories:
 Dynamic or rotating inverters.
 Static inverters.
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In the past the dynamic inverter was preferred, while, nowadays, on modern aircraft the static
inverter is generally installed, for reasons of reliability, efficiency and weight.
Rotary inverter
The rotary inverter has an armature rotating in a common field system. The DC input is
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provided by a commutator, while the AC output is obtained from three slip rings. The output is
a three-phase, characterized by 115V and 400 Hz.
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Fig. 5.41 - Rotary inverter

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The AC output of the rotary inverter is produced and controlled by a carbon pile regulator. For
example, if the output is too high, the carbon pile regulator will fall the input current.
Consequently, the speed of the motor is reduced and the output will come back to the normal
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Last generation rotary inverters include in one unit also a DC motor that drives an AC
generator.
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Fig. 5.42 - Modern rotary inverter
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In this type of rotary inverter the control of the output is composed of two separated control
systems:
 The control of the voltage is achieved by controlling the field strength of the
generator.
 The control of the frequency is achieved by controlling the field strength and speed of
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the motor.
The efficiency of the rotary inverter is relatively low, generally about 50-55% of the full load. In
addition, when they are lightly loaded, their efficiency is even lower and considerable drain
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Static invertor
The static inverter is a solid-state inverter with no moving parts. Static inverters are located in
an electrical equipment bay. In the cockpit there is a remote on/off switch, which is used by
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the pilot to isolate the inverter, when needed.
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Fig. 5.43 - Static inverter

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The DC input is supplied to the filter network that filters out the variations of the inputs. Then,
the DC is supplied to the square-wave generator. This generator performs a first conversion
from DC to AC and establishes the correct frequency of the output (400Hz). The current is then
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supplied to the pulsed shaper circuit that controls its pulse width. The current passes through
the power drive stage that provides a square waveform output and is supplied to the output
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stage producing a square wave output with variable pulse width. Finally, the current is
supplied to the odd harmonic filter that reduces the total odd harmonics and produces a sine
wave output, maintaining correct voltage and frequency.
In this system the check of the voltage and frequency parameters is performed by voltage and
current sensors that guarantees a feedback of the output signal. In order to provide signals
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within specific limits, they act on the notch time of the pulse shaper output.
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Transformers
A transformer is an electrical static device, which is part of the converters category. It is a static
machine having no parts in motion. The transformer converts the AC current at a particular
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voltage and frequency into another AC current at different voltage but same frequency. This
device is able to operate only in AC, because it follows electromagnetic principles.
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The simplest transformer is made of two electrical conductors wrapped on a ring of magnetic-
iron material, called the core. The winding, at which the energy is supplied, is called primary,
while that from which the energy is taken is called secondary. When on the primary winding an
electrical sinusoidal voltage is applied, in the core a sinusoidal magnetic field is generated, as a
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result of the magnetic induction. The variable magnetic field causes a sinusoidal voltage in the
secondary winding. This voltage is different from that on the primary winding. Acting
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appropriately on the number of wires of the primary and secondary windings, it is possible to
modify the value of the ratio between the supplied voltage of the primary winding and the
induced voltage of the secondary one.
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Fig. 5.44 - Transformer

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Transformers can be divided in three categories:
 Voltage transformers
 Current transformers
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 Autotransformer
Voltage transformer
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The voltage transformers generally have the structure described above. These devices provide
in the secondary winding a voltage proportional to of the primary winding, in order to correctly
power the equipment
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Current transformer
The current transformers provide in the secondary winding a current proportional to that of
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primary one, in order to correctly power the equipment.

Their operational principle is the mutual inductance, which is the same used by the voltage
transformer; however, their construction is different: in fact, the primary winding is
represented by a current carrying conductor (also known as load supply cable). The main
characteristic of these transformers is the high number of wires in the secondary winding. This
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feature allows the presence of a very low current in the secondary winding, suitable to be
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directly applied to instruments and control circuits.

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Fig. 5.45 - Current transformer

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When the current passes through the carrying conductor, it creates a magnetic field along its
length. Since the current is an AC, this field is constantly building-up, collapsing, reversing, and
so on. In this way a voltage is induced in the secondary winding, which is connected to its load.
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The voltage in the secondary winding causes also a current flow in it. This current opposes to
the current in the primary winding and the core flux is thus kept to a very low level.
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Autotransformer
The autotransformers are extensively used for power distribution on modern aircraft. They are
typically employed to convert the 115 V 400 Hz AC current into 28 V 400 Hz AC current.
These transformers adopt a special configuration: they have only one winding, which operates
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as primary and secondary one. Consequently, a portion of the winding is in common between
the input and the output.
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It should be noticed that the autotransformer can be used to step-up as well as to step-down
the primary voltage.
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Fig. 5.46 - Autotransformers
With reference to Fig. 5.46, when an AC is supplied to the autotransformer, it flows through
the primary winding connected in the points A and B. The output voltage is measured between
the terminal S1 and S2. This voltage creates a current in the secondary winding. Since the
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current in the primary and secondary windings are opposed the one to the other, in the
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common portion of the winding the resultant current is equal to their difference.
Consequently, the autotransformer is used in all cases in which the voltage difference is not
relevant; this device is in fact simple to construct and cheap, if compared to a normal
transformer with the same power.
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Rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts AC to DC, transforming a bipolar signal into a
monopole one. This process is known as rectification. We can have:
 Half wave rectifiers
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 Full wave rectifiers
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Each of these devices can be used either for single-phase or three-phase inputs.
Single half wave rectifier

In the case of half wave rectification, the input sinusoidal signal is applied to a diode connected
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in series to a load resistance.
If terminal A is positive in respect to terminal B, the diode conducts. A current will flow in the
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circuit and a voltage will be deployed across the resistance R. On the contrary, if the polarity
of the two terminals is reversed, the diode will switch off.
In this way, the voltage deployed across the resistance is half-sine wave and its frequency is
equal to the frequency of the input signal.
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Fig. 5.47 - Single half wave rectifier
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Single-phase full wave rectifier
A single-phase full-wave rectifier is able to produce an un-directional output that has a
frequency twice than the frequency of the input signal.
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In the circuit of a single-phase full-wave rectifier the point, which divides the two “circuits” of
the diodes (point C), plays an important role. This point is considered neutral, while the
terminals are alternatively positive and negative.
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When the terminal A is positive in respect to C, the diode 1 conducts and the diode 2 is
switched off. On the contrary, when the terminal B is positive in respect to C, the diode 2
conducts and the diode 1 is switched off.
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Fig. 5.48 - Single-phase full wave rectifier
The most used rectifier has a Graetz bridge of 4 diodes. Through this device it is possible to
obtain a signal that is the sum of a positive half-wave and a negative reverse one. In other
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words, in this system the current will flow across the resistance R in every case, because there
always are two diodes that conduct. This solution makes the filtering and the leveling of the
voltage simple, in order to create a DC output. However, the main disadvantage of this method
occurs when very little voltages must be converted. In this case, excessive losses and big
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Fig. 5.49 - The rectifier with a Graetz bridge

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Three-phase half wave rectifier
In the case of three-phase input, the half wave rectifier requests the installation of a diode for
each supply line. In addition, the return line from the load to the supply must be placed in the
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star point of the three-phase connection. Consequently, these rectifiers can only be installed in
star connection three-phase systems that are characterized by a neutral line.
The frequency of the output signal is three times the frequency of the input current.
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Fig. 5.50 - Three-phase half wave rectifier

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Three-phase full wave rectifier
In the case of three-phase input, the full wave rectifier does not require the presence of a
neutral line. As a consequence, a three-phase full wave rectifier can be indistinctly used either
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on start or on delta-connected systems.
In this case the frequency of the output signal is six times the frequency of the input current.
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Fig. 5.51 - Three-phase full wave rectifier

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Transformer Rectifier Units
A TRU (Transformer Rectifier Unit) is composed of a transformer with windings, which have
the task of lowering the voltage from 115 to 28 Volts, and some conductors, usually some
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diodes, which straighten the sinusoidal voltage in constant voltage. The TRU transforms the
alternating current (AC) of the primary aircraft system into direct current (DC). It is used to
charge batteries, getting power from the AC generators. Moreover, TRUs are associated to a
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protection circuit, which operates when the output voltage exceeds 33 Volts or it is lower than
22 Volts.
The main characteristics of the TRUs are:
 High overload capability
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 High efficiency, typically 90%
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Fig. 5.52 - The TRU

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13.5.9 Circuit protection
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The most important fault conditions that can happen in electrical circuits are those related to
over-current. Particular cases of over-current are short circuits and overloads.
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The over-current is a condition in which more amperage is put across an electrical wire or
circuit, leading to excessive generation of heat and to the risk of fire or of damaging to
equipment.
The short circuit is a condition in which the current leaves its cable and finds a pattern through
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other cables or structures, without passing in the load connected to the system. In this case
the current reaches a high value.
The overload is a condition in which an electrical system reaches and exceeds the load limits
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established for a correct functioning. In other word, the overload is an excessive flow of
electrons through a conductor. In fact, cables are characterized by a current nominal capacity:
if a current greater than this value passes through them, we obtain an overload condition.
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It is very important to note that these conditions can damage not only one single cable but
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also the adjacent ones, burning their insulation layers.

For these reasons, electrical systems must be protected against short circuits and overloads.
The devices responsible for this are fuses and breakers. Both of them are based on elements
that suffer from the heating caused by the current passage. Breakers are more easily to
substitute than fuses, however fuses start their operation more promptly.
In fuses a break of occurs when the passing current is too high. In this case a substitution is
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required to reinstate the circuit alimentation.

In breakers the heating causes the deformation of a plate and the movement of a switch that
can be restored by pushing a button.
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The choice regarding the type and capacity of the protective devices to install must taken into
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account the circuit characteristics. In general, these devices must be able to sense small
sustained overloads, to ignore duration surges and to clear the circuits as quickly as possible.
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Fuse
The fuse is made of a fusible element, characterized by a low melting point and enclosed in a
ceramic casing. The materials commonly used for the construction of the fusible element are
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tin, lead, and alloy of tin, silver or copper.
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Fig. 5.53 - Fuse
The fuse must be installed in series with the circuits, so that its fusible element melts and
interrupts the circuit, when short circuits or overload occurs.
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The current rating of a fuse is the current that it can carry without deteriorating. The
construction features as well as the current rating of each fuse vary according to the
requirements of the circuits in which they are installed.
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A particular type of fuse is the Heavy duty or high rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuse. This fuse is
generally installed on electrical distribution systems and is made of a ceramic tube in which a
series of identical fusible elements are connected in parallel to the end contacts.
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Fig. 5.54 - HRC fuse
When a high current flows in the elements of the fuse, they are heated at a temperature close
to their melting point, until one element fails. Since these elements are connected in parallel,
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the failed element will transfer its share of the load to other elements until they fail in quick
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succession.
Another device base on the same principal is the current limiter. Current limiters are used in
heavy duty power distribution circuits because they have a fusible element made of a single
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strip of tinned copper characterized by a high melting point. The strip of metal is enclosed in a
ceramic housing, equipped with a glass window that allows its visual inspection.
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Fig. 5.55 - Current limiter
Current limiters permits a considerable overloads before their breaking occurs. Consequently,
they are installed in circuits that carry occasionally current surges. A typical application of the
current limiters is found in the starter motor circuits.
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On these systems, which are characterized by a high initial starting current, another protection
device can be installed in series. This device is the limiting resistor.
Limiting resistors keep the initial current surge within specific limits. In fact, they are shorted
out when the current falls to the safe level.
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Circuit breakers
All aircraft are equipped with manually operated circuit breakers that protect the electrical
systems and quickly bring them in their operating position. The circuit breakers represent a
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combination of fuse and switch unit.
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Fig. 5.56 - Circuit breakers

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The normal current flowing in the circuit follows the cable, passes the thermal element (also
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called bimetallic element) and reaches the load. However, if the current exceeds the normal
value, the thermal element varies its curvature, as a consequence the circuit is open and the
current cannot reach the load. The expansion of the bimetallic element is caused by the
heating produced by the over-current.
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When the circuit breaker permits the current flow, the push-pull button is close to the device.
In the case of over-current instead, the push-pull button is pulled from the device structure.
Therefore, when the thermal element comes back to its originally shape because it has cooled
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down, the pilot must restore the circuit breakers by pushing the button. In this way, all
contacts in the circuit are closed and the current can flows to the load.
It is important to remember that in three-phase circuits three pole circuit breakers are used.
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Fig. 5.57 - Circuit breaker operation
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Another type of circuit breaker is the reverse circuit breaker. These devices are usually
installed in circuits where, in normal conditions, the current flows in one direction; in fact, they
are able to trip automatically, if the current flows in the opposite sense.
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Reverse circuit breakers are generally installed in aircraft DC power supply systems, in order to
prevent the generator to take current from the main bus bar instead of providing current to
them.
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Fig. 5.58 - Reverse current circuit breaker operation

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The generator, controlled by the reverse circuit breaker, is connected to the bus bar through a
series of main contacts and a single turn coil. When the main contacts are open, they
disconnect the generator form the bus bar. This action is done by releasing the latch assembly
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controlled by the trip level movements. This lever can be controlled manually (pressing the trip
button), by remote control or automatically (when a reverse current condition occurs).
The reverse circuit breakers include also a spring load contact assembly, manually controlled
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by a setting handle. This is used when the situation returns to normality and the circuit
breakers must be reset.
Switches and relays
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Operations on electrical circuits are executed through switches or relays. The switches permit
to open and close circuits by using:
 A manual command. In this case they are push-pull buttons that can be actuated
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directly by the pilot.

 Remote electrical action. This type of switch is called relay.
 Electronic action. These switches are generally installed on logic circuits and so they
are commonly used in computer.
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It is important to note that both manually switches and relays are designed to open and close
very quickly, in order to prevent arcing between their contacts.
Relays are employed when the order is generated by an automatism, a combination of

information or when high power must be converted in low power. They are electromagnetic
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switches in which the main element is a solenoid. The solenoid can be energized when a
current flows in it. This current can be provided by the aircraft power supply system or by
signals coming from automatic devices/sensors. Relays are DC operated and consequently, if
they are powered by AC, the current must be rectified before reaching them.
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When the solenoid is energized, a magnetic field is generated. In this way the armature moves
and activates the contact assembly in order to complete or interrupt the controlled circuit.
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Fig. 5.59 - Relay operation

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A large variety of relays is on the market. They can be classified according to the type of
excitement to be provided to its winding:
 Normal relays, which request a continuous excitement for the whole operational time.
 Pulse relays, whose functioning is obtained by sending to the winding some pulses of
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 Time relays (timer), which automatically perform an electrical maneuver after a
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specific time interval from the moment in which the winding has been powered.
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The main characteristic of relays is that they provide a lightweight switching system,
characterized by different parameters:
 Electrical input data: voltage, frequency and absorbed current.
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 Their ability of switching contacts.
 The insulation level between the two circuits.
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Fig. 5.60 - Example of relays

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13.5.10 External and ground power
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Even if most large commercial aircraft are equipped with the APU (Auxiliary Power Unit), they
can also be connected to the airport facilities. In this last case, the electrical energy supply is
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obtained through specific mobile and/or fixed units. These devices generate an electrical
power with a voltage of 115 V and a frequency of 400 Hz (for AC) or with a voltage of 28V (for
DC).
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The GPU (Ground Power Unit) is a mobile unit connected to the aircraft during the turn-around
phase and providing it with electrical energy.
The ground fixed units are called FES (Fixed Energy System). Generally, these electrical nets are
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located under the airport surface and appear as a set of pipes routing into different basins
placed on the airport parking-bays.
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Fig. 5.61 - The GPU

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Fig. 5.62 - FES net

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The aircraft are generally equipped with 2 sockets, to which the ground units must be
connected:
 An Alternating Current socket with 6 pins.
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 A Direct Current socket with 3 pins.
These probes are placed on the aircraft fuselage, close to the nose landing gear. As a
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consequence, the plug of the connecting cables of the ground devices changes according to
the type of supplied current.
The equipment socket and the aircraft plug for the AC are realized so that their connection can
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happen only in the correct orientation, this in order to guarantee that each pin performs its
task. The 3 longer pins are called N, C and B. They are designed for supplying the 3 phases of
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the AC. The other big pin, called A, guarantees the bonding. The 2 shorter pins, called E and F,
provide the DC supply of the aircraft relays. These relays are responsible for activating and
deactivating the connection between the aircraft electrical system and the circuit of the
ground supply.
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Also the connection between the equipment socket and the aircraft plug for the DC occurs
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only in the correct orientation. The main central pin is that of the voltage, while the other one
is the neutral one. The neutral pin guarantees the grounding. The smaller pin instead controls
a relay that has the function to activate and deactivate the connection between the aircraft
electrical system and the circuit of the ground supply.
Since the smaller and shorter pins of both plugs guarantee the connection between the aircraft
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electrical system and the ground supply circuit, when the socket are removed they are the first
to be disconnected. In this way no arcing happens between the main pins of the sockets.
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Fig. 5.63 - The AC external power plug and socket

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Fig. 5.64 - The DC external socket

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Example of DC circuit
The following figure shows a simplified ground power circuit for the DC supply.
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Fig. 5.65 - Simplified DC ground power circuit

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When the DC external power is connected to the aircraft, the selector switch is placed to “EXT”
position. In this way the power supply from the short pin will energize the external power relay
and consequently the main DC bus bars can be fed.
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Example of AC circuit
The following figure shows a simplified ground power circuit for the AC supply.
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Fig. 5.66 - Simplified DC ground power circuit
When the AC external power is connected to the aircraft, the External Power Contactor (EPC)
must be closed by pressing a switch in order to allow that the external power is connected to
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left and right AC tie buses (LBTB and RBTB). The 115 V AC ground handling bus is automatically
powered every time the AC external power is connected. The ground-handling relay is very
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important because it gives priority to the power source by assuming three different positions.
Close to the 115 V AC ground handling bus a TRU (Transformer Rectifier Unit) is installed. This
device converts the 115 V AC to 28 V DC, in order to supply the 28V DC ground handling bus.
This bus is fed only on ground because it powers the cargo/service lights, cargo drive/doors,
fuelling valves and controls.
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Cat. B2 - 13.6 Equipment and furnishing
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13.6 Equipment and furnishing
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13.6.1 Electronic emergency equipment requirements
Equipment and furnishing on aircraft and helicopters must comply with aeronautical rules,
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either in case of basic installation or of ancillary facilities, including emergency equipment.
Emergency equipment indicate the position of the aircraft and allows the aircraft evacuations
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after an emergency landing or a ditching. Specifications related to which emergency

equipment should be present on an aircraft are discussed by the JAR-OPS, now called EU-OPS.
These rules also define which requirements the aircraft emergency electronic equipment must
comply with.
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Emergency equipment can be divided in two categories; the first one includes devices
designed for the safeguard of passengers and crew:
 Life jackets
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Fig. 6.1 - Life jacket

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 Life rafts
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Fig. 6.2 - Life raft

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 Oxygen masks
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Fig. 6.3 - Oxygen mask

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 Escaping slides
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Fig. 6.4 - Escaping slides

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There are also other devices on airplanes designed to direct the evacuation operations:
 Megaphones
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Fig. 6.5 - Megaphone

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 Illuminated escaping paths
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Fig. 6.6 - Escaping path

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 Emergency exits
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Fig. 6.7 - Emergency exit
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Electronic emergency equipment
There are also electronic devices employed for the aircraft localization and the recovery of any
parts or scraps. The main electronic emergency equipment are: the Emergency Locator
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Transmitter (ELT) and the Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB).
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

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The ELT (Emergency Locator Transmitter) is an emergency self-contained and self-powered
radio transmitter, designed to transmit a signal on international emergency frequencies (121.5
MHz). The ELT transmits continuously for three days, within a coverage range of about 150
NM.
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Fig. 6.8 - ELT (Ack E-01)

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Nowadays the classic ELT has been progressively replaced by a new system, based on satellite
technology, which radiates a digital alarm signal at a frequency of 406 MHz. In this case, it is
possible to determine the aircraft location through a simple triangulation.
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According to the JAR-OPS, an aeroplane is not authorised to carry more than 19 passengers,
unless it is equipped with at least one automatic ELT or two ELTs of any type or two ELTs, one
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of which shall be automatic for aeroplanes with an individual certificate of airworthiness first
issued after 1 July 2008.
An aeroplane is not authorised to carry 19 passengers or less, unless it is equipped with at
least with one ELT of any type or one automatic ELT for aeroplanes with an individual
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certificate of airworthiness first issued after 1 July 2008.
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Generally, the ELT is placed in a safe zone, where the impact shocks are likely to have minor
effects on the structure and system: it tends to be installed in the tail section.
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Fig. 6.9 - ELT installation

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Electronic emergency equipment: ULB
The ULB (Underwater Locator Beacon) consists of an electronic module, a transducer and a
battery contained in a cylindrical aluminum case that is resistant to high pressure and violent
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impacts.
A water-sensitive switch is installed at one end of the cylindrical case. When this switch is in
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water, an oscillator is activated. The oscillator transmits the mechanical movement to the
metal case through a piezo-ceramic transducer. Then, the case transmits an aural signal
through the surrounding water.
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The ULB is usually installed on each black box of the aircraft, in order to facilitate the recovery.
Sometimes, this locator is directly installed on the fuselage of the aircraft, while in helicopters
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it is generally placed at the back.
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Fig. 6.10 - ULB

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13.6.2 Cabin entertainment equipment
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In-Flight Entertainment (IFE) or Passenger Entertainment System (PES) refers to the on-board
entertainment available to passengers during a flight. The first IFE, developed after World War
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second, consisted in food and drink services, and in a movie projector, especially used during
long flights. In 1985 the first personal audio player was offered to passengers. During the
1990s the demand for better IFE was a major factor in the design of aircraft cabins. For
example, in the past passengers could expect a movie projection on a screen at the front of a
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cabin, which could be heard via individual headphone. In modern aircraft, instead, a small
screen is installed on each seat.
However, aspects related to design and installation should be taken into account when
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implementing IFEs, in order to guarantee the safety on board.

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Fig. 6.11 - Typical modern installation of IFE components

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For example, the wirings requested in these systems can represent potential sources of
overheating, fire and toxic fume, if not correctly insulated. For this reason, the IFE systems are
usually isolated from the aircraft main electrical system. Moreover, many installations are
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fitted with a master switch in the flight compartment, so that if a failure of the IFEs occurs, the
integrity of the other aircraft systems is guaranteed.
The first systems were based on magnetic-type cassettes, with players located in dedicated
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areas: for example, on the Airbus A320 the location of the PES unit was in a bay on the front
right side of the airplane.
The new tendency for modern systems is based on interchangeable multimedia hard discs. The
use of hard discs reduces the components required for the system and, consequentially, it
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allows to reduce the weight of the aircraft by improving the transportable load. Hard discs also
permit to use only one unit for all the functions: music (number of album loadable) and movies
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(more movies on the same discs, more languages available, better video/audio quality, etc.)
The Boeing 777 has been one of the first planes with the new generation of PES.
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Fig. 6.12 - IFE control area

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Nowadays, many types of IFE are installed on aircraft, we can divide them in:
 Audio entertainment
 Video entertainment
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 In-flight connectivity
Audio entertainment
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The audio entertainment covers music, news and information: it is the most widespread
entertainment system on short-range flights.
Most music channels are pre-recorded, in order to provide also song introductions and
interviews with artists. In addition, a channel devoted to the plane radio communications is
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sometime present, allowing passengers to listen to pilot's in-flight conversations with other
planes and ground stations.
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The audio entertainment is experienced through individual headphones distributed to

passengers. The headphones plugs are compatible with the audio socket on the passenger's
armrest. The provided headphones can also be used while watching a movie.
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Fig. 6.13 - Audio entertainment

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Video entertainment
In the past, the video entertainment was provided via a large video screen at the front of the
cabin or via smaller monitors located every few rows above the aisles. Nowadays, some
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airlines have installed Personal Televisions (PTVs), one for each passenger. PVTs are usually
employed in medium and long-range flight.
In the economy class the PTVs are usually located in the seat backs; while in first class, they are
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extracted from the armrests of the seats.
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Fig. 6.14 - PTV

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The PTVs enable passengers to select the program they would like to watch, among channels
broadcasting news, films, documentaries and children's shows. This function is known as
Audio- Video On Demand (AVOD). The IFE control is integrated in the armrest of each seat.
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Fig. 6.15 - IFE remote control
The typical displays, installed on aircraft, are electronic screens, which use the Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD) technology. These screens come in different sizes but airlines usually install
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screens from 5 to 42 inches, depending on their specific use. The screens of the cabin are
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connected to a central airborne server, which stores all IFE files. During the flight, this server
works on demand sending data to the PTVs or to the common display of the cabin.
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Another video entertainment provided on board is the moving-map, which is a video channel
transmitting real-time flight information. This system displays a map that illustrates the
position and direction of the plane, the altitude, airspeed, distance to destination and the local
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time. Information displayed by the moving-map system is directly originated from the flight
computer of the aircraft system.
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Fig. 6.16 - Moving map

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Moreover, some airlines make available video games and news on current affairs, which are
often pre-recorded in the early morning, before flights departure. Last generations IFE games
have begun to shift their focus from pure entertainment to learning: giving for example the
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possibility to learn a foreign language when on board.
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Fig. 6.17 - On-board gaming system
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In-flight connectivity
In recent years, IFE has been expanded to include in-flight connectivity services, such as
Internet browsing, text messaging, emailing and phone usage (where permitted).
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Some aircraft are fitted with intranet-type data communication systems, which provide full
access to the web and email service via satellite, and with a telephone system, which allows to
perform telephone calls.
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All these functions are made possible through the Iridium satellite communication system, a
personal communication network based on satellites. The Iridium network allows sending and
receiving voice and data messages anywhere in the world. The system operates between 1616
and 1626.5 MHz.
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Fig. 6.18 - Iridium network

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Cat. B2 - 13.7 Flight controls
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13.7 Flight controls
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13.7.A.1 Primary controls: ailerons, elevator, rudder and spoiler
An aircraft flight control system consists of flight control surfaces, the respective cockpit
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controls, connecting linkages and the necessary operating mechanisms to control an aircraft
direction in flight. The flight movements are related to the aircraft rotation in three
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dimensions, around its center of gravity:

 Roll
 Pitch
 Yaw
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Fig. 7.1 - Aircraft axes

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Ailerons control the aircraft roll around its longitudinal axis, the elevator moves the aircraft
around its later axis and the rudder controls the yaw around the aircraft vertical axis. These
controls are called primary controls.
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Generally, the primary cockpit controls are arranged as follows:
 A control bar for the roll and the pitch control, which moves the ailerons when it is
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turned left and right and the elevator when it is moved backwards or forwards
 Rudder pedals to control yaw and move the rudder; for example, the left foot will
move the left rudder.
 Throttles to control the engine speed or thrust.
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Even when an aircraft uses different kinds of surfaces (secondary controls), such as
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ruddervators, flaperons or elevons, in order to avoid any confusion the aircraft is normally
designed, so that pitch and roll controls operate in a conventional way.
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Fig. 7.2 - Primary and secondary control surfaces

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Ailerons
Ailerons are control surfaces hinged to the trailing edge of the wing in a fixed-wing aircraft.
They are used to control the aircraft in roll. Normally, there is one aileron on each half-wing.
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The two ailerons are typically interconnected, so that one goes down when the other goes up.
If the pilot turns the control bar to the right, the right aileron moves up, while the left aileron
moves down. The down-going aileron increases the lift on its wing, while the up-going aileron
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reduces the lift, producing a rolling movement around the aircraft longitudinal axis.
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Fig. 7.3 - Aircraft ailerons
An unwanted side effect of ailerons operation is the “adverse yaw”, that is a yawing moment
in a direction opposite to that of the turn. Using ailerons to roll an aircraft to the right
produces a yawing motion to the left. The adverse yaw is caused primarily by the change in
drag on the wings. The rising wing generates an increased lift, which causes an increased
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induced drag. Conversely, the descending wing generates a reduced lift, which causes a
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reduced induced drag. This drag difference on the wings produces the adverse yaw. This
phenomenon is effectively compensated by the use of the rudder, which creates a side-force
on the vertical tail. This force opposes the adverse yaw, creating a favorable yawing moment.
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Another method of compensation is represented by differential ailerons, which have been
rigged so that the down-going aileron deflects less than the up-going one.
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Fig. 7.4 - Adverse yaw

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The control column (or the hand wheel) is the control used to move ailerons. If the column is
moved to the left, then the left aileron moves up, while the right one moves down. If the
column is moved to the right, then the right aileron moves up and the left one moves down.
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Elevator
The elevator is a control surface usually placed in the rear part of an aircraft. This surface
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controls the aircraft orientation by changing the pitch of the aircraft and it thus changes also
the angle of attack of the wing. In other words, the elevator makes the aircraft nose-up or
nose-down. An increased wing angle of attack will cause a greater lift, which must be produced
by the profile of the wing and a reduction of the aircraft speed. A decrease in angle of attack
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will produce an increase in speed.
The elevator is the only pitch control surface present, and it is hinged to a surface called
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stabilizer. The elevator decreases or increases the downward force created by the tail. An
increased downward force, produced by up elevator, forces the tail down and the nose up. In
this way, the aircraft speed is reduced. A decreased downward force on the tail, produced by
down elevator, allows the tail to rise and the nose to lower down. In this way the aircraft
speed increases.
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Fig. 7.5 - Aircraft elevator
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In some aircraft, pitch-control surfaces are at the front, ahead of the wing. This type of
configuration is called “Canard”.
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Fig. 7.6 - Canard configuration
The elevator movement is controlled from the flight deck by a dual cable control system. It
moves up, whenever the control column is pulled back and down, when the control column is
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pushed forward.
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Fig. 7.7 - Elevator control system scheme

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Rudder
The rudder is a flight control surface used to steer the aircraft. The rudder is usually attached
to the fin (or vertical stabilizer) and allows the pilot to control the yaw on the vertical axis, i.e.
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to change the horizontal direction in which the nose is pointing (that is the aircraft heading).
The rudder direction is manipulated with the movement of pedals controlled by the pilot.
Rudders shapes are often designed to minimize aerodynamic drag.
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Fig. 7.8 - Aircraft rudder
Aileron and rudder controls are used together to turn an aircraft. The aileron causes the roll,
while the rudder controls the yaw and compensates the phenomenon of adverse yaw. A
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rudder alone will turn a conventional fixed wing aircraft, but much more slowly than in case of
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ailerons used in conjunction with it. The use of the rudder and ailerons together produces
coordinated turns.
In a particular maneuver, called a forward slip, pilots may intentionally operate the rudder and
ailerons in opposite directions. The forward slip changes the heading of the aircraft, retaining
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the original track (that is the flight path over the ground). A forward slip is useful when a pilot
has set up the aircraft for a landing approach at an excessive height or when he must steeply
descend to touchdown, that is close to the beginning of a short runway.
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Spoilers
Spoilers are mainly used to reduce lift, but they can also help during banking and to oppose
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the adverse yaw. They are fixed on the wing, aligned to its surface, unless activated.
When spoilers are used to help the banking, only the spoiler on the lowering wing is activated.
Its functioning is controlled by the control column (or hand wheel). When the pilot moves the
column left or right to roll, the spoilers on the lowering wing move upwards and help the
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rolling movement. These spoilers are different from those used to lower lift at touchdown and
they are normally placed externally to the ground ones.
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13.7.A.2 Trim control
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In addition to the primary flight controls for roll, pitch, and yaw, there are often some
secondary controls available, which allow the pilot to control the flight with higher precision.
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The most common is a device to control elevator trim, so that the pilot does not have to
maintain a constant backward or forward pressure to hold a specific pitch attitude. Most
aircraft have also wing flaps, controlled by a switch, a mechanical lever or in some cases fully
automatic. These devices alter the shape of the wing to improve the control at slower speeds,
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such as during the landing phase. Other secondary flight control systems are available,
including slats, spoilers and air brakes.
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Fig. 7.9 - Trim
Trim tabs are small surfaces, connected to the trailing edge of larger control surfaces. They
stabilize the aircraft at a desired attitude, without the need for the pilot to constantly apply a
control force. This is done by adjusting the angle of the tab related to the surface to be
controlled. Changing the setting of a trim tab adjusts the position of the control surface. As the
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position of a control surface changes according to different speeds, an adjustable trim tab will
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allow the pilot to reduce the manual force required to maintain the desired position (until
zero, if correctly used). In this way, the pilot can focus his attention on other tasks, such as the
communication with ATC (Air Traffic Control).
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Many airplanes (including gliders) have trim tabs on their elevator, used as a simple method of
providing trim on the lateral axis. Elevator trim frees the pilot from exerting constant pressure
on the pitch controls. Typically, when this trim control is rotated forward, the nose is held
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down. Conversely, if the trim wheel is moved back, the tail becomes "heavy". Many modern
aircraft, especially jet aircraft, have electric trim controls and trim systems for rudder and
ailerons too.
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Fig. 7.10 - Trim tabs

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13.7.A.3 Active load control
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One way to reduce some aero-elastic problems consists in using control surfaces to provide
aerodynamic force in order to oppose twisting and bending motions, before they can reach a
potentially threatening level. In particular, it is possible to use control surfaces to oppose the
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effects of sudden gusts. This active load alleviation technique requires the use of a special form
of autopilot, whose sensors detect local accelerations. There are many benefits deriving from
the adoption of this technique:
 Structural loads are reduced.
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 Life under fatigue conditions is improved.
 Possible dangerous aero-elastic conditions can be avoided.
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 The ride comfort can be improved.
Active load control may also be used to reduce structural load during maneuvers. One method
of control is that of using inboard flaps to increase the load on the inboard portion of the wing,
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when performing maneuvers that require a high lift. In fact, by concentrating the lift inboard,
the bending stresses at the wing root are reduced. The use of active load control is one of the
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reasons why forward-swept wings have become a concrete opportunity. The ability to
redistribute the aerodynamic load allows to increase the wingspan with the same structural
weight and thus reducing the induced drag. For example, a 10% reduction in bending load
maneuvering allows an increase of 3% in wingspan, without increasing the weight of the wing.
This in turn leads to a reduction of the induced drag by about 6%.
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The Active Load Control is used in many different ways:
 On Boeing 727 the active load control is related to the limitation of the angle of attack.
 On Lockheed L-1011 the active load control has helped to limit the loads due to gusts:
the Lockheed control system, which was introduced in 1980, consists of a series of
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accelerometers installed on the wing extremity (wingtip) and able to detect
movement. The signals of the accelerometers are processed by the control unit, which
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activates the external ailerons to reduce the load structure on the wings in the
presence of gusts. This control system uses external ailerons in a symmetrical manner.
As said, these ailerons are designed to be inoperative at high speeds, when internal
ailerons (inboard) are used. The system of load reduction of L-1011 redistributes the
load, allowing the wing to increase the opening without having to strengthen the
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whole structure.
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 On the Lockheed C-5B there is an automatic control system that relieves loads during
maneuvers and in presence of bursts through the action of ailerons.
 On Boeing 777 there is an active control system that allows an increase in stability.
Since the flight controls are processed by the Primary Flight Computer of the fly-by-
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wire system of this aircraft, it is possible to integrate some automatic functions which,
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by means of aircraft control surfaces, ensure greater stability. An increased stability
means smaller tail surfaces, fewer loads, and, as a result, a reduction in resistance and
weight.
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13.7.A.4 High lift devices
High-lift devices are mechanisms intended to add lift during some phases of flight. Aircraft
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designs are developed to maximize performances of all aircraft elements, taking different
factors into account. The size of wings, for example, is one of the most fundamental aspects. A
larger wing will provide more lift and make take-offs and landings shorter and easier; however,
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it will also increase the drag during cruising. So high-lift devices are designed and used to
smooth out the differences between these two goals, ensuring efficient cruising wings and
providing an additional amount of lift for take-off and landing.
There are different types of high lift devices: flaps and slats.
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Fig. 7.11 - Flaps and slats operative diagram

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Flaps
The most common type of high-lift devices is the flap, which is a movable surface attached to
the rear part of the wing. It can be bent down into the airflow to produce extra lift and can re-
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shape the wing so that it has more camber. In general, wings with more camber will produce
more lift for any given amount of drag. Flaps are hinged surfaces on the trailing edge of the
wings of a fixed-wing aircraft. When flaps are extended, the stalling speed of the aircraft is
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reduced and this means that the aircraft can fly safely at slower speeds (especially during take-
off and landing). In fact, when flaps are extended, the maximum lift coefficient raises and so
the aircraft is able to produce a greater lift with a slower speed. Flaps are usually fully
extended during the landing to give the aircraft a slower stalling speed. The approach can be
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performed more slowly, allowing the aircraft to land in a shorter distance.
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There are different types of flaps:

 Plain flap that rotates on a simple hinge. It acts as if the trailing edge of the wing was
bent down to change the curvature of the wing, thus increasing both the lift and drag.
If the flap it is moved sufficiently downward, the flap acts as an effective airbrake. The
plain flap can be hinged to the wing on the lower side, or may have a hinge line
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halfway between the surface and bottom. It can give a 50% increase in lift for that
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section of the wing. Furthermore, it makes the stalling angle decrease to 12° and
moves the centre of lift rearwards, producing a nose down pitching moment.
 Split flap, in which the upper wing surfaces and the lower one are separate; the lower
surface operates like a plain flap, but the upper surface moves only slightly. This kind
of flap can give a 60% increase in lift with a stalling angle of 14°.
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 Fowler flap, that slides backwards, thereby increasing both camber and chord and
creating a larger wing surface, which is better for lower speeds. They are designed to
substantially increase the surface area of the wing, when the flap is extended. When
retracted, the flap forms the trailing edge of the wing. When this type of flap is
extended, it is moved back, often by means of a worm gear and is supported in the
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correct position by means of a curved track. The effect of Fowler flaps is very
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important in order to reduce the stall speed of the aircraft by increasing and modifying
the surface of the wing. This kind of flaps can produce a 90% increase in lift with a
stalling angle of 15°.
 Slotted flap, in which there is a gap between the flap and the wing. This gap enables
high pressure air from below the wing to re-energize the boundary layer over the flap.
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This helps the airflow to stay attached to the flap, delaying the stall. Slotted flaps give
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a 65% increase in lift with an increase in the stalling angle of 16°.

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The flaps can be operated:
 Manually, being connected by rods and levers to a handle in the cockpit, similar to a
car handbrake.
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 By electric actuators driving a common drive shaft.
 By a hydraulic jack or jacks with a mechanical interconnection.
 By hydraulic motors driving a common driveshaft.
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A simple hydraulic jack or actuator connected to a split or plain flap will be able to lower or
raise the flap, having the port and starboard flaps connected together by a mechanical linkage
to prevent asymmetric operation. When the flaps are power-operated, a feedback system is
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used to cancel the selection signal, once the flaps have reached their selected position.
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Any flap asymmetry will induce a violent roll. Asymmetry is prevented by having the port and
starboard flaps mechanically connected. However, on some older systems a hydraulic
interconnection may be present. This means that both port and starboard flaps will move
together. If the flap operating system suffers a mechanical breakdown, then a safeguard
device is fitted to warn the pilot and stop the flaps moving. Asymmetry detectors are usually
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fitted to the outboard ends of the drive system and monitor the revolutions of movement of
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that side of the system. Their signals are sent to a comparator unit. If this shows a discrepancy
between the port and starboard flaps, the operating system is shut down and the pilot
warned.
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Fig. 7.12 - Different types of flaps

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Slats
Slats are aerodynamic surfaces on the leading edge of the wings of fixed-wing aircraft which,
when deployed, allow the wing to operate at a higher angle of attack. The coefficient of lift is
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generated by the speed angle of attack, so that by deploying slats, an aircraft can fly more
slowly, or takeoff and land in a shorter distance. Slats are usually used in the landing and take-
off phase or to perform maneuvers, which take the aircraft close to the stall, but are usually
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retracted in cruise flight in order to minimize the drag.
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Fig. 7.13 - Aircraft slats
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It is important to note that Krueger flaps and standard leading edge slats differ in how they are
extended. In traditional slats there is an airflow separation allowing some of the air to flow
through a slot and going from the bottom to the top of the wing surface, delaying boundary
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layer separation. The Krueger flap instead does not operate in this way, in fact it only increases
the wing surface and curvature.
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Fig. 7.14 - Krueger flap

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13.7.A.5 Lift dump and speed brakes
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In aeronautics, a spoiler is a device intended to reduce lift on an aircraft. Spoilers are placed on
the top surface of a wing, they can be extended upward into the airflow and they spoil it. By
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doing so, the spoiler creates a controlled stall over the portion of the wing behind it, greatly
reducing the lift of this wing section. Generally, spoilers are activated by some hydraulic
actuators. Spoilers increase drag and reduce lift on the wing. The flight spoilers are available
both in flight and on ground.
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Fig. 7.15 - Aircraft spoilers
In flight, if they rise only on one wing, they aid in the roll control. If spoilers are symmetrically
extended in flight, the aircraft can either be slowed down in level flight or descend rapidly
without an increase in its airspeed.
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When the spoilers are activated on the ground at high speeds, they destroy the wing lift.
However, the ground spoilers can only be raised when the weight of the aircraft is on the
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landing gear. When spoilers are deployed on the ground, they decrease lift and make the
brakes more effective. In this case they are also called lift dumpers.
An aircraft may have 6 or 7 spoilers per wing having collective or individual functions. They are
power-operated through direct mechanical connection to the flight deck or via computer.
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There are different kinds of spoilers: symmetrical, differential, ground effect and gust
alleviation ones.
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Symmetrical spoilers
These kinds of spoilers operated symmetrically in flight to reduce the lift/drag ratio. This will
increase the rate of descent and reduce speed. Sometimes these spoilers are used on
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automatic landing approach runs.
Differential spoilers
They are used in conjunction with ailerons to give improved lateral control. When the aileron is
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moved up, if a certain angle is passed or the aircraft is flying within a certain speed range, the
spoilers extend on that wing. This creates drag and dumps lift, hence increasing the desired
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turning effect.
The general spoiler arrangement has a spoiler push/pull rod operating system connected to
the aileron cable control system at the first quadrant in the main-plane. The push pull rod
connects the cable quadrant to the Spoiler Cam Box. From the spoiler cam box the pilot's input
is feed to the servo valve of the spoiler hydraulic actuator via a spring strut. During the
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downward movement of the aileron, the cam follower in the cam box moves in the non-
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effective portion of the cam track and the spoiler is not selected. After the first 5° of cockpit
hand wheel movement to raise the aileron, the spoiler is selected to give a non-linear
movement in relation to the aileron movement.
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These spoilers extend automatically on landing to dump lift and increase drag. In terms of
getting the aircraft to sit firmly on the runway on landing they play an important role together
with the shock absorbers. They operates when the aircraft is configured for landing with the
weight switch operated on the landing gear, the throttles in their correct position, the spoiler
selector in the arm position, wheels rotating and bogie rotation micro switch operative.
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Gust alleviation spoilers

These kinds of spoilers operate automatically to relieve in flight gust loads. They are a form of
active stability and give a more stable and comfortable flight, reducing structure fatigue.
When the aircraft is distributed around the longitudinal axis, gyros sense the movement and
send a signal to a computer. If the pilot has not commanded this movement the computer will
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know this.
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In aeronautics, speed brakes are a type of flight control surfaces used on an aircraft to increase
drag and the angle of approach during landing. The speed brakes are extracted from the
aircraft fuselage or form the upper surface of the wing.
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Speed brakes differ from spoilers since their main task is that of increasing the aerodynamic
drag, affecting the lift as little as possible; while the main purpose of spoilers is that of
reducing the lift of the wing.
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Often, characteristics of both spoilers and speed brakes are combined. Most modern airliner
jets combine spoiler and speed brake controls. In this case, the spoilers, according to their
method of operation, can assume both the function of lift dumpers and that of speed brakes.
In fact, spoilers are used as speed brakes when there is a need to increase the resistance to
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manage a gradient steepest descent.
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13.7.A.6 System operation: manual, hydraulic, pneumatic
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Manual control system
Mechanical or manually operated flight control systems are the most basic methods to control
an aircraft. They were used in the past and are currently used in small aircraft, where the
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aerodynamic forces are not excessive.
A manual flight control system uses a collection of mechanical parts, such as rods, tension
cables, pulleys and sometimes chains to transmit the forces applied on the cockpit controls
directly to the control surfaces. Turnbuckles are often used to adjust the control cable tension.
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The Cessna Skyhawk is a typical example of an aircraft that uses this type of system.
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Hydraulic control system

The complexity and weight of mechanical flight control systems increase considerably with the
size and performances of the aircraft. Hydraulic power overcomes these limitations. A hydro-
mechanical flight control system is made of two main parts:
 The mechanical element
 The hydraulic circuit
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The mechanical circuit links the cockpit controls with the hydraulic circuits. This circuit consists
of rods, cables, pulleys and sometimes chains. The hydraulic circuit instead has hydraulic
pumps, filters, pipes, valves and actuators. The actuators are powered by the hydraulic
pressure generated by the pumps of the system. The actuators convert hydraulic pressure into
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control surface movements. The movement of a control, performed by the pilot, induces the
mechanical circuit to open the corresponding servo valve in the hydraulic circuit. The serve
valve controls the movement of the actuators, which in turn move the control surfaces.
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Fig. 7.16 - Hydraulic servomechanism
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With the command in the neutral position, the hydraulic servomechanism must ensure that
the surface does not move, this condition is normally accomplished through a hydraulic lock in
the actuator.
This need originates from the fact that the control surface does not always perform the whole
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race and the jack must be able to stop in intermediate positions.

When the pilot moves the control in the cockpit, he operates through a mechanical system of
referrals, that is the drawer of the control valve, the displacement of which pushes the lights of
the valve to open, as a result the hydraulic lock moves and allows to power the jack. If the
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servomechanism is of the fixed piston and mobile cylinder type, the drawer of the valves and
the cylinder moves in the same direction. In this way, until the command from the pilot
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persists, the drawer is open, and the cylinder, rigidly connected to the valve body maintains
the drawer in its position. When the command ceases, the valve stops the drawer, while the
body of the valve (and thus the cylinder) continues the run up to restore the neutral and then
the hydraulic lock in the rooms. Since the flight control surface is rigidly connected to the
mobile cylinder, it will move following its movements. In fixed cylinder and mobile piston
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servo-type, the drawer moves in the opposite direction from the cassette valve. It is important
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to note, however, that in both types of servo commands the tracking to neutral of the valve is
made by the actual hydraulic drive of the system.
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Fig. 7.17 - Servo hydraulic system

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Pneumatic control system
On aircraft hydraulic actuators are the most common. On the contrary, the linear pneumatic
actuators are rarely used on board, even if they have some advantages:
 A minor requested hardiness.
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 An absence of a return line.
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However, actuators have the large disadvantage represented by imprecision in the position
control, due to the elevated air compressibility. Moreover, they are more cumbersome and
heavier than hydraulic devices, because of smaller available pressures of exercise. Nowadays,
one of the rare employments of these actuators is represented by the thrust reverse. This
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system permits the use of only two positions, without having the necessity of a true control in
this respect.
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An example of this type of actuators employed for the check of control surfaces is installed on
Boeing 747. On this plane, pneumatic actuators operate the complex system of flaps. Each
wing is equipped with 4 pneumatic actuators. Each unit can be operated by pneumatic power
or, in alternate mode, by electrical power. The actuator delivers its power through a single
shaft connected to a planetary gear system. These are sealed in an oil bath. There is also a
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maintenance unit (rotate actuator) which shall reduce the speed of the actuator (the ratio is
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239 to 1).
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13.7.A.7 Artificial feel, Yaw damper, Mach trim, rudder limiter and gust
locks
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Others devices on board assist the pilot during the flight conduct. The most important are:
 Artificial feel devices
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 Yaw damper
 Mach trim
 Rudder limiter systems
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Instead, when the aircraft is parked on ground other systems are activated, in order to avoid
the movements of the flight control surfaces. These systems are called gust locks.
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Artificial feel devices

With purely mechanical flight control systems, the aerodynamic forces on the control surfaces
are transmitted through the mechanisms and are felt directly by the pilot. This gives a tactile
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feedback about the airspeed, and aids flight safety.
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Fig. 7.18 - Mechanical flight control system

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However, with hydro-mechanical flight control systems, the load on the surfaces cannot be felt
and there is a risk of overstressing the aircraft structure, through excessive control surface
movements.
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Fig. 7.19 - Hydraulic flight control system
To overcome this problem, artificial feel systems are used. For example, on the Avro Vulcan jet
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bomber, the feedback of the required force was achieved by a spring device. The fulcrum of
the device was moved in proportion to the square of the airspeed (for the elevators) to give
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increased resistance at higher speeds.
Yaw damper
A yaw damper is a device used on many aircraft to reduce the rolling and yawing oscillations,
which can be induced in some maneuvers.
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If the directional stability of the aircraft is limited, a sharp maneuver of the aircraft around its
roll axis can cause an oscillation around its yaw axis. The aircraft starts to roll and to skid at the
same time. This phenomenon is called “Dutch roll”.
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Fig. 7.20 - Dutch roll movement

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If these oscillations increase, the pilot may not be fast enough to maintain the attitude control,
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manually acting on the controls. The yaw damper involves yaw rate sensors to measure the
aircraft yaw in real time and an electronic device (usually a processor). The yaw damper
system processes all data and provide the required corrections to automatically manage the
rudder actuators in order to damp the oscillation.
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The yaw damper was introduced to reduce the workload of the pilot and to damp oscillations,
thus improving the comfort of passengers. Moreover, some aircraft have to comply with
requirements related to the aircraft stability, which must remain within certification
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specifications.
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Fig. 7.21 - Yaw damper system
An example is the Boeing 767 yaw damper system. The yaw damper connected to the rudder
powered flying control system provides turn coordination and manages to damp any
undesired yaw. Most aircraft are provided with two yaw damper servos working in parallel,
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each with its own independent input and using data from its own yaw damper module.
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Mach trim
Jet aircraft often fly in transonic field. When speeds are too high, a moving back of the
pressure centre happens. This displacement tends to pitch down the nose of the aircraft. To
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compensate these effects, to balance the airplane and pitching up the aircraft nose, the angle
of attack of the stabilizer is changed. The control is done by a computer that acts as an auto-
pilot with this specific function. This device is called mach trim compensator.
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The instability is a function of the Mach number and a system sensitive to Mach changes is
required, in order to automatically put an input into the longitudinal trim.
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Fig. 7.22 - Mach trim system
As the system is sensitive to Mach number and Mach number is a function of temperature, it
follows that the system needs only to be activated at high altitude. As the system is only
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required at high Mach numbers, a Mach switch is also included.
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The pilots can operate the manual trim if necessary, without upsetting the operation of the
system.
The Mach trim input originated from the Mach Transducer and the Summing Mechanism.
When the Mach Transducer puts an input in, an output signal is sent to the amplifier to
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operate one of the relays that will drive the Mach Trim Servo. This will move the cable system
and the summing gears to select the servo valve.
As the Mach Trim Servo moves, it puts a negative feed-back signal into the Summing
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Mechanism, thus trying to cancel the original input signal. When the negative feed-back signal
equals the Mach Transducer signal, the output to the amplifier ceases, the relay opens and the
Mach Trim Servo stops. Meanwhile, the servo valve has been selected and the variable
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incidence tail plane is moving. The tail plane will continue to move until the feed-back link
catches up with the position of the Summing Gears, when the selector rod into the servo valve
is returned to neutral. The two feed-back system work together and the differences between
their timing is negligible.
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Rudder limiter systems
The rudder limiter system limits the displacement of the rudder at high speeds, in order to
prevent rudder overloads. The device is controlled by the rudder limit switch. The rudder
limiter mechanism consists of an electric actuator, which blocks rudder displacement
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according to indicated airspeed of the aircraft.
The system monitors the airspeed through flight computers, and restricts rudder displacement
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according to different parameters. For example:

 Full rudder travel (to 30°) is permitted at speeds below 150 knots.
 Intermediate travel (to 15°) is permitted at speeds between 150 to 200 knots.
 Minimum travel (to 5.7°) is permitted at speeds above 200 knots.
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Discrepancies between the monitored airspeeds and an improperly positioned rudder limiter
result in warnings, which are signaled by “rudder limit” flashing in amber in the cockpit.
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Fig. 7.23 - Rudder control limiter

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Gust locks
A gust lock on an aircraft is a mechanism that locks control surfaces in place, preventing
random movement and possible damage of the surface caused by wind, while the aircraft is
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parked. Gust locks may be internal or external. The external system is shown in the following
figure.
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Fig. 7.24 - Gust locks sw

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The internal system is more complex. A cam actuated by a switch in the cabin engages a
spring-loaded roller with the purpose of neutralizing the controls when the hydraulic system is
off. Pressure is trapped in the actuators and since the controls are neutralized by the roller, no
movement of the control surfaces is permitted.
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13.7.A.8 Stall protection system
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The latest generation of commercial aircraft has universally adopted the arrow wing design.
This type of wing has some disadvantages, the main one is the tendency to stall the part wings
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tips. This phenomenon causes the nose lifting of the airplane with a low probability of being
able to resume normal flight.
In order to avoid these situations, there are two main stall warning systems on board:
 A stick shaker
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 A stick pusher
Stick shaker
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A stick shaker is a mechanical device that rapidly and noisily vibrates the control yoke (or the
"stick") of the aircraft, in order to warn the pilot of an imminent stall. It is connected to the
control column of most business jets, airliners and military aircraft.
The aircraft Stall Protection System includes the stick shaker, some angle of attack sensors
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(AOA) and an avionic computer. This computer receives inputs from the AOA sensors and
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other flight systems. When data indicate an imminent stall condition, the computer actuates
both the stick shaker and an auditory alert. These signals must recall the pilot’s attention.
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Fig. 7.25 - Stick shaker

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Stick pusher
A stick pusher should not be confused with stick shaker. The stick shaker is a stall warning
device whereas the stick pusher is a stall avoidance device. The stick pusher is a mechanical
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device which prevents the pilot from stalling an airplane. It is a hydraulic or electro-mechanical
device that pushes forwards the elevator control system whenever the aircraft angle of attack
reaches a pre-determined value. It stops pushing when the angle of attack decreases
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sufficiently.
The stick pusher is a device installed on most fixed-wing-aircraft. This system constantly
monitors the critical parameters and automatically activates when it is necessary to avoid a
stall. The critical parameters include the angle of attack, the airspeed, the wing flap setting and
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the load factor. The stick pusher is known as stall identification device or stall identification
system.
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The system may have the following inputs:

 Airspeed switch, increases the speed of operation of the system with reduced
airspeed.
 Stick shaker relay, which receives the signal form the angle of attack transducer.
 Flap, slat and aileron droop position. When deployed, it increases the stalling angle.
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 Weight switch, activated only in flight.
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Designers of aircraft, which install stick pushers, recognize that there is the risk that the stick
pusher may activate erroneously. For this reason, on some aircraft the stick pusher can be
overpowered by the pilot. On other aircraft the stick pusher system can also be manually
disabled by the pilot.
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Fig. 7.26 - Stick Pusher
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Pneumatic stall warning
This system consists of a slot cut in the leading edge of the wing and connected by a plenum
chamber and a small diameter pipe to an air operated sound reed situated in the cockpit. This
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kind of stall warning is fitted on some small aircraft. As the angle of attack increases, the
stagnation point gets lower, this causes a negative pressure in the plenum chamber and pipe
line, which causes air to be drawn in through the sound reed. Consequently, the reed emits a
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warning sound.
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Fig. 7.27 - Pneumatic stall warning

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Leading edge stall warning vane
They are fitted close to the stagnation point of the leading edge of some small aircraft wings.
When the angle of attack increases beyond a certain value, the upward airflow of the air
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causes the vane to move up. As the vane is linked at a micro-switch, the stall indication is
usually given by a warning lamp or a buzzer in the cockpit.
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Fig. 7.28 - Leading edge stall warning vane
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13.7.B.1 System operation: electrical, fly-by-wire
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Electrical
Most modern aircraft flight controls are designed by using electrical signals to transmit
movable surfaces position data. Electronic systems require less maintenance, whereas
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mechanical and hydraulic systems require lubrication, tension adjustments, leak checks, fluid
changes, etc. Furthermore, by putting electrical circuit between the pilot and the aircraft
control surfaces, safety conditions can be enhanced. This technology, for example, can prevent
a stall or avoid that the pilot applies some excessive stress on the airframe.
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Fig. 7.29 - MD80 slat control mechanism

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For example, the MD80 slats system has electric motors, which act on the control valve of the
slats. The rotation of the electric motor causes the extension of a boom that operates the
surfaces.
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Fly-by-wire
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The FBW system replaces the mechanical actuation of the command, given by the pilot, with
an electronic interface. The FBW system interposes some calculators between the pilot and
the final control of the actuators or the aircraft surfaces. These calculators modify the manual
inputs of the pilot in accordance with aircraft parameters and they determine how to move
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the actuators of each control surface in order to provide the expected response.
The actuators are usually hydraulic, but also electric ones are used.
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Fig. 7.30 - FBW system

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The basic elements of a FBW flight control system are:
 The cockpit side-stick (also called joystick) through which the pilot controls the aircraft
movements.
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 The wires along which the signals are transmitted.
 Some computers or processors that are the heart of the system. All aircraft
parameters which must be analyzed flow into these computers.
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 Some motion sensors, which detect the components of the angular and linear motion
of the aircraft.
 Some electronics controls located on each actuator of the control surfaces. These
devices are necessary to guarantee the feedback line of the system.
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In the FBW system every movement of the cockpit side-stick performed by the pilot is
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converted in an electrical signal. This electrical signal, before reaching the flight control surface
actuators, is sent to the system computers. The computers of the FBW system analyze the
received signal in order to check that it is a safe command and in order to ensure a correct
deflection of the flight control surfaces. Also air data are analyzed by these computers in order
to guarantee the effectiveness of the control surfaces for all height and speed combinations in
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relation of the flight envelope of the aircraft.
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The computers process all received information and generate an output signal, which activates
the involved control surfaces actuators. In this way, the aircraft is moved around its axis
according to the development of the aerodynamic forces and moments caused by the
deflection of the elevator, the rudder and the ailerons.
The aircraft response is immediately sensed by the motion sensors installed on the feedback
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line of the system. This line is very important for a FBW system, because it permits to check
the aircraft manoeuvres and to rectify the possible course deviations from the intended flight
path.
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FBW: classification
The FBW systems are classified according to the percentage of use of the electrical component
inside them. The fly by wire can be:
 Analog: in the analog type of fly-by-wire, the commands from the cockpit controls act
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on the transducers that converts them into electrical signals. An electronic controller
processes these signals and controls the hydraulic system of implementation. The
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valves used in implementation system are electrically controlled.
 Digital: a digital system of fly-by-wire is similar to the analog one but instead of an
analog control, there is a digital computer. This type of system increases the flexibility
and efficiency, as a digital processing system can receive and process information from
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each sensor of the aircraft. A digital system is also much more reliable than an analog
one. A possible issue is represented by the software that manages and processes all
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information: if the software stops working, the fly-by-wire system is compromised. For
this reason, even these systems are made redundant: there are three or four
computers in parallel and three or four separate cables for each control surface. If one
or two computers fail, the others remain active to guarantee the functioning of the
system.
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The Boeing 777 has a highly integrated flying control system. It uses conventional flight deck
controls but the signal is sent through ARINC 629 data bus and various computers and control
units. The control surfaces are hydraulically powered via PCU.
The flight deck controls consist of a control column, which controls the elevator and a hand
wheel, which controls ailerons, flaperons, and roll spoilers. The rudder bar controls the rudder.
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These controls are provided with artificial feel and back drive motors to move them in the
correct direction when the system is under the auto-pilot mode. An aileron trim actuator is
also fitted in the system.
The ARINC 629 data bus is a twisted pair of wires transmitting data in both directions to all
computers. Each computer is connected to the bus by untwisting the twisted pair locally and
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clamping on an inductive couple unit. During the operations, each computer listens to the bus
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and waits its turn until all the other computers have transmitted, only at that time it can
retransmit again.
The data transmission and reception is carried out on the same bus. Any computer can listen
to any data on the bus and receive data according to how its individual PROM is programmed.
In other words the computer permanent memory knows what information on the data bus to
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use. Having recognized which information on the bus in a given instant has to be read, the
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computes will take in the selected data, put them in the temporary store RAM and process
them according to its pre-programmed instructions.
The flight control system uses 3 buses: LEFT, CENTRE and RIGHT. Flight deck control movement
is converted into an electrical analog signal by a transducer fitted to the flight control system
under the flight deck floor. This signal is then sent to the Actuator Control Electronics LRU.
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The pilot's controls are connected via the Actuator Control Electronic (ACE) unit to the PCU.
Other units such as the Primary Flight Computer (PFC) are connected to the system by the
ARINC 629 bus. The figure below shows a block schematic of the ailerons control system.
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Fig. 7.31 - 777 flight control system

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FBW: advantages
The main advantages of the FBW system are:
 An improvement of the aircraft performances: the installation of the FBW system
improves the aircraft performances and increases the flexibility in the aircraft use.
 A weight saving: the electrical controls are lighter than the mechanical ones, and the
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control gearings are implemented through a software, which gives a greater flexibility
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to the system.
 A high redundancy: the FBW system must be able to operate also in presence of
failures without compromising the aircraft safety. For this reason, the installation of
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the FWB system includes the development of several lines of connection between the
cockpit controls and the control surfaces actuators.
 A high overall system integrity: the FBW system is also characterized by a high overall
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integrity, which must be as high as that of the mechanical control system that is
replaced. The probability of the catastrophic failure must not exceed the value 10
raised to a power of -9 flight hours for a civil aircraft, and 10 raised to a power of -7 for
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a military aircraft. To this purpose most FBW systems incorporate redundant
calculators and mechanical or hydraulic backup systems.
 The use of mini control sticks: the installation of the FBW system allows more flexibility
in the cockpit layout, such as for example the use of mini control sticks. The main
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advantage of these devices is the fact that they do not obscure the cockpit displays as
the standard control bars. It should be noticed that not all civil airliners equipped with
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FBW systems exploit mini control sticks.
FBO
Nowadays, the Fly-By-Optics system is sometimes used instead of the Fly-By-Wire because it
can transfer data at higher speeds and it is immune to electromagnetic interference. In most
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cases the electrical cables are just changed into fiber optic ones. This system is often referred
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to as “Fly-By-Light”.
In the flight by light system the pilot's input is sensed by an analog transducer near the flight
deck. This analog signal is then converted into a digital electronic signal and processed by a
computer. The signal is then converted into digital light pulses to be transmitted along an optic
fiber cable. At the end of the transmission line the signal is converted back to an electronic
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digital signal and then into an analog one to operate a solenoid in the powered flying control
unit.
The advantages of light transmission of data over electronic digital transmission are:
 No sensitiveness to electric or magnetic fields.
 Less prone to data corruption due to lightning strikes. sw
 Lighter system.
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 Smaller system.
 Faster transmission rates.
 More reliability.
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The electronic digital data is converted into light pulses by a light emitting diode and the pulses
are carried through an optic fiber to the receiver. The receiver is a light sensitive photo
transistor, which converts each light pulse into an electric signal.
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Fig. 7.32 - Light transmission

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Cat. B2 - 13.8 Instrument systems
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13.8 Instrument systems
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13.8.1 Classification
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In order to perform a correct flight and monitor all the airborne systems the pilots require
aircraft equipped with some instruments. These instruments are installed in the cockpit: thus
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their layout is a very important feature.
The cockpit structure must be designed in order to reduce the pilot’s work to a minimum,
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giving the possibility to control all main instruments and to check the others.
Various types of instruments can be distinguished according to their purpose: flight
instruments, navigation instruments, engine control instruments, and control instruments of
all airborne systems.
The main flight instruments can be divided into 3 categories:
 Pneumatic instruments
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 Gyroscopic instruments
 Magnetic instruments
It is important to underline that nowadays, with the development of digital techniques, the
mechanic indicators has being replaced by digital instruments.
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Some calculators elaborate the measurements and the information are displayed on a limited
number of screens in the cockpit: modern aircraft are characterized by glass cockpits.
Aircraft instrument systems may be classified as:

 Air Data Systems: total pressure created by the forward movement of the aircraft and
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static pressure of the atmosphere can be used either together or individually to obtain
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measurements of airspeed, altitude, vertical speed and air temperature for aircraft
instruments and air data computers. These systems include:
i) Pitot Static Instruments: altimeter, airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator
ii) Pitot Static Systems
iii) Air Data Computers and Associated Instruments
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iv) Air Data Alerting and Warning Systems
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v) Air Temperature Indicating Systems

vi) Angle of Attack and Stall Warning Systems
 Engine Instruments: instruments that provide engine operation parameters and
vibration measurement and indication.
 Direct Reading Pressure and Temperature Gauges.
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 Fuel Quantity Indicating Systems.
 Gyroscopic Instruments: Artificial Horizons (Attitude Indicators), Slip Indicators,
Directional Gyros.
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 Pneumatic Instrument Systems: systems that provide vacuum or pressure to drive
gyroscopic instruments.
 Compass Systems: Direct Reading and Remote Reading Compass.
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 Flight Data Recording Systems.
 Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS)
i) Electronic and Digital Flight Instruments
ii) Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS)
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iii) Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM).
 Instrument Warning Systems.
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 Ground Proximity Warning System.
Formerly, electromechanical displays were equipped with synchro mechanisms, which

transmitted to an instrument comparator, the pitch, roll and heading that were actually shown
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on the instruments. In case of failure, the roll mechanism of an ADI would trigger a comparator
warning. The instrument comparator provided for both comparator monitoring and display
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monitoring.
Nowadays, the comparator function is performed by EFIS. EFIS offers a wider versatility by
avoiding some of the physical limitations of traditional instruments. Thus, for example, the
same display which shows a course deviation indicator, can be switched to show the planned
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track provided by an area navigation system or the flight management system, with the
weather radar picture that can then be superimposed on the displayed route.
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13.8.2 Atmosphere and terminology
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The Earth is surrounded by a layer of gas called atmosphere, which follows the Earth in its
rotation and revolution motions. The atmosphere is bonded to the Earth by the force of
gravity, to which also gas particles are subjected. These particles would otherwise tend to
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disperse in the sidereal space. This atmosphere is a mixture of gases consisting of about 21% of
oxygen and 78% of nitrogen. The remaining 1% is represented by other gases such as argon,
neon, krypton and water vapor. The presence of water vapor can vary from negligible
percentages up to 5%. By increasing the amount of water vapor, the percentages of other
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gases decrease proportionately.
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The Earth atmosphere has a mass of about 5×1018 Kg, three quarters of which is within about
11 km (6.8 mi; 36,000 ft) far from the surface. Then the atmosphere becomes thinner and
thinner with no definite boundary between it and the outer space.
Characteristics of the atmosphere

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The atmosphere is characterized by some fundamental physical parameters:
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 Pressure
 Temperature
 Humidity
 Density
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Physical characteristics of the atmosphere vary from place to place and from ground to
different altitudes; furthermore, they are not constant over time.
Pressure
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In general, a body in the Earth’s atmosphere is subjected to the pressure of the surrounding
air. As reference value we consider the pressure exerted by the column of air above the Earth's
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surface, to be more specific at sea level.

The pressure can be expressed in different units of measure. In the International System of
Units, the unit of measurement for pressure is the Pascal [Pa], equivalent to Newton per
square meter. Other units are:
 Kilogram per square centimeter [Kg/cm2] or technic atmosphere [at]
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 Metric atmosphere [atm]
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 Pound per square inches [psi]

 Inches of mercury [in Hg]
 Millimeter of mercury [mm Hg]
 Bar [N/cm2]
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 Millibar, one thousandth of a bar
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Fig. 8.1 - Pressure units of measure

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Temperature
The Sun warms the Earth by radiation without the atmosphere appreciably absorbing the heat.
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The heat absorbed by the Earth is given back by the layers of the atmosphere in immediate
contact with the surface, which in turn transfer it to the upper convection.
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The temperature of the Earth's surface varies greatly from area to area, due to the different
solar radiation and different heat capacity of the soil.
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The difference in solar radiation is mainly due to:
 The roundness of the Earth and to the alternating seasons.
 The Earth's rotation.
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 The different exposure to sunlight .
 The different cover created by the clouds.
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Fig. 8.2 - Solar radiation
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In the aeronautical field one of the most critical temperature to detect is the air temperature
external to the aircraft. In fact, the ideal measurement of this value should be that of the static
component of the air (SAT, Static Air Temperature), which is present outside the aircraft. This
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measurement is only possible when the aircraft stands still in comparison to the surrounded
air mass. In fact, when the aircraft is in motion the friction produced by the air mass that laps
the aircraft surface causes a dynamic heating (called TR, Temperature Rise). This parameter
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introduces an error in the temperature measurement. Thus, at high speeds it is not possible to
measure the SAT in a direct way, due to effects of adiabatic compressions and frictions. The
value of the SAT is obtained subtracting from the Outside Air Temperature (OAT), detected by
the airborne thermometer, the value of the TR. On high performance aircraft the OAT is often
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called RAT (Ram Air Temperature).
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Humidity
The presence of water vapor in the air determines the humidity of the air itself. The moisture
in the air can be expressed in three different ways:
 Absolute humidity: it is the amount of water vapor, in grams, contained in a cubic
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meter of air [g/m3]. It is rarely used, since it varies and it is therefore often difficult to
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measure.
 Specific humidity: it is the amount of water vapor, in grams, contained in a Kilogram of
air [g/kg]. Since it is obtained from the ratio between the mass of water vapor and the
mass of moist air containing it, it indicates the mass concentration.
 Relative humidity: it is the ratio between the amount of water vapor contained in an
air mass and the maximum amount that the same mass may contain at the same
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temperature and pressure conditions.
In the aeronautical field, to indicate the amount of water vapour in the air, the terms of dew
temperature or dew point are often used. The dew point indicates the temperature at which
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the air containing water vapour becomes saturated at constant pressure, that means it
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contains water vapour for a percentage of 100%. Every excess of water vapour, besides this
point, will directly passes into the liquid state. So, the dew point indicates at which
temperature the air mass condenses into dew without causing any pressure change.
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Density
The air density is the main property in the study of aerodynamic phenomena.
The density (ρ) of a body, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, is the amount of matter (m)
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present in the unit of volume (vol):
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Atmospheric layers
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In accordance to what established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the term
atmosphere refers to the air mass that surrounds the Earth and that extends from the Earth's
surface to an height of about 100 km. The atmosphere can be divided in different vertical
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layers, according to the variation of its physical characteristics and the development of some
phenomena.
The troposphere is the lower layer that is in contact with the Earth’s surface and it has an
average height of about 11000 m that is variable from about 8000 m at poles to 20000 m at
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the equator. The troposphere contains water vapour. Moreover, inside this layer clouds and
vertical air streams develop and all meteorological phenomena occur. The troposphere is also
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characterized by an almost uniform reduction of the temperature from the Earth’s surface to
the end of the layer.
The layer dividing the troposphere from the successive layer is called tropopause. In the
tropopause the temperature stops decreasing and remains constant.
The layer immediately above the troposphere is called stratosphere. It extends from the end of
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the tropopause to a height of about 5000 m. In the stratosphere the temperature increases
with height. In this layer the air is extremely rarefie, there is no water vapour and so no
significant meteorological phenomena take places.
The last three layers of the atmosphere are of scarce aeronautical interest and they are known
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as mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. In the mesosphere the air temperature
decreases when the altitude increases, while in the thermosphere the contrary happens.
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Instead, in the exosphere the gaseous particles are not attracted by the Earth’s gravity.
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Fig. 8.3 - Atmospheric layers

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ISA
In aeronautics during most operations it is essential to use specific atmosphere parameters,
which are the anywhere in the world. For this reason, the ICAO (International Civil Aviation
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Organization) defined and established the characteristics of a standard atmosphere, called ISA
(International Standard Atmosphere).
The ISA is especially used:
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 For aerodynamic calculations.
 To calibrate the airborne instruments.
 To compare, on equal conditions, the performance of aircraft and engines.
 To ensure a safe and efficient air traffic control through a common pressure reference,
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especially for long distance routes.
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The ISA is defined by the following points:

 The air is considered dry, completely without water vapor as well as dust.
 The parameters of the atmosphere are set at a latitude of 45°. This reference is
intended to mediate the difference of few miles, existing between the diameter of the
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equatorial and polar diameter of the Earth and then to mediate the consequent
difference of the force of gravity.
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 The pressure at sea level is 1013 hPa equivalent to 1013.25 millibar, 1.0333 atm, 760
millimeters of mercury and 29.92 inches of mercury.
 The vertical pressure gradient is 1 millibar for every 8 m (27 ft) at sea level; it
decreases with altitude.
 The temperature at sea level is 15 °C (59 °F).
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 The vertical thermal gradient, is - 6.5 °C per 1000 m (- 5.4 °F per 1000 ft) up to an
altitude of 11 km.
 The air density at sea level is 1.225 Kg/m3.
 The acceleration of gravity is equal to 9.81 m/s2.
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These values represent the average of the different weather conditions existing on Earth at
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different latitudes, at different heights and in different seasons. The air standards are
invariant, so the air must be considered as perfectly motionless in relation to Earth.
Under ISA conditions, if the real atmosphere parameters correspond to those of standard
atmosphere, the temperature at sea level would be 15° C. To reach the 14° Celsius isothermal
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surface we should rise up to about 154 m, and more other 154 m to reach the 13° C isothermal
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surface. So, in ISA conditions the thermal gradient is 6.5° C every 1000 m, up about to 11000
m. In real atmosphere the isothermal surfaces are wavy surfaces, whose evolution depends on
many factors, as already said.
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The same thing is true for pressure. If real atmosphere parameters correspond to ISA
environmental standards, on Earth there would always be a pressure of 1013 hpa at sea level,
whose surface would be therefore coincident with the isobaric surface of 1013 hpa. Rising at
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an altitude of 8 m (27 ft) there would be an isobaric surface of 1012 hpa, exactly parallel to the
surface of the sea. Rising other 8 m (27 ft) there would be an isobaric surface of 1011 hpa,
exactly parallel to the 1012 one; and so on. The ratio of the pressure difference between two
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isobaric surfaces and the vertical distance between them is called vertical baric gradient. This
value can be considered constant only in the lower layers of the atmosphere. In fact, as the
overlying column of air reduces the rise, the air is less dense and the vertical baric gradient
consequently diminishes. In the real atmosphere isobaric surfaces are generally not plane
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surfaces but wavy ones, whose distance can vary from point to point. Cutting isobaric surfaces
with a horizontal plane corresponding to the level of the sea, they draw lines, called isobars,
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represented on weather maps with intervals generally of 4 millibar from one to another.
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13.8.3 Pressure measuring devices and systems
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Barometer of Torricelli
Devices used to measure pressure are called barometers. The first barometer of the history
was built by Evangelista Torricelli, in the Seventeenth Century, during an experiment. This
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barometer was a mercury barometer.
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Fig. 8.4 - Barometer of Torricelli

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Torricelli's experiment shows that the existing atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to the
one exerted by a 76 cm column of mercury.
Assuming that the tube used has a cross section of 1 cm2, the mercury column has a volume of
76 cm3. Since the weight of this column of mercury is 1.033 kg, the pressure of 1.033 kg/cm 3 is
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also called 1 atmosphere.
As a result, for a long time the value of the atmospheric pressure has been expressed in
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centimeters of mercury, where the Anglo-Saxon countries express it in inches of mercury: note
that 76 cm is equal to 29.92 inches.
Silicon Diaphragm Pressure Transducers
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A modern approach to pressure measurement uses a four active-arm Wheatstone bridge
diffused into a silicon diaphragm. These transducers are available for ranges from 2 up to
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20000 psi, they have a good linearity and are fully built in temperature compensation.
The pressure applied to the silicon diaphragm will unbalance the Wheatstone bridge, its
resistances giving an output proportional to the applied pressure.
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Fig. 8.5 - Silicon diaphragm pressure transducer

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In pressure transducers the signal is independent from the excitation, while in ratiometric
transmitters the signal is proportional to the excitation.
The accuracy of a transmitter is described by an error band. This band covers all errors over
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the full pressure and temperature range. Typical errors are also given. The typical error
describes the accuracy which can normally be expected in a measurement.
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Bourdon tube (direct reading pressure gauge)
In traditional aircraft systems, in order to sense hydraulic, fuel, oil and pneumatic pressures
these fluids were fed directly to the bourdon tube, contained inside the specific pressure
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gauge.
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Fig. 8.6 - Direct reading gauge

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The Bourdon tube is a metal tube with an elliptical cross section shaped as a C. The tube
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material may be phosphor bronze, beryllium bronze or beryllium copper. One end of the tube
is sealed and the other one is open to accept the pressure.
As pressure is detected, the tube tries to straighten and in doing this, the sealed end moves
out. This sealed end is connected to a lever mechanism to move a pointer. The amount of tube
movement is small and must be amplified mechanically.
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There is usually a choke or restrictor fitted to the inlet to prevent surge pressures from
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damaging the tube. The principle of operation is such that when pressure is applied to the
interior of the tube, there is a tendency for the cross sectional area of the tube to attempt to
change its shape into a more circular cross-section: the tube tries to straighten its arc, causing
the sealed end to move outwards and move the gear and thus the indicator needle.
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There are two terms that are commonly used in relation to this type of mechanism: LEVER
LENGTH and LEVER ANGLE. The lever length is the distance between the pivot point of the
lever and the attachment point of the link with the lever. The lever angle is the angle between
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the lever and the link from the bourdon tube.
Bourdon Tubes are used for the direct reading of pressure values. Advantages and
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disadvantages of Bourdon Tubes are:
 Advantages: portability, no leveling required.
 Disadvantages: this device is limited to static or quasi-static measurements and its
accuracy may be insufficient for many applications. A mercury barometer can be used
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to calibrate and check Bourdon Tubes.
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Nowadays, Bourdon tubes are replaced with modern systems having:

 Much faster frequency response than U tubes.
 Accuracy up to ±0.5% of the full scale.
 Good linearity, when the deflection is no larger than the order of the diaphragm
thickness.
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13.8.4 Pitot static systems
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In order to measure the air pressure on aircraft, a particular device called Pitot tube is
employed. The Pitot tube consists of a cylindrical probe installed in a position where it is on
slightly affected by the aircraft aerodynamic field.
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The Pitot tube reads two types of pressures: the static pressure and the total pressure. The
latter one is the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure.
The static pressure is the pressure measured when the probe is in a quiet state, if compared to
the fluid. The static pressure is thus the pressure measured when the fluid is in a quiet state or
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when the probe is moving with it. The dynamic pressure instead, is the pressure measured
when the probe does not move in relation to the moving air flow. The dynamic pressure is a
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function of the fluid velocity, and it is calculated by:
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where ρ is the fluid density and V is the fluid velocity.
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The simplest Pitot systems consist of a wall-mounted static port and a total pressure probe,
both placed at the same fluid flow cross section.
A more modern system is based on Prandtl's concept, and senses both the static and the total
pressure through one probe. The probe consists of two concentric tubes. The internal tube has
a round cross-section, the external tube makes an annulus. The internal tube is used to sense
the total pressure through an opening at its end, which is in an orthogonal position with
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respect to the motion direction. The static pressure is sensed by a number of holes on the
external tube surface, which is tangent to the motion direction.
The end of the Pitot tube must be suitably shaped to prevent the generation of turbulent
vortexes. A resistor supplied by the aircraft electrical system heats the Pitot tube to prevent
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ice accretion on the probe, which would clog the probe holes.
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Fig. 8.7 - Pitot tube

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The Pitot tube supplies the aircraft pneumatic instruments such as altimeter, airspeed
indicator and vertical rate of climb indicators. These instruments require total and/or static
pressure inputs to operate. The indicated values of these instruments are often incorrect
because of the effects of three general categories of errors:
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 Instrument errors
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 Lag errors
 Position errors
Instrument errors are the result of manufacturing discrepancies, hysteresis, temperature

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changes, friction, and inertia of moving parts. A laboratory calibration of all flight instruments
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must be accomplished to determine the instrument corrections prior to an in-flight
determination of position errors. For example, when the readings of two pressure altimeters
are used to determine the error in a pressure sensing system, a precautionary check of
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calibration correlations is advisable.
Problems arise when two calibrated instruments placed side by side with their readings
corrected by use of calibration charts do not always provide the same resultant calibrated
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value.
The lag error in pressure measurements is generally associated with climbing/descending or

accelerating/decelerating flight and is more evident in static systems. When ambient pressures
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changing are involved, as in climbing and descending phases, the speed of pressure
propagation and the pressure drop associated with the flow through a tube, induce lag
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between the indicated and actual pressure. The pressure lag error is basically a result of the
following causes:
 Pressure drop in the tubing due to viscous friction.
 Inertia of the air mass in the tubing.
 Volume of the system.
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 Instrument inertia and viscous and kinetic friction.
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 The finite speed of pressure propagation (for example, acoustic lag).
The Pitot/static pressure systems of a given aircraft supply pressures to a different number of
instruments and require different lengths of tubing for pressure transmission.
The volume of the instrument cases added to the volume of the tubing produce a volume
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mismatch between systems. As an increment of pressure is applied simultaneously across the
total and static sources, the two systems would require different periods of time to stabilize
the system at the new pressure level, and this would result in a momentary error in the
airspeed indication.
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The practical approach to lag error testing is that of determining if a serious lag error exists,
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and then eliminate it, where possible. To test the airspeed system for balance, a small
increment of pressure (0.1 inch water) is applied simultaneously to both the Pitot and static
systems. If the airspeed indicator does not fluctuate, the combined systems are balanced and
no lag error will exist in the indicated airspeed data, because the lag constants are matched.
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Position errors are the result of pressures other than free stream ones at the pressure sensor,
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or errors in the local pressure at the source, resulting from the shape, location, or orientation
of the sensor. In a helicopter, these pressure errors are present at both the total pressure and
the static pressure sensors.
Total pressure position errors result from the location of the Pitot tube in the rotor downwash
and the changing incidence of the probe. The static pressure position errors result from the
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complete flow around the airframe and may be greatly influenced by the rotor downwash
velocity, angle of attack, and sideslip.
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The following conditions often produce variations in both total and static system position
errors:
 Gross weight/center of gravity locations.
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 Power and rotor speed.
 Pressure patterns (in-ground effect/out-of-ground effect).
 Sideslip angles.
 In-flow angles (climb/descent/level flight).
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 Configuration (for example, landing gear, wing stores).
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13.8.5 Pneumatic instruments
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The pneumatic instruments used on aircraft are:
 The altimeter
 The air speed indicator
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 The vertical speed indicator
They are called pneumatic instruments because their main element is a metallic aneroid
capsule with very thin walls. This capsule has the propriety to expand and to retract itself
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when it is stressed by pressure differences between its inside and the outside.
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In order to operate pneumatic instruments, it is necessary to provide them with some

pressures: static pressure and dynamic one. All three instruments work with the static
pressure, while only the air speed indicator needs the dynamic pressure.
Each aircraft has at least two types of pressure sources: one for the static pressure and one for
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the dynamic one. The static source is located in a point where the aircraft motion does not
affect the static pressure. The dynamic source is instead installed in parallel to the longitudinal
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aircraft axis, so that it senses the pressure generated by the motion. Nowadays, a very
common solution is the use of the Pitot tube.
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Fig. 8.8 - Pneumatic instruments

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Altimeter
The altimeter is an aneroid barometer, whose measurements of the atmospheric pressure are
converted in altitude parameters. sw
The altimeter is made up of a airtight box connected with the air outside the aircraft through
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the static source. Inside this box there is the aneroid capsule that is hermetically sealed.
Inside the capsule a low pressure is created and there is a spring that pushes against its walls,
so to keep the capsule in its neutral position.
When the instrument is put at higher altitude, the pressure inside the box decreases and the
capsule dilates. When the altimeter is put at lower altitude instead, the contrary happens.
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Fig. 8.9 - Altimeter structure
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The altimeter is usually graduated in feet and its dial has 3 pointers:
 The indicator of tens of thousands of feet
 The pointer of thousands of feet
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 The indicator of hundreds of feet.
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Fig. 8.10 - Barometric altimetersw

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The striped window is the warning indicator of the low altitude that starts to appear when the
aircraft crosses 16000 ft in descent.
Moreover, another little window is present: it shows the barometric scale in use, which can be
selected through the regulation knob, present on the left lower side of the instrument.
In fact, the altimeter can be adjusted by selecting 3 barometric scales based on 3 different
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reference systems.
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The barometric surfaces of reference employed in aviation are:
 The airport surface
 The sea surface
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 The isobaric standard surface
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Fig. 8.11 - Altimeter settings

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If the pressure value of the airport surface is introduced in the setting window, the altimeter is
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regulated on the QFE. With this regulation the instrument indicates zero, when the aircraft is
on ground and the height from the ground (the take off airport), when it is in flight. The QFE
regulation of the altimeter is generally used during flight operations that happen in area of low
pressure in order to have altitude indications always positive.
The altimeter is set on the QNH when the pressure value at the theoretical sea level is entered,
with this setting it will show the altitude from sea level when on flight. The QNH setting of the
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altimeter is mandatory when the aircraft flies in controlled air spaces below the transition
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level.
The transition level is the altitude at which aircraft during the climb must set the altimeter on
the standard value (QNE), while in descent they must set the QNH.
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By introducing in the setting window the pressure value of the isobaric standard surface (1013
millibar), the altitude indications are called “flight levels”. This setting of the altimeter is called
QNE.
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The use of the standard setting is the most used during the cruise flight because it ensures a
high safety level of vertical separation. In fact, using the QNE all aircraft have altimeters
regulated on the same value (1013 millibar) regardless of the area from which they come.
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However, the altimeter is subjected to some important errors. The most serious error is
related to density. It is due to the air density variation when the pressure and the temperature
change. The density error can be decomposed into two different errors:
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 The pressure error
 The temperature error
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The QNH value entered in the altimeter must be generally updated as the flight goes on, in
order to avoid errors due to pressures variation, while passing through different areas. For
example, without modifying the altimeter setting, if the aircraft is flying from a low pressure
area towards a high pressure area, the instrument will indicate an altitude lower than the real
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one. On the contrary, when the aircraft is flying from a high pressure area towards a low
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pressure area, the altimeter will indicate a higher altitude than the real one. This situation is
the most dangerous for the flight safety.
The temperature error of the altimeter is mainly due to the different air temperatures that
cause the variation of the standard value of the pressure gradient.
When the air is cooler than the standard value, the pressure gradient increases and the
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isobaric surfaces are closer to each other. On the contrary, if the air is hotter than the standard
value, the pressure gradient decreases. The altimeter indicates a fixed height difference of 27
ft, when it senses a pressure difference of 1 hPa. If this pressure difference occurs with a lower
height range, in colder air the altimeter indicates an altitude higher than the real one.
Conversely, if the pressure difference occurs with a higher altitude range, typically in hot air,
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the altimeter indicates a height lower that the real one.
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The temperature error is corrected by analyzing simultaneously the value of the QNH and the
air temperature in which the flight takes place.
The altimeters are also interested by position errors. The altimeter is an evacuated bellows
which expands and contracts and is connected to a series of gears and levers which moves a
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pointer. The whole mechanism is exposed to static pressure. The static pressure may differ
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from the atmospheric pressure giving rise to altimeter position errors.
Normal altimeters are nowadays used only for backup purpose and on small aircraft. Specific
versions embedded in aircraft cockpit are the following:
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 Encoding altimeter: An encoding altimeter converts the pressure values into digital
signals to be transmitted to the surveillance radar and to other aircraft. It essentially
consists of an encoding disc, which rotates during the reading. This rotation of the disc
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is sensed by photo cells. These digital signals are amplified and sent to the
transponder. This computer converts these signals on the basis of the QNE setting.
This ensures that all aircraft transmit their altitude as flight level values.
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 Drum-pointer Altimeter: it is an altimeter with a drum-pointer display. In such a
layout, a single pointer rotates to account for 10 - 100 ft variation, while the 1000 ft
and 10000 ft are accounted by a rotating drum, on which the ten thousands and
thousands feet digits are written. The drum rotates proportionally with the pointer,
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then for intermediate altitudes the indication of thousands of feet may become
difficult to read, especially when the pilot is experimenting an high workload.
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 Stand-by Altimeter: it is an altimeter installed as a result of Type or Supplemental

Type Certification process, and are not to be used in normal operations. Therefore
they are outside the scope of EU-OPS 1.652(c). The mechanical standby altimeter is a
direct reading altitude indicator installed on the cockpit panel. This silent companion
provides the pilot with the traditional mechanical display that can be relied on to get
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home in the event of main altimeter failure. Generally, this altimeter dial is available in
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in-hg, mbar, or hPa configurations for global flights. The Altimeter is available in
configurations that have a range of - 1,000 to 53,000 feet. These units can be supplied
with NVG compatibility for Aviation Night Vision Imaging System (ANVIS) applications.
An adjustable barometric pressure compensator with an indication in inches of
mercury, millibars or hPa is typically provided. A knob allows the altitude indication to
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be adjusted to the relative setting (QFE, QNH or QNE).
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Vertical speed indicator
The vertical speed indicator is the instrument that measures the aircraft rate of climb or
descent.
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The capsule of the instrument is connected to the outside through the static source. The
instrument case instead has a hole of a capillary diameter. The vertical speed indicator
measures the variation rate of the static pressure inside the capsule.
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Fig. 8.12 - Vertical speed indicator structure
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When the aircraft is on ground or it flies at constant altitude the pressure inside the
instrument case equals the external static pressure. This pressure is also the same as that
present in the capsule of the instrument. In this case the capsule is in its neutral position and
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the instrument indicates zero.

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As soon as the aircraft begins to go up, the static pressure inside the capsule decreases
instantaneously, while the pressure in the case decreases with a lower rate due to the section
of the capillary opening.
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This difference of pressure between the inside and outside of the capsule, created by a climb
or a descent, causes a capsule volume variation. This parameter is the datum measured by the
instrument and then converted into a vertical speed.
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The indication of the unit resolves itself into the pressure difference between inside and
outside the capsule, that is the pressure difference across the metering unit. The metering unit
is therefore required to give a definite pressure difference for any given rate of climb or
descent. At the same time, the metering unit must compensate for changes of air temperature
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and density at different altitudes.
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Compensation for changes in pressure is defined as altitude compensation, while

compensation for changes in temperature is defined as temperature compensation. The
compensation is obtained without any moving parts but by the combination of two basic types
of metering unit: an orifice and a capillary tube. The pressure difference across an orifice for a
given rate of climb decreases with altitude and the unit shows a negative error.
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The vertical air speed indicators are generally graduated in thousands ft per minute.
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Fig. 8.13 - Vertical speed indicator
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The vertical speed indicator is similar to an altimeter but shows how rapidly altitude is
changing. In the previous figure you can see a 3000 feet per minute vertical speed indicator.
Each mark indicates a vertical speed of 100 feet per minute.
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It is important to underline that, although the vertical-speed indicator operates using the static
pressure source, it is a differential pressure instrument. The differential pressure is established
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between the instantaneous static pressure in the capsule and the trapped static pressure
within the case.
When the pressures are equalized in level flight, the instrument needle shows zero. As the
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static pressure in the capsule changes due to a climb or descent maneuver, the needle
immediately shows a change of vertical speed. Until the differential pressure stabilizes at a
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definite rate, a reliable indications cannot be read. This is because of the restriction in air flow
through the calibrated capillary hole, so that a 6- to 9-second lag time is required to equalize
or stabilize the pressures.
Limitations in the use of the vertical speed indicator are essentially due to the calibrated leak
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(effect of the capillary hole). Sudden or abrupt changes in aircraft attitude cause erroneous
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instrument readings, as the air flow fluctuates over the static ports. Both rough control
technique and turbulent air result in unreliable needle indications. When used properly
instead, the instrument provides reliable information to establish and maintain level flight and
rate climbs or descents. In order to avoid this problem, it has been designed a special VSI
(named instantaneous vertical speed indicator) that incorporates acceleration pumps to
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eliminate the limitations associated with the calibrated leak. For example, during climb entry,
vertical acceleration causes the pumps to supply extra air into the capsule to stabilize the
differential pressure without the usual lag time. During the level flight and steady rate climbs
and descents, the instrument operates on the same principles as the conventional type ones.
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In addition, the needle of the vertical speed indicator should indicate zero when the aircraft is
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on the ground or maintaining a constant pressure level during flight. Most instruments can be
adjusted to a zero reading by turning a screw on the lower left corner of the instrument case.
Air speed indicator

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The air speed indicator is the instrument that measures the aircraft speed in relation to the air
mass around it. It is made of an airtight box connected with the outside through the static
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source. Inside the box there is the capsule which is connected to the outside through the
dynamic source.
The capsule is joined with the instrument pointer through a set of levers and gears, which
converts the linear motion of the capsule expansion into the rotational motion of the pointer.
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Fig. 8.14 - Airspeed indicator structure
The ASI uses two pressures, Pitot and static. Pitot pressure is made up of two pressures, the
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dynamic pressure and the static one.
The sensing element is the Pitot head or pressure head, static pressure is present irrespectively
of whether the head is moving through the air or not. When the head is moved through the
air, additional pressure is sensed, the faster the head is moved through the air, the greater the
pressure is. sw
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The pressure in the head is the combination of dynamic and static pressure:
 Pitot pressure: dynamic pressure + static pressure.
 Dynamic pressure: Pitot pressure - static pressure.
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When the aircraft stops on ground the same pressure enters in both sources: consequently,
the capsule does not feel any volume variation and the instrument indicates zero. When the
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aircraft starts the take-off run or during the flight, in the dynamic sources (and so in the
capsule) a greater pressure enters. This pressure is higher than the static one present in the
instrument case. So, the capsule expands itself.
The expansion is bigger than the dynamic pressure, and thus the aircraft speed is greater. The
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indicator of the instrument permits to read the value of speed that causes the capsule to
expand.
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The dial of the air speed indicator has some arcs of different colors, which permit to detect the
main speeds of the aircraft.
Moreover, the different colors identify and delimit the fields of the operational speed of the
aircraft. The standard colors employed are:
 White
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 Green
 Yellow
 Red
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Fig. 8.15 - Air speed indicator
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In fixed-wing aircraft the white arc starts from the stalling velocity with landing gear and flaps
extracted. This arc finishes at the maximum allowed speed with extended flaps.
The arc green starts from the stalling velocity without landing gear and flaps extracted and it
finishes at the maximum speed of normal operation.
The yellow arc begins where the green arc ends and it finishes in correspondence of the Never
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Exceed Velocity (Vne). This speed is made evident through a red line.
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In helicopters and others aircraft (for example gliders) these arcs are different due the
different configuration of the flying machine.
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For example, in helicopters the green arc that shows the operating range normally allowed
starts from 0 knots, this because helicopters can fly in hovering with a forward speed equal to
0. A blue line is a reminder to the pilot of the maximum airspeed during autorotation.
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The red line of VNE changes depending on weight of the aircraft and density altitude. For
aircraft weights of 3,000 lbs and below, the VNE decreases by 3.5 knots per 1,000 feet above
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3,000 feet density altitude. When the aircraft weight is above 3,000 pounds, the VNE goes
down by 122 knots maximum and decreases by 7 knots per 1,000 feet above 3,000 feet density
altitude.
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Since the air conditions in which the aircraft flies are not standard, often the Indicated Air
Speed (IAS) does not coincide with the True Air Speed (TAS).
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The most significant mistakes of the air speed indicator are:

 The error of position
 The errors of compressibility
 The error of density
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The error of position is the mistake related to the aircraft attitudes, which introduce significant
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variations of the static pressure, especially at low speed. The IAS corrected by this error is
called CAS (Calibrated Air Speed).
The error of compressibility must be analyzed for jet aircraft according to the St Venant’s
formula for the subsonic flight and the Rayleigh’s law for the supersonic flight. The error of
compressibility becomes important when the speed is so high that it compresses air molecules
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inside the static source. The CAS corrected by this error is called EAS (Equivalent Air Speed).
The error of density is the most important error of the air speed indicator and it must be
always considered for the calculation of the TAS.
The instrument is calibrated on parameters of the ISA (International Standard Atmosphere) but
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often the air in which the fly occurs has very different characteristics. For example, when the
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air has a density different from the standard one, the instrument indicates speed values which
do not correspond to the real parameters. Generally, the IAS is less than the TAS.
The true airspeed can be calculated as a function of the equivalent airspeed and the local air
density (or temperature and pressure altitude which determine density). Some airspeed
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indicators incorporate a slide rule mechanism to perform this calculation. Otherwise, this
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calculation can be performed with a calculator or a circular slide rule.
For a quick approximation of TAS, it is possible to increment the IAS value by 2% every 300 m
(1000 feet) of altitude. For example, if IAS is 52 m/s (100 Knots), at 3000 m (about 10,000 ft
Above Sea Level) TAS is 62 m/s (120 Knots).
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Obstruction of static and dynamic sources
During the flight it can happen that the pressure sources of the static instruments clog up due
to foreign bodies or ice formation. The obstruction of the static sources affects the functioning
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of the altimeter, air speed indicator and vertical speed indicator.
The altimeter feeling no pressure variation maintains the value that was indicated when the
obstruction took place.
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The pointer of the vertical speed indicator indicates zero also during climbs and descents.
Regarding the air speed indicator, if the aircraft maintains the altitude at which the obstruction
occurred, the indication of the instrument remains correct because the static pressure outside
the capsule does not change.
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However, if the aircraft climbs, the instrument indicates less than the real pressure and
conversely if it descents the instrument indicates an excess of it.
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Thus, in case of obstruction of the static source the pilot must activate the alternate static
pressure source in order to guarantee the operation of the static instruments. However, the
use of the alternate static pressure source introduces a greater position error and a further
error is generated by the fact that the pressure detected by instruments is the cabin pressure.
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On pressurized aircraft the cabin pressure is greater than the external pressure and so the
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altimeter will indicate a altitude lower than the real one.
The obstruction of the dynamic source or of the Pitot tube affects only the air speed indicator.
If the obstruction occurs in a sufficiently long time, the pressure inside the capsule reduces to
the value of static pressure and the instrument will indicate zero. In case in the obstruction
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happens instantaneously, the pressure which exists inside the capsule before the failure
remains. In this case the instrument indicates the same value regardless of the aircraft speed
until the flight altitude does not change (and so the static pressure).
If the aircraft climbs, the instrument indicates a value greater than the real velocity, while if
the aircraft descents the contrary happens. sw
Manufacturers have in catalogues a wide range of airspeed indicators with a variety of speed
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ranges, units of measure and dial configurations available. Typical dial diameters are 57 mm
and 80 mm.
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13.8.6 Machmeter
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A machmeter is a flight instrument that shows the flight Mach number of the aircraft. The
Mach number is defined as the ratio between the air airspeed and the speed of sound. The
flight Mach number is shown on the machmeter as a decimal number. For example, if an
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aircraft is flying at the speed of sound, its Mach number is 1.
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Fig. 8.16 - Machmeter
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The mechanical machmeters convert the pressure into Mach number. Inside the instrument
there are two capsules. The first is connected to the total pressure source, the second one is
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an aneroid with vacuum inside.

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Fig. 8.17 - Machmeter structure
The Machmeter is essentially a combination of an altimeter and airspeed indicator. An

altimeter capsule and an airspeed capsule simultaneously supply inputs to a series of gears and
levers to produce the indicated Mach number.
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The interior of the instrument is in communication with the static source. In this way, the
deformation of the first capsule provides the differential indication between the total pressure
(Pt) and the static pressure (P). The second capsule provides the indication of P.
In order to obtain the value of the flight Mach number, it is necessary to calculate the ratio:
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This value is then transmitted to the pointer of machmeter through a systems of levers. It is
important to know that the measurement of the flight Mach number directly depends on the
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static pressure and thus on the flight altitude. In the case in which the static line is
disconnected in the cabin the Mach meter reading would be lower than the Mach number.
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Since the construction of the Machmeter requires two bellows, the meter is complex, difficult
to calibrate and inaccurate. As a result, the Machmeter is not used in flight test work except as
a reference instrument.
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The Machmeter suffers only from instrument and pressure error. Density error and
temperature errors are self-compensated by the design of the instrument. Instrument and
pressure errors are very small and usually the indicated Mach number can be considered to be
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true Mach number.
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Nowadays, on modern aircraft the electronic machmeters are installed. They use information
given by the Air Data Computer (ADC) and the value of the Mach number is provided to the
pilot on some electronic screen located in the cockpit.
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13.8.7 Altitude reporting and alerting systems
The altitude reporting and alerting systems are airborne systems that have the following
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purposes:
 Provide aural and visual warnings to the crew about the aircraft altitude.
 Alert crew when aircraft are approaching or deviating from the target altitude.
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This system does not act as an auto pilot and does not control the aircraft in any way. It can be
considered as an assistant to the pilot which keeps track of minor details.
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Most of these systems obtains the data from both the barometric altimeter and the radio
altimeters. In modern system the interface is with the Air Data Computer (ADC).
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Fig. 8.18 - Altitude alerting system operation
When the aircraft approaches the selected altitude and is within 900 ft above or below this
altitude, the white ALT advisory lights on the captain’s and first officer’s altimeters illuminate.
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The aircraft is now in the approach mode.

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When the aircraft continues towards the selected altitude and passes through 300 ft, the ALT
advisory lights extinguish. As long as the aircraft flies within 300 ft from the selected altitude,
no further indications are generated.
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If the altitude deviation subsequently exceeds 300 ft, the level B caution aural is sounded, the
amber ALT ALERT lights and the master caution lights illuminate, while the ALTITUDE ALERT
caution message is displayed on the Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) upper
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display unit. The aircraft is now operating in the deviation mode.
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Fig. 8.19 - Alerting system operation

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When the pilot changes the selected altitude or deviates more than 900 ft from the selected
altitude, the caution signals are cancelled and the microprocessor resets to the approach
mode. The caution signals are inhibited in flight, when the landing gear is down and locked.
When the aircraft is on the ground with the parking brake on, the caution signal inhibitors are
removed, so that the altitude alert system can be tested.
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To test the system, slowly rotate the altitude select knob away from the aircraft altitude as
indicated on the altimeter. Rotate the knob to approach aircraft altitude and monitor correct
indications.
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Altitude reporting and alerting systems installation is mandatory to operate in some controlled
and restricted airspace. An Altitude Alerting System capable of alerting flight crew members
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when the aircraft deviates +/- 300 feet from assigned altitude is required. For aircraft that are
Type Certificated after January 1, 1997 the allowable deviation is +/- 200 feet. In addition,
some system are generally required:
 One Automatic Altitude Control System capable of automatically controlling the
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aircraft to a reference pressure altitude within +/- 65 feet under non-turbulent/non-
gust conditions.
 Two independent altitude measurement systems capable of displaying aircraft altitude
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within 80 feet of one from the another.

 One operational SSR altitude reporting Transponder.
 TCAS II, Modification 7 (only within European airspace)
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Modern systems may include also other functions, such as:
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 Decision Height (DH) alert

 Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) alert
 Landing gear reminder function
 Density altitude and basic engine performance calculation
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13.8.8 Air Data Computer ADC
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The Air Data Computer (ADC) is an essential avionic component, which is installed on modern
aircraft. The ADC is mainly constituted by a calculator that takes care of the processing of
many air parameters. Nowadays, the modern ADC uses a microprocessor.
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The ADC receives the sensed parameters of the air data system from the Pitot tube and other
sensors. The ADC receives as inputs both the total and static pressures, which are then
corrected for instrument errors and converted into two digital electrical signals. These signals
are processed with other air data (for example the air temperature) in order to calculate the
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aircraft main parameters such as the CAS (Calibrated Air Speed), the Mach number, the
altitude and the altitude trend data.
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The advantages of the ADC over a traditional system are:

 Better correction of position and compressibility errors.
 Ability to provide information to many instruments at the same time.
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The computed air data parameters are generally transmitted via the configurable ARINC 429
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interface data bus. There are usually two transmitting and two receiving channels available
with which the barometric correction can be carried out.
Modern ADCs meet the required multiple platform for TAWS, ACAS/TCAS, EGPWS or FMS
systems. They also support the Air Data for enhanced safety infrastructure capabilities for
Transponders and an ICAO encoded altitude output is also available in some models.
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The typical ADC power supply is 28 VDC with a low power consumption of less than 10 Watts.
This units have also a low weight optimized for applications in state-of-the-art avionics. The
extensive Built-in-Test guarantees a safe operation.
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Modern ACSs are designed to be modular, which allows easy maintenance for the operator.
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Their features are:

• Solid state pressure sensors embedded.
• Continuous Built-In-Test.
• Presence of BIT Failure memory.
• RS232 Maintenance Interface.
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13.8.9 Gyroscopic principle
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The gyroscope is a rigid body that is put in rotation at high speed. The gyroscope is made of a
rotating disk (the rotor), which due to physical laws of conservation, tends to maintain its
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rotation axis (or spin axis) oriented in a fixed direction.
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Fig. 8.20 - Gyroscope
Any mass rotating around an axis acquires certain properties called gyroscopic proprieties. A
gyroscope can have different degrees of freedom depending on the number of gimbals in
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which it is supported and the way the gimbals are arranged. The action of blocking one or
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more axes of a gyroscope, thus removing one or more degrees of freedom, is performed in
order to exploit the properties of the gyroscope. Such properties are the gyroscopic inertia,
the gyroscopic precession and the gyroscopic wander.
These properties are used in aircraft applications, particularly in the gyroscopic instruments.
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Gyroscopic inertia
The main property of the gyroscope is the gyroscopic inertia. In standstill conditions with the
gyroscope stationary, it is possible to rotate the gyro axis with ease. However, the force
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required to do the same operation will be greater in case the body is in rotation and the
intensity of this force is proportional to the rotation speed. This effect is called gyroscopic
inertia. It indicates the ability of a gyroscope to maintain unchanged the direction of rotation.
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In other words, when the disc is rotating, the rotation axis is continually turned in the initial
direction, no matter in which direction the system is actually turning.
Gyroscopic precession
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If a perpendicular force is applied on an axis of a rotating gyroscope, the disk of the gyroscope
rotates around a third axis perpendicular to the others two, trying to bring the disk spin plane
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parallel to the plane on which the force acted. This propriety is called gyroscopic precession.
For example, considering the X axis as the spin axis of the gyroscope, you can see that if the
gyroscope is perturbed around the Y axis the disk re-acts with a rotation around its Z axis.
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Fig. 8.21 - Gyroscopic precession

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Figure 8.21 shows a practical example of the gyroscopic precession. The above one is a real
gyroscope because it is a mass rotating around an axis. Until it rotates at high velocity, the
rotation axis remains fixed in the space, always perpendicular to the ground. As velocity
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decreases, due to the friction, the top follows a precession motion even more width and the
spin axis tilts even more, until it becomes parallel to the ground.
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Apparent precession
Another type of precession which affects gyroscopes is the apparent precession. This
phenomenon develops as a consequence of the concomitant action of the gyroscopic inertia
and the Earth's rotation, which drags with it the gyroscope.
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Imagine a gyroscope in rotation with its rotation axis parallel to the Earth’s surface. When the
Earth has done a quarter turn, that is after six hours, the axis of the gyroscope is vertical and
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parallel to Earth, but directed in the opposite direction in respect to the initial situation. This
effect is called apparent precession because on the point of view of the observer it is the gyro
to move, as if it suffers a precession process.
In a generic gyroscope the apparent precession can be compensated by moving the center of
gravity in order to have an equal and opposite real precession to oppose the apparent one.
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Since for every change of latitude the apparent precession changes, it is continually necessary
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to change the position of the center of gravity. For gyroscopes with vertical rotation axis, it is
instead possible to use erector mechanisms that maintain the rotation axis perpendicular to
the ground.
Gyroscopic wander
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Another characteristic of the gyroscope is the gyroscopic wander. It is an unwanted precession
of the axis, perpendicular to the rotation one. It is caused by small forces generated internally
to the system, due to the inevitable, albeit minimal, manufacturing imperfections, such as
imbalances of the disk, misalignments, frictions on supports and joints. Generally, the
gyroscopic wander is a constant phenomenon of mild intensity. sw
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13.8.10 Gyroscopic instruments
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The gyroscopic instruments exploit the characteristics and the proprieties of the gyroscope.
According to the instrument the gyroscopes can have 2 or 3 degrees of freedom.
The category of gyroscopic instruments includes:
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 Attitude indicators (such as the artificial horizons).
 Heading indicators (or directional gyro indicators).
 Indicators of turn (such as the turn and slip indicators, turn coordinators).
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Artificial horizon
The artificial horizon, also called the attitude indicator, provides the pilot with a direct and
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immediate visualization of the aircraft attitude, in terms of pitch and roll angles, which the
aircraft assumes during the flight in relation to the real horizon. The artificial horizon is an
instrument based on a gyroscope with 3 degrees of freedom and a vertical spin axis.
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The instrument is a representation of the horizon in agreement with a gyroscope and always
parallel to the terrestrial horizon. In agreement with the box of the instrument there is an
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aircraft shape, which can be put up and down through an appropriate revolving knob.
During a straight level flight or when the aircraft is on ground, the aircraft shape must overlap
the line that represents the horizon. In this way, all attitudes that the aircraft assumes both
around its longitudinal axis (the bank angle) and the transversal one (angle of pitch) can be
displayed.
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Fig. 8.22 - Artificial horizon

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The horizontal representation is standard: the sky is blue, while the ground is brown. Both on
the sky and on the ground some horizontal and oblique lines are drawn. These lines permit to
value the size of the attitude variations.
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The limits not to exceed during the maneuvers, in order to not crash the gyroscope are 110° of
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lateral inclination and 70° of pitch angle. So, when the artificial horizon cannot be blocked the
acrobatic maneuvers must be avoided in order to prevent operational problems of the
instrument.
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Many artificial horizons include a manual caging device, used to erect the rotor to its normal
operating position prior to flight or after tumbling, and a flag to indicate that the gyro must be
uncaged before use. This system is supplied with air coming from a vacuum power system.
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The turning the caging knob prevents rotation of the gimbals and locks the rotor spin axis in its
vertical position. Because the rotor is spinning as long as vacuum power is supplied, normal
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maneuvering with the gyroscope caged wears the bearings unnecessarily. Therefore, the
instrument should be left uncaged in flight unless the limits are to be exceeded.
In the caged position, the gyro is locked with the miniature aircraft showing level flight,
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regardless of the aircraft attitude. When uncaged in flight, in any attitude other than level
flight, the gyro will tend to remain in an unlevel plane of rotation with the erecting mechanism
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attempting to restore the rotor to a horizontal plane. Therefore, should it be necessary to

uncage the gyroscope in flight, the actual aircraft attitude must be identical to the caged
attitude (that is, straight and level), otherwise the instrument will show false indications when
first uncaged.
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Errors in the indications presented on the artificial horizon will result from any factor that
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prevents the vacuum system from operating within the design suction limits or from any force
that disturbs the free rotation of the gyroscope at a designed speed. Some errors are
attributable to manufacturing and maintenance. These include:
 Poorly balanced components
 Clogged filters
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 Improperly adjusted valves
 Pump malfunctioning
Other errors, inherent in the construction of the instrument, are caused by friction and worn
parts. These errors, resulting in erratic precession and failure of the instrument to maintain
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accurate indications, increase with the life of the instrument.
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Another group of errors associated with the design and operating principles of the attitude
indicator are induced during normal operation of the instrument. A skidding turn moves the
pendulous vanes from their vertical position, precessing the gyroscope toward the inside of
the turn. After the return of the aircraft to straight-and-level coordinated flight, the miniature
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aircraft shows a turn in the direction opposite to the skid. During a normal turn, the movement
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of the vanes by centrifugal force causes precession of the gyro toward the inside of the turn.
The great importance of the artificial horizon has stimulated development of improved
electric-driven gyros suited to light plane installation. Improvements are related to basic gyro
design factors, easier readability, erection characteristics, reduction of induced errors, and
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instrument limitations. Electric gyros may be remotely located with the gyroscopic assembly
installed at some convenient location and with the indicator assembly on the instrument panel
driven through a servo motor.
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Turn and slip indicator
The turn and slip indicator is made up of a gyroscope with 2 degrees of freedom. It can rotate
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only around its vertical axis (Z). The rotational axis of the gyroscope (X) is horizontal and it is
parallel to aircraft transversal axis. The movements around the third axis of the gyroscope (Y),
which is parallel to the longitudinal axis, are transmitted to the pointer, called paddle,
vertically located on the instrument quadrant. A gravity slip and skid indicator is a very simple
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instrument that uses both the centripetal and centrifugal forces. It is made up of a metallic
sphere inserted in a curved tube of a diameter bigger than the same sphere.
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Fig. 8.23 - Turn and slip indicator

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When the aircraft perform a yaw movement, the gyroscope is trailed to rotate around its Z
axis, on which the movement is blocked. Thanks to the gyroscopic precession the gyroscope
rotates around its Y axis. The deflection of the paddle is as great as the turn performed.
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For example, when the aircraft turns left, the paddle moves to the left through particular gears
and vice versa.
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The instrument display contains marks where the needle may align during a turn. When the
needle is lined up with these marks, the aircraft is performing a "standard rate turn." The
standard rate for most airplanes is three degrees per second. This means two minutes per 360°
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of turn (a complete circle). This is marked as "2 min. turn" on the display. The standard rate
turn may vary for each individual aircraft; for example, a turn and slip indicator used in a very
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fast aircraft is likely to contain a four minute turn indicator, displayed as "4 min. turn”.
The angular velocity within ±3°/s of aircraft vertical axis corresponds to parameters of the turn
performed at speed of 350 km/h and bank of 45°.
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The purpose of the gravity slip and skid indicator is that of indicating when the aircraft is
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performing a coordinated flight.

When in flight, during the turn, the sphere remains in the centre of the instrument, it means
that the turn is done correctly: the centripetal force balances the centrifugal one. When one of
the two forces is greater than the other one, the sphere moves towards the part of the
predominant force.
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A turn is called “skid” when the centrifugal force is bigger than the centripetal one. In this case,
the sphere moves towards the outside of the turn and it indicates that the value of the bank
angle is too low. On the contrary, a turn is called “slip” when the centripetal force
predominates and so the value of the bank angle is too high. In this case the sphere moves
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towards the inside of the turn.
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On ground, for example during a left turn, the paddle of the turn and bank indicator moves to
the left, while the ball goes to the right.
Turn and slip indicators are usually electrically supplied. The common configuration includes
an Internal 400 Hz AC brushless gyro spin motor with solid-state inverter. The installation of an
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electrical gyroscope, instead of a pneumatic one, allows the instrument to operate at high
altitude without encountering density reduction problems. The instrument is generally
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supplied with 14 VDC or 28 VDC and can include also EMI filter, fail-safe power warning flag
and dual dampening of both gimbal and pointer for a smoother display.
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Directional gyro
The directional gyro or heading indicator is made up of a gyroscope with 3 degrees of freedom
and with a horizontal spin axis. It is employed as heading indicator in short periods of
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maneuver in which the magnetic compass is not reliable.
Modern instruments are made up of a revolving rose in agreement with the gyroscope. In the
middle of the glass that covers the dial an aircraft shape is drawn. This shape remains always
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parallel to the longitudinal axis of the airplane.
Thanks to a set of gears the rotation of the graduated rose is instinctive because it rotates in
the same direction of the turn execution.
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The directional gyro has also a regulation knob used to align the heading of the instrument
with the compass one.
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It is important to remember that the directional gyro moves gradually away from the
indications of the compass, this is due to the apparent precession, the Earth’s rotation and the
construction imperfections. These gaps can reach a maximum of 15° per hour, and must be
manually corrected by the pilot every 15-20 flight minutes. The maximum directional gyro drift
rate is typical 1° degree per minute, with an accuracy of 2°.
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Fig. 8.24 - Directional gyro indicator
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Directional gyro gyroscopes can be electrically or pneumatically supplied, according to the

cockpit installation. Electrical versions are power supplied 26 VDC or 115VAC 400Hz.
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Modern instruments can include also advanced functions and features such as:
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 Flux valve control transformer incorporated to route output from flux valve for
automatic alignment.
 ARINC type synchro transmitters that are mechanically placed for alignment by a
stepper motor.
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 Heading information modules for any standard ARINC Autopilot or Flight Director
System as well as heading cards on Pictorial Navigation Indicators (PNI).
 Radio Frequency Interference (RMI) filter to avoid radio interferences.
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ADI and HSI
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The Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI) provides information concerning the aircraft attitude. It
integrates an artificial horizon, a slip and skid indicator, and a ILS receiver (Instrumental
Landing System), which gives indications about the correct glide path during the landing phase.
Moreover, on the instrument some information concerning the airborne electronic systems
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can be integrated, such as the indicator of the autopilot engagement or the pointer of the
achievement of the decision height.
The ADI is also equipped with some small red flags for failures indication.
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Fig. 8.25 - ADI

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The Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) is an instrument composed of a directional gyro and a
special pointer that receives radio signals coming from radio aids, such as the VOR. This
instrument allows the pilot to know the horizontal attitude situation of the aircraft, concerning
both the heading bearing and the aircraft position compared to the radial of the radio aid. In
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the middle of the dial an aircraft shape is drawn. This shape remains fixed and it is always
orientated in parallel to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
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The instrument includes a magnetic graduated rose, which indicates the magnetic heading
through a reference line. This rose rotates thanks to a synchronism with the flux valve. The
instrument indicates the bearing relative to radio aid selected through a pointer on the dial.
Some HSI can have two digital counters in the upper part of the dial. They respectively indicate
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the distance from the emitting station and the course towards the station. The instrument can
also present two knobs for the selection of the heading and the course to the station. In
addition, some little flags are installed to show potential failures.
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Fig. 8.26 - HSI

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Instrument pneumatic systems

Gyroscopic instruments are very important for the conduct of an instrumental flight and for
this reason their supply is diversified. The rotation of the gyroscopes is realized in an electric or
pneumatic way depending on the instrument to which they belong. Generally, the turn and slip
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indicators are electrically powered, while the directional gyros and the artificial horizons are
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pneumatically supplied by the vacuum system.
The rotors of the gyroscopes activated in a pneumatic way operate as little turbines, which are
put in rotation by an air flow generated by an engine driven vacuum pump. Aircraft flying in
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the lower layers of the atmosphere use low pressure circuits to supply gyroscopic instruments,
while aircraft that fly in the upper layers of the atmosphere uses high pressure circuits.
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In both systems the air is drawn by a dry pump, and it is filtered before being blown in the
rotors of the gyroscopes. The pressure difference between the input air and the output one is
indicated by an appropriate instrument called vacuum gauge. The pressure difference required
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to guarantee a correct operation of the gyroscopes generally ranges between 4.6 and 5.4
inches of mercury. This range of values is represented on the dial of the vacuum gauge with a
green arc.
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It is important to underline that a pneumatic supplied gyro should never be removed while it is
running or spinning down. A gyro normally operates between 20,000 to 24,000 rpm and takes
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10 or more minutes to run down. If a gyro is removed while it is running and if it is tilted more
than 90 degrees, it will develop a gimbal lock. The gimbal will tumble and start to spin. If
gimbal lock occurs while the gyro is turning, the gimbal may spin fast enough to damage the
gimbal bearings.
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The pilot should always check that the vacuum pressure ranges between 4,5 and 6,5 in Hg.
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Some installations have a low vacuum warning light on the instruments panel, which
illuminates when the engine is not running or it is running at a too low RPM for the relief valve
to be able to regulate the suction.
When suction is above 6,5 in Hg the rotor may eventually suffer from damages due to the too
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high rotation speed. In this case, the instruments will react very quickly. Suction values near
the lower limit of the scale (4,5 in Hg) will result in lower gyro RPMs and possible tumbling,
slower response and lagging of the indicators.
When the vacuum pump begins to fail there will be a gradually drop in suction and RPMs of
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the gyros. This may go unnoticed until the rotor rotation gets to slow and indication of either
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the attitude or directional gyro get wrong.
Modern gyroscopes
In modern systems the classic mechanical gyroscopes are replaced by Ring Laser Gyros (RLGs)
or Fiber Optic Gyros (FOGs).
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The RLGs are made of a two laser beams that must run inside a guide in two different
directions. If the gyro is aligned both laser beams spend the same time to run the guide. When
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the gyro is rotated the two times will be different.

In the FOGs an unique laser beam enters in the system. This beam is then divided into two
parts that run in two optical rings. Also in this case, if the gyro is aligned, the two beams
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employ the same time to cover the two rings, instead if the gyro is rotated, the covering times
will be different.
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13.8.11 Compass system
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Magnetic compass
The magnetic compass, also called direct reading compass, is the flight instrument that
provides information concerning the direction of the aircraft exploiting the terrestrial
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magnetism. During the flight the pilot uses the direction information of the directional gyro
indicator but due to the gyroscopic limitations (precession) the compass is employed. The
main purpose is that of checking the magnetic heading and adjusting the directional gyro.
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The Earth generates a magnetic field, as if it contained a big magnetic bar located nearly on
the spin axis. The lines of force of this magnetic field exit from the magnetic South Pole of the
Earth and enter in the North one, but the intensity of the magnetic field is greater at the
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magnetic equator. The magnetic poles of the Earth do not coincide with the geographic poles
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and their position varies in the time, moving slowly. The principle on which the operation of
the compass is based is that of a needle placed inside the Earth’s magnetic field, in parallel to
the lines of force of the same field.
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Fig. 8.27 - Earth’s magnetic field

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The magnetic compass is made of two needles horizontally installed one near the other. These
needles are able to float in the space, so that they can line up along lines of force of the
magnetic Earth’s field.
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The magnetic needles are installed in a mobile structure around which a graduated crown is
installed. It represents the 360° of the horizon.
The mobile structure is mounted on a fixed support. The whole system is hermetically sealed
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in a case filled with transparent kerosene, which has the aim to damp down induced
fluctuations. The front part of the case is closed with a glass at middle of which a reference line
is drawn. Through the glass it is possible to read the angle between the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft and the Nord magnetic direction.
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Fig. 8.28 - Magnetic compass structure
The kerosene-filled enclosure provides a medium to dampen out some vibrations and
unwanted oscillations. A "lubber line" is etched on the glass face of the instrument to enable
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an exact reading of the compass.
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Magnets in the compass align themselves along a Magnetic North-South orientation.

Whenever the aircraft is headed toward magnetic North, the compass will indicate N. If the
aircraft turns from this direction, the magnets in the compass still align to the N-S direction.
The case of the compass and the lubber line is fixed to the aircraft. Thus, when the aircraft
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turns, the case turns around the compass card. The lubber line will then show a reading other
than North.
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The magnetic compass is the most reliable instrument installed on an aircraft. The magnetic
compass operates in every flight condition and without any types of external power. However,
the magnetic compass is subjected to a series of errors, which may also heavily impact on
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information provided by the instrument.
The magnetic compass is subjected to 4 types of main errors:

 Variation error
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 Deviation error
 Magnetic inclination error
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 Acceleration error
The variation error is caused by the fact that the magnetic compass provides indication in
relation to the North magnetic pole, which does not coincide with the North geographic pole.
Due to this difference in position the geographic meridians are not parallel to the magnetic
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ones. In other words, the geographic meridians are not parallel to the lines of force of the
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Earth’s magnetic field. The magnetic variation is the angle between the magnetic meridian and
the geographic meridian in a given point of the Earth’s surface.
Moreover, the position of the North magnetic pole is not constant and so the magnetic
variation changes during the years. In every aeronautical chart there is the indication of the
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annual rate of change of magnetic variation to be added or subtracted in order to obtain the
correct value according to the actual date. The annual rate of change is not constant; for this
reason, aeronautical charts are updated periodically to correct for this yearly change. The line
with zero degree variation is called “Agonic line”.
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To obtain the real direction it is necessary to correct the value read on the compass with the
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value of the magnetic variation of the place where the flight take place. When plotting a
course on an aeronautical chart the heading is measured against latitude and longitude lines.
This is called a True Course (TC) because it is being measured relative to the True North Pole.
Since the pilot relies on the magnetic compass for direction, during the flight he will steer the
aircraft in relation to the Magnetic North Pole. Therefore, the pilot must convert the True
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Course (TC) as plotted on the navigation chart in to a Magnetic Course (MC) by which to steer
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using the compass.
The values of the magnetic variation can be easily deduced from the navigational charts.
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Fig. 8.29 - Magnetic variation
Also the magnetic inclination error mainly occurs when the magnetic compass is close to the
magnetic poles. The lines of forces of the Earth’s magnetic field can be considered horizontal
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to the ground only at the magnetic equator because they gradually tilt until they become
vertical at the poles: on the magnet of the compass acts a vertical component together with a
horizontal component that orientates it towards the North magnetic pole. In level flight
conditions, the support of the compass prevents it from moving. During a turn instead, this
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vertical component can incline downward the needle of the compass, thus causing an
incorrect reading. In particular, flying towards the North the inclination increases until it
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reaches 90° (the needle is perpendicular to the ground). When flying towards the South, the
inclination decreases until it becomes null in correspondence of the magnetic Equator (the
needle is parallel to the ground).
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Fig. 8.30 - Magnetic inclination
The deviation error is caused by the presence of ferrous parts and electromagnetic equipment
that can divert the flow lines of the Earth’s magnetic field. This error can be compensated
thought some compensator magnets. These magnets are moved acting on the compensator
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screws positioned on the front part of the system.
The deviation error that remains after the compensation procedure is called residual deviation.
These residual errors, which can be not compensated by the magnets, are typically written on
a small table placed near the compass as a value to add or subtract from the indication read on
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the instrument. It is important to remember that the values of residual deviation should not
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exceed 3°.
To determine compass deviation, a test called “compass swing” is performed. The aircraft is
parked on a compass rose painted on a level surface, such as a ramp or taxiway in dedicated
areas of airports away from ferrous materials. All the electronic equipment are powered on as
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in normal operation. The nose of the aircraft is placed in correspondence of the Magnetic
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North marking on the ground and deviation in the compass reading is recorded. Then, the
aircraft is turned in increments of 30 degrees through the 360 degrees and deviation from the
proper reading is noted. These errors are posted on the deviation card placed at the lower
portion of the compass.
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The acceleration error is a phenomenon similar to the magnetic inclination. It occurs when
sudden accelerations and decelerations happen especially in the case of East-West aircraft
headings. In these cases, if the aircraft accelerates the compass will indicates a North turn and
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conversely the instrument will indicates a South turn, if the aircraft is decelerated.
The acceleration error also happens in case of angular accelerations. For example, when the
aircraft is flying towards the North and it turns right, initially the compass rotates in the
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opposite direction and then it follows the turn realigning itself with the correct direction only
when the aircraft is straightened. Instead, if the aircraft flies towards the South the effect is
the opposite: at first the compass indicates a turn bigger than the real one and then it returns
back, when the aircraft is straightened.
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These errors are caused by the inclination of the magnets of the instrument: it is maximum
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when on an East or West heading and gradually diminishes to reach zero when a North or
South heading is reached. Acceleration of the aircraft causes the compass to erroneously swing
to the North. Deceleration causes an erroneous rotation toward the South.
By maintaining a North heading the compass does not present errors when the aircraft is
accelerated or decelerated.
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Gyrocompass
Another instrument that provides the aircraft heading is the gyrocompass. This instrument
uses electrical devices called flux valves to sense the Earth's magnetic field. The gyrocompass
system also includes a stabilizing gyroscope that stabilizes the data read by the flux valve and
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by an indicator in the cockpit, which is similar to the directional gyro and gives heading
information to the pilot.
A flux valve consists of a circular nucleus of ferrous material divided into three sections of
equal size and shape on which wires are wound to form excitation coils.
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The Alternating Current (AC) usually with a voltage of 26 V, 400 Hz is supplied to the coils. The
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current generates a magnetic field that combines with the flux lines of the Earth's magnetic
field.
When the coils are de-energized the force lines of the Earth's magnetic field converge to the
circular nucleus.
When the coils are energized, a magnetic field generates inside the flux valve that opposes the
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Earth's field and the lines of force are forced to pass outside the ferrous nucleus. By measuring
the electrical signal and making the algebraic sum of each value of the three sections you get
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an angle that is the aircraft heading.

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To give an accurate output the flux valve is attached to a pendulum suspended in a liquid that
dampens its oscillations. The valve is installed as far as possible from sources of
electromagnetic disturbance, usually in the aircraft wings or tail.
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It requires compensation at regular intervals. A directional gyroscope with 2 degrees of
freedom generally stabilizes the output signal, which is then amplified and fed to the
graduated card of a radio-magnetic indicator installed in the cockpit.
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The gyrocompass type heading indicators that use a flux valve offer some advantages with
respect to the conventional magnetic compasses:
 They provide stable indications during accelerations since they have no turn errors.
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 They are less sensitive to changes in magnetic declination.
 They operate also at high latitudes, where the conventional compasses give erratic
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indications.
These instruments require a lot of maintenance, are sensitive to changes in power supply
voltage and are still expensive. For the latter reason, gyrocompasses are rarely used in low
performance aircraft.
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In modern installations the gyrocompass flux valve is not installed: the alignment data are fed
by Attitude Heading and Reference Systems (AHRS) to the glass cockpit symbol generator.
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13.8.12 GPWS
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The Terrain Awareness and Warning System (TAWS) aim is that of preventing that the aircraft,
under pilot control, is unintentionally conducted close to ground, water, mountains or any
other obstacles.
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The TAWS system works using digital data of height and some instrumental data, in order to
predict if a future position of the aircraft intersects with the ground. The flight crew is thus
informed in advance with aural and visual warnings.
The systems currently in use are known as Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) and
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Enhanced GPWS (EGPWS).
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Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

The GPWS is an instrument present on most modern civil airplanes. It controls the distance
from ground, water or any other obstacle below the aircraft (for example bridges or cables),
considering the descent rate and the aircraft configuration.
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When the aircraft flies over obstacles at low altitude, the GPWS produces pre-recorded vocal
messages in the cockpit, in order to inform the pilot of the imminent danger. The GPWS
operates in a height range between 50 and 2500 ft and it can be also coupled with the auto-
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land system.
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Fig. 8.31 - GPWS

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The GPWS can operate in different modes, which can be selected by the control panel of the
system installed in the cockpit. The most used modes are the following:
 Mode 1: excessive Descent Rate. It provides 'Sink rate!' and 'Pull up!' alerts based on
descent rate at low radio altitudes (below 2500 ft).
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 Mode 2: excessive Terrain Closure Rate. It provides 'Pull up!' and 'Terrain!' call-outs
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around rising terrain.

 Mode 3: altitude (height) Loss After Take-Off or Go Around. It provides alerts against
altitude loss after take-off (or a go-around). Losing altitude triggers a 'Don't sink!' alert.
 Mode 4: unsafe Terrain Clearance during High Speed Flight or While Not in the Landing
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Configuration. It provides alerts against insufficient clearance, based upon the aircraft
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configuration and flight phase (takeoff, cruise, approach) and independent of terrain
closure rate (for example situations that modes 1 and 2 would not alert). Alerts include
'Too low - terrain!', 'Too low - gear!' and 'Too low - flaps!'. This mode also protects
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against a gear-up landing or approach without flaps in the landing configuration.
 Mode 5: Below Glideslope Deviation Alert. It provides 'Glideslope!' alerts when
deviating below a glideslope path.
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 Mode 6: Altitude call-outs and bank angle alert (advisory call-outs). It provides call-
outs based on the specified decision-height and radio altitude. This mode includes a
'Minimums' alert based upon the decision-height and call-outs while descending
through various radio altitudes (1000', 500', 200', 100', 50', 40', 30', 20' and 10'). It also
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provides a 'Bank angle' alert based upon excessive aircraft roll.
 Mode 7: Windshear alert: it is implemented only in most modern systems (EGPWS).
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The main vocal messages emitted by the system according to the selected operative mode are:
 Pull up: excessively low altitude.
 Terrain: excessively ground proximity.
 Glideslope: during the approach phase, before the landing, the aircraft is descending
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under the optimal trajectory calculated by the ILS.
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 Too low: excessively low speed and risk of imminent stall.

 Too low flap: the aircraft is in landing without flaps being correctly extended
 Bank angle: excessive bank angle.
 Do not sink: excessively low altitude after the take-off.
 Wind shear: wind shear danger.
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 Landing gear: landing gears are not extracted during the landing phase.
Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning Systems (EGPWS)

The EGPWS is a more advanced system introduced in 1996. The EGPWS is designed to
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complement the functions of the GPWS and provide warnings during situations in which the
GPWS is not able to operate.
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The EGPWS uses aircraft inputs (such as current position, attitude, air speed and glideslope
signals), internal terrain, obstacles and airport databases to predict a potential conflict
between the aircraft flight path and terrain or obstacles.
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The EGPWS offers two major functions:
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 The look-ahead terrain analysis with alert generation.

 The terrain visualization.
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These enhanced functions can also be divided in two main modes:
 The Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF)
 The Terrain Alerting and Display (TAD).
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The TCF function operates when the aircraft enters a protective envelope around the airport
instead the TAD function operates when the flying aircraft enters a protective envelope
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surrounding it. These functions can also imply sub-modes dedicated to specific situations (for
example, when the aircraft is on ground). The warning generated by this function is quite
different from the GPWS ones and varies according to different manufactures.
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The EGPWS is combined with a worldwide digital terrain database and relies also on Global
Positioning System (GPS) technology.
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The airborne computers compare the aircraft current location with the Earth’s terrain
information stored in the database.
The system essentially monitors the aircraft tridimensional position and provides a map-type
display of the surrounding terrain.
The system achieves these objectives by accepting a variety of aircraft parameters as inputs
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and applying specific algorithms. The surrounding terrain can be viewed in relation to the
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aircraft position, providing strategic terrain information up to 30 minutes before a potential

terrain conflict.
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Fig. 8.32 - EGPWS

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In order to obtain better performances, it is recommended to update EGPWS terrain database
at least twice a year.
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The EGPWS computer receives the following data from aircraft systems:
 Radio height
 Air pressure altitude
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 Decision height
 Airspeed and vertical speed
 Attitude information
 Vertical and longitudinal acceleration rate
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 ILS glide path deviation
 Flap position
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 Landing gear configuration

 Geographical position trough FMS, VOR, GPS and DME signals
 Selected route
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In modern installation EGPWS is embedded in a dedicated board of the Modular Avionics Unit
(MAU). These installations imply the use of two modules for redundancy reason. The terrain
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database is also stored on these modules.

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13.8.13 EFIS and glass cockpit
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The Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) identifies the set of devices and electronic
displays intended to represent with graphic symbols the flight and navigation information.
Thanks to this system, in the cockpit, the classic mechanic and analog navigation instruments
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are replaced by a series of CRT or LCD monitors displaying in a tidy way all the needed
information.
However some of classic instruments remain in the cockpit as backup.
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The aircraft cockpit equipped with the EFIS technology is called glass cockpit, name derived by
the great presence of displays.
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Glass cockpit technology provides the pilot with a highly reliable, clear and sunlight-readable
display system. General features of glass cockpit architectures are the followings:
 High-speed display update rate for anti-aliasing and image clarity.
 Self-contained and highly integrated display units designed to be interfaced to either
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digital or analog aircraft avionics suites.
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 Sunlight readability and brightness adjustment with master and individual dimmers. In
some installation it is possible to find auto-sensing adjustment for sunlight splash.
 Standard aircraft power supply required, either 28 VDC or 115 VAC 400Hz, with
EMI/RFI protection.
 Extensive built-in-test for automatic reversion and quick maintenance.
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 Fully reversionary and readable interface, adaptable to either analog (Syncro Aircraft
configurations) or digital (ARINC 429) configurations.
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Fig. 8.33 - EFIS
A typical EFIS system consists of:

 Electronic displays
 Control panels
 Elaboration units.
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EFIS displays
EFIS displays are designed to directly replace the current electromechanical HSI/ADI without
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aircraft wiring changes. In modern installation the LCD EFIS also replaces the low-reliability CRT
EFIS with minimal aircraft wiring changes reducing weight, increasing reliability and sunlight
readability.
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The electronic displays of EFIS can be split in two categories according to the information
provided:
 EADI (Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator) or PFD (Primary Flight Display), which
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provides attitude information
 EHSI (Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator) or ND (Navigation Display), which
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displays typical information concerning navigation and flight planning.
In some applications the EADI and the EHSI displays can be integrated in a single monitor. In
this case the display is called MFD (Multi-Function Display).
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EADI indicator is the electronic equivalent of ADI.
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EADI reproduces information about attitude associated to navigation information. It has a

single display mode in which the graphic indication of an artificial horizontal predominates: the
sky is represented in blue and the ground in brown.
Usually in the left side of the display we have the speed indication, while on the right side
there are altitude and vertical speed indications. Two bars are integrated into the instrument:
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a horizontal bar and vertical one; they are associated to LOC GS and ILS indications. In the
upper part we generally find an annunciator panel where additional information are displayed.
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Fig. 8.34 - EADI

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EHSI reproduces information regarding the navigation. It is the electronic display of a HSI. EHSI
provides navigation information concerning VOR, DME, ADF- NDB and ILS radio aids, flight
planning info, electronic maps and, if present on board, weather radar information. Unlike
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EADI, different screens are available, each of them connected to a particular information
display. Display modes generally available in EHSI are:
 ILS mode: it permits to display the downhill path during a radio-assisted precision
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approaching, helping in this way the pilot with the correct execution of the procedure.
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Fig. 8.35 - EHSI: ILS mode

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 PLAN mode: it is generally employed in the pre-flight phase when the pilot is planning the
flight. The representation is similar to a map oriented to the North.
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Fig. 8.36 - EHSI: PLAN mode

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 MAP mode: it is used in the cruising phase where the pilot needs an immediate vision of
the aircraft position compared to the active route selected by the navigation systems on
board.
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Fig. 8.37 - EHSI: MAP mode

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 ARC mode: it permits to display a semi-circular view, instead of the classic circular one.
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Fig. 8.38 - EHSI: ARC mode

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 VOR mode: it permits to display multiple VOR DME information on a common screen.
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Fig. 8.39 - EHSI: VOR mode

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 In addition to these displays, it is sometimes possible to integrate screen information
concerning weather radar.
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Fig. 8.40 - EHSI: weather radar
In EHSI are usually embedded also TCAS information in standard ARINC 735 display format,
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resolution advisory in a vertical speed fly-to-green format.
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Radio altimeter functions such as decision height, expanded scale for landing helicopter
operations, all in addition to the standard ADI, HSI, bearing pointers, course deviation,
autopilot annunciation, flight director cross bars or V bars and warning and caution flags.
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Additional modes can be also implemented in EFIS system depending on manufacturer and
customer option.
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EFIS controls
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EFIS system controls are generally located near the display. Through them it is possible to
select the display mode of EHSI as well as vary the brightness and contrast of each system.
Pilot and co-pilot have generally different controls at their disposal. Moreover, additional
information such as altimeter regulation or radar selection can be inserted in the system
through the control panel.
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In case of damage it is possible to operate a display displacement to exclude the non-working
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monitor and still have all information available.
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13.8.14 Instrument warning systems
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Classic system
In order to allow the pilot to control the parameters of various airborne equipment and
systems, a warning system is installed on aircraft. This system is commonly identified by the
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acronym CAS (Crew Alerting System) and has the task of displaying all information about the
operating status of the different systems on aircraft and of identifying any possible failure.
The CAS equipment includes some speakers and some cockpit annunciator panels, consisting
of warning lights, which switch on with different colors depending on the type of information
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to display. Each light is connected to a particular subsystem of the aircraft. The colors used to
illuminate these lights adhere to a standard color code:
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 Red indicates warning. This color identifies particularly dangerous operating

conditions, which require an immediate corrective action.
 Yellow or amber indicates caution. This color identifies operating conditions that are
fairly dangerous and require a corrective action by the pilot.
 Green indicates advisory. This color identifies the warning messages reminding the
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pilot of a particular operating condition, which does not require any corrective action.
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Warning panels groups all the warning lights related to failures or anomalies of the aircraft
systems and are generally installed on the central instrument panel. On the warning panel
some switches are typically installed to provide brightness adjustment. Usually, a dedicated
button enable to test the warning panel lights, the indicators lights and other light signs.
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There are also two main lights called Master Caution Light and Master Warning Light. They are
installed in the cockpit so to be easily visible by the pilot. Whenever at least one light of the
annunciator panels is red, the Master Warning Light illuminates with red color. In the same
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way, whenever at least one light of the annunciator panels is yellow, the Master Caution Light
illuminates with yellow color. These two lights, when activated, produce an acoustic warning
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too, in order to quickly draw the attention of the pilot. The pilot can clear these luminous and
audible alerts by pressing a particular switch, installed close to the two lights or directly on
them.
The master warning aural tone is a voice warning or a 770 Hz permanent gong, while the
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master caution is generally a voice alert. On some aircraft, it is also possible to have an
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inhibition of master warning switch and light together with an associated permanent gong, if
the engines are not running.
The warning system controls and activates any visual and/or aural alert concerning the
different flight aspects, such as:
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 Fire
 Failure of the pressurization systems
 Autopilot disconnect
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 Ground Proximity
 Overspeed
 Unscheduled Stabilizer movement
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 Windshear
 Takeoff Configuration
 Landing Configuration
 Stall
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Modern systems
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On modern aircraft with glass cockpit, the CAS is integrated in the airborne avionics. These
alerting integrated systems are typically called EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting
System) and ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor), according to the different
manufacturers and their functionalities.
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The EICAS system is an integrated system that provides the crew with information and
warnings about state and failures of aircraft engines and other airborne systems. The ECAM
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system instead, a part from performing the same tasks of an EICAS device, produces detailed
messages about failures and additionally, it may list procedures to be undertaken in order to
correct the problem.
All information and warnings generated by these systems are shown to the crew through the
displays of the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS). However, in modern glass cockpits
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the master light and the master caution light still remain installed.
The EICAS and ECAM systems use a color code, identical to the CAS one. The provided
information is classified according to its importance, ranging from level A to level C. In the
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event of simultaneous failures, the most critical failure is displayed first.
The hierarchy of warnings is as follows:
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 Failures of level A are represented with red color (warning). An example is the
condition of engine on fire.
 Failures of level B are represented with yellow (or amber) color (caution). As in case of
an instrument failure.
 Advisories of level C are represented in green. Among the level C advisories there is for
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example the signal of air conditioning in function.
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On EICAS and ECAM screens other colors are used:

 The cyan color is used to indicate the data selected by the crew.
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 The white color is used to indicate the standby mode of the systems and all displayed
scales and figures.
 The magenta color is use to display all data related to the aircraft route and flight plan.
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 The grey color is used to represent legends and symbols.
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Fig. 8.41 - EICAM

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In modern avionics, centralized warning panels are embedded in displays in the central part of
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the glass cockpit. Each warning lamp is replaced with a textual string shown on the screen.
However, the master warning and master caution switches are installed over the main screen
and are not replaced with display functions for safety reasons.
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13.8.15 FDR and CVR
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Some recording devices are installed on aircraft with the aim of collecting data related to
accidents in order to prevent them to happen again.
After an aircraft incident or accident investigators have the main task of identifying the causes;
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to do this, they study the flight and analyze all different aircraft parameters. The recording
devices facilitate the recovering of flight information and are classified in:
 FDR (Flight Data Recorder)
 CVR (Cockpit Voice Recorder)
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The FDR is designed to record features of all aircraft systems, while the CVR records all vocal
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communications in the cockpit. These devices are also commonly called black boxes. The
exterior of the FDR and CVR is coated with heat-resistant bright orange paint, in order to
improve its visibility among wreckage.
Due to their importance in investigating accidents, these devices are carefully engineered and
constructed in order to withstand the force of a high-speed impact and the heat of an intense
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fire. These units are generally installed in the aircraft empennage, where it is more likely that
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they survive after a crash.

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Fig. 8.42 - Circuits of aircraft recording devices

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FDR
In accordance with EU-OPS 1, a commercial transport airplane must carry a FDR, which digitally
records and stores flight data. It is painted in orange to ensure high-visibility.
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Fig. 8.43 - FDR
The parameters to be recorded vary according to the maximum certificated take-off mass and
to the age of the aircraft. All parameters must be recorded with a common reference time
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scale. Data must be obtained from various airplane sources, having accurate correlation with
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information displayed to the flight crew. Generally, each parameter is recorded a few times
per second, in order to guarantee a continuous flow of information.
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Modern FDRs continuously record and retain data for a minimum of 25 hours. If the electrical
power is removed, record data is retained for a minimum of two years.
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The FDR receives digitalized aircraft operational parameter data from data concentrators or
directly from the MAU. Data are stored in solid-state memory.
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The FDR has an impact switch, which activates upon the impact and removes power from the
FDR. The activation of impact switch also generates a light, which remains active until the
impact switch is reset.
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An Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB) is attached to FDR. This device, once activated by the
water contact, transmits a traceable acoustic signal to contribute to the localization of the
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aircraft. The ULB is supplied to a self-contained battery.
FDR installation has an embedded maintenance ground override switch that inhibits recording
during maintenance operations.
CVR
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In accordance with EU-OPS 1, a commercial transport aircraft must carry a CVR able to record
4 channels of audio data:
 All radio voice communications transmitted from or received by the flight crew
members.
 The audio environment of the cockpit, including the cockpit conversation, without
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interruptions.
 Voice communications, occurring through the airplane interphone system between the
cockpit and the cabin.
 All voice signals or other audio signals related to the identification of navigation or
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Fig. 8.44 - CVR
The CVR has a solid-state voice recorder unit that continuously accept data from the 4 audio
channels. The CVR retains audio data that may be extracted in digital form from the unit via
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external connection; these data can be easily converted back into analogue audible format to
proceed with the analysis. The presence of a solid-state memory results in high reliability, since
there are no moving parts in the storage system.
The four audio sources are:

 The pilot microphone
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 The copilot microphone

 The observer microphone
 The remote mounted flight deck area microphone
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All signals are routed in a voice recorder control unit, where they are amplified before being
routed to the CVR, located in the aircraft tail. The crew can erase the CVR unit recording. This
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function usually requires the aircraft to be on the ground in a weight-on wheels state with the
main cabin door open.
As in case of FDR, also CVR has an Underwater Locator Beacon (ULB) for underwater
localization.
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13.8.16 Stall warning systems and angle of attack indicating systems
On aircraft there are two systems that play an important role for the safety flight conduct:
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 The indicator of the Angle of Attack.
 The stall warning system.
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The indicator of the Angle of Attack (AOA) is a pressure differential instrument that integrates
the airspeed and the angle of attack into an instantaneous and continuous readout. An AOA
indicator provides a visual display of the amount of lift available during a deceleration at low
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speed. This indicator is immediately responsive to changes in speed, in angle of attack and in
wind conditions, and it automatically compensates the aircraft weight, the altitude, and the
temperature.
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The stall warning system is an electronic or mechanical device, which produces an audible
warning when the aircraft is approaching the stalling speed. The majority of aircraft contain
some form of this device warning the pilot of an impending stall. The simplest stall warning
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system is a stall warning horn, which consists of either a pressure sensor or a movable metal
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tab that actuates a switch and produces an audible warning in response.
In some modern architecture, the stall warning system is called “stall barrier” and is
implemented in modular avionic. In this case, the stall warning signal is computed by the Fly-
By-Wire system, which acts on the flight envelope in order to avoid the stall condition.
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Artificial stall barrier systems must be in compliance with the following general requirements:
 With the system adjusted for operation, the plus and minus airspeeds at which
downward pitching control will be provided must be established.
 Taking into account the plus and minus airspeed tolerance, an airspeed must be
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selected for the activation of the downward pitching control that provides a safe
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margin above any airspeed at which any unsatisfactory stall characteristic occurs.
 In addition to the stall warning, a warning clearly distinguishable by the pilot under all
expected flight conditions must be provided for faults that would prevent the system
from providing the required pitching motion.
 Each system must be designed so that the artificial stall barrier can be quickly and
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efficiently disengaged by pilots to prevent unwanted downward pitching of the
airplane by activating a quick release (emergency) control.
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 A preflight check of the whole system must be established and the procedure for this
check made available in the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM). Preflight checks that are
critical for the safety of the airplane must be included in the limitations section of the
AFM.
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 For those airplanes whose design includes an autopilot system:
o A quick release (emergency) control may be used to meet the requirements of
paragraph (d), of this section.
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o The pitch servo may be used to provide the stall downward pitching motion.
 The system must be evaluated to determine the effect that any announced or
unannounced failure may have on the flight and landing of the airplane or on the
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ability of the crew to cope with any adverse condition that may result from such
failures. This evaluation must consider the hazards that would result from airplane
flight characteristics.
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13.8.17 Fuel quantity indicating system
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The fuel quantity measuring system provides an indication of the total quantity of fuel on
board available for the flight and of the quantity of fuel in each tank. In aeronautical
applications the fuel level in a tank can be measured by using a float switch, a capacitance
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probe or an ultra-sound system.
Float-type indicator
The float-type indicator measures the quantity of fuel contained in the tank using the
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mechanical displacement of a probe, installed inside the tank and floating on the fuel surface.
The probe consists of a cylindrical or spherical float, which is usually made of cork and suitably
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treated to prevent it from becoming soaked with fuel. The probe is enclosed in a sealed metal
casing.
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Fig. 8.45 - Float type indicator
The probe body is connected to a moving arm, in turn hinged to the module that measures the
float angular displacement, usually consisting of an electrical potentiometer. The
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potentiometer is connected to a coil instrument made of a rotating magnet firmly connected
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to the instrument pointer and a pair of windings, forming the measuring coils.
The electrical power that flows in coil A is constant, while the power flowing in coil B depends
on the position of the linkage of the float installed inside the tank.
The float position changes as a function of the fuel quantity in the tank, hence the angular
position of the arm attached to the potentiometer changes correspondingly. The change
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causes an imbalance in the electromagnetic field generated by the two coils and applies an
electromotive force to the rotor, which causes its rotation. The movement of the magnet and
the consequent movement of the pointer are shown on the instrument dial.
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The float-type indicators are simple and cheap, but they are affected by different kinds of
problems. One of these concerns the decrease in indicator accuracy upon time accrual. This is
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due to the increase in friction between the moving parts. The increasing wear of the parts and
dirt deposits in the joints cause the friction. Another problem that may arise is related to
attitude changes and in particular to sharp maneuvers, during which the probe does not
operate correctly and gives erratic indications of the quantity of fuel contained in the tank.
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Float-type indication systems are usually installed on general-aviation aircraft, and are
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supplied with 24 or 28 VDC according to the installation. This system has a tolerance of 3% of
full scale. This applies to the whole system, end-to-end, including the sensor in the tank as well
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Capacitance probe
Another fuel measuring and indicating system uses a capacitance probe. In this case, the fuel
level is obtained by measuring the change in electrical capacitance of the capacitor. The
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capacitance probe included in the system consists of a capacitor made of two concentric metal
cylinders acting as armatures.
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Fig. 8.46 - Capacitance probe

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The air or the fuel in the tank can fill the empty space between the two cylinders. The amount
of fuel and air inside the tank establishes the final value of the dielectric between the two
armatures. If the tank is empty, the capacitor dielectric is the air. When the fuel is poured into
the tank and until the tank is full, the dielectric becomes a proportion of fuel and air. When the
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tank is full, the capacitance probe is completely immersed and therefore the dielectric consists
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of fuel only. The capacitance of the capacitor depends on the dielectric value existing between
its two armatures. An increase in fuel level means an increase in capacitance. The changes in
capacitance permit the measurement of the quantity of fuel in a tank.
The capacitance measurement system avoids the problems related to attitude changes.
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Usually, in these systems, two or more capacitance probes are used to compensate for the
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errors resulting from different aircraft attitudes. In some cases, in fact, if the tank is inclined,
the use of one probe only may result in an incorrect indication. If several probes are used, the
average value of probe capacitance remains the same and is not affected by changes in aircraft
attitude.
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The capacitance measurement system is more accurate than float-system (close to 2% on full
scale) with an improved response time (less than 1000 ms). The capacitive probes need a
calibration before installation, this is performed through dedicate capacitance test sets. These
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tests allow the user to better troubleshoot and isolate fuel system problems.
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Ultra-sound system
Another type of fuel quantity indicator, employed in more recent applications, measures the
fuel level in the tank registering the emission and reception of sound energy by an ultra-sound
sensor, installed in the bottom of the tank.
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Fig. 8.47 - Ultra-sound system

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The energy pulse is transmitted upward, toward the fuel surface at the top of the fuel column
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or where the fuel level is at its highest point. When the pulse reaches the fuel-to-air interface,
it is reflected downward, toward the sensor. The distance between the sensor (or the tank
bottom) and the fuel surface is calculated by multiplying the propagation speed of the sound
pulse by the time elapsed between the pulse transmission and the reception of the return
echo. If the type of fuel, the tank geometry and the height of the fuel column are known, it is
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possible to obtain the quantity of fuel contained in the tank.
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The ultrasonic measurement system has an accuracy comparable with the capacitance probe
one (close to 2% on full scale). Data from sensor to calculators are generally routed through RJ-
45 cables. Power supply of this system is generally 28 VDC and comes from wing or fuselage
DC buses.
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13.8.18 Temperature indicating system
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It is necessary to measure several temperatures on board, such as the temperature of fuel,
exhaust gases, lubrication oils, hydraulic fluids or just the outside air temperature. The
temperature data are then sent to other aircraft control systems or indicators that have
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pointers. The systems and methods employed depend on the type of fluid whose temperature
must be taken.
The thermometers are devices able to measure the temperature. Most thermometers
measure one of the physical properties of a material, which changes when the temperature
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changes. For example, they can use the thermal expansion of a metal, the change in the
electrical resistance in a wire or the electromotive force that is generated when two different
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metals are put in contact. The temperature can also be measured by using radiation probes
that sense the heat radiated from a body.
Bimetal thermometer
One of the simplest thermometer measures the thermal expansion, provoked by changes in
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temperature, by employing an element consisting of two different metals. This thermometer is
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called bimetal thermometer and is used in particular to measure the temperature of the
outside air. The bimetal element consists of two strips of different metals joined along their
longitudinal axis. One of the most commonly used metals is Invar, which is a nickel and steel
alloy. Invar is used because it has a negligible thermal expansion coefficient. The other strip
can be made of brass or steel, since both metals have a high thermal expansion coefficient. As
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a result, when the bimetal strip is exposed to a high temperature, the brass or steel half will
expand more than the Invar half, and this will cause the strip to bend downward. The opposite
happens when the temperature becomes lower. In this last case, the brass or steel strip will
become shorter than the Invar one, and the bimetal strip will bend upward.
The bimetal strip has the shape of a spiral with one end attached to the instrument body and
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the other one to the instrument moving pointer. In this case, a temperature change causes the
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spiral to become longer or shorter. This variation in length produces a rotation of the pointer
in one direction, when the temperature increases and in the opposite direction, when the
temperature decreases. The pointer position on a scale graduated in Celsius or Fahrenheit
degrees gives the temperature reading.
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Fig. 8.48 - Bimetal thermometer
Platinum resistor thermometer

The platinum resistor thermometer exploits the principle according to which energy
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dissipation in a conducting material carrying electrical power changes as temperature changes:
this causes a change in electrical resistance.
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In this thermometer the conducting material is the platinum, in fact the electrical resistance of
the platinum has a fairly linear characteristic and the platinum has a positive temperature
coefficient. This means that a temperature increase causes a proportional increase in
resistance.
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The relationship between temperature and resistance is approximately linear over a small
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temperature range: for example, assuming that it is linear over the 0 to 100 °C range, the error
at 50 °C is 0.4 °C. For an accurate measurement, it is necessary to linearize the resistance.
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The most common type of platinum resistor thermometer has a resistance of 100 Ohms at 0 °C
and 138.4 Ohms at 100 °C. There are also sensors that have a resistance of 1000 Ohms at 0 °C.
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The platinum resistor thermometer uses a probe located in the fuselage forward section, close
to the cockpit. The airflow surrounding the aircraft enters into the probe and it is then
conveyed over a platinum resistor. The measurement of the difference in resistance allows to
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calculate the temperature. The temperature value is then shown to the pilot through a digital
or analog indicator.
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Fig. 8.49 - Platinum resistor thermometer
This type of thermometer is usually installed on aircraft flying at a speed higher than 0.2 Mach,
in which the indication of the Static Air Temperature (SAT) is directly obtained from the Ram
Air Temperature (RAT). Moreover, it is important to remember that the external temperature
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sensors are also fitted with an anti-ice system that prevents ice accretion on the probes by
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heating their exterior casing.
Platinum resistor thermometers offer excellent accuracy over a wide temperature range (from
-200°C to +850 °C). Standard sensors are available from many manufacturers with various
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accuracy specifications and numerous packaging options to suit different applications. It is not
necessary to use special cables to connect to the sensor.
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Bulb thermometer
Another device employing the change in electrical resistance as a function of temperature is
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the bulb thermometer. It is generally used to measure the operating temperature of fluids
inside engines.
In these devices the probe consists of a container that encloses an electrical filament, which is
placed inside the fluid whose temperature must be taken. The electrical resistance of the
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filament changes according to the fluid temperature. The filament is usually made of nickel or
platinum, and wound on a support of insulating material that has the shape of a cylinder. As
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said, this is enclosed in a sealed container made of brass or steel and filled with an inert gas,
which makes the transfer of heat from the outside environment to the filament easier.
The selection of the filament material (nickel or platinum) depends on the maximum operating
temperature envisaged for the thermometer. Nickel is generally used for temperatures up to
300° C, while platinum is suitable for a maximum temperature of 600° C.
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Radiation thermometer
The most advanced temperature measurement devices are radiation thermometers, which
measure the temperature of a body without contact. The radiation thermometers give
accurate temperature measurements, without any contact with the radiation emitting body
and are therefore very useful to measure temperature in dangerous areas and in all cases in
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which direct contact is impossible.
An example of the use of these thermometers is related to the measurement of the engine
turbines internal temperature. These instruments use a sensing probe placed near the turbine
blades, which senses the emitted thermal energy. The energy strength depends on the
emitting body temperature, and consequently, it is used to calculate the body temperature.
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Thermocouples
The thermocouples are temperature measuring probes, made of two dissimilar metal
conductors that produce an electromotive force related to temperature.
To understand the thermocouple operation, you can think of a circuit made of two dissimilar
metal wires, joined at both ends. When the two ends are at a different temperature (T1 and
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T2), a current generated by an electromotive force flows in the circuit, its strength is in direct
proportion to the difference in temperature between the two junctions.
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The two junctions are called cold junction and hot junction depending on their temperature. If
the ends of a thermocouple are connected to an external load, the current will flow to the
load. In this way, by using an instrument with a coil, it is possible to move the instrument
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pointer. Providing that the correct calibration was made, the pointer will show the
temperature of the hot junction against a graduated scale.
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Fig. 8.50 - Thermocouple

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Theoretically, any pair of metals could make a thermocouple. The materials are selected on
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the base of the electromotive force they generate and on the temperature range in which the
thermocouple is expected to operate. The desired response time is also considered to select
the correct material.
Although thermocouples do not provide a very high measurement accuracy, they are widely
used because they are cheap, easy to replace and can be operative in a wide range of
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temperatures.
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Thermocouples are classified according the material used for the range of temperatures over
which these devices have to be used:
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 Type T: Copper (+) vs. Constantan (nickel-45%copper) (-). This type is moisture
resistant, very stable and can be used at up to 370°C in air, a temperature limit
imposed primarily by oxidation of the copper element. It is also suitable for subzero
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use, down to -200°C, but stock materials are not normally tested for this temperature
range and so special selection and additional calibration of materials is usually
required. Wires are not magnetic and they can be easily identified through their color.
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 Type J: Iron (+) vs. Constantan (nickel-45%copper) (-). These thermocouples are
suitable for use in vacuum, air, reducing or oxidizing atmospheres up to 760°C in the
heavier gage sizes. Rapid oxidation of the iron wire at temperatures above 540°C limits
the expected service life of the finer sized wires. The positive (iron) wire is strongly
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magnetic, while the negative one is non-magnetic.
 Type E: Chromel (Nickel-10%Chromium) (+) Vs. Constantan (Nickel-45%Copper) (-).
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Type E is recommended for use up to 900°C in oxidizing or inert atmospheres. This

type is also quite suitable for low temperature work down to about -230°C and
develops the highest output emf among any standardized type. These thermocouples
offer the best performances in clean oxidizing atmospheres.
They are not recommended for use in partially oxidizing conditions or when subjected to
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alternating cycles of oxidation and reduction or in vacuum, except for short a period of time.
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Wires of this type can be difficult to identify because none of them is magnetic and their color
is similar; however, the negative leg appears a little ‘warmer’ in color than the positive one.
 Type K: Chromel (Nickel-10%Chromium) (+) vs. Alumel (Nickel-5%Aluminum and
Silicon) (-).
Thermocouples of this type are suitable for use in oxidizing or inert atmospheres at
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temperatures up to 1260°C. They are the traditional base-metal choice for high temperature
work. Type K is quite vulnerable to sulfur attack and should not be exposed to sulfur containing
atmospheres. The positive leg is non-magnetic, while the negative one shows a moderately
magnetic response.
 Type N: Nicrosil (Nickel-14%Chromium, silicon) (+) Vs. Nisil (Nickel-4%Silicon,
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Magnesium) (-).
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This type differs from type K because it has silicon in both legs and contains magnesium in the
negative leg. It was developed to be more stable than type K when used at temperatures
above 1000°C. Type N tolerates operation under partial oxidization better than type K, but
should not be used in vacuum or reducing atmospheres. Both type N wires are similar in color
and are non-magnetic, so identification is usually made by gently heating the junction and
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observing the polarity of the resultant emf.
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 Type S: Platinum-10%Rhodium (+) vs. Platinum (-). Type S is recommended for

continuous use in air or inert atmospheres in a temperature range of 0 to 1480°C. It is
quite stable and has a long operative life when used in clean, favorable conditions.
When used above 1100°C, Type S must be protected from exposure to metallic and
non-metallic vapors. It is therefore not suitable for direct insertion into metallic
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protecting tubes. Long operations at very high temperatures can produce large grain
growth, leading to mechanical failure of the negative thermo element. This type has
the same uses as type R, but is not interchangeable with it.
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Type R: Platinum-13%Rhodium (+) vs. Platinum (-). This type is recommended for
continuous use in air or inert atmospheres in a temperature ranging from 0 to 1480°C.
It is quite stable and capable of long operating life when used in clean, favorable
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conditions. When used above 1100°C these thermocouples must be protected from
exposure to metallic and non-metallic vapors. Type R is not suitable for direct insertion
into metallic protecting tubes. Long periods of operation at very high temperatures
can produce large grain growth, leading to mechanical failure of the negative thermo
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element. This type has the same uses as type S, but is not interchangeable with it.
 Type B: Platinum-30%Rhodium (+) vs. Platinum-6%rhodium (-). Type B thermocouples
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are recommended for use in clean air at temperatures from 870 to 1700°C. They may
be used for brief periods in vacuum, but should not be used in reducing atmospheres
or where they are exposed to nonmetallic or metallic vapors. This type is not suitable
for direct insertion into metallic protecting tubes. Type B is more resistant than either
type R or S to grain growth that could result in mechanical failure. Under some
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conditions, type B may also have less calibration drift than type R or S sensors that are
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subjected to the same use.

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13.8.19 Vibration measurement and indication
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The vibration phenomenon is a very important aspect on flight and must be constantly
controlled. The aircraft component more sensitive to vibrations is the engine.
The engine-vibrations are analyzed by an Airborne Vibration Monitoring System (AVMS). The
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main objectives of an AVMS are:
 To increase the flight safety through the identification of dangerous vibration
conditions and the generation of the corresponding warning in the cockpit. This
analysis is done for every value of engine speeds and provided thrusts, including
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steady flight operations and transient conditions.
 To avoid major damages caused by early failure identification.
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 To reduce the maintenance costs, through the localization, isolation, and diagnosis of
the causes of vibrations.
 To optimize the maintenance process, taking into account the engines condition.
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The AVMS system is primarily intended for engine condition monitoring, but it is also
employed to insulate failures and determine corrective action for engine anomalies.
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The vibration indications, generated by the AVMS, are displayed on the secondary engine
display, together with the indications of vibration sources. If the system cannot determine the
source of vibrations, the writing BB (BroadBand) is displayed. The broadband vibration is the
average detected vibration.
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The AVMS, in order to detect the vibrations of engines, uses one or more accelerometers
installed on carefully selected positions. The accelerometers are the core of the data collection
process and the accuracy of the AVMS depends on the quality of data received from
accelerometers. Each engine has a primary accelerometer and a backup one, connected to the
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secondary engine display. Before being displayed on the screen, accelerometer signals are
filtered into separate frequencies, which represent the broadband vibration or the vibrations
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tracked for each engine.
In helicopters installations there are special system for vibration monitoring named HUMS
(Health Usage and Monitoring System). The Health and Usage Monitoring System (HUMS) is a
system able to manage the maintenance servicing.
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The HUMS analyzes the events occurring during the flights and collects information about all
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helicopter systems sending them to a central computer. The computer processes all
information and stores them in its memory. The analyzed information is related to all
abnormal functioning and hazards that the maintenance personnel has to take into
consideration.
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Cat. B2 - 13.9 Lights
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The functioning status of the helicopter systems are display through four types of messages:
 Warning messages
 Caution messages
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 Advisory message
 Maintenance message
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Warning, caution and advisory messages are automatically displayed when problems occurs;
maintenance messages instead must be recall by maintenance personnel. Generally, there are
many maintenance messages because they consider different aspects of the system
functioning in order to operate selectively.
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The warning messages are displayed on the warning panel: the segment of the system
presenting the problem switches on. The caution, advisory and maintenance messages are
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display in a dedicated area of the multifunction display.
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13.9 Lights
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13.9.1 Introduction
Aircraft lighting may be divided into different groups:
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 External lights: exterior lights provide illumination of the ground during landing and
taxi operations and make the aircraft visible in flight. Actions are also taken for the
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illumination of tail plane logos.

 Internal lights:
i) Passenger compartment lights: passenger compartment lighting provides
illumination of the passenger cabin, passenger signs, crew call lights, reading
lights, toilet and galley areas, etc.
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ii) Cargo and service compartment lights: cargo and service compartment lightning
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provides illumination of cargo compartments, service areas and cargo door areas
for ground operations and maintenance
 Emergency lights: emergency lights provide interior and exterior illumination of exits
and exit paths during emergency evacuation.
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There are different types of lights:
 The incandescent lamp
 The halogen lamp
 The fluorescent lamp
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The incandescent lamp is based on the bulb functionality. An electric current passes through a
thin tungsten filament. This gives the electrons a higher energy state and an increased motion.
This increased motion causes the conductor to heat up. Electrons remain at a higher energy
level for a short period of time. As they return to a lower energy level, the excess energy is
shed in the form of photons of light. This gives the appearance of a glowing white filament.
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The filament is carried on glass mounts to prevent temperature transfer. The ends of the
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filament are welded to thick support wires that hold the filament in place and provide a
current path.
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Fig. 9.1 - Incandescent lamp structure

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Halogen lamps have a quartz envelope and are halogen filled. A commonly used fill is iodine.
During use the tungsten filament vaporizes slowly and under normal conditions deposits itself
on the envelope inner face, thus reducing the light output.
The halogen fill keeps the envelope clean by chemically reacting with the deposited tungsten
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vapor. The reaction goes a stage further with the vaporized tungsten being re-deposited in the
filament, thus extending its life.
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The halogen lamp tends to give a harsh bright light. This is excellent for outside work but is
undesirable for interior use.
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Fig. 9.2 - Halogen lamps
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The fluorescent tube is filled with mercury vapor at a low pressure and sealed at both ends
with a cathode and an anode. This inside surface of the tube is coated with phosphorescent
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metallic salts, such as zinc sulphide or zinc silicate.

Electrons are emitted from the incandescent cathode. They have a tremendous energy and
move in the direction of the anode at the other end of the tube. During their journey they
collide with the mercury vapor atoms in the tube. This collision causes an emission of
radiations, mostly in the invisible spectrum. The visible portion of the radiation is represented
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by a pale color in the blue-green range. The ultra violet radiations strike the fluorescent
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coating inside the tube and cause the emission of radiation with a longer wavelength in the
visible spectrum.
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Fig. 9.3 - Fluorescent tube
LEDs operate according to the principle that under forward bias conditions a PN junction diode
exhibit special property. Electrons are easily driven from the n-type material to the p-type
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material by the electric field applied. The reduced depletion allows the electrons to travel
quickly from one material to the other. After entering the p-type material, but still close to the
depletion area, the electrons meet a supply of holes that enhances a rapid combination. Now
electrons return to a lowered energy level and the excess energy is shed in the form of a
photon of light energy.
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Fig. 9.4 - LEDs

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13.9.2 External: navigation and anti-collision lights
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The aircraft lighting system provides both external and internal illumination. The exterior lights
permit the identification of any aircraft during the flight and provide the illumination in every
condition requesting it, such as night landing and inspections of the state of ice formation on
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the aircraft surface. The interior lighting provides illumination for instruments, cockpit, cabin,
and all other sections occupied by crewmembers, such as galleys.
There are also some special lights, such as indicator and warning lights, which indicate the
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operational status of the equipment.
Certain requirements have to be met regarding navigation lights: they can be resumed in the
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basic principle of ‘see and be seen’ in any dangerous situation. The ANO (Air Navigation Order)
and the associated JAR 25 (Joint Aviation Requirements) define what must be fitted, how much
light must be emitted, in what direction and the color specification.
The legal requirements, as laid down in the ANO for aircraft position lights, are:
 A steady green light of at least 5 candelas on the right side (the candela is the SI unit of
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luminance and is based on the light emitted from molten platinum as it solidifies at
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2042 K. At this temperature 1 cm2 will emit 60 cd.) that should be visible from ahead
the aircraft for an angle of 110°. Vertical plane intensities are also specified.
 A steady red light of at least 5 candela on the left side, that should be visible from
ahead the aircraft for an angle of 110°. Vertical plane intensities are also specified.
 A steady white light of at least 3 candela visible for angles of 70° at the right or left side
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from the rear of the aircraft.
 A flashing red, anti collision light of at least 20 candelas, visible in all directions.
 A flashing white strobe light of at least 20 candelas, visible in all directions.
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The aircraft external lights include:
 Position lights or navigation lights
 Strobe lights
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 Anti-collision lights
 Landing lights
 Runway turnoff lights
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 Taxi lights
 Logo lights
 Wing inspection lights
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Fig. 9.5 - External lights
Navigation lights
The aircraft, which operates at night, must be equipped with some position lights that meet
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the minimum requirements specified by aeronautical rules. Even if the position lights are
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mandatory only for night flights, they are always switched on every time the alternating
current is activated. The position lights are sometimes called navigation lights. The set of
navigation lights consists of one red, one green and one white light.
The green light unit is always mounted at the extreme tip of the right half-wing. The red unit,
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instead, is installed in a similar position on the left half-wing. The white light is usually installed
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on the fin of the tail, in a position where it is clearly visible from the rear of the aircraft for a
wide angle.
The aviation regulations establish that:
 Dihedral left angle is composed by two intersecting vertical planes, the first parallel to
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the longitudinal axis of the airplane, and the other at 110° to the left of the first.
 Dihedral right angle is formed by two intersecting vertical planes, the first parallel to
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the longitudinal axis of the airplane, and the other at 110 degrees to the right of the
first.
 Dihedral aft angle is formed by two intersecting vertical planes making angles of 70
degrees to the right and to the left, respectively, to a vertical plane passing through
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the longitudinal axis.
 If the rear position light, when located as far aft as practicable, cannot show unbroken
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light within dihedral aft angle, a solid angle or angles of obstructed visibility, not more
than 0.04 steradians, is allowable within that dihedral angle. Such solid angle should
be within a cone whose apex is located where the rear position light is and whose
elements make an angle of 30° with a vertical line passing through the rear position
light.
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In this way, since the sum of angles is equal to 360°, one of the navigation lights is always
visible from any position.
The different colors make possible for an outside observer, such as the pilot of another
aircraft, to determine in which direction the plane is flying. Each light cover or color filter must
be at least flame resistant and must not change color or shape or lose any appreciable light
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transmission during normal use. Each position light color must comply with applicable
International Commission on Illumination chromaticity coordinates:
(a) Aviation red

 y is not greater than 0.335. sw
 z is not greater than 0.002.
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(b) Aviation green
 x is not greater than 0.440−0.320 y.
 x is not greater than y −0.170.
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 y is not less than 0.390−0.170 x .
(c) Aviation white

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 x is not less than 0.300 and not greater than 0.540.
 y is not less than x −0.040 or y 0−0.010, whichever is the smaller.
 y is not greater than x +0.020 nor 0.636−0.400 x.
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Where y 0 is the y coordinate of the Planckian radiator for the value of x considered.
The intensity of the light must be determined with the light source operating at a steady value
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equal to the average luminous output of the source at the normal operating voltage of the
airplane. The light distribution and intensities of position lights must be expressed in terms of
minimum intensities in the horizontal plane, minimum intensity in any vertical plane, and
maximum intensity in the overlapping beams.
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Fig. 9.6 - Minimum intensity in the horizontal plane of position lights

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Fig. 9.7 - Minimum intensities in any vertical plane of position lights

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Fig. 9.8 - Maximum intensities in overlapping beams of position lights
Area A includes all directions in the adjacent dihedral angle that pass through the light source
and intersect the common boundary plane at more than 10 degrees but less than 20 degrees.
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Area B includes all directions in the adjacent dihedral angle that pass through the light source
and intersect the common boundary plane at more than 20 degrees.
On many aircraft each unit of navigation lights contains a single lamp mounted on the surface
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of the aircraft. There are also some units that contain two or more lamps.
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Fig. 9.9 - Example of navigation light

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Navigation lights are an essential system and control is obtained through a relay activated by a
switch in the flight deck. The normal power supply for such lights is 28 V AC and comes from a
protected bus, such as the essential or standby bus.
The lamp itself is a dual filament bulb to provide redundancy or alternatively you may find two
bulbs fitted in parallel with each other. sw
Another, less common way of providing the back-up supply to the lights is that of having a
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separate supply of 28 V DC coming from the battery.

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Fig. 9.10 - Navigation lights (bright yellow)
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Anti-collision lights
The anti-collision lights system (also called anti-collision beacon lights) consists mainly of one
or more red lights, according to the aircraft dimensions. They are flashing rotating lights, which
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are usually installed on the top of the fuselage or of the tail, in a location in which the lights
will not affect the vision of the crew. In some cases, especially for larger aircraft, one of the
anti-collision lights can also be installed under of the fuselage.
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The anti-collision lights are safety lights, which have the task of warning the aircraft, especially
in congested areas of traffic. These lights must be switched on every time the pilot starts the
engines, also during in daytime, and they remain active until the last engine is shut down.
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Fig. 9.11 - Anti-collision light assembly
The aviation regulations establish that:

 Lights will not impair the flight crewmembers' vision or detract from the conspicuity of
the position lights.
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 The system must have enough lights to illuminate the vital areas around the airplane,
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considering the physical configuration and flight characteristics of the airplane itself.
The field of coverage must extend in each direction within at least 75° above and 75°
below the horizontal plane of the airplane, except that there may be solid angles of
obstructed visibility, totaling not more than 0.5 steradians.
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 The arrangement of the system, that is the number of light sources, beam width,
speed of rotation and other characteristics, must give an effective flash frequency of
not less than 40, nor more than 100 cycles per minute. The effective flash frequency is
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the frequency at which the airplane complete anti-collision light system is observed
from a distance and applies to each sector of light including any overlaps that exist
when the system consists of more than one light source. In overlaps, flash frequencies
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may exceed 100, but not 180 cycles per minute.
The anti-collision unit usually consists of one or two rotating lights, which are operated by an
electric motor. The lights may also be fixed, but under them some rotating mirrors could be
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installed. In modern applications, the anti-collision lights are LED lights. The minimum effective
intensities for anti-collision lights is reported in the table.
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Fig. 9.12 - Minimum effective intensities for anti-collision lights
The minimum light intensities in any vertical plane, measured with red filter and expressed in
terms of effective intensities, must meet the requirements of the table, according to the
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following relation:
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where:
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 Ie is the effective intensity.

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 I(t) is the instantaneous intensity as a function of time.
 (t2-t1) is the flash time interval.
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Fig. 9.13 - Anti-collision lights (purple)

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The system of anti-collision lights also includes some white strobe flashlights. The aircraft,
especially the smaller ones, are equipped with some strobe lights, one for each wing, generally
located behind the red or green navigation lights. The larger aircraft can be also equipped with
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some additional strobe lights, located on the trailing edge of the wings.
The strobe lights are activated both during the day and the night, in order to encourage the
identification of the aircraft both in flight and on ground, especially in the case in which it
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occupies the runway.
Power to the rotating beacon is controlled from the flight deck through a relay in the power
panel. A normal supply would be 115 V AC and as with the navigation lights, this supply needs
to be protected in some way. The reflector emits two distinct light patterns. One half of the
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reflector is straight and gives a narrow beam of very high intensity light; the other is slightly
curved to allow a wider less intense light pattern.
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Another type of rotating beacon employs the same principle but it is the lamp itself that
rotates.
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Fig. 9.14 - Xenon flash tube

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Another method of producing a flashing light is the xenon tube gas discharge lamp. The flash
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tube provides a very high intensity light for a very short period of time. This is achieved by
applying a high voltage to two electrodes and then introducing a trigger voltage. The AC supply
voltage is, if necessary, transformed to a higher voltage, which passes through the rectifier and
charges the main flash condenser. As the capacitor is charged, a very large voltage is now
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available at the end of the flash tube, typically about 500 V but no process is activated. The
flash tube itself is filled with xenon gas at a low pressure.
Looking to the left of the flash tube you will see the ignition circuit. A smaller capacitor is
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charged from a voltage reduction resistor pair.
The synchronizing logic control circuit now allows the ignition capacitor to discharge through a
transformer and into one of the electrodes. This induces a massive voltage of about 10000 V in
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the other electrode. This voltage is high enough to ionize the xenon gas and cause current to
flow. Basically, a streak of lightning has just been generated, for only around 1/1000th of a
second. This light is bright enough, however, to be visible several miles away.
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Fig. 9.15 - Strobe lights (bright yellow)
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13.9.3 External: landing and taxing lights
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The Aviation Regulation establishes that each taxi and landing light must be designed and
installed so that:
 No dangerous glare is visible to the pilots.
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 The pilot is not seriously affected by halation.
 It provides enough light for night operations.
 It does not cause a fire hazard in any configuration.
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Landing lights
Landing lights are white and they are installed on the aircraft in order to illuminate the runway
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during landings and takes-offs. They are often required for night operations, but they are also
commonly used during the day as well to make the plane more noticeable. These lights are
very powerful and are directed by a parabolic reflector, in order to provide a maximum range
of illumination. The landing lights are generally of the PAR 200-300 W type.
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While the usage of these lights is common, their location can vary from plane to plane. Landing
lights can be located under the wing root, in the outboard wing or somewhere along the
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forward fuselage. Some aircraft are equipped with multiple sets of landing lights placed in
more than one of these locations. The landing lights will always have a beam deflection
ranging between 11° and 15°.
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Fig. 9.16 - Landing lights (bright yellow)
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Especially when these lights are installed under the wings, their lenses can be attacked by ice.
Since ice reduces the quality of their illumination, some systems use retractable landing lamps.
When the lamps are not in use, a motor retracts them into the wing, where the lenses are not
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exposed to the weather. The landing lights, used on high-speed aircraft, are usually equipped
with a pressure switch, which prevents the extension of the landing lights at excessive
airspeeds.
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In the case of retractable lights, the retraction mechanism is usually operated by a ON-OFF
switch and is often controlled by the undercarriage mechanism. When the undercarriage is
extracted, the lights will come down, when it is retracted, the lights will retract too and go off.
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Fig. 9.17 - Example of landing light assembly
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The landing lights are generally composed by a fixed part and a mobile one. The mobile part is
switched off after the take-off and is activated when the aircraft is cleared for landing. The
fixed part instead is switched on when the aircraft is authorized to entry in the runway and it is
switched off at 10000 ft. During the descent it is activated at 10000 ft and it is switched off
when the aircraft vacates the runway.
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Maintenance practices of these lights include checking that the alignment is correct and that
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the lens is clean. These lamps have to be used carefully, in fact they can provoke temporary
blindness and get very hot. To prevent damage and cracking of the lens, the duty cycle must
not be overrun in still air.
Runway turnoff lights
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Runway turnoff lights are white lamps, which illuminate laterally taxiways and runways. These
lights are used during take-off run, landing and taxi phase.
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Fig. 9.18 - Runway light

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During the departure, the runway turnoff lights are switched on at the beginning of the taxi,
and they remain activated until 10000 ft of altitude. Vice versa, during the approach, these
lights are activated at 10000 ft and they are switched off when the aircraft is in the parking
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bay. Generally, the runway turnoff lights are located on the leading edge of the wing root and
have a beam width of about 50°.
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Fig. 9.19 - Runway turnoff lights (bright yellow)
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Taxi lights
Taxi lights are designed to provide illumination on the ground, during the taxing or when the
aircraft is towed on the surface of the aerodrome. These lights are not designed to provide the
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same degree of illumination of the landing lights.
On aircraft with a tri-cycle landing gear, some taxi lights are often installed on the non-
steerable part of the nose landing gear. These lights are located at a specific angle to the
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centre line of the aircraft, in order to provide the illumination in front, on the right and on left
of the aircraft path.
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Fig. 9.20 - Taxi light
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Moreover, some aircraft are equipped with alternate taxi lights located on the lower surface of
the aircraft near nose. These lights, which are operated by a switch, are separated from the
main taxi lights and illuminate the area immediately in front of and below the aircraft nose.
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Fig. 9.21 - Taxi lights (bright yellow)

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Fig. 9.22 - Forward overhead panel

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13.9.4 External: logo and wing inspection lights
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Logo lights
Generally, airliners are also equipped with some logo lights that illuminate the company logo
painted on the vertical tail plane of the aircraft. These lights are installed on the surface or at
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the tips of the tail horizontal stabilizer.
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Fig. 9.23 - Logo lights
The logo lights are not mandatory but they are often installed for advertising purposes. In spite
of this, the logo lights contribute to the aircraft visibility, being switched on together with the
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navigation lights. The logo lights remain active during the night, during the ground operations
and when flying below 10000 ft.
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Fig. 9.24 - Logo lights (bright yellow)
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Wing inspection lights
Some aircraft are equipped with wing inspection lights in order to illuminate the leading edge
of the wings. In this way, the pilot can control the general condition of these surfaces during
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the flight, and verify if ice is accumulating on them.
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Fig. 9.25 - Wing inspection light

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On some aircraft, the wing inspection light system (also called wing ice lights) consists of
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lights, located on the outboard side of each nacelle, in front of the wing. These lights are also
used as floodlights during ground service.
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Fig. 9.26 - Wing inspection lights (bright yellow)
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13.9.5 Internal: cockpit lights
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In an aircraft project interior lights are also very important. This system must guarantee a good
visibility to the pilot and must permit to easily observe all flight instruments, in order to
continuously control the aircraft. Moreover, interior lights play an important role in offering
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passengers a comfortable travel and in allowing flight attendants to do all assistance activities,
in normal and emergency situations.
The interior lights can be classified into:
 Flight compartment lights.
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 Passenger compartment lights.
 Other lights.
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Flight compartment lights or cockpit lights

In the cockpit of a normal commercial aircraft, there are main categories of lights. If we
analyze a large aircraft, we can identify:
 Some fluorescent floodlights with a large luminous beam installed on the parasol visor
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of the cockpit. The main instrument panel floodlights are controlled through switches
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on the lighting panels.

 Some incandescent floodlights with a large luminous beam, which are installed on the
ceiling of the cockpit and under the parasol visor.
 Some domed lights, located on the ceiling.
 Some panel lights (also called instrument lights), which illuminates instruments. These
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lights are fundamental for the visualization of instruments and controls. They are
installed behind the control panel, and must be adjustable in intensity. In this way,
dazzling effects can be reduced.
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Laterally in the cockpit some particular lights are installed, they are used by the flight crew to
illuminate the navigational charts.
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Fig. 9.27 - Cockpit lights

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It is important to remember that most of the cockpit lights is supplied by a double circuit, in
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order to guarantee the operation of the lighting system also in case of failure of the primary
electrical system.
All on board aircraft systems have some indication and warning lights, which are necessary to
check and manage the operation of the systems. The warning lights, mainly installed in the
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cockpit, are luminous lights used to indicate all different operative conditions of the various
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aircraft systems to the flight crew. They may present 4 colors and the used color code is
standardized:
 The red color is used to indicate a danger.
 The yellow color is used to advise caution.
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 The green color indicates a normal operative condition.

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 The white lights provide only certain information.
It is important to remember that each instrument has its own lamp with the wires running to
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the back connector of the instrument casing. A plug will then connect the aircraft lighting
system. The filament lamp is placed in such a way that it shines onto the face of the
instrument. A major drawback with this type of lighting is that a lamp change requires the
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instrument to be removed and either dismantled or replaced. This means additional functional
tests for the instrument system, and if the bulb fails during a night flight, the instrument would
be difficult to read. This system has limited use nowadays and any new aircraft will not
normally have it fitted.
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Another type of lightening is the trans-illuminated panel. This type of illumination is very
common, particularly on glass cockpit aircraft. It relies on the principle of reflection and
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refraction of light between two polished surfaces. The light panel used on most modern
airlines is an application of the reflection principle. A light source, typically an incandescent
bulb, will have the light directed towards the end of a glass sheet. At any gaps on the reflecting
surface the light will be refracted out of the plate and become visible.
There is a limit related to the distance at which a small incandescent lamp can work in order to
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provide a good panel illumination. On larger panel a lamp has to be placed every six to ten
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inches.
The flight deck lighting check is usually done by altering the voltage of the lamps.
 Each panel or instrumentation cluster, map, chart or flooding has its own individual
control.
 There is a master control that will light all instruments together.
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 Often an override switch is provided to allow an immediate full illumination of all the
instruments.
To cope with these requirements there are several dimmer controls located around the flight
deck. sw
For some instruments the illumination is automatically controlled. Instead of using a control
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voltage from the dimmer switch, an amplified signal from a photosensitive cell is employed.
The photo sensitive cell is placed in such a position that, as the ambient light increases, the
voltage coming from the cell increases; this is due to the fact that the dimmer control units
increases the voltage and hence the illumination of the instruments.
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13.9.6 Internal: cabin and cargo lights
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Passenger cabin lights
In the passenger compartment a great variety of lights is installed, many of which are
controlled by the flight crew. The main lights of the passenger cabin are controlled by the pilot,
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and they are made of fluorescent tubes, which must be connected to some transformer in
order to increase their voltage.
The passenger cabin lighting can be divided into four main groups:
 Area lighting (day/night lights), controlled by attendants.
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 Spot lighting (reading lights), controlled by passengers.
 Emergency lights, automatic/crew controlled.
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 Information lights, automatic/crew controlled.
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Fig. 9.28 - Passenger cabin lights
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In the area lighting the main elements of the system are the fluorescent wash lights and ceiling
lights. These may operate in two modes: bright or dim. You might expect to see incandescent
night-lights, doorway entry lights and reading lights too.
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In the gallery areas there are some working lights and area lights, these being a combination of
fluorescent tube and incandescent lamps.
The control of the cabin lighting is performed by the area control panels located in the
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attendants’ area. This may happen through software related systems or through traditional
rotary switches as found on most old aircraft. The control options are often as follows:
 High (called also day)
 Medium
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 Low (often called night)
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How lights come on and go off under these switch selections varies from aircraft to aircraft but
the basic principle of operation is the same. Generally, on high mode everything is bright. On
medium, the fluorescent tubes dim slightly and when the low mode is selected the tubes
switch off together, leaving active just the small incandescent night-lights. The fluorescent
tube in the cabin area consists of a tube and a ballast with a power supply. The ballast is a
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transformer that steps the voltage up to as required by the tube to operate. Normally, the
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ballast output 205 V AC to the tube for dim lighting and adds an additional 115 V AC for bright
lighting. It is usually possible to bypass the switching system and provide full power lighting
from the ground service bus. This facility allows the aircraft to be cleaned and serviced without
the main system power having to be active. Most seats are provided with reading lamps. These
are usually fitted as a 2, 3 or 4 lamp module in the ceiling panels immediately above each seat
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group. Some seats have individual reading lamps attached directly to the them, these are low
voltage supplied and individually switched on/off.
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Fig. 9.29 - Passenger reading lamps

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The lights are usually of the incandescent type as they are the easiest to be controlled.
Operation of the lights above the seats is initiated by pressing the light button on the
passenger control unit, located in the seat armrest. This sends an ON/OFF signal to an
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electronic unit. This is usually located at the front or back of the cabin and sends a signal
through the lines above the ceiling panels to the Decoder/Encoder units. This signal is decoded
in each DEU and as a consequence, the dedicated reading light is switched on.
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It is important to remember that this type of system, where the entire cabin or section of it is
controlled through a single cabin configuration software unit, may be subjected to failures, if
anything in the cabin goes wrong.
Individual lights can be tested separately, this applies to all lights in the cabin; however,
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passenger reading lights tend to be connected to a BITE system. The BITE monitors:
 Electronic units
 Power supplies
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 PSUs
 Lamps themselves
Moreover, the attendant call system allows each passenger to call for attention, if he/she
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needs any form of assistance. The call system may be located above the passengers’ seats as
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well as in the toilet.

In the area dedicated to attendants and often above the emergency exit signs, a series of
indicators lights are placed. These employ the blue color to signal seated passenger’s requests,
the amber one for the toilet call system and the pink when the attendants’ internal phone is
ringing. In addition to these, chime speakers are located above the attendants’ seats.
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Fig. 9.30 - Passenger attendant call button
The passengers press the button in the seat; this applies an earth to the respective overhead
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electronics unit and the zone management unit. This earth triggers and latches solid-state
devices that put on the light above the appropriate seat and the master lights at the
attendant's station. The attendant goes to the location and presses the rest button; this
cancels all the demands and clears the latches. All the lights go out.
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The aircraft crew also controls luminous signs, such as the writings “NO SMOKING” and
“FASTEN SEAT BELT”, which are usually installed on the panel, above each seat.
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Cargo and service lights
Cargo lights consist of either recessed incandescent lights or flush fitting fluorescent ones.
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Fig. 9.31 - Cargo bay lights

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The lighting for the cargo bay is controlled through one switch located close to the freight
door. The power supply to this switch is usually controlled to prevent the bays from being
powered when in flight. A common control method is that of providing a ground handling AC
bus that is air ground sensitive. The lighting usually consists of a large number of lights located
in the ball transfer mat regions and in the area where the cargo enters the aircraft. In addition
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a light shining onto the pallet loading truck is provided. This light will either be placed outside
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on the fuselage or inside the cargo door.

Moreover, it is common to provide lighting around the aircraft in all servicing bays, wheel
wells, APU bays etc. There are always simple incandescent lamps with a switch located in the
nearby of the aircraft. As with the freight lighting, these lights will extinguish, as the aircraft
becomes airborne.
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13.9.7 Emergency lights
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The purpose of emergency light is to provide illumination in an emergency, if the normal
lighting should fail, if electrical power fails, during emergency evacuation of the aircraft etc.
In the passenger cabin, all emergency lights are also installed. This category includes the lights
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that illuminate the aircraft aisles and the escape paths, and all lights that indicate the different
emergency exits. Escape hatches, doors etc, must have minimum self-illuminating values
(microlamberts, a unit specifying reflectiveness) or be illuminated by emergency lighting.
To indicate the aisles, two different systems can be used:
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 The first consists of a lighted band on the cabin floor
 The second is made of some lights installed on the sides of each passenger seat.
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Fig. 9.32 - Lighted bands on the cabin floor

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The smoke rises and tends to fill spaces from the roof down. Crawling out of a smoke filled
aircraft gives the best chance of survival and floor proximity lighting is designed to indicate the
way out.
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Seats lights offer the advantage of being less susceptible to damage; however, they require
more cables running together with the IFE equipment, a situation that may cause interference
problems. The purpose of lights, regardless of where they are fitted, is to enable a crawling
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person to find a way out of the aircraft.
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Fig. 9.33 - Lights installed on each passenger seat
The emergency exit signs are located within the cabin in compliance with JAR25 and meet the
requirements of size, color and minimum internal illumination.
Sources of general illumination in the cabin have to provide an average illumination of not less
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than 0.05 candles and an illumination at any point of not less than 0.01 candles, when
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measured along the centre line of the main passenger aisle and at the seat height. The sign
has the word EXIT written in red and an arrow pointing in the direction of the door. In the
cover panel there is the access for two incandescent bulbs that run off a 28 VDC supply system,
which includes battery packs and charging circuits.
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Fig. 9.34 - Emergency exit signs

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Control of the emergency lighting is performed from the flight deck by a 3-position switch.
With the switch in the OFF position all the power is removed from the lighting systems,
through relay action in the essential bus breaker box. The emergency lights are not illuminated
at all. This is the position that the switch needs to be in before power is removed from the
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aircraft. With the switch in this position an advisory message is displayed in front of the crew.
With the switch in the ON position the lights are all lit from the aircraft power supplies that are
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available, usually from the hot battery bus or from the dedicated battery power packs, if this is
not available.
The middle position of the switch correspond to the AUTOMATIC or ARMED position and is the
one that the switch assumes when the guard is closeds. This is the flight position and the
position in which the crew place the switch before take-off. In this position the lights are under
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the control of relays in the essential breaker box. Providing that the aircraft power is available
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and on, the lights are off. Should aircraft power fails the emergency lights all come on
automatically. This will drain the aircraft battery power within 10 minutes.
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Fig. 9.35 - EPSU

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The battery packs are on charge when the switch is set on ARMED or OFF with the remaining
of the electrical power supplies available.
In addition to the flight deck control an additional control is provided in the cabin area, usually
at the main attendants’ location. Door 1 left or 2 left are typical locations, but there are other
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possibilities. This switch will allow the lights to be switched on independently of the switch
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position in the flight deck.

A test is performed by switching the emergency lights on for about two minutes. This is
enough for the technician to get around and check the lights, but not enough to discharge the
battery power packs.
The electrical system is controlled and monitored by 8 Emergency Power Supply Units,
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installed in the ceiling at given intervals along the cabin length. These are supplied with DC and
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AC. In case of a failure of the DC essential power, EPSUs will continue to supply the system for
a given period of time, thanks to their internal batteries.
The BITE test will test the system and the capacity of the batteries. The system test, which has
a limit of 20 seconds to prevent battery pack to discharge, includes:
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 Testing the DC and AC supplies.
 Checking for short circuits on each output.
 Checking the voltage output of the battery packs.
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 Testing the battery heating devices.
 Checking the EPSU logic and switching circuits.
 Checking system loads.
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The battery capacity BITE test checks that each EPSU battery has sufficient capacity to run its
emergency lights for at least 10 minutes. The test will take up to 3 hours to be completed.
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13.9.8 Other information about aircraft lights
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Light power
The external and internal lights of the aircraft can be indifferently powered both by Direct
Current (DC) and by Alternating Current (AC). If the alternating current is used, the frequency
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can be non-constant.
The minimum lights power depends on the type of application for which they are intended. For
example, landing lights usually request a minimum power of about 300 W, while for all internal
indications a minimum power of 3 W must be guaranteed.
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It is important to remember that electrical power used for lights represents a very significant
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percentage of the installed power, generally about 60-70%.
Electrical connection
The electrical power generated by the airborne electrical system is sent to the bus bars. The
bus bars are connected to different luminous users, through some switches. When the switch
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closes, in response to a command given by the pilot through the controls placed in the cockpit,
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the electrical current can flow in the circuits and the lights switch on. However, when the
switch is open, the connection is broken and the lights switch off. In modern applications, the
anti-collision lights are connected to a strobe unit, which produces a flashlight. In case of
navigation lights instead, each light has its own circuits and switch.
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Fig. 9.36 - Electrical power supply to aircraft lights

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Cat. B2 - 13.10 On board maintenance systems
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In the described circuit there several protection devices are installed too, they have the task of
interrupting the flow of current when the operational parameters are not met. A device of this
type is generally inserted in the line of the navigation lights, immediately after the switch.
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All described connections are redundant, in order to guarantee the functioning of the system
also when a component failure occurs.
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Light controls
On a large aircraft, the controls of the lighting system are mainly located in the cockpit.
 The lighting controls of panels and instruments are located on different panels (two on
the central part of the cockpit, one on the overhead panel and one installed
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underneath the glare shield).
 The controls of all exterior lights are on the left side of the overhead panel of the
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cockpit.
 The interior lights controls are installed in the overhead panel.
 The controls of the cabin signs (such as “NO SMOKING” and “FASTEN SEAT BELT”) are
positioned on the left side of the SIGNS panel located on the overhead panel.
 The emergency lighting controls is located on the right side of the SIGNS panel placed
on the overhead panel.
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13.10 On board maintenance
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systems
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13.10.1 Central Maintenance Computer
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BITE
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The use of digital technologies on board has determined the development of particular
systems able to monitor all airborne systems, in order to facilitate the aircraft maintenance
both in flight and on ground. The airborne systems, which monitor the operational parameters
and detect possible failures, are generally called BITE (Built In Test Equipment).
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BITE detect and insulate the failures of the airborne systems and check the functionality of the
system after a repair is performed. If during the monitoring of the different aircraft circuits the
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BITE detect a failure, they automatically generate some signals, in order to insulate the
damaged element and signal the problem. Moreover, they record the situation in a non-
volatile memory. In this way, the BITE can be used during maintenance and repair phases, in
order to indentify the defective component.
Generally, different BITE units are installed, such as for example those concerning the electrical
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system, the air conditioning system, the flight control systems, etc. Each BITE system receives
the parameters of the single components of the monitored system as input, and processes
them according to three different operational modes:
 Power up BIT (Built In Test), also called P-BIT.
 Continuous BIT, also called C-BIT. sw
 Interruptive BIT, also called I-BIT.
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The P-BIT is performed during the initialization of the analyzed system, while the C-BIT is
completed when the system is in operation. The execution of the C-BIT occurs through two
channels. The command channel provides the signal to be analyzed, while the monitor channel
checks that the provided signal complies with data in the memory of the system. In some
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cases, there is also a third channel, called stand-by channel.
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When there is the need for executing more specific tests on a particular system, the I-BIT is
performed. This test is activated during the maintenance operations, in order to execute a
series of controls and evaluate the functioning of every aircraft system.
At start up the BITE is limited in its ability to detect failures in the system. At power up,
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instead, the BITE will check whether the power supplies are efficient, looking for correct phase
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rotation, frequency and voltage. It will carry out checks of the processors and areas of RAM in
the computer, ensuring that all are clear and function properly. It will then, through its Built In
Operating System (BIOS), invoke the loading of the main operating software and of any airline
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modifiable software.
Interruptive BITE is something that pilot or crew can initiate. In its simplest form it is a press-
to-test, but with on board maintenance systems it is usually much more. Generally, the inputs
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and outputs of the computer are electronically disconnected. The BITE starts by systematically
injecting a signal into each channel or lane and looking for the corresponding output. It will
inject signals across the entire design range of the system. Sometimes, this form of BITE is
called Ground Tests.
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Continuous BITE is carried out continuously. Inside the Line Replacement Unit (LRU), which in
this case is represented by the computer, there are two channels working out information and
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providing outputs. These two channels are called command and monitor. All channels receive
the input signals and calculate the output solution. The command channel will output the
signal and send it to the unit being operated; the monitor channel will use its output figure to
cross check that the command channel is functioning correctly.
The BITE box may be moved to a central location. In this case, the box actually becomes a
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computer in its own right, and this computer is called Central Maintenance Computer CMC.
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Central Maintenance Computer: operation

All modern aircraft are equipped with a central maintenance computer, designed to monitor
and communicate with each BITE unit of the different systems, in order to record all data in a
unique central position. Moreover, this system can interface with the computers of the
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maintenance operator, through some fixed or mobile access panel, installed in the cockpit or
in different parts of the aircraft. The Central Maintenance Computer is identified by the Boeing
Industry with the initials CMC, and by the Airbus Industry as Centralized Fault Display System
(CFDS).
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The CMC controls the parameters of the aircraft systems dividing the flight in different phases,
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from the start-up to the shout down of engines. In all these phases the CMC analyses all
aircraft systems. If it detects a defect, the defect is recorded in the fault history, which is very
important for all future analyses of the system and for maintenance actions.
The main tasks of the CMC are:
 To process data about failures and to record the fault history.
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 To execute the test of the airborne system on ground and during the flight.
 To permit the data loading in the airborne systems.
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 To permit the printing of data concerning failures of the airborne system.

 To permit the monitoring of airborne systems.
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In addition, the CMC provides a graphical representation of the operative state and the related
problems, through the screens of the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS), Electronic
Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM), Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS).
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The information about failures emitted by the CMC is divided into two categories according to
the type of required maintenance operation:
 Failures that require a line maintenance.
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 Failures that require a base maintenance.
The indications concerning the line maintenance allow the technician to repair the failure in
about 15-20 minutes, usually by replacing the damaged component. The indications regarding
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the base maintenance refer to all operations that cannot be executed in line, because they are
long and complex or require the use of particular devices and specialized personnel.
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Central Maintenance Computer: location and provided information

The CMC computers installed on aircraft are usually 2 and they are located in the
compartment of the electrical devices. These computers receive until 50 digital inputs through
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specific data bus as well as some discrete input. Generally, each CMC has 10 outputs, one of
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which is used to communicate with the other CMC.

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Fig. 10.1 - CMC

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During normal operations, the CMC installed on the left side sends signals to the aircraft
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systems. However, if the left side CMC detects an internal failure, the right side CMC controls
the functioning of the system.
The pilot and the maintenance operator can interface with the CMC through the Control
Display Units (CDUs) in the cockpit. Usually, the CDUs are two, one for the pilot and one for the
co-pilot. They allow to display the line maintenance operations, and to locate failures.
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The failures displayed by the CDU are generally of three kinds:
 Failures present in the systems at the moment of the analysis.
 Failures recorded during the last flight.
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 Failures recorded during previous flights.
The failures classification is identified by the CMC. There is also the possibility to have a
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classification of failure according to the dispatch term:
 Long-term dispatch.
 Time limited dispatch.
 Short-term dispatch.
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All other CMS members faults are classified as long-term dispatch, which initiates the CMC
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check advisory CAS message when fault information is present. This message is general
inhibited, when the airspeed is greater than a defined value.
Central Maintenance Computer: procedures

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According to the type of system installed on board, different procedures can be executed in
order to display reports of the detected failures.
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For example, by pressing the MENU button on the display of the CDU and then the 3L button,
it is possible to access the menu of the CMC, where reports of the detected failures are
displayed.
When the aircraft is on ground, different types of failure reports are available:
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 Last leg report, indicating the failures detected during the last flight.
 Last leg ECAM report, showing the list of the ECAM advisories associated to the main
failures as detected during the last flight.
 Previous legs reports, indicating the last 64 voices of the last leg report recorded by
the CMC. sw
 Avionics status, displaying in real time the list of the aircraft systems affected by
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failures.
 System report/test, providing a list of the components of the aircraft systems, in order
to check the parameters.
In some cases, a second page is available, where it is possible to select:

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 UTC/date init, only when there is a failure of the airborne clock or a power lost.
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 Backup mode, when the CMC is damaged.

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Fig. 10.2 - CMC menu available on ground

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When the aircraft is in flight, only two types of failure reports can be displayed:
 Current leg report, that indicates the failure detected during the current flight.
 Current leg ECAM report, that shows the list of the ECAM advisories associated to the
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main failures detected during the current flight.
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Fig. 10.3 - CMC menu available in flight
In both cases, you can select the failure of interest by pushing the button of the CDU related to
the row that must be analyzed.
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Fig. 10.4 - CMC system basic layout
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The on board maintenance systems, provided by the Central Maintenance Computers (CMCs),
allows flight and maintenance crew to:
 Obtain failure information about aircraft systems; this information is necessary for a
correct and safe dispatch decision about the flight management.
 Print or download maintenance reports.
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 Upload navigation files and databases.
 Obtain aircraft failure and status information.
 Perform additional ground tests, as requested for maintenance and troubleshooting
operations.
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The aircraft system computers are continuously working and carrying out calculations as
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defined by their loaded software. Each computer knows what the inputs and outputs should
be and these are continuously monitored.
If any parameter goes outside its limits, a message is sent to the CMC though a serial data
highway. The CMC performs a series of actions:
 It checks the reported fault against known criteria.
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 It checks that the fault is in a reportable period.
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 It checks if another failed unit is causing the reported fault.

 Providing all this defect correlation, it indicates the failure to the flight deck in a
number of ways.
 It stores the information in data banks for later analysis.
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Some new terminology is used:
 Status message: is a message that is placed on a status display screen. A status
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message gives the engineers a true indication of system failure. Aircrews do not have
immediate access to the status page, but would look at it when allowed.
 Maintenance message: a maintenance message is set by the CMC after it establishes
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that a fault does exist. It takes the form XX-YYYYY, where XX indicates the ATA chapter
that it relates to. This message is never displayed to aircrew, but to engineers that
need it for fault diagnosis reasons.
 Fault codes: a fault code is very similar to the maintenance message and is set by the
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failed LRU. As with maintenance messages this information is not available to aircrew
but to engineers.
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 Maintenance memo: it is set if the failure is irrelevant and there is enough back up for
the failure to be ignored. The aircraft can fly safely until its next scheduled
maintenance, when all these minor defects will be rectified. This keeps maintenance
costs down without compromising safety.
 Memo message: it is displayed for the aircrew and gives them reminders of systems
that are in operation.
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Fig. 10.5 - Cockpit systems
The CMC divides a flight into flight phases, as follows:

 Power on/ power up
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 Engine start
 Taxi
 Take off
 Initial climb
 Climb
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 Cruise
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 Descent
 Approach
 Landing
 Taxi in
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 Engine shut down
 Maintenance
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The CMC is receiving information from every system on the aircraft so that it can quite easily
work out which phase it is in. At power up, the CMC resets and returns to the first phase. It
now waits for the engine start signal from the Electronic Engine Control. When it receives this
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signal, the CMC moves into the next phase.
Basically, any defects occurring in the flight phase will be recorded and hence stored in the
fault history. Faults occurring outside the flight phase are displayed as existing faults only. This
means that all the faults induced on the ground do not clog up the fault history. This keeps the
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fault history for real defects but not for maintenance induced defects.
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It is important to keep in mind that the CMC has not direct connection with any of the member
system that is monitoring. Each member of the system transmits their associated data, ARINC
429 data bus or ASCB. In MAU installations, data is collected from the MAU backplane by CMC
central maintenance function, which is able to correlate CAS messages (flight deck effects) to
maintenance messages.
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In order to analyse the CMS and the CMC is very important to study the maintenance window.
The maintenance window can be displayed on one of the Multi-Function Display (MFD) unit
present in the cockpit. It can be displayed as follows:
 Put the CCD cursor in any window of the selected MFD.
 Call the menu by pressing the CCD MENU button.
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 Select the MAINT item of the menu so that the maintenance window will appear on
the MFD display.
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Fig. 10.6 - The process to display the maintenance window
The CMC maintenance windows make available a set of sub-functions through the various
items menus. The picture shows an example of the sub-functions of the menu.
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Fig. 10.7 - The sub-functions of the maintenance window

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All available data, needed to process and display failure information, are analogue, discrete
and digital data, provided by the aircraft systems. These data include:
 All information received by the Modular Avionic Unit (MAU) for flight management.
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 The faults are reported in real time by the system computers, both on ground and in
flight, through digital links (ARINC 429 or ASCB).
 The fault reports are automatically downloaded from the air conditioning system
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computer, which is not capable of sending its fault reports in real time to the CMC. The
downloading of these messages is done when the aircraft is on ground.
The elaboration and display of failure information, requested for a correct and safe dispatch
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decisions, are based on the following principles:
 A CAS message is displayed in case of system failure identified by the system, which
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impacts on the airplane safety.

 In order to limit the number of CAS messages, all failures reported by breaking, bleed
air and anti-ice, fuel and air conditioning systems, are shown with a generic CAS
message. These messages are displayed when a fault code is received from one of the
particular systems listed above.
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It is important to remember that some failures impacting the airplane can only be detected
when the airplane is in a specific operational configuration (for example engine running, anti-
ice operating, braking with antiskid operating etc.). To maintain this failure information
displayed also when the airplane is no longer in this operational configuration, a particular
system that keeps these data in memory is installed.
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All these systems allow:
 To make sure that the decisions are taken considering all CAS messages related to
known aircraft failures displayed to the crew.
 To inform the crew performing daily servicing operation about the failures detected
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during the previous flight and that could impact the next mission, also providing advice
for any problem.
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Flight Deck Effects
Flight Deck Effects (FDE) represent any effect noticeable on the flight deck. Fault correlation is
a process of linking together FDE and maintenance messages. Technicians need to be able to
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relate a flight crew reported defect and link that to a CMC generated messages.
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Fig. 10.8 - Fault processing
Input processing: all the aircraft systems send information to the CMC, which arrives at the
input processor. The input processing will interrogate the failing LRU and possibly initiate BITE
checks. It will check whether the received information is correct, valid and accurate.
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The input processing works at very high rates (up to 5000 faults per second). If the faults are
accurate, the messages are passed onto the next sub routine.
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Inhibits and special case BITE: when we power the aircraft for the first time or start an engine,
we would expect many failures to happen. We do not really want to process all of these as we
know they happen every time so the sub routine filters these failures out. It also removes
failures caused when the engines are shutdown or power is removed from the aircraft.
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Cascaded effects: if a key LRU fails. The IRS provides information to virtually all systems on the
aircraft and if the IRS failed, it would induce many failures on the other user systems. These
failures would be reported to the CMC but the sub-routine would detect the cause and reason
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for the failure and filter them out.
Consolidation: often several maintenance messages will be generated when something fails.
This sub routine has details of all the fault codes, maintenance messages and FDE ones, and is
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able to link them together. This sub-routine categorizes the failures:
 Class 1, operational consequences and those that would require referral to the MEL.
 Class 2, no immediate operational consequences, but a moderately speedy repair is
required.
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 Class 3, no consequence on aircraft safety.
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Storage and display: this is the sub routine that uses the flight phase information and decides if
a fault is in a reportable phase or not. If it is in a reportable phase, the system will move the
fault into the fault history and usually displays it in a section called present leg fault. Present
leg faults records all faults occurred on this flight leg in the reportable flight phases.
The CMC can be used for several other functions, such as:
 Ground test
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 Air/ground simulations
 Special functions
 Data loading
 Printing
 Condition monitoring
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 Engine fan blade balancing
 ACARS link
 DFDR facility
 Maintenance pages
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13.10.2 Data loading system
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The data loading system represents the interface between the airborne computer and the
ground systems, which have the task of analyzing and update the software of the aircraft and
the data present in the airborne computers. The main tasks of the data loading system are:
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 To load the updated software on aircraft.
 To download data about the failure of the aircraft systems through the CMC.
 To communicate with the Flight Data Recorders (FDRs).
 To load and to update the data about the aircraft route and the navigational
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information in the aircraft systems.
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At the beginning the data loading was executed through an external device that was plugged
to the aircraft computing system. The data loading was executed through a magnetic tape,
converting the magnetic information into coded data. This method was cumbersome and the
associated process was slow. For these reasons, it was replaced by a new technology that used
the floppy disk.
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In order to use the floppy disk on the cockpit a drive was installed. The loading of the data in
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the correct location happened automatically after the insertion of the floppy disc in the drive
and as an input was given to the system. However, this technique has been replaced too.
Nowadays, CDs-ROM or memory cards are used. In this case the data loading system of the
aircraft is made up of some selectors, a memory drive installed in the cockpit and used for the
loading and the downloading of data, and a router that have the task of correctly addressing
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the input and output data. In addition, it is also possible to use computers that do not require
physical connection with the aircraft system, since they use the LAN net of the same system.
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Fig. 10.9 - Data transmission

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Updating of software: procedures

The updating of aircraft software often causes some operative modifications. For this reason,
the maintenance certified operator, who updates data on an airliner, inserts the changes on all
aircraft of the fleet, in order to guarantee that all airborne software are uniform.
The updating operation is not a banal one, because the introduction new software can causes
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the malfunctioning of other systems already installed on board. Consequently it is important to
control:
 The trustworthiness of the software, in order to check the presence of virus.
 The compatibility of the software with aircraft systems.
 The correct installation, through some specific tests. sw
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It is also important to leave a copy of the updated software on board, attaching it to the Log
Book of the aircraft.
The uploading of files and databases is requested:

 Periodically, to update files that are necessary for the Flight Management System
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(FMS) functions and for the Jeppesen electronic chart.
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 To load a flight plan, generated on an external computer and stored on a CD-ROM or

on a memory PC-CARD.
The uploading of databases from the cockpit is controlled through the CMC as follows:
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 Power on the avionic system of the aircraft.

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 Insert the appropriate CD-ROM in the corresponding Data Management Unit (DMU)
drive.
 Display the CMC maintenance window on the MFD.
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 Activate the Data Loading System (DLS) by selecting DATA LOADER on the CMC menu.
 Click on the FULL LOAD button for an automatic loading of the files.
 Move the cursor on the list, using the CCD knob, and select the appropriate DMU
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drive. In this way the file list is expanded.
 Move the cursor on the list of the files and select the file to be uploaded by clicking on
the CCD enter key.
 Click on the SELECT FILE button to initiate the configuration check of the modules to be
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loaded.
 Click on the START LOAD button to launch the selected file loading. Then a message
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confirms the completion of the process.
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13.10.3 Electronic library system
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With the use of Windows based maintenance applications on the access terminals, it is now
possible to load and use maintenance manuals electronically through the CMC.
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Electronic Library System (ELS) is developed to be used in commercial aircraft. This system
supplements and replaces the conventional paper manuals with electronically stored data. The
ELS provides a high degree of cockpit automation and an improved functionality for many
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avionics applications. Many airline operations will benefit from the cost savings that this
system will offer, particularly regarding maintenance operations.
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The availability of digital flight information has achieved a main importance in aviation
industry. Electronic library systems can offer immediate information such as manuals,
checklists, maps, charts and speed calculations. It is also possible to have displays showing
various situations.
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Generally, these systems are interfaced with other aircraft systems in order to offer updated
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information at all times. All information is then easily accessible and integrated with other
systems.
Electronic libraries allow to have all data required by the crew in a single place and available
for everyone at the same time.
Some typical functions of electronic libraries include:
 Flight manuals
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 Normal procedures
 Emergency procedures
 Flight information: flight plans, performance, weight and balance calculations, etc.
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 Communications
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Electronic library communications are usually performed through an Ethernet LAN or optic
reader units on board. Information can also be transferred to the ground through different
communication channels.
On board manuals will give the opportunity to look at the FIM and AMM without actually
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leaving the aircraft. Caution needs to be taken when using this kind of information, in order to
check that data are current and whether any revision has occurred. Technicians have to be
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very careful with the use of this technology too and they should have some previous idea
about which result to expect.
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13.10.4 Printing
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Because the plane is moving, every extra gram of weight carried in an airplane must be paid
for in extra fuel consumption. Consequently, the amount of paper carried in the flight deck
should be reduced or even eliminated.
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The printing and downloading of maintenance reports can be performed by the maintenance
crew. They can analyze detailed information in case a problem has arisen during the flight. The
maintenance report:
 Can be printed through the optional cockpit printer.
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 Can be downloaded on a PC-CARD, inserted in the appropriate drive of the on board
DMU.
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 Can be downloaded on the hard drive of a laptop connected to the LAN of the system.
Generally, the printer is installed on the central console of the cockpit.

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Fig. 10.10 - Aircraft printer location

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The printer is able to print 80, 64, 40 characters for each row of the document, for a maximum
of 120 rows per minute. The printer is equipped with a roll of paper with specific dimensions,
commonly 2.1 inches per 4.375 inches, and inserted in the frontal access port of the device.
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In the last part of the roll there is a lateral red line, which indicates that the device is running
out of paper. Moreover, the printer is also equipped with a cut automatic device, in order to
guarantee a linear cut of the paper.
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Fig. 10.11 - Aircraft printer
The airborne printer uses the ARINC 429 data bus at low speed, through which until 12 inputs
can be transmitted. The data sent by the CMC through these data buses are transformed by
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some internal devices in a language used by the printer itself.
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The aircraft printer can operate both manually and automatically. In manual mode the
documents are printed after a manual input is provided through the CDU to select which data
and reports have to be printed. In automatic mode the reports are automatic printed only if
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the print function has been implemented in the aircraft systems. Generally, the automatic
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print is under the entry “post flight record”. This print is done when the aircraft engines are
shut down and its content includes data of the last leg and ECAM reports.
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The aircraft printer constantly controls its internal most critical parameters, in order to
guarantee a good quality of print. The parameters that are generally controlled are:
 The reading level of buffer
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 The correct running of the paper
 The closure of the door of the printer
 The power feed
 The operative temperature
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 The correct use by different aircraft systems
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If during the analysis of one parameter, the printer detects a malfunctioning, a message is sent
to the on board maintenance system, and some lights switch on.
The printing and the downloading of maintenance reports are performed as follows:
 Display the CMC maintenance window on a MFD.
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 Reach the CMC window named CMC REPORTS from the CMC menu by selecting the
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items MAINTENANCE, then EXTENDING MAINTENANCE and REPORTS.

 Move the cursor on the list of available reports with the CCD knob to select the report
to be printed or downloaded.
 Click on the selected report name through the CCD. In this way the list of the available
devices for printing or downloading is opened. The devices that can be chosen are:
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o Cockpit printer
o Local storage, that must be selected to download the file on a laptop hard drive
o A DMU PC-CARD.
 Select one of the above listed devices through the CCD knob.
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 Launch the print or download operation by clicking on the CCD enter key. When the
operation is complete, a message will appear at the bottom of the screen.
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Fig. 10.12 - Printing procedures

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Next generation printers installed on modern liners have the following features and
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specifications:
 Full graphics capability with high resolution.
 Full Format (A4/B4 width).
 Multiport input/parallel processing (centronics, RS232, Ethernet, ARINC 429 HS & LS).
 Larger buffer memory.
 Similarity between aircraft types, for cockpit and cabin.
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These printers are certified to work with software DO178B level D and Environmental DO160D,
and interface:
 In the cockpit, with ACARS, EFB, Aircraft Condition Monitoring, Central Maintenance,
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FANS environment, Onboard Information Network (AFIS), Cabin Maintenance, In-flight
Entertainment.
 In the cabin, with IFE system and cabin maintenance.
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Specific features to signal are passive cooling, abort switch presence and anti-jamming
features embedded. The buffer size is up to 10 Megabytes.
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13.10.5 Structure monitoring
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Structure monitoring on aircraft
The damage tolerance is the ability to withstand damage. The term is most often used in
aerospace engineering. The damage tolerance admits the possibility to have some
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imperfections on instruments, such as initial cracks or fatigue cracks, without compromising
the safety of an aircraft during its planned mission. In this case, the following conditions must
be met:
 If some cracks are generated, the structure must be able to support them without
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catastrophic effects.
 The crack identification happens in reasonable time and its speed of propagation must
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be slow, in order to detect it in useful time.
The crack always origins in a critical area of the structure or component. The phases of a
fatigue failure are:
 Formation of cracks.
 Crack propagation.
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 Broken piece.
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Fig. 10.13 - Crack formation

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The philosophy of safe life provides that structural elements are not subjected to any type of
fracture in their operational lifetime.
 To ensure that, both from an analytical and an experimental point of view high scatter
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factors are provided.
 Once the limit is reached, the structural element is replaced, although not apparently
showing any kind of break,
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 It is still used for structural elements for which it is impossible to introduce
redundancy, or for those elements for which any damage (cracks) is not detectable by
inspection, unless critical.
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Damage Tolerance philosophy was introduced at the beginning of the 70s due to a series of
accidents on F111 aircraft. A crack present in the area of attack of the angle variation system
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leads to the loss of the aircraft.

The fail-safe concept has gone one step further by assuming that the time required to create a
cracks in a structure is zero.
 It is assumed that in a critical area, previously identified during the design stage, a
crack is present from the beginning of the operational life.
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 The size of the defect is taken by definition as the greatest value of defect not
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detectable through the inspection tools in use.

 A structure is then defined as damage tolerant if, in presence of a defect due to
impact, fatigue or corrosion, its operational life is not altered. The damaged structure
is supposed to support loads without catastrophic failure, until the defect is identified
during maintenance inspections.
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The purpose of DT philosophy for metal structure is to define for each structural element
calendar inspections so that the cracks (already present or formed as a result of use) do not
propagate up to failure before it identified.
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This applies to all the main structural elements, except those for which the
manufacturer can prove that the DT approach is not practicable, in which case an
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approach safe-life is adopted with appropriate scatter factors

• A main structural element is one whose failure results in the loss of the entire
aircraft. May respond to one of these characteristics: low safety margins, high
concentrations of effort and high speed of propagation of the cracks.
• In general, there are a hundred of these elements for each aircraft: the number and
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location depends on the type of aircraft.
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Damage Tolerance philosophy reaches the desired level of security through the use of three
distinct elements:
• Damage limit: the maximum damage that the structure is able to sustain.
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• Growth of the damage: the interval of damage propagation between the minimum
size and the detectable limit damage.
• Inspection program: a schedule of periodic inspections made for monitoring the
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damage.
Main steps for Damage Tolerance Analysis:

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• Selection of main structural elements.
• Identification of the range of stress agents.
• Definition of environmental agents.
• Definition of the speed of propagation of the crack.
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• Determination of the resistance to fracture.
• Determination of the critical size under load limit for each position of the crack.
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• Determination of the crack growth curves for each point analyzed.

• Given the large number of points to be analyzed, it is impossible to do it
experimentally -> importance of analytical tools based on fracture mechanics (MDF).
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Structure monitoring on helicopter
Structure monitoring in helicopters is performed by Health Usage and Monitoring Systems
(HUMS).
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The HUMS is an integrated on-board avionic system consisting of two main functions, Health
Monitoring and Usage Monitoring. The health monitoring provides automatic and manual
monitoring of the health of the dynamic components of the helicopter, in order to analyze the
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vibrations that act on the structure. The usage-monitoring component instead continuously
records operating times and flight parameters. The HUM system has been designed to meet
the following requirements:
 Monitoring rotor balance data.
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 Analysis of vibration data.
 Detection of any parameters of the rotor, of transmission or of airframe.
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 Execution of engine power checks, also providing advisory indications.

 Detection of component usage.
In detail, typical HUMS Kit functions are:

 Transmission Vibration Monitoring (TVM)
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 Usage Monitoring (UM) encompassing
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o Logbook data
o Transmission Usage Monitoring (TUM);
 Structural Usage Monitoring (SUM)
 Rotor Track and Balance (RTB)
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HUMS kits include the following components:
 TVM accelerometers: accelerometers are used by the system to detect the vibrations
amplitude and are installed along the whole helicopter structure, in particular on the
transmission components. The number of accelerometers installed is variable
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 RTB Accelerometers: these are installed in proximity of the main and tail rotor.
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 One Tail Rotor Magnetic sensor: this is installed on tail rotor area close to the RTB
accelerometer.
 One Load Factor Accelerometer: this is installed at the bottom of the helicopter in
order to capture the real-time load factor data.
 Data Transfer Devices: they are installed in the cockpit (usually two) and enhance the
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downloading of data to portable storage units (typically PCMCIA card).
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SUM is based on Flight Condition Recognition (FCR) algorithms. Monitoring occurs from engine
start to engine shut off. Data commonly recorded in the system are:
 Time History of several flight parameters at 8/16 Hz.
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 SUM histogram based on available Flight Condition Types.
 Flight condition history, in which each record consists of:
o Time of day and Date the condition started.
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o Flight Condition duration.
o Average value of attitude angles, normal and longitudinal acceleration,
engines torque, barometric and radar altitude, vertical speed, roll rate and
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pitch rate.
Pilots can view and monitor this data via the cockpit Multi-Function Display (MFD) so to take
informed decisions.
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Data Transfer Devices for data downloading typically consists of flash card. DTD can be
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formatted with a standard PC. Files can be viewed, deleted and transferred with a standard PC
and dedicated software, which is normally required to initialize the card for HUMS use.
Initialization consists of writing a number of standard files to the DTD. In some systems, files
will be oversized to handle more than 25 hours of data.
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To transfer data the airborne system can be connected to a portable computer; however, the
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vulnerability of the latter as well as accidental damages must be considered.

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Cat. B2 - 13.11 Air conditioning and cabin pressurization
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13.11 Air conditioning and cabin
pressurization
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13.11.1 Air supply
The use of already compressed air is an advantage on aircraft. The most common uses of the
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compressed air are connected to the pressurization and conditioning system, to the anti-ice
protection and to engine start up system.
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There are 3 methods to provide compressed air:

 The engine bleeding, especially when the aircraft has some turbine engines.
 The generation through the APU (Auxiliary Power Unit).
 The generation through some ground support equipment.
Engine bleeding
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The method to embezzle-air from the engine (more precisely from a compressor), is especially
employed when the aircraft is on flight. The compressed air generation can happen through
two types of compressors:
 Volumetric compressors.
 Turbo compressors.
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The volumetric compressors pressurize an air mass, reducing its volume. The turbo-
compressors pressurize the air, accelerating it both radially and axially.
Normally, on board of jet aircraft the air is directly bled from the engine compressor, usually at
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two different stages. A first low-pressure tapping is done at the eighth stage of the
compressor, while the second, at high pressure, occurs at the fifteenth stage. With this
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method it is possible to embezzle only a small air percentage (2-8%) and obtain a remarkable
quantity of pneumatic energy.
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Fig. 11.1 - Aircraft engine

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APU
The APU is an auxiliary power unit installed on board. It is composed of a small gas turbine,
which provides energy when all engines are switched-off. It is usually located in the tail cone of
the aircraft.
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Fig. 11.2 - APU
The APU is generally used when the aircraft is on ground, in order to activate the conditioning
system and provide compressed air needed for the engine to start up.
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The quantity of air produced by the APU is greater than that generated by the engine
compressor.
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Ground support equipment
The air start unit (ASU) is a ground support handling equipment, which is employed in airport
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when the APU is not operative or cannot be used for any reason. An ASU is a vehicle with a
built-in gas turbine engine that, during the start-up phase, gives the quantity of air needed to
start the engine. The ASU blows the airflow into the turbines engines.
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Fig. 11.3 - ASU
When aircraft must stay on ground for a long period and has to maintain in operation the
conditioning system to guarantee comfort conditions to passenger or when the APU is
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inoperative for particular reasons, an air conditioning unit (ACU) is employed. This unit is
generally a mobile cart; however, in modern airports it is a ground fixed system, which
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provides conditioned air to the aircraft.

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Fig. 11.4 - GPU

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13.11.2.1 Air conditioning system
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General characteristics
On aircraft, the air conditioning system has the task of maintaining comfortable environmental
conditions in relation to temperature, humidity and air composition, during all flight phases.
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The air conditioning system must be designed so that it is able to extract and introduce heat
into the cabin. This system must be able to guarantee comfort conditions also in critical
situations.
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To guarantee the redundancy of the system, the air conditioning system must be double, in
order to provide an adequate air flow to passengers and crew. Each air conditioning system
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includes separated controls for ventilation, temperature, humidification and filtration.

The correct ventilation of the aircraft is achieved by controlling the rate of air that enters and
exits from the cabin. This aspect is closely connected with the aircraft pressurization. The
temperature control is achieved by controlling the temperature of the air supply. The
humidification must control the amount of water vapor in terms of relative humidity. If this
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parameter is too high, the environment becomes sticky, while if it is too low, the room
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temperature seems colder than it actually is. The filtration is very important in order to
guarantee that the air in the cabin is free from debris.
The structure of the air conditioning systems depends on the aircraft type on which they are
installed.
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Small aircraft
On small not pressurized aircraft there is not a real conditioning system, but they are equipped
with a ram air system. These systems are characterized by the fact that the air entering in the
fuselage comes from outside. For this reason, it has the pressure and temperature of the
external environment. The air that comes from outside is filtered and heated, before entering
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in the aircraft cabin through a series of ducts.
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The main problem of this system is how to heat the air. The air can be heated using an engine
exhaust heat exchanger or a combustion heater.
System with exhaust heat exchanger

The ram air coming from a forward facing air duct passes through a heat exchanger together
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with the hot exhaust gasses of engine. Then, once the air has been heated, it enters in a
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chamber in which cold air coming from another aircraft intake flows. Some mechanically
operated valves control the hot and cold air flows in order to reach the desired temperature.
At this point the air mixture is sent into the cabin.
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This system has the great advantage of being cheap and efficient. However, it is also very
dangerous in case of an internal leak. This damage can cause carbon monoxide poisoning. In
addition, this system does not operate if the aircraft is stationary or no fan is installed.
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Fig. 11.5 - Exhaust heat exchanger
System with combustion heater

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In some cases it is possible to have combustion heaters using the fuel of the aircraft to heat
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the air. The air needed for the combustion is provided by a fan, while the fuel is directly taken
by the aircraft fuel system.
The air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug and the exhaust gases travel through the exhaust
outlet. The ram air destined to the cabin passes through the heater: in this way, it is heated by
the contact with the outer surfaces.
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Fig. 11.6 - System with combustion heater

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Large aircraft
During normal flight on large pressurized aircraft, the air used in the air conditioning system is
bled by the engine. Consequently, the introduction of the heat in the aircraft cabin does not
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represent a problem because hot air can be taken directly from the compressor. However,
unless having to deal with a night flight in a very cold area, in most cases the heat has to be
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reduced. By mixing the hot air, taken by the engine, with cold air passed through a
refrigerating cycle, it is possible to obtain the air at correct temperature and humidity for the
desired environmental cabin conditions. This task is performed by the trim air valve.
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Fig. 11.7 - Air conditioning system operation
It is important to remember that the air conditioning system also employs a certain amount of
recycled air coming from the cabin. This air, after being filtered to remove impurities, is mixed
with the “new air flow”.
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13.11.2.2 Air cycle and vapor cycle machines
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The cooling of air can be performed in specific packs, through two different cycles:
 Air cycle.
 Vapor cycle.
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Fig. 11.8 - Air-cooling
The number of cooling packs depends on the aircraft size. When the aircraft cabin is divided
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into different zones and it is necessary to install more than one pack, each pack works
independently in order to provide air for each compartment that requires it.
The pack (also called air conditioning pack or cold air unit) consists of a turbine that drives a
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compressor on a common rotor shaft. The turbine wheel and the compressor wheel are
similar: they consist of a cast wheel and some blades made of aluminum alloy. However, the
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turbine wheel rotates within a nozzle ring, while the compressor wheel rotates within a
diffuser ring.
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Fig. 11.9 - Air conditioning pack
Air cycle machines

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The most common refrigeration cycles used on aircraft are air cycles. They are thermodynamic
cycles in which air undertakes the required transformations in order to reach the desired
temperature and pressure conditions. The refrigeration theoretical cycle is a reverse Joule
cycle.
The reverse Joule cycle is composed of different phases. The external air flows into the
compressor, where it is subjected to compression. Then, an isobaric cooling takes place and an
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expansion occurs through the turbine, until the pressure present in cabin is reached.
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Fig. 11.10 - Standard air cycle machine

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Fig. 11.11 - Standard refrigeration cycle

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The standard refrigeration cycle is often modified, so that efficiency can be increased. A
bootstrap cycle is employed for this task. In this cycle the fluid is subjected to two
compressions and passes through two heat exchangers, before entering the turbine. The heat
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changers have the aim of reducing air temperature before it enters in the compressor and in
the turbine. The heat exchanger located before the compressor is called pre-cooler, while that
placed between the compressor and the turbine is called inter-cooler.
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The fan connected to turbine and compressor colds them when the aircraft is on ground.
When the aircraft is in flight the cooling of these elements is provided by the air that enters
due to the aircraft motion.
It is important to explain the functioning of the water separator installed in these machines.
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The water separator is a device that impresses a whirling pattern to the air, in order to
facilitate the formation of microscopic water drops. These drops are collected and drained, so
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that in the aircraft cabin there are no fog and water, caused by condensation.
The bootstrap cycle allows to obtain a lower air temperature if compared to the standard
refrigeration cycle.
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Fig. 11.12 - Bootstrap air cycle machine

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Fig. 11.13 - Bootstrap refrigeration cycle
Since the temperature reduction through the turbine is greater than 100°C, other devices are
connected to these systems in order to reduce their cooling capacities and reach different
temperatures. These devices are:
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 Ram Air Inlet (RAI).
 Ram Air Outlet (RAO).
 Turbine By-pass Valve (TBV).
The functioning of these components is connected to a logic sequence, which depends on the
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temperature requested. The RAI and the RAO control the airflow through the heat exchangers
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and consequently they determine the air-cooling, before air flows into the turbine. The TBV
instead regulates the amount of air flowing into the turbine to be cooled.
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Vapor cycle machines
Although rarely used, refrigerating vapor cycles can still be employed. In these systems the air-
cooling is performed through a refrigerant fluid, that is a chemical compound undergoing
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refrigeration. The main characteristic of this refrigerating fluid is that it is able to absorb heat
during its transformation into a gas.
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The major components of a typical vapor cycle machines are: a liquid receiver, a thermostatic
expansion valve, an evaporator, a turbo-compressor and a condenser.
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Fig. 11.14 - Vapor cycle machines
The refrigerant fluid is stored into the liquid receiver. From this reservoir the fluid passes from
the thermostatic expansion valve and it reaches the evaporator. In the evaporator the hot air
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coming from engines is released into the fluid in order to boil it. At this point, the air can flow
into the aircraft cabin.
The vaporized refrigerant fluid flows into the compressor, where it reaches high temperature
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and high pressure. Then, the hot gas enters the condenser and is cooled by the ram air coming
from outside of aircraft. In this way the gas condenses into liquid and is pumped back to the
liquid receiver, where it can start a new refrigeration cycle.
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Vapor cycles are more efficient than air cycles. However, vapor cycles have a more delicate
construction and maintenance. In systems with a vapor cycle, it is convenient to adopt a
recycle of the fuselage air, limiting the introduction of new air only to the need for renewing
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the atmosphere inside the aircraft cabin.
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13.11.2.3 Distribution systems
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The distribution net of the air conditioning system consists in a ducting net, whose layout
depends on the type of aircraft.
The distribution system has two main segments:
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 The net for cockpit and passenger cabin.
 The net for cargo compartments.
Cockpit and passenger cabin
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Generally, the air conditioning system has a net of conducts with some branches and different
air vents located in the cabin, in order to guarantee a uniform temperature in the whole
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compartment. On board of a passenger aircraft two main conducts are installed (one on the
right side of the fuselage and one on the left) from which many air vents are branched.
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Fig. 11.15 - Basic layout of air conditioning distribution system

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Cargo compartment
In the cargo compartment, the fresh air cannot be continually provided in order to facilitate
the extinction of possible fires. However, especially on large commercial aircraft, it is very
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important to have the possibility to send hot air into the cargo compartments, particularly
when transporting animals.
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Moreover, in the cabin floor some valves, which equalize the pressure of the cabin with the
pressure of the cargo compartments, are installed.
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Fig. 11.16 - Air conditioning distribution system in the cargo compartment
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13.11.2.4 Flow, temperature and humidity control system
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Flow control system
The rate of air entering the aircraft cabin is regulated by some mass flow control valves. These
valves have the aim of maintaining constant the rate of supplied air, even if the speeds of
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engines and compressor vary. When the air is supplied by an engine driven compressor, a spill
valve is installed, while when the air is directly bled by the compressor of engine, a variable
orifice valve is installed.
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Variable orifice valve
The variable orifice valve is characterized by a variable orifice, whose section is set according
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to the airflow pressure entering the valve. This valve is composed of a body housing, a spring-
loaded piston and an acorn-shaped valve assembly.
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Fig. 11.17 - Variable orifice valve
When the piston is at its maximum extension, the orifice is at its maximum diameter; while,
when the piston is in rest position, the orifice is at its minimum diameter. Consequently, if the
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piston is at its maximum extension and the air pressure (bled from the engine) overcomes the
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spring load, the piston goes in rest position and the orifice becomes smaller. In this way, the
amount of output air is maintained constant.
It is important to underline that on large aircraft the variation of the orifice is electrically
operated, according to the signals felt by sensors installed in the ducting.
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Temperature control system
The final temperature regulation of the air introduced into the cabin is obtained by mixing the
air, which has done the refrigerating cycle, with that taken directly from the compressor. This
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means that the temperature control is performed by modulating the valves installed in the
ducting of hot and cold air.
The methods adopted to control temperature depend on the type of aircraft and on the air
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conditioning system installed. The temperature control can be:
 Manual or mechanical.
 Automatic.
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The manual control is mainly employed on aircraft that use an engine exhaust heating system.
In this case, the flight crew increases or decreases the cabin temperature by manually
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regulating the actuator connected to the valves that controls the proportions of hot and cold
air.
On aircraft that use air cycle methods of cooling, the temperature control is automatic. In this
case, the valves of the air conditioning system are automatically modulated. The system is
made of temperature sensing elements (located in passenger cabin and in the cockpit) and
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automatic control unit. These components are electrically interconnected, forming a resistance
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bridge circuit.
The circuit compares the air temperature present in the aircraft cabin with the parameters set
by the pilot. When the two values are equal, the bridge is in balance. If the bridge detects a
difference between the cabin temperature and the set value, it becomes of balance and an
error signal is generated. This signal is amplified and then fed to the temperature control valve
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actuator, which regulates the valve (also called temperature control valves) in order to adjust
the mixture of hot and cold air. The actuator stops working when in the bridge the balance is
restored. At this point, the temperature control valve is held in its new position.
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Fig. 11.18 - Example of temperature control system
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Humidity control system
A dedicated circuit, made of humidifiers that increase the air relative humidity, regulates the
humidity rate in the cabin. The humidifiers are important during long flight at high altitude, in
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order to reduce physical discomfort problems caused by low relative humidity levels.
The humidifiers are supplied with water, generally taken by the potable water system of the
aircraft, and with air under pressure. The water and the air flows are controlled by
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electromagnetic valves and pass through a jet nozzle within the humidifiers. In this way, water
is atomized and sprayed into the aircraft cabin through the ducting system.
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Fig. 11.19 - Humidifier
The humidifiers can be activated automatically or manually, according to the aircraft design. If
the system is automatic, the humidifiers are automatically activated when, during the climb,
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the aircraft reaches 10000 ft and they are automatically switched off when, during the
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descent, the aircraft reaches that altitude.

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13.11.3.1 Pressurization system
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The air conditioning is a process in which the air flowing into the cabin is regulated in
temperature and humidity in order to improve the passengers’ comfort.
On large aircraft the air conditioning system is inter-connected to a system of pressurization.
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During the pressurization process the cabin pressure is regulated in order to not exceed the set
limits in terms of pressure and oxygen concentration.
Human health limits
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To ensure the passengers’ wellness, it is important to control the partial oxygen pressure. On
average the oxygen percentage in the atmosphere is around 20 %, but at an increasing altitude
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the air becomes more rarefied. Consequently, in order to ensure a correct human-body activity
at high altitude, where both the oxygen concentration and the air pressure are reduced, a
correct value of the partial pressure of oxygen must be established.
In fact, when not enough oxygen is present in the cabin, crew and passengers may experience
a loss of consciousness and eventually die. These problems are clinically known as hypoxia and
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anoxia. It is necessary that all crewmembers are able to recognize the symptoms:
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 Poorer vision.
 Lack of concentration.
 A feeling of drunkenness.
 Inability to recognize and to correct wrong actions.
 General unconsciousness.
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Pressurization methods
The pressurization of an aircraft can be performed in two ways:
 By increasing the air total pressure inside the cabin.
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 By increasing the oxygen percentage in the air.
In aeronautic, pressurization is commonly performed by increasing the air pressure inside the
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fuselage. However, the total air pressure inside the cabin must be increased until a limit value,
which is generally equal to the air pressure at 8000 ft of height. In fact, below this altitude the
human body is in a comfortable condition and the load on the aircraft fuselage is not
excessive. In addition, in order to compensate the oxygen used by passengers, a continuous air
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contribution is required.
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When the cabin is pressurized, its internal pressure is called cabin altitude. In other words, the
cabin altitude is the pressure present in the aircraft cabin at a given altitude. If for example a
pressure of 11 psi is measured in the cabin, the cabin altitude is 8000 ft, because the air has
this pressure value at an altitude equal to 8000 ft.
An important principle can be deduced: the pressure inside the aircraft is always greater (or at
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least equal) to the outside air pressure (or ambient pressure). In addition, it is also important
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to underline that the variation of the cabin pressure must respect specific values and do not
exceed the established limits. The limits are defined taking into account human physiology.
Generally, the rate of variation of the cabin pressure must range between 300 and 500 ft/min.
The cabin pressurization is obtained by introducing in the fuselage air coming from the engine
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and processed by the conditioning system. The pressurized air is pumped into the sealed
fuselage with a pressure value appropriate to the flight altitude, up to the designed maximum
value. Then, the air is released from the fuselage through a device, called outflow valve. Since
the air flows into the fuselage with a constant flow, the outflow valve, by regulating the air
exit, is the main controlling element of the pressurization system.
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The amount of air flowing through the outflow valve is determined by the opening degree of
the valve. This valve is controlled by an automatic system, which can be set by the flight crew.
In the event of a malfunction of the automatic controls, manual controls are also provided.
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Fig. 11.20 - Aircraft pressurization system

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Aircraft structure limitations

The main problem connected to the design and installation of the pressurization system
concern the structural strength of the aircraft. The aircraft fuselage must be able to support
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high pressure differences (between inside and outside) and compressor-decompression cycles
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during every flight. A commercial aircraft is usually designed to stand a differential pressure
ranging from 6 psi to 9 psi.
Generally, on large aircraft the cockpit, the passenger cabin and the cargo compartments are
pressurized, while landing gear compartments and the tail cone are not. In these areas
reinforced structural elements, such as bulkheads, are often located. For this reason, the front
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and rear bulkheads of the cabin are the most critical aircraft regions, if we consider fatigue
problems and structural failures.
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Diagram of pressurization
Due to human limits and aircraft structure limitations the aircraft pressurization must follow
an ideal diagram.
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Fig. 11.21 - Simplified pressurization profile
The ideal pressurization profile of an aircraft can be described as follows. In point A the aircraft
is on ground with the doors open: the cabin altitude is equal to the air pressure. At point B the
aircraft doors are closed and the aircraft is in the take-off run phase. In point C the aircraft is in
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climb: the cabin altitude climbs at the same rate as the aircraft altitude, until the
pressurization starts. At point D the aircraft pressurization is active. As the aircraft continues to
climb, the cabin pressure increases until the pressure equivalent of 8000 ft is reached.
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However, in practice the system of pressurization follows a modified profile, as represented in
Fig. 11.22.
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Fig. 11.22 - Real pressurization profile
Generally, the aircraft cabin has already been pressurized before the take-off. The value of
pressurization is about a quarter of a psi. sw
During the climb and the descent phases, the system follows the pressurization rates selected
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by the pilot. These rates are usually lower than the aircraft climb rates.
After the take-off and during the climb phase the cabin altitude increases, consequently the
cabin pressure decreases. When the aircraft reaches the cruise altitude, the maximum cabin
altitude is reached. During the climb phase the cabin altitude decreases and consequently the
pressure increases.
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After the landing phase, the cabin remains pressurized until the doors are opened. The value
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of pressurization is about 1/20 psi.

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13.11.3.2 Control and indication including control and safety valves
Operational modes of pressurization system
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The pressurization system of the aircraft can operate in three different modes:
 Automatic.
 Semi-automatic.
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 Manual.
If the system operates in the automatic mode, the cabin altitude is automatically regulated by
a pressure controller. This device works according to a program that considers the flight
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altitude and the flight profile. In this case, the pilot sets the flight profile and the height of the
airport destination. The height of the departure airport is automatically detected by the
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system.
If the system operates in semi-automatic mode, the pressure is regulated by the pressure
controller, but the pilot must manually set the flight altitude and the cabin pressure ratio.
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The manual control of the cabin pressure is performed through a specific switch, directly
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connected to the outflow valves of the aircraft. Nowadays, this system is used only in case of a
failure in the automatic pressure control systems.
Pressure control
The regulation of the cabin pressurization is managed by controlling the amount of air expelled
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into the external atmosphere. In this way, a continuous air refill is guaranteed. It is important
to remember that the air, generated by the refrigerating cycle and mixed with that coming
from the engines, is introduced into the cabin with a controlled capacity, in relation to the
airflow passed through the outflow valve (also called discharge valve). This valve works in
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combination with another important device aimed at controlling the pressure value inside the
cabin. This device is called pressure controller.
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Fig. 11.23 - Control of output air quantity
Pressure controller and outflow valve

The pressure controller is connected to the outflow valve: it sends signals to the valve in order
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to regulate its aperture. These signals are generated after the pressure controlled has analyzed
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different parameters, such as:

 The moment in which the pressurization starts.
 The rate with which the cabin pressure changes.
 The value of the cabin different pressure, calculated as the difference between the
value of the pressure inside the aircraft and the outside air pressure.
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The outflow valve controls the amount of air that is discharged out of the fuselage, in response
to the pressure signal emitted by the pressure controller. These valves can be controlled:
 By an electric actuator.
 In a pneumatic way. sw
 Manually.
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They are usualy located in the lower part of the central fuselage. In the past outflow valves
opened into the fuselage of the aircraft, while modern valves open outside the fuselage.
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A typical modern outflow valve is shown below. It is important to note that the outflow valve
has often some teeth, which have the function to reduce the aerodynamic noise. In addition,
the appearance caused by the teeth should work as a reminder, in order to prevent people
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from putting their hands or other objects inside.
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Fig. 11.24 - Outflow valve
When the aircraft is on ground, the valves are maintained in a complete open position, in
order to ensure an air exchange, even if the air conditioning system is activated. After the
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take-off the valves moves towards the closed position, which is never reached in order to
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guarantee the air exchange during the flight.

Only in case of failure the outflow valve closes, preserving the cabin pressure for a time
interval sufficient to lead the aircraft at an altitude where the pressurization is not necessary.
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Inward relief valves and safety valves
To understand the function of the relief and safety valves, it is important to remember that the
aircraft structure must be able to stand pressure forces directed outwards, when the
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differential pressure is positive (internal pressure is greater than the external one) and
inwards, when the external pressure is greater than the internal one (negative differential
pressure). This latter situation rarely occurs, a part for example in case of a steep dive.
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Since the case of negative differential pressure is the most dangerous one, the aircraft is
equipped with valves, called inward relief valves, which automatically open, when the external
pressure is above a certain value. In other words, the inward relief valve limits any possible
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negative differential pressure to a safe value.
Generally, the inward relief valve is activated when the external pressure is higher than the
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cabin pressure of about 0.5-1 psi. However, in the cockpit some advisory labels, indicating the
values of differential pressure to not exceed, are located near the control panel of the
pressurization system. sw
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Fig. 11.25 - Inward relief valve

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The safety valve operates when the difference between the cabin pressure and the external
pressure exceeds a specific limit value, established by the manufacturer. This commonly works
if the pressure controller or the outflow valve present failures. Generally, safety valves are
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activated when the cabin pressure exceeds 0.25 psi. Two safety valves are present on board,
located above and below the outflow valve.
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Fig. 11.26 - Safety valve
According to the aircraft design, the inward relief valve and the safety valve can be two
separate units or they can be integrated in a unique valve, known as safety and inward relief
valve.
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13.11.3.3 Cabin pressure controllers
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Pressurization system controls
The pressurization system controls are connected to those of the air conditioning system, and
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are located in the cockpit on the overhead control panel.
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Fig. 11.27 - Pressurization system control panel

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Switches indicated by number 1 allow the regulation of temperature in different areas of the
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aircraft. Button number 2 regulates the hot air pressure and quantity. On this button an amber
light, indicating that a failure is occurring, is present. Button number 3 controls the different
conditioning packs. An amber light, indicating that a failure is occurring, is installed on it too.
Switch number 4 permits the selection of pack valve flows according to the number of
passengers and in relation to ambient conditions. Button 5 regulates the ram airflow. Buttons
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6 and 7 permits the control of the airflow coming from engines 1 and 2. On this button an
amber light, indicating that a failure is occurring, is installed. Switch number 8 activates the X
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bleed valve. (The function of this valve will be described in module 11).
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During the flight, on glass cockpit aircraft, the functioning of the pressurization system is
monitored through the ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor). On its displays data are
shown on different pages:
 The BLEED page concerns the air supplied to the system.
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 The AIR COND page informs about the air conditioning system.
 The PRESS page shows data related to the pressurization and ventilation of the
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equipment compartments.
 The CRUISE page registers temperature and pressure in different areas of the cabin.
Data are displayed according to the standard colors code:
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 Red to indicate danger.
 Amber or yellow to indicate caution.
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 Green or yellow to indicate normal functioning.
On the ECAM pages the following information concerning the pressurization system is
displayed:
 The position and the state of the valves.
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 The state of the different circuits of the system.
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 The value of the cabin differential pressure.

 The rate of the pressure variation inside the aircraft cabin.
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Additional instruments
In the cockpit there are instruments that allow the pilot to control the aircraft pressurization:
 The cabin altimeter.
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 The cabin variometer (vertical speed indicator).
 The cabin differential pressure indicator.
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On oldest aircraft these instruments are analogical, while on glass cockpit aircraft they are
included in the EICAS system screens.
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Fig. 11.28 - Location of cabin altimeter, cabin variometer and cabin differential pressure indicator
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Fig. 11.29 - Example of EICAS visualization
The cabin altimeter indicates the cabin altitude, defined as the atmospheric height at which
the value of the pressure inside the fuselage corresponds. sw
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The cabin variometer controls the pressure rate inside the cabin, measuring the altitude
variation per minutes [ft/min]. The ratios of inside pressure variations of the aircraft must have
specific values:
 During the climb the maximum acceptable value is 500ft/min.
 During the descent the limit value is 250 ft/min.
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It is important to remember that the variation of the cabin altitude is connected to the aircraft
speed of climb and descent.
The cabin differential pressure indicator measures the pressure difference between inside and
outside the aircraft. Generally, the value provided by the instrument is expressed in psi.
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13.11.4.1 Protection and warning devices
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Protection requirements
The pressurization system, as all aircraft system and elements, must comply with specific
requirements, in terms of materials and emergency devices. The main important
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recommendations are:
 The aircraft must be equipped with redundant devices that ensure the safe functioning
of the system.
 The system must be composed of two or more identical able to perform the same
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tasks, in order to ensure the functioning of the global system in case of failure of one
of them.
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 The system must be equipped with manual control that can be used in case of failure
of automatic systems.
 The system must be equipped with warning device that re-call the attention of the
pilot in case of abnormal functioning.
Warning devices
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The most important warning device of the pressurization system is the warning system of the
cabin altitude. This system has a sensor called “Cabin Alt Warning Switch”. It is calibrated at
the value of 10000 ft. When the pressure in the cabin is equal to the value of the atmospheric
pressure at 10000 ft, some luminous red lights switch on and a sounding siren draws pilot
attention. In this case, an emergency descent is required.
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Functional test and control test for leaks detections

In addition, it is very important to execute functional and control tests for leaks detections.
The procedures are described in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM). Usually, the engines
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are in operation when the functional tests are performed, while the external power sources
are connected to aircraft when leaks must be detected. These tests request the presence of
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least two operators in the pressurized area.

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Cat. B2 - 13.12 Fire protection
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The general procedures for the functional tests can be resumed as follows:
 The safety valves must be inhibited and the outflow valve must be completely closed.
 The external doors and windows of the aircraft must be closed, while the internal
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doors must be opened.
 Provide electrical power and put in function the control systems concerning the air
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conditioning and pressurization systems
 Flow the air inside the cabin.
 Control the pressure increase until it reaches the maximum value.
 Check the functioning of the pressure controls separately.
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 Check the automatic activation of the safety valves
 At the end of the tests, the pressure should diminish at a low rate.
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The general procedure for the control tests for leaks detections can be resumed as follows:
 Flow the air in the cabin until the pressure is stabilized on a pre-determined value.
 Close the air source and check the time spent by the pressure to reach the specific
value detailed in the AMM.
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 If the pressure loss is excessive, the cause must be detected and the relative defect
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removed.
 At the end of the tests, before opening the aircraft doors, the differential pressure
between outside and inside the aircraft should be zero.
 Check the aircraft fuselage and the aircraft structural elements in order to detect
possible damages.
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13.12 Fire protection
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13.12.A.1 Fire and smoke detection and warning systems
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The risk of fire on board has to be seriously taken into consideration, despite all precautions
adopted to reduce this possibility to a minimum and to limit the fire propagation. New and
more efficient systems have been developed in this respect. A fire can occur both during the
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flight and after a crash, with disastrous consequence.

During the flight, fires can be caused by different heat sources present on board as well as by
short circuits of the electrical system. Inflammable substances, which are present on aircraft,
such as fuel or lubricant, can promote the propagation. The fire protection system is composed
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of detection and warning system, and an extinguishing one.
These systems are normally located in aircraft areas where there is a potential fire risk. Some
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of these areas have fireproof bulkheads and fireproof linings. The following areas are those
more subjected to fire hazards and must be considered carefully: engines, APUs, fuel tanks,
cargo bays, wheel bays and toilets.
Detectors are based on temperature and smoke measurement. They provide an alarm when a
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temperature higher than a fixed value is detected or when an important smoke concentration
is present. Smoke detectors are based on the air capacity or on the level of particles
concentration.
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Detection systems should show when a fire starts and stops, should not give uncertain
warnings in case of failure, should be checked by the crew from the flight deck and should
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provide audio and video warnings.
Thermal detectors can be divided into:

 Unit detectors.
 Continuous detectors.
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Unit detectors are based on some bimetallic strips opening a contact when the temperature is
higher than a particular value. Continuous detectors are made of a conductor placed into a
semi-conductor material, inside a metallic tube. The system is thus characterized by some
resistance and capacity parameters, on which the thermal control is based. These sensors have
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a great warning reliability, thanks to a double control. In addition, electrical characteristics
quickly vary with temperature variations.
It is important to remember that detection techniques are different according to the aircraft
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area to control. The cabin, where the fire is distinctly visible by passengers and flight
assistants, is normally provided with smoke detectors; while, holds, avionic compartments and
other pressurized areas of the aircraft, which are monitored in view, are provided with both
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smoke detectors and temperature sensors.
Normally, the sensors are designed to create a warning signal after 60 seconds of abnormal
temperature or smoke measurement. This time interval (that is apparently long) is necessary
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to avoid false signals, which can cause hazardous consequences, such as diversionary landing
manoeuvres or the deactivation of important flight equipment by the pilot. For the same
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reason, some detection systems are designed to provide a warning signal only when more
sensors measure high temperatures or high smoke concentration. However, in all cases a
warning signal is sent to the control panel in the cockpit, so that the pilot can verify if there is
actually a fire or if a device is working badly. A main characteristic of these systems is that they
activate a warning message before the fire damages them.
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Nowadays, the traditional cable transmission of signals is substituted by radio transmission,
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which can be easily redundant, sending the same signal with different frequencies. Warning
messages are very important for the crew, because they immediately provide information
about arising problems.
In the past, abnormal conditions were announced by lights placed near instruments or close to
the controls of on board systems. To detect the state of the system, a standard colour code
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was employed:
 Warnings that request an immediate action are coloured in red.
 Cautions are indicated in yellow.
 Green is used to signal a normal operation.
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On modern aircraft the tendency is to group together all warnings in one generic panel. This
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panel is usually an alphanumeric display, which the pilot will look to understand what system
has generated the warning signal. In fact, this screen has also the advantage to provide
information concerning the cause of a given alarm.
We will now present a quick overview of the main detectors used on aircraft.
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Unit detectors
Thermo-couple detectors are used to measure the temperature of jet pipes but they are also
employed for fire detection purposes. When two metals come in contact and are heated, they
produce a small potential difference that increases with temperature.
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Fig. 12.1 - Differential expansion switch
When a certain value of potential difference is reached, a sensitive relay or an electronic circuit
will operate causing a warning in the flight deck. If the fire diminishes, the temperature
decreases as well as the potential difference. As a consequence the warning is cancelled.
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Differential expansion switches are located in fire zones and connected to the DC essential bus
bar and warning systems. They are made of two contacts held apart by a spring assembly,
secured by a metal steel barrel. When temperature increases, the barrel expands lengthwise.
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The metal used to produce the barrel has a coefficient of linear expansion greater than that of
the spring, so that when it straightens, the contacts are closed causing a warning. This unit can
be set to operate at different temperatures.
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There are also photoelectric light detectors that can record visible light. They analyze the light
spectrum giving a warning only when a light coming from a hydrocarbon fire is detected.
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Continuous detectors
These detectors are used for large fire zones in which too many unit detectors should be
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placed.
Gas fire-wires are made of a sealed fire-wire connected at one end to a responder, which is
operated by pressure. The fire-wire consists of a small-bore tube with a titanium hydride core.
Between core and fire-wire there is helium.
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Fig. 12.2 - Gas fire-wire - General layout and cross section
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When temperature increases, the pressure of helium in the fire-wire increases proportionally.
This pressure is measured by the responder and when it reaches the value for which it is set, a
switch closes and connects a DC supply to the warning systems. This system can be used for
both overheat and fire detection.
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When the increase in temperature is small, the increase in helium pressure is not enough to
activate the responder. In this case, the titanium hydride core will release a good amount of
hydrogen that provokes an increase of helium pressure and the activation of the responder.
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Once the temperature drops, the titanium hydride core re-absorbs hydrogen, helium pressure
drops and the warning is cancelled.
Electrical fire-wires form a continuous loop around the fire zone with both ends of the smaller
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tube that enter the control box. A single loop can pass in several zones and the control box is
able to detect where overheat has occurred. An electrical fire-wire has one or two central
electrodes insulated from the outer stainless steel tube by a temperature sensitive material.
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Fig. 12.3 - Electrical fire-wire - Cross section
There are two types of fire-wire:

 Resistance type: the central electrode has a positive voltage applied. When the
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temperature increases, the insulation breaks and the current flows outside the
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grounded fire-wire. This current operates a relay in the control box and activates a
warning.
 Capacitance type: the central electrode and the fire-wire shell represent the armature
of a capacitor, while the insulator between them represents the dielectric. The
capacitance depends on many parameters and one of them is the dielectric constant
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changing with temperature. The core is supplied with half wave AC current. The wire
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stores it during the first half of the cycle and gives it back to the control box during the
second half. When temperature increases, the returned current becomes greater and,
once a pre-set value is reached, it operates a relay of the warning system.
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Smoke detectors
Smoke detectors are generally located in baggage holds, freight bays, toilets and equipment
bays. Most detectors include an electrical air duct system with fans able to draw air from many
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areas of the aircraft.
Photoelectric smoke detectors can be of light scatter type or light absorption type.
Light scatter type detectors are based on the principle according to which, when a light hits a
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photoelectric cell, it produces electric current. A focused beam of light is set to shine on a flat
plate painted with mat black to absorb the light. When there is clean air inside the detector
unit, the light does not reach the photoelectric cell. If some smoke enters the unit, the light
rays start reflecting on the smoke particles and scatter in all directions. These rays hit the
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photoelectric cell and produce electricity. This signal is amplified and causes an aural and
visual warning in the flight deck. When the smoke stops, the opposite happens and the
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warning stops.
There is also the possibility to use two cells connected with a Wheatstone bridge circuit. If a
cell detects smoke, the bridge unbalances and generates an output that causes a warning in
the flight deck.
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Fig. 12.4 - Light scatter smoke detector scheme
Light absorption type detectors have a photoelectric cell accurately located in order to receive
all the light when there is no smoke. When smoke is present, the light that reaches the cell
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reduces and, as a consequence, its electrical output decreases. This activates a warning in the
flight deck.
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Alpha particle detectors are DC operated and contain a double balanced ionization chamber.
One part of the chamber is protected, while the other part is open to the atmosphere. When
smoke enters this second area, an unbalance occurs because alpha particles are absorbed, and
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the current in the ionization chamber decreases causing a warning.
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Fig. 12.5 - Example of detection and extinguishing systems in the cargo bay
Wheel well fire detection system

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Fires can easily spread out as a consequence of heat generated by brakes. Aircraft usually have
systems that monitor the changes in temperature in the wheel well, paying particular
attention to overheating when the landing gear is up. Brakes are also provided with
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temperature sensors so that information about the actual temperature is constantly sent to
the flight deck.
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Pneumatic duct leak detection system
These systems give information about damaged pneumatic ducts. In these ducts temperatures
can rise up to 200°C, so any leak can be a source of fire. Sensors are located on ducts and take
air from the jet engine for pressurization, de-icing and heating.
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Toilet towel bin fire detection system
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This system contains both the detection and the extinguishing systems and is located inside
each towel bin. The bottle is positioned in the upper part of the bin fitted to the slot used for
discarding the paper towels. The nozzles directly point down into the removable waste
container. This detection system has the purpose to detect fires caused by cigarettes.
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Toilet cubical smoke detection system
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Even if smoking on board is not permitted, regulations state that smoke detectors must be
installed in the toilets. The smoke detector is located on the ceiling and activates an aural and
visual alarm. This detection unit includes a sensor, an alarm, a horn and an electronic circuit. A
red alarm indicator is included to give a visual indication of the presence of smoke. There is
also a green indicator to signal the presence of power.
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13.12.A.2 Fire extinguishing systems
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The fire fighting in the cabin is executed by hand, with mobile portable extinguishers. The
interventions in remote areas, such as engines, avionic compartments and cargo holds, are
controlled by some fixed extinguishers, which are installed in proximity of the areas to protect.
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The fluid contained in these extinguishers is held under pressure and sent to the sectors
through pipes. The fire fighting is very difficult in the case of nacelles, where the air flow
disperses the extinguishing fluid, reducing its concentration and so its efficacy.
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Extinguishing systems can be fixed, portable or mixed. Fixed systems are permanently installed
and include extinguisher containers, distribution pipes and controls. These systems are used to
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protect power-plants, APUs, landing gear bays and cargo compartments. Portable systems
include hand fire extinguishers commonly located in various parts of the cabin. Finally, mixed
systems are usually located inside baggage or service compartments. This solution is not really
common and it is realized with fixed pipelines for the distribution and with adapter points, to
which the crew can plug portable extinguishers.
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Fig. 12.6 - Example of a general layout of extinguishing systems

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A fire develops if there is a combination of three factors: the presence of combustible, the
presence of oxygen and a high temperature. All extinguishing systems can operate on one or
more of these factors.
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Airborne extinguishers can be divided in two types:
 Those with Halon.
 Those with inert cold gasses.
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Halon is the trade name of Bromochlorodifluoromethane, or BFC. The principle of Halon
extinguishers is based on the interference between the flame and the oxidant. This causes an
arrest effect on the energy transferred to the non-burnt molecules. Consequently, the
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extinction or at least the slowing down of the combustion is produced. Halon is semi-toxic and
has a slightly corrosive effect. It is normally used in power-plants, APU fire zones and hand
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extinguishers. At room temperature it is gaseous and becomes liquid at -4° C. When BCF comes
in contact with fire, it volatilizes immediately.
Extinguishers with inert cold gasses are based on the principle that when the gas, which is
compressed to the liquid state, reaches the flame, it suffers a cooling and air and oxygen are
put away from the area of the fire.
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Another method that is mainly used on the exterior of the aircraft is that of foaming agents.
These substances are able to separate the fuel from oxygen. Moreover, by releasing water
they produce a cooling. The disadvantage of these systems is that they cannot be employed
where electrical circuits are present, because they contain water.
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When the aircraft must perform an emergency landing or crashes on ground, one of the more
complex problems is that of reducing the possibility of a fire. On most aircraft, especially on
military aircraft, a system, called crash switch, is installed. This system interrupts all electrical
circuits as well as the fuel supply, and it stops the engines. At the same time, it activates all fire
extinguishing systems. Normally, the system is automatically activated but the pilot can also
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switch it on.
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In the last years, new systems have been developed to avoid or slow down the fire
propagation. These systems are based on the introduction in the fuselage of air and an
atomized water mixture. This process can also be performed from outside the aircraft. In this
way, the environment is cooled, fresh air is introduced, the interior of the aircraft is made wet
and the flame propagation together with the emission of toxic gasses is delayed.
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Another important aspect concerns the risk of fire in fuel tanks. When fuel tanks are not
completely full, they contain vapors caused by the fuel itself. These vapors, when in contact
with air, create an easily inflammable mixture.
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This mixture represents a potential source of explosions, provoked by a variety of causes, such
as a lightning or a short circuit of the electrical system.
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Fig. 12.7 - Aircraft fuel tanks
A reduction of the fire risk can be obtained in 2 ways:

 By pressurizing tanks with an inert gas (for example the nitrogen).
 By inserting some reticular fillers into tanks.
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Nitrogen is normally generated on board by filtering systems of air molecules, while the filler is
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a foam able to break the volume of the combustible or of the vapor into many small cells. In
this way the velocity of flame propagation is slowed down. An additional effect of the use of
these fillers is that, when the tank is broken, the leak velocity of the fuel is reduced.
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Regulations state that aircraft used for transport purposes must manage a fire situation at
least twice. This means that in some areas there are two bottles units or one only system that
can be operated twice.
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Fire switches are supplied with a DC current; when the extinguisher switch is activated, current
will flow to the related bottle detonator unit and to the warning light. The detonator unit will
then allow the extinguisher to reach the fire zone by means of a directional flow valve. If the
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fire is not stopped by this procedure, the other bottle is operated by moving the switch to the
second shot position.
Normally, during emergencies, aircraft have systems able to automatically operate all the fire
bottles at the same time.
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Some aircraft are equipped with special rubber crash strips applied beneath the fuselage. If the
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structure touches the ground, two elements of the strip come in contact and close a circuit
activating all the extinguishers.
On some aircraft, when a fire extinguishing system is operated, the pressure inside the
pipelines can push out of the fuselage or of the nacelle a small discharge indicator disc. This
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allows to verify from the outside that the system has been used.
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13.12.A.3 System tests
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All materials must be chosen according to employment conditions, so that they guarantee
adequate fire resistance characteristics and auto-extinguishing parameters. These features are
defined by airworthiness rules according to the aircraft use. The characteristics of the project
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and the modality of tests are also defined by the airworthiness rules of the sector (JAR rules).
In accordance with the fire resistance, materials can be classified as:
 Fire proof materials: its fire resistance must not be smaller than that of stainless steel.
 Fire resistant materials: its fire resistance must be equal to that of aluminum alloys.
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 Flame resistant materials: they do not propagate the flame, when the source is moved
away.
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 Inflammable materials: they promptly light and then explode.
For example tapestries and internal covering of passengers cabin shall be at least flame
resistant, pipes of the fuel system shall be at least fire resistant.
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It is important to do perform fire tests before starting a flight. All systems have a Built In Test
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(BIT) facility; it is possible to have one test button to test the complete system or different
buttons for the various areas. In order to succeed with the BIT, it is necessary that all the
system under evaluation is working properly and not only a part of it.
One of the first things to do before the first flight of the day is the APU FIRE test. To start the
test the pilot must push the APU FIRE TEST button.
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Fig. 12.8 - APU fire test button

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In the cockpit, an acoustic sound is emitted, then the APU FIRE indication illuminates in red
and an APU FIRE warning lights or appears on the ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft
Monitor).
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Then the pilot must complete the external aircraft walk-around. During this walk, he checks all
aircraft structural elements and aircraft systems. Once the pilot is back in the cockpit, he
proceeds with the ENG FIRE test by pushing the ENGINE FIRE TEST button for each engine
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system.
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Fig. 12.9 - Engine fire test buttons
As in the case of the APU test, an acoustic sound is emitted, the ENGINE FIRE indication
illuminates in red and an ENGINE FIRE warning lights or appears on the ECAM. In addition, the
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FIRE light on the engine panel illuminates.
In addition to these tests, maintenance checks must be performed on the extinguishing

systems. An overall check is required to find damages and leaks. Detonator heads and
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cartridge units must be controlled for signs of corrosion and security of attachment. Electrical
cables must be checked for damages and correct fitting. Life limits of all components must
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always be controlled.
The identification code of wires must be correlated to the wiring diagrams of the aircraft and
system function checks must be performed. These checks allow to verify that the wires are
connected to the correct detonators.
Cables must be inspected for chafing, condition of insulation and correct support. If the
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maintenance manual requires it, continuity and insulation tests must be performed.
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Pipes should be blown through with dry air or nitrogen before installation. Then a pressure
test must be performed in accordance to the maintenance manual.
All other components must be checked for life limits, corrosion and damages.
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13.12.B.1 Portable fire extinguisher
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The airplane is equipped with some Halon fire extinguishers. This model of extinguisher is used
on flames of electrical origin. It is composed of:
 A cylinder
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 A trigger handle
 A pressure gauge provided with a green sector, which is used to check the charging
level
 A safety pin
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 A lever
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Fig. 12.10 - Portable fire extinguisher
Before the first flight of the day and before the walk-around, the pilot has to check the
emergency equipment. He must control that the pressure indicator of the fire extinguisher is in
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the green area of the device manometer.
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Fig. 12.11 - Portable fire extinguisher pressure gauge
Maintenance technicians must carry out some checks on fire extinguishers in order to ensure
the correct functioning of all devices.
The bottles must be of the correct type as stated in the aircraft part catalogue and all markings
must be visible. Each bottle must be correctly positioned and investigated for signs of
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corrosion, leakages or damages in general. The bottle life limits are always indicated on it and
it can operate only within those limits. The level of charge of the bottle must be measured
with a weight test and with the bottle gauge. The fully charged weight is written on the bottle.
Threads must also be checked for damages. sw
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Extinguishers are stored in their packaging with blanking caps, protected from direct sunlight,
in a controlled atmosphere at room temperature and without any corrosive agent. Inspections
must be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer indications and with maintenance
manuals. Once the life limit has been reached, extinguishers must be returned to the
manufacturer.
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Cat. B2 - 13.13 Fuel system
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13.13 Fuel system
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13.13.1 System layout
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The fuel system stores the fuel in suitable areas of the aircraft and supplies it to the engines, at
a specific pressure and flow rate. In fact, design specifications of a fuel system prescribe, in
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addition to the amount of fuel that can be transported, the fuel flow and the pressure, which
engines need in any flight condition. Moreover, the system must be designed so that it can
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feed all engines, even in case of failure of one of its parts.

Current jet engines require high fuel rate, this because the fuel is distributed along
considerable lengths. In this case, the system layout and size should be carefully studied.
A fuel system consists of various sub systems:
 Storage system
 Refuel/defuel/drain system
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 Engine fuel feed system

 Jettison
 Indication system.
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Fig. 13.1 - Aircraft fuel system layout

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Fig. 13.2 - Fuel systems indicators

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13.13.2 Fuel tanks
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The quantity of fuel transported on board of some aircraft reaches high value and represents a
significant fraction of the total aircraft mass. So, the correct position of the fuel storage is very
important, because the fuel consumption can considerably influence the position of the
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aircraft centre of gravity. A correct positioning of the fuel must consider all volumes on board,
in order to leave the maximum possible space for the boarding of the payload (passengers and
goods). At the same time it should meet the balancing requirements.
The typical solution of modern passenger aircraft is the presence of two wing tanks plus one in
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the centre of the fuselage, located in the area between wing roots. On supersonic aircraft the
fuselage tanks is often employed, because the particular wing shapes have a too reduced
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internal volume that cannot be used in an efficient way.

There are other aircraft that also have some tail tanks. However, these configurations are very
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Fig. 13.3 - The layout of aircraft fuel tanks

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The fuel tanks are pressurized, so that they limit the loss due to vaporization, and reduce the
risk of cavitations of fuel pumps. Tanks used for fuel transportation can be of three different
types:
 Integral tanks, which are generally located in the same wing structure.
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 Flexible tanks, which are made of synthetic materials.
 Rigid tanks that are positioned inside the fuselage, or attached outside of wings.
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All tanks must contain different components, such as fuel fillers, anti-slosh baffles, filters, vent
devices, drain sumps, pumps and some level indicators.
Integral tanks
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One of the most used procedures to load fuel is that of using wing tanks. In this way, a scarcely
used volume is employed and the fuel centre of mass is placed near the longitudinal point of
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the aircraft centre of gravity. A reduction of the load acting on the wing is obtained too.
The wing tanks are integral tanks built in the wing structure. This solution gives obvious weight
advantage, but it presents also problems in realization and assembly phases. Integral tanks are
normally made of aluminum alloy.
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The main advantages of this type of tanks are:
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 They give the possibility to use a volume already available.

 They permit to have the centre of gravity close to that of the aircraft (this is important
for the aircraft balance).
 They reduce stresses acting on the wing.
 They are easily maintained.
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 They are cheaper.
However, wing tanks have some disadvantages too:

 The available volume is small on supersonic aircraft.
 On military jets these tanks represent a wide area exposed to bullets.
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 They can suffer from leakages.
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Fig. 13.4 - Integral tanks
Leaks are caused by the flexing of the wings during the flight. This causes minute movement
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between the skin/rivet interfaces and, even if the interfaces are sealed, leaks still occur.
Inside the tanks there are some anti-slosh baffles able to reduce fuel oscillations, induced by
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the roll motion of the aircraft. A wing fuel tank with long extension is usually an integral tank
containing some ribs, which can be sufficient to damp the oscillations of the fuel. The rib
lightening holes, which permit the fuel passage from one sector to another, are often closed
with flap check valves. These valves allow the fuel to be collected in the root area, near the
centerline of the aircraft. In this way, the fuel center of mass is close to the center of gravity of
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the aircraft.
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Fig. 13.5 - Internal structure of wing integral tanks

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A "seal plan" is established during wing construction to ensure that the fuel remains in the
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sealed area. All surfaces are carefully cleaned and joined together with a fuel resistant
(Poysulphide based) sealant. Fuel resistant sealants contain harmful substances in their
activators, either manganese oxide or strontium chromate. Both are lethal and specific
handling instructions must be followed when using these products.
Integral tanks have a series of access panels, often located under the wing, to permit the
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access for rework or inspections. Inside the tank there are baffle plates and fuel dams designed
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to reduce fuel surging and keep the fuel close to the boost pump inlets.
The engines are fed from the collector tank and continue to receive fuel. It is important to
remember that the fuel tanks are not crash resistant in that any structural failure will lead to
significant fuel spillage.
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Fig. 13.6 - Tank sealing

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Flexible tanks
Flexible tanks are tanks made of synthetic materials, which are not chemically attachable by
the fuel. Flexible tanks are usually made of rubber or nylon. Generally, these tanks are
mounted in a section specially designed and are fixed through some anchoring points. Flexible
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tanks permit movement in relation to the structure, and so they do not interfere with the
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structural rigidity of the aircraft, even if they can be subjected to usury. This type of fuel tank is
often installed on helicopter, where it is placed under the back seats of passengers.
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Fig. 13.7 - Flexible tank
Installation of flexible tanks requires careful handling:

 Check that both the workplace where the tank is folded and the aircraft cavity are
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clean and there are no sharp edges.
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 Make sure that all protruding rivets, fasteners, brackets etc, in the tank cavity are
protected with rubber tape,
 Fold the tank as indicated in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
 Cover the cavity aperture edges temporarily with rubber or tape to prevent damage to
the tank, as it is dragged/pushed through.
 Remove all personal objects from pockets before entering the tank area.
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Rigid tanks
Rigid tanks represent a separated compartment, which interferes with the structure only at
the anchoring points. However, there are some disadvantages: sw
 They are heavier than other solutions.
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 They request a specific care during the installation.

A typical example of rigid tanks is represented by external tanks, such as those on the wing
extremity or auxiliary tanks that are generally used on jet fighters when a higher endurance is
requested. They are usually unhooked in the case of a flight combat. In fact, external fuel tanks
cause an important increase of the aerodynamic drag, and for this reason they are attacked
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under the wing. In rare cases, these fuel tanks are hung over the wing or under the fuselage.
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Fig. 13.8 - External tank

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Tanks are usually made of aluminum alloy and sealed during manufacture. Sometimes, tanks
are created from glass-reinforced plastic or even steel. Larger tanks normally have internal
baffles to prevent fuel surge (movement from one part of the tank to another during aircraft
maneuvers). They have cut outs to allow a normal fuel movement within the tank.
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Each tank is designed to fit into a specific space within the airframe, with clearance for
attachments, pipe connections, removal, re-fitting, etc. As with flexible tanks, they need to
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have the appropriate connections for refuel and fuel feed.

Each tank has its own pumps and hence electrical connections. As the tank is metallic, it must
be electrically bonded to the aircraft structure via a bonding point.
Some rigid tanks have an additional external covering, designed to swell when in contact with
fuel. In case of fuel contact, the covering will swell and seal the tank. This tends to make the
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tank self sealing, though its success is limited.
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Due to their weight penalty and poor use of space, rigid tanks are not often used on
commercial transport aircraft. External tanks fitted on military and some light civil aircraft, are
essentially rigid tanks.
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13.13.3 Supply systems
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Engines must always receive a minimum fuel pressure at variable flowing rate. The fuel supply
can be completed in two different ways:
 For gravity, that is tanks are located higher than engines.
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 Under pressure, with the use of some pumps.
The pumps employed to perform this function are usually fluid dynamic pumps of centrifugal
type, or pumps with paddles. The task of the pump is that of ensuring a correct value of
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pressure at the engine entrance. In fact, the values of the input pressure of the engine must be
included in a specific range, to ensure a correct regulation of the internal engine pump, which
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provides the injectors operation.

Generally, at least one pump is installed for each engine together with some emergency
pumps and other pumps for the supply of the cross-feed. The pumps can be activated by the
engines of the aircraft or by some electrical engines, that are specially installed on board.
The fluid dynamic pumps are used to send the fuel:
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 From a tank to the engine.
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 From one tank to another for balancing operations and in case of a failure in one
branch of the system.
 From the engine to the tank.
The operation of a pump is connected to its characteristic curve, which links the provided fuel
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flow and the provided pressure. The picture shows a typical fuel supply diagram of a fluid
dynamic pump.
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Fig. 13.9 - A typical fuel supply diagram of a fluid dynamic pump

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The diagram connects the fuel flow rate and the pressure provided by the pump. The red line
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is the characteristic curve of the pump. The blue lines represents the minimum and maximum
pressure values that the pump is able to guarantee. In the same way, the dotted vertical lines
indicate the guaranteed limit values of the pump flow rate. In this way the functioning area is
detected on the diagram. By intersecting the line of the flow rate actually provided by the
pump with the characteristic curve, the functioning point is identified. It is thus possible to
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determine the pressure value that the pump must guarantee in order to operate efficiently.
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Vice versa, if the pressure value, which the pump must provide in a specific moment, is known,
the flow rate value can be detected applying the same method.
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13.13.4 Dumping, venting and draining
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In all fuel tanks there are also other two systems, whose functioning is very important for the
flight safety:
 Ventilation system.
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 Drain system.
The ventilation system puts the free surface of the fuel in communication with the air of the
external atmosphere. The tanks must be equipped with vents able to ensuring ventilation
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during operation and refueling.
In fact, the ventilation of the tanks is necessary in order to avoid over-pressures during
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refueling and depressions due to consumption during the flight. The operations of refueling
and those of feeding demand that the pressure of the mixture air vapors is maintained equal
to the external pressure, in order to avoid stress or formation of fuel vapors. This functionality
is guaranteed by the ventilation system.
For most commercial aircraft the vent box is located towards the wing tip. For a low-wing
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aircraft design, which is typical in most commercial transports, the wing will have a significant
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dihedral, so that the vent box conveniently becomes the high point during flight. However,
even in aircraft with anhedral the vent box is often located outboard.
Fig. 13.10 shows two different aircraft configurations, one with a low wing installation and a
significant amount of dihedral, typical of commercial transports and the other with a high wing
installation and anhedral, which is more common in military transport aircraft.
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Concerning the draining, in the lower part of tanks a collection sump is installed, from which,
after a filter, the fuel pipeline starts. The socket of the fuel is installed so that it does not
directly inhale from the bottom of the tank. This allows the collection of the impurity of the
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fuel and all possible water condensation on the bottom part of the tank. In the lower part of
the tank some drain sockets are thus present.
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On ground, these valves have the function to permit the drain of the water that settles in the
lowest points of the system. Refueling procedures require that the technical staff periodically
activate them before refueling through a specific device, which wins the force of the spring
and allows the draining of water stratified under the fuel. This operation is necessary because
the water is always present in small percentage in the fuel and it could accumulate causing
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damages on the fuel engine system.
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Fig. 13.10 - Fuel tank vent box locations

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On aircraft there is also a system that is used to dump the fuel in flight, we will deal with it
later on.
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13.13.5 Cross-feed and transfer
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The transfer of fuel differs according to the number and type of engines, as well as to their
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position in relation to the tanks.
The simplest system can be realized on single-engine aircraft. The reciprocating engines with
carburetor require modest fuel flow rates. In this case, if the tank has an higher position in
relation to the carburetor, the gravity force can be employed to send the fuel to the engine. In
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this case, the system is limited to a tank, a valve which isolates the tank from the engine, a
filter and a drain socket.
When the number of tanks and engines increases, the system becomes complex. In the most
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common cases there are a main tank and an alternative tank for each engine. In normal
condition, the fuel supply of each single engine is performed by the corresponding main tank.
However, it is possible for the fuel to supply an engine, which does not correspond to its tank
or fuel can be decanted in one of the two tanks. On multi-engine aircraft, it must be possible to
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feed any engine with the fuel of any tanks. This is necessary in case of engine failure, in order
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to avoid any reduction in the aircraft endurance and to prevent the aircraft unbalance,
maintaining the tanks of one wing full, while empting the others. For example, on turbo-jet
aircraft the fuel consumption reaches very high values. Flow rates are thus high and
consequently, in pipes the loss in load pressure becomes relevant. This problem requests the
presence of some transfer pumps, to ensure an appropriate pressure in the whole system.
These pumps shall be installed so that they maintain a pressure greater than the vapor tension
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of the fuel, for any flow rate requested by the engine. Commonly, some electro-pumps are
also installed inside the tanks. These devices are activated only when the engine regime
exceeds a specific value.
As explained above, the fuel system must work also in emergency conditions. This means that,
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in case of failure of one pump, or leakage in one tank, the damaged branch must be isolated by
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shut off valves, and the other branch must be able to supply enough fuel for all engines. The
problem can be better described in the case of a twin engine aircraft. Normally one pump
feeds one engine. In case of a malfunction in one feeding branch, the other pump must supply
both engines. This means that:
 Every pump must be able to supply enough fuel flow rate for all installed engines.
 A cross-feed line must be opened to link the two branches of the system.
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In fact, on multi engine aircraft there is the possibility to provide a cross-feed: any engines can
be fed from any tanks, and two engines can be fed at the same time.
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Fig. 13.11 - Cross-feed line

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For load loss reasons, it is clear that the cross-feed line should be installed as close as possible
to the tanks. In this case, in fact, the flow is immediately split into two parallel pipes, with no
significant increase of load loss in relation to the normal operation condition. If the cross-feed
line is located near the engines instead, the pipe has a double flow rate, which means a double
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13.13.6 Indications and warnings
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It is very important to know the fuel mass present in the tanks of an aircraft. This
measurement is directly obtained through the measure of the fuel volume inside the tanks,
and then it is corrected by temperature.
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Inside the tanks some sensors are installed. These devices detect the fuel level and can be of
different types:
 Mechanical sensors.
 Ultrasonic sensors.
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 Capacitive sensors.
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Mechanical sensors
Mechanical sensors are made of some floaters able to move along a guide (or simply along a
stick). Measuring the position of the floater, a measure of the fuel level present in the tank is
obtained.
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Fig. 13.12 - Mechanical sensor

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Capacitive sensors
A more refine and frequent solution consist in using some capacitive sensors. These are
realized with two co-axial cylinders, each of which represents the armature of one pole of the
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capacitor. The capacity of a capacitor depends, a part from its geometrical characteristics, on
the dielectric. In this case, the dielectric is made by the fuel and air, which fill the room
between the armatures. Thus, the capacity is dependent on the fuel level present inside the
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tank and consequently inside the sensor.
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Fig. 13.13 - Capacitive sensor
The value of a capacitor is given by the formula:
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Where A is the surface area of the metal plates and d is the distance between them. These two
values are established by the manufacturer of the unit. The value of is altered by changing
the dielectric constant as the level of the fuel changes. This is because fuel and air have
different values of permittivity.
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SUBSTANCE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
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AIR AT 1 ATM 1.00059
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VACUUM 1
AVIATION GASOLINE 1.96
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AVIATION KEROSENE (JP-4) 2.06
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Fig. 13.14 - Typical values of dielectric constant for materials at 20 °C
As fuel is added to the tank, air is displaced and the dielectric changes to increase the
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capacitance of the unit. The change in the capacitance is thus related to fuel quantity.
Capacitive tank units are normally calibrated at manufacture and as such require no on-wing
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calibration.
Ultrasonic sensors
In the last years, a new type of sensors has been designed: the ultrasonic sensors. These
devices measure the fuel level, according to an emitted signal, which is reflected by the liquid
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surface.
The ultrasonic sensor consists of two main assemblies: a transducer housing and a still tube.
The piezoelectric transducer is mounted inside the shroud and is located against a reference
face at the bottom of the still tube. The still tube acts as a guide for the acoustic signal whilst
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shielding against extraneous acoustic noise and minimizing the effects of fuel turbulence.
The water detectors consists of the basic transducer housing assembly minus the still tube and
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is installed at the lowest point in the fuel tank where water tend to be collected. The
temperature sensor is a platinum resistance thermometer element and is located within the
terminal block assembly of a fuel probe. Normally, a sensor is provided per each tank.
The piezoelectric transducer in the fuel probe is excited by an electrical pulse generated by the
signal conditioning unit. The transducer emits an ultrasound wave upwards into the fuel inside
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the still tube. The sound wave travels through the fuel unit, meets the fuel surface where it is
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reflected back down the still tube to the transducer. The return signal is sensed by the
transducer and an electrical current is generated and received by the signal conditioning unit.
The time of flight of the ultrasonic wave from the transducer up to the fuel surface and back
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down to the transducer is a function of the immersed height of the fuel probe and the
propagation speed of the fuel.
The distance between the sensor (that is the bottom of the tank) and the fuel level is
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calculated by dividing the propagation speed of the acoustic signal by the time interval
between the transmission and the reception of the signal itself. So, knowing the type of the
fuel, the tank geometry and the height of the fuel column, we can calculate the quantity of fuel
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in the tank.
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Fig. 13.15 - Ultrasonic sensor
The level of the fuel can be obtained by using different types of sensors. The parameter is the
mass of the available fuel. Once the volume is calculated, it is transformed in a mass measure,
considering the temperature present in the tank, and so the density variations of the fuel.
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Since tanks may have many shapes, a single sensor is not enough to obtain a correct measure
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of the fuel volume. In fact, there is not a point in which the sensor can feel a reliable level
variation. Different sensors should be installed inside the tank, in order to process all the
information collected.
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Fig. 13.16 - Sensors position in wing fuel tanks

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The parameters of the fuel system are shown by the fuel control panel. This panel is located on
the overhead panel of the cockpit. Through this panel the pilot can check each tank pump. It is
also possible to activate the cross feed line.
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Fig. 13.17 - Fuel control panel

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For each pump there is a warning that lights, when a problem is detected. For example, the
bottom FAULT lights when low pressure is detected in the corresponding pump.
On glass cockpit aircraft, a specific system called ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft
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Monitor) is available to the pilot, and provides him with information about the fuel system.
This system also produces messages detailing failures and in certain cases provides lists of
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procedures to undertake in order to solve the problem. The ECAM FUEL page is automatically
displayed when a problem happens.
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Fig. 13.18 - ECAM fuel page

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For example, if the first pump of the central tank fails, the system reacts as follows:
 On the ECAM page LO box in amber means the pump is on.
 On the FUEL control panel the FAULT light corresponding to the failure pump is
illuminated in amber.
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At this time the pilot must open the cross-feed (X-FEED) line, to ensure the fuel supply to
engines. This allows both engines to be fed from the centre tank using centre tank pump 2. If
the pilot did not open the X-FEED valve, an imbalance condition would have occurred.
The fuel control system also shows any action on the cross-feed valve:
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 The ON light illuminates in white, when the cross-feed button is pushed, to indicate
that the valve starts opening.
 On the ECAM monitor the cross-feed valve is shown in amber during the valve transit.
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 On the fuel panel the OPEN light illuminates in green, when the valve is fully open.
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13.13.7 Refueling and defueling
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The refueling and defueling of the aircraft is most commonly performed by connecting the
aircraft refueling system to a ground based refueling system in the airport, sometimes referred
to as a ‘Hydrant’ system. The airport ground refueling system supplies fuel to the aircraft at a
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given flow and pressures in order to allow a quick refueling process. Aircraft refueling is
performed prior to almost every flight, whereas defueling is primarily performed during
maintenance actions which, ideally, are only required on an extended schedule basis. Gravity,
or over-the-wing refueling is limited to very small general aviation aircraft, where the time to
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refuel the aircraft is not critical. All modern jet aircraft, both commercial and military, use
pressure refueling with the possible exception of very small military aircraft. Provision for
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gravity refueling is normally provided on all aircraft as a backup to the pressure refueling
system, even though its use is unlikely.
The tank refueling happens through some fuel fillers equipped with a gross filter to retain
impurities. According to the type of system and aircraft size, the refueling can occur by gravity
or using a under pressure refueling service.
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Generally, the dispatch of the pressurized fuel is centralized, that is there is a control panel
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accessible also on ground, through which the refueling of one or all parts of the tank is
controlled.
The gravity refueling is usually employed for the simplest systems, but it is present also on
large aircraft, where some gravity fuel fillers are installed as systems to use when the
necessary ground services are not available.
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The fuel fillers must be installed so that it is impossible to overwhelm the tanks. In fact, it is
important to leave a certain free volume in order to compensate possible fuel expansions
caused by environmental conditions.
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Ground refueling
The ground refueling of an aircraft must be performed under a pressure of about 0.35 MPa, by
airport systems or by ground tankers.
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When tankers are used, it is necessary to electrically link the aircraft with the tanker, in order
to avoid the formation of electrical arches. These arches can be caused by the electro-static
voltage difference between the two means. It is thus necessary to provide some appropriate
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connections among the different components.
All ground refueling operations are automatically managed by the fuel management system on
board. In this case, the liquid is sent in a first collecting tank, from which it is distributed to all
tanks.
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The refueling system on board must be compatible with the facilities of any airport, where
ground system operating conditions and fuel characteristics can vary substantially. The
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complexity of the refuel system is complicated when a number of separate aircraft fuel tanks
are involved. While wing tanks are the most common location for fuel storage, fuel tanks may
also be located in the fuselage and empennage. In this case, the fuel system will provide a
predetermined fuel loading schedule, so that the uploaded fuel is distributed to the optimal
location in the aircraft in relation to the residual fuel (i.e. fuel remaining from the previous
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flight) and the fuel load required for the next flight. Fortunately, there has been a long-
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standing standardized interface between the airport ground refueling facilities and the aircraft
pressure refueling station that has been adopted by the commercial airline community. These
regulations are dictated by the United States Military Standard MS24484, which provides a
common interface among all aircraft and airport facilities throughout the world. The ground
fueling station, including ground refueling pumps, controls and monitoring equipment, uses
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a hose that connects the fueling nozzle, frequently referred to as a ‘D-1 nozzle’, to the aircraft
ground refueling adapter. A clockwise twist of the nozzle, once inserted over the aircraft
adapter, locks the nozzle and adapter together. A handle on the side of the nozzle is then
rotated to open the flow path between the ground refueling system and the aircraft refueling
system. The refueling operator controls the aircraft refueling process by pre-selecting the
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quantity of fuel to be loaded onto the aircraft via the Refuel Panel, located next to the
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refueling adapter.
In flight refueling
Aerial (or in-flight) refueling has become a major force multiplier in the execution of modern
air warfare. A typical scenario in military air combat operations consists in having attack
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aircraft taking off with full fuel and weapons load, usually requiring the use of afterburners to
ensure adequate take-off margins, followed by a fast climbing to operating altitude. At
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this point a substantial portion of the on-board fuel has already been consumed and the
ability to refuel in flight allows the aircraft to accomplish mission objectives that would
otherwise be impossible, in terms of operation range. In addition to providing a substantial
extension to the mission operating envelope, aerial refueling allows both fighter and ground
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support aircraft to remain in a combat area for extended periods of time. By careful pre-
planning the location of aerial refueling tanker aircraft, extremely long-range missions can be
accomplished using relatively short-range aircraft. An important example is the use of the
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SR-71 Mach 3 reconnaissance aircraft to perform missions in the Middle East during
the Arab-Israeli Six Day War in the late 1960s. These aircraft took off from and returned to
the USA with invaluable surveillance information that became a key factor in bringing the
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conflict to an end. While the operational benefits of the aerial refueling function have not
been put on question, a number of unique and complex requirements to the design of the fuel
system should be satisfied:
 An in-flight hook-up system is required. It must have fluid-tight connections together
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with an appropriate safe disconnecting capability, in case of an emergency.
 Compatibility between the tanker fuel off load system and the receiver aircraft. This
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compatibility affects the combined tanker and receiver flow, pressure ratings, aerial
refueling equipment structural issues and physical interfaces.
 Safe accommodation of potential failure modes during aerial refueling operations. This
requires a detailed evaluation of the potential impact on both the tanker and receiver
aircraft. In some cases, especially when aerial refueling is added to an existing aircraft,
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the provision of additional fuel system functional redundancies may be necessary.
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Fig. 13.19 represents two different refueling techniques:

 In flight refueling with flexible probe.
 In flight refueling with rigid probe.
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Fig. 13.19 - Methods of in-flight refueling
In the first case, the probe of the tanker aircraft is a flexible tube with a “basket” placed at its
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extremity. The pilot of the aircraft must control the plane until the rigid probe is connected to
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the basket. The rigid probe is usually retractable and it is placed on the right or left side of the
pilot roof. The tanker aircraft must maintain a straight and level flight during the whole
maneuver. The USA marine and many countries of the NATO adopt this system. This technique
allows to refuel many aircraft at the same time from the same tanker aircraft.
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In the second case, the probe, which transfers the fuel, is rigid and it is controlled by an
operator of the tanker aircraft, who can see the aircraft directly or through a system of
cameras. Through a control system, the operator has to conduct the probe until it connects to
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a special fuel filler, located on the upper aircraft surface. This filler is usually in the centre of
the fuselage (normally behind or above the cockpit), it has a round shape and is connected to
the main tank of the aircraft. Also in this case, the aircraft tanker must fly without changing its
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altitude, and at a constant speed. The aircraft instead must be in a given position and at a less
high altitude in respect to the tanker.
In flight defueling - dumping
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Many aircraft cannot land if they weight more than during the take-off. These aircraft have the
possibility to defuel a great amount of fuel, through a particular system installed on board. This
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operation is very useful in case of an emergency landing performed in the first part of the
flight, and is called dumping.
In this way, the aircraft can reach an acceptable landing weight and the fire risk is reduced.
However, the in-flight defueling occurs rarely and it is performed only when the aircraft
condition would otherwise represent a serious hazard for its passengers and crew. The
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defueling is regulated in a restrictive way. The system must comply with the following
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requirements:
 It must perform the operation in a reasonable time interval.
 It must not create fire risks.
 It must not generate pollution risks in the fuselage.
 It must be protected from errors related to the released fuel quantity.
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Ground defueling
The defueling on ground is performed because of:
 Maintenance operations.
 Excessive fuel on board. sw
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Defueling is normally performed by suction applied at the aircraft ground refueling adapter
or by using on-board transfer and engine feed pumps to pump the fuel off the aircraft. Suction
defueling provides the fastest off load rates, whereas the use of on aircraft pumps will pump
more fuel off the aircraft but at a much slower rate. Defueling is also a necessary function
following an accident, where the aircraft is damaged and fuel must be removed, before the
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aircraft can be safely moved for repair. For this reason, attention must be paid during the
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design phase regarding the location of the refuel/defuel points, in order to allow the access in
the unlikely event of a wheels-up landing.
Factors affecting the defuel system design include:
 Allowed defuel time.
 Operation with word wide facilities.
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 Suction or pressure defueling or both.
 Defuel flow shutoff when empty (suction).
 Allowable remaining fuel.
 Engine feed and transfer pumps powered for pressure defuel.
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 Final defuel through in-tank drain valves..
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13.13.8 Longitudinal balance fuel systems
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The aircraft centre of gravity affects the stability of the aircraft. To ensure the aircraft is safe
enough to fly, the centre of gravity (CG) must fall within specified limits established by the
manufacturer. CG limits, within which the aircraft centre of gravity must be located during
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flight, are both longitudinal (forward and aft) and/or lateral (left and right). These limits are
indicated in the airplane flight manual.
A correct balance must be guaranteed. To calculate the position of the centre of aircraft mass,
different factors should be taken into account:
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 The weight of the aircraft structure.
 The weight of all equipment of the aircraft.
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 The total weight of the payload.

 The fuel weight.
This last factor is very important; in fact, the weight of the fuel on board may represent a
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considerable percentage of the total aircraft weight. The centre of the fuel mass must remain
as close as possible to the aircraft centre of gravity, ensuring a better stability and increasing
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the safety level during maneuvers.

In a swept wing aircraft, fuel will migrate aft during the climb phase due to the positive pitch
attitude, thus moving the longitudinal aircraft CG aft and reducing the aircraft static stability
margin. This effect can be reduced by dividing the wing tank into a number of semi-sealed
compartments that allow easy fuel migration inboard, while minimizing fuel migration out
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board. To facilitate inboard fuel movement, a number of check valves (non-return valves) are
installed along the ribs that form the boundaries between compartments. These check valves
are installed using a flexible material, allowing the fuel to move easily on board, while
preventing fuel movement outboard. These check valve devices are often referred to as ‘Baffle
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check valves’, ‘Flapper-check valves’ and sometimes as ‘Clack valves’.
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Fig. 13.20 - Baffle check valve operation

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In addition to the baffle check valves, small bleed holes located at the upper and lower tank rib
boundaries of each compartment allow fuel and air to migrate between compartments, hence
the term ‘Semi sealed’. Since these bleed holes are small, outboard fuel migration from this
source can be essentially neglected for the short duration of the climb phase, which typically
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lasts less than thirty minutes. Consider a twin engine in a swept wing aircraft, which has
integral wing tanks designed to contain most of the fuel. Let’s assume that this aircraft has a
low wing design with significant, say five degrees, of dihedral. With this configuration, fuel
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would naturally migrate inboard during the flight.
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Fig. 13.21 - Comparison of single and four compartment configurations
The wing tanks are located between the forward and aft spars and between the wing root and
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an outboard rib, close to the wing tip. These tanks can be considered as a single compartment
per wing or as a number of separate compartments separated by semi-sealed ribs. Compare
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the single compartment wing tank and the four compartment configurations in terms of fuel
contents location during climb and dive maneuvers.
In the four-compartment version baffle check valves, located at each compartment boundary,
limit outboard fuel migration, thus minimizing the aft movement of aircraft longitudinal CG.
The single compartment approach allows the fuel within the tank to move aft during a climb
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creating a large aft shift in aircraft CG. It is fairly intuitive that the single compartment solution
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is unacceptable and that a multiple compartment solution is necessary to ensure acceptable

levels of CG shift during pitch angle changes. With the multiple compartment approach, the
fuel boost pumps supplying fuel to the engines can be safely located in the inboard
compartment of each wing. Under level flight or pitch down conditions fuel will naturally
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migrate towards the wing root under the action of gravity, because of the wing dihedral.
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During a climb, fuel is held in the inboard compartment under the action of the baffle check
valves, thus maintaining coverage of the engine boost pumps. One disadvantage of the four-
compartment solution is that each compartment must now be gauged as a separate tank with
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its own fuel surface. This will require more gauging probes (tank units) than in the case of a
single-compartment design with a single fuel surface. We can calculate the change in aircraft
longitudinal CG as the aircraft climbs and descends for different tank compartment
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configurations and different fuel tank quantities as part of the fuel storage design trade study.
Fig. 13.22 qualitatively indicates how longitudinal CG would vary with tank fuel quantity for a
single compartment wing and a four compartment wing. In the four compartment application,
baffle check valves are installed at the compartment rib boundaries to prevent outboard fuel
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migration during pitch-up attitudes. As indicated in the figure, the single compartment wing
shows a much larger excursion in aircraft CG than the four compartment version.
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Fig. 13.22 - Climb and descent CG shift plots
As indicated in the figure, cruise and pitch-down attitudes are common to single and multiple-
compartment arrangements; however, the single compartment wing shows a large
aft CG excursion which is likely to exceed the aft CG limit for positive aircraft static stability.
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Thus the introduction of a multi-compartment wing has a favorable impact on longitudinal CG
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by keeping the fuel inboard, via the action of the inter-compartment baffle check valves. In
today CAD environment, it is relatively easy to develop a computer program which, when using
the tank structural geometry CAD database, can calculate the fuel CG for combinations of tank
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quantity and aircraft attitude in order to obtain a design-specific plot similar to the figure
above.
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13.14 Hydraulic power
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13.14.1 Hydraulic system layout
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The term hydraulics is used to describe methods of transmitting power through pipes and
control devices, using a liquid as the operating medium. Hydraulic systems are used mostly in
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mechanical or electrical systems, the reasons are numerous: ease of application of force,
ability to increase the applied force as necessary, ease of routing of pipelines, and elimination
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of backlash between components. However, the most important reason of their widespread
use is that hydraulic systems have a good power/weight ratio.
The hydraulic system of an aircraft is a system that permits the distribution and control of the
energy, through an uncompressible fluid.
In a hydraulic system we have the following elements:
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 A section, which transforms mechanical energy into a hydraulic one.
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 A transport net, regulated by some control devices.

 Some users, which convert the hydraulic energy into mechanical power.
All hydraulic systems use uncompressible fluids. For this reason, operational principles are
based on hydrostatic laws and in particular on the Pascal principle, which affirms that the
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pressure is transmitted in every point of a fluid mass.
The main characteristics of the hydraulic system are connected to the use of an
uncompressible fluid:
 Low weight for installed power unit.
 High performance in the transmission. sw
 High flexibility in the installation.
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 Ability to resist to high loads without damages.

 Low necessity of ordinary maintenance.
 Facility in controlling the generated power.
The hydraulic system has also some disadvantages:

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 Possibility of loss of the entire system due to the failure of single parts.
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 Use of compressible fluids.

 Difficulties in synchronizing many actuators.
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Fig. 14.1 - Aircraft hydraulic system layout
A hydraulic system is primarily made of:

 Pumps, generating the pressure and the flow rate requested by the system.
 Pipes, connections and some valves, that have the task of distributing the hydraulic
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energy to different devices.
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 Different users, which are connected to actuators that transform the hydraulic energy
into mechanical power. Linear actuators are called jack, while rotational actuators are
the hydraulic engines. All systems that require activation are connected to these
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devices. Some of these systems are control surfaces controls, doors opening,
extraction and retraction of the landing gear.
 A series of accessories with specific functions, such as filters, accumulators and heat
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exchangers. To improve the flight safety it is important to guarantee the redundancy
of the system. All hydraulic subsystems must be completely independent and at least
one subsystem for each engine must be created. Moreover, each subsystem must
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have two hydraulic pumps.
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Fig. 14.2 - Basic hydraulic system

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13.14.2 Hydraulic fluids
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The hydraulic systems of the aircraft use uncompressible fluid. Physical and chemical
characteristics of this kind of fluid have important effects on operation, reliability and
maintenance costs of the system. The choice of the type of fluid to use is very important.
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In the aeronautical sector, fluids must meet the following requirements:
 Have a good lubricant power.
 Avoid corrosion.
 Viscosity must be limited to avoid power losses and overheating, and it must be almost
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stable in a wide range of temperatures.
 Good wear resistance, through the addition of additives.
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 Good resistance to formation of contaminated particles that shall damage the

components.
 Low risk of fire.
 Low toxicity.
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The fluid types employed in hydraulic systems are:
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 Mineral oil.
 Synthesis oil.
The mineral oil is generated by the distillation of high quality petrol. These oil types have some
characteristics that vary according to temperature and they present fire risk. They also have
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good lubricant proprieties. Mineral oils have limited corrosive characteristics in relation to
other oil types. This type of fluid is often used on little aircraft and in the shock-absorber of the
landing gear.
The synthesis oil is the most used in large aircraft systems. This product is characterized by:
 Low degree of oxidation.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
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 Low freezing temperature.

 High fire resistance.
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13.14.3 Hydraulic reservoirs and accumulators
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Important components of the hydraulic system are reservoirs and accumulators.
In the hydraulic system one or more reservoirs can be installed. The reservoirs have the main
function to contain the fluid that is used in the system. Moreover, they are necessary:
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 To permit the separation of possible gases in suspension.
 To absorb the volume variation of the fluid, caused by thermal jumps.
 To dissipate heat.
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Generally, reservoirs are pressurized to ensure that the fluid does not have a pressure value
close to the cavitation one. The value of the internal pressure of a reservoir measures a few
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bars. The method of pressurizing varies but may include the use of compressed gas acting
against a piston or diaphragm in the reservoir, or air from a compressor stage of the jet engine.
If the reservoir is part of the aircraft pneumatic system, the designer must ensure that there is
no possibility of hydraulic fumes entering the pneumatic supply to the cabin.
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The main elements of a hydraulic reservoir are:
 A filler neck that has a filter, which collect impurities.
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 A little window to control the fluid level inside.

 A level sensor.
 A feed line to the pumps of the main system and to the auxiliary system.
 A filter to purify the return fluid
 One or more return lines from users.
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Hydraulic accumulators are devices connected in parallel to the system line. These devices are
able to store a specific energy quantity, which is then given back to the system as oil in
pressure, when a particular need occurs. The main functions of an accumulator are:
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 To provide a limited quantity of fluid in pressure to users in emergency conditions,
when pumps are damaged.
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 To maintain the circuit in pressure, helping pumps when a great supply is needed.
 To absorb all pressure variation caused by the activation and deactivation of users.
 To absorb the fluid hammering, in case of abnormal operation of the safety valves.
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Fig. 14.3 - Hydraulic reservoir

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On aircraft different hydraulic accumulators are installed. The main types of accumulators are:
 Spring accumulators.
 Gas accumulators.
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 Diaphragm accumulators.
 Bladder accumulators.
 Piston accumulators.
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Fig. 14.4 - Types of accumulators

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13.14.4 Pressure generation: electric, mechanical and pneumatic
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Generally, a hydraulic system used for aeronautic employment is realized with a constant
pressure. This technique allows the activation in parallel of different users, without any
interference. Moreover, another advantage consists in setting all users on a common pressure
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value. A characteristic parameter of the hydraulic system is the feed-pressure. The pressure
commonly used for the aircraft hydraulic systems is of 21 MPa; however, in the case of the
Concorde the system is calibrated at about 28 MPa.
The hydraulic energy is made available by converting the mechanical power mainly taken from
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the following sources:
 Aircraft engines.
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 Electrical engines.
 Pneumatic engines.
Devices that transform mechanical energy into hydraulic power are called hydraulic pumps.
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They are aimed at taking the oil from designed reservoirs, and making it available at a higher
pressure to the system and users.
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Fig. 14.5- Axial piston pump

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Fig. 14.6 - Piston pump with a single axial piston

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Fig. 14.7 - Piston pump with seven axial pistons

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Hydraulic pumps used in aeronautical hydraulic circuits are volumetric pumps. These are also
called displacement pumps, because they displace a fluid volume and force it into the system.
A typical example is the piston pump.
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The simplest type of piston pump has a single axial piston. The motion of the piston, which is
obtained by a road-crank system, pushes the fluid in the delivery line of the system, creating a
specific flow rate. A flow rate greater than that requested by the circuit causes a pressure
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increase; vice versa, a low flow rate determines a pressure loss.
The flow generated by such a pump is very discontinuous because it is the positive part of a
sinusoid and flows in one direction. A series of waves, in sinusoidal motion and phase
displacement, gives a resultant flow rate Q that is less variable the higher the number of
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cylinders is; theoretically it can be expressed in the form:
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where n is the number of cylinders, ω is the sinus frequency, t is the time, ϕ is the phase of the
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i-th piston and is the max flow per cylinder.
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When using only a single cylinder, the generated flow rate is not regular. So, in order to create
a uniformity of the oil flow, different out-of-phase cylinders are used. In most cases the
number of the employed cylinders is 7 or 9. In this way, the uniformity of the flow is ensured
with a limited number of cylinders.
The most suitable way to have cylinders assembled is to put them in a revolving drum with a
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plate that controls the reciprocating piston motion.
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Fig. 14.8 - Displacement pump

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The drum rotates together with the swash plate and the drive shaft. The piston rods are
hinged to the plate. If the plate is perfectly leveled with the cylinders or 90with respect to
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the drum axis, there is no linear displacement of the pistons. If the plate has a different
orientation, the pistons follow a sinusoidal motion with phase displacement. Each piston will
be in turn in suction and delivery, passing through the top and bottom dead centers. An
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additional plate, pressed against the drum face, brings a couple of curved slot orifices aligned
with the cylinders. This plate works as a port from the reservoir and to the system: one slot will
always be in correspondence of cylinders during the suction phase, the other in the delivery
phase.
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The volume of fluid displaced by each piston at each rotation is a function of the plate angle of
orientation (that determines the piston stroke) and cylinder diameter. It follows that in an
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ideal situation where there is no loss of flow or compressibility effects, the flow rate Q
generated by the pump is equal to:
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where η is the volumetric efficiency, RPM is the rates per minute of the pump and V is the
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volume of the pump.

The loss of flow is determined by leakages in all those parts of the pump that are in relative
motion: between piston and cylinder, between drum and slotted plate and at piston rod hinge
on the swashplate. This flow is important for the lubrication of the components in relative
motion. An additional loss of flow is due to the fluid compressibility.
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When pressure increases, η and Q are reduced. The leakage is kept at a low level, so that the
efficiency of a hydraulic pump working at 21 MPa is normally higher than 95%.
Another pump type, which can be used in the hydraulic system, is the radial pistons one.
Nevertheless, this type of pump is rarely employed in the aeronautical sector because of its
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complexity.
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Fig. 14.9- Hydraulic pump with radial pistons
Another example of volumetric pump is the gear pump. This device is made of a chamber in
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which two contra-rotating cogged wheels move. The fluid is sucked in areas that develop
between sectors of the single wheel and the walls of the box. When the wheels reach the
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delivery area, the teeth engage themselves, while the oil is forced to exit the sectors and is
pushed in the pipeline. The gear pumps are simple and resistant systems, but they are rather
cumbersome. In addition, they provide less pressure than that generated by a piston pump.
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Fig. 14.10 - Hydraulic gear pump
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13.14.5 Emergency pressure generation
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In an emergency condition, when engines are in failure, pumps and electrical generators can
be activated by different devices, such as:
 The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU).
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 The Emergency Power Unit (EPU).
 The Ram Air Turbine (RAT).
APU
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The APU is an auxiliary power unit installed on board of the aircraft. It is made of a gas turbine
of limited dimensions. The APU normally has the task of providing compressed air and
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activating some electrical generators or hydraulic pumps. However, this auxiliary turbine must
have a little time interval to start, and so it is not suitable to quickly respond to an energy
black-out. The APU is powered by fuel, which is burnt by engines, therefore if the problem
consists in an absence of fuel, the turbine cannot be used.
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Each auxiliary power unit and its fuel system are located in the aft fuselage of the orbiter. They
are identical but independent systems not interconnected. Each APU fuel system supplies
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storable liquid hydrazine fuel to its respective fuel pump, gas generator valve module and gas
generator, which decomposes the fuel through catalytic action. The resultant hot gas drives a
two-stage turbine. The turbine exhaust flow returns over the exterior of the gas generator,
cooling it, and is then directed overboard through an exhaust duct at the upper portion of the
aft fuselage, near the vertical stabilizer. The turbine assembly provides mechanical power
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through a shaft to drive reduction gears in the gearbox. The gearbox drives a fuel pump, a
hydraulic pump and a lube oil pump. The hydraulic pump supplies pressure to the hydraulic
system. The fuel pump increases the fuel pressure at its outlet to sustain pressurized fuel to
the gas generator valve module and to the gas generator. The lube oil system supplies
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lubricant to the gearbox reduction gears and uses the reduction gears as scavenge pumps to
supply lube oil to the inlet of the lube oil pump in order to increase the pressure of the lube oil
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system.
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Fig. 14.11 - APU
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The lube oil of each auxiliary power unit is circulated through a heat exchanger in a
corresponding water spray boiler. Three water spray boilers, one for each APU, cool the lube
oil systems. The hydraulic fluid of each hydraulic pump driven by an auxiliary power unit is also
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circulated through a hydraulic heat exchanger in a corresponding water spray boiler to cool
hydraulic fluid during hydraulic system operation. The three water spray boilers are located in
the aft fuselage of the orbiter.
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The three auxiliary power units, hydraulic pumps and water spray boilers are in operation five
minutes before lift-off and throughout the launch phase. They are shut down after the first
orbital maneuvering system thrusting period.
The hydraulic systems provide hydraulic pressure to position hydraulic actuators for thrust
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vector control by gimbaling the three main engines. The hydraulic system also operates the
propellant valves on the engines, controls the orbiter aero surfaces (elevons, body flap and
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rudder/speed brake), retracts the external tank/orbiter 17-inch liquid oxygen and liquid
hydrogen, deploys the main and nose landing gear, main landing gear brakes and anti-skid
devices, and enables nose wheel steering.
EPU
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The EPU is a turbine activated by a chemical reaction of hydrazine. Gases, generated by the
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chemical reaction, are collected in a turbine that acts as a hydraulic pump or an electrical
emergency generator. Normally, great quantities of hydrazine cannot be stored on board. This
means that the EPU can operate only for a short period of time, which is not enough to
complete an emergency landing. This turbine is generally installed on military aircraft and has
the aim of allowing the crew to retry systems or, in extreme conditions, to safely leave the
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aircraft.
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RAT
The RAT is a small turbine connected to a hydraulic pump or to an electrical generator used as
a power source. The RAT generates power from the airstream due to the speed of the aircraft.
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In case of loss of both primary and auxiliary power sources, the RAT will power vital systems
such as flight controls and flight-critical instrumentation, allowing the aircraft to be flown even
if the plane has completely run out of fuel.
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Fig. 14.12 - RAT
The RAT leg is secured in the retracted position by an up lock which is mechanically operated
by a control cable. This runs from the flight deck to the inboard wing using turnbuckles,
fairleads, cable quadrants, etc.
When the RAT is released, the ejection jack extends under its spring pressure to thrust the RAT
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into the airstream. The final stage of the jack extension is delayed by the hydraulic damping
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device to avoid high impact at full extension of the unit. A down-locking pin secures the RAT in
the extended position. The doors are mechanically opened and locked by the RAT movement.
With the RAT in the stowed position the test selector is set to provide a permanent supply of
the warming fluid. This maintains the power pump at the correct operational temperature. The
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flow is controlled through the control module and by the flow-sensitive valve in the leg. The
return line is provided with filter monitored by a clogging indicator. As soon as the RAT is
locked down, the turbine is simultaneously unlocked by withdrawal of the locking and
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immediately starts rotating. After the momentary off loading effect provided by the flow
sensitive valve in the airborne test selector, the power pump operates to supply full pressure
to the yellow system.
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Hydraulic pressure supplied by the gear rotor pump to operate the speed governing
mechanism passes via the turbine shaft sleeve assembly into the piston valve. As the turbine
rotates, centrifugal force causes the governor weights to pivot outwards and move the piston
valve against its spring pressure. This allows high pressure fluid to pass through ports in the
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sleeve and shaft and to flow to the annular chamber. Here the pressure acts on the cylinder,
which is moved forward against its spring load, turning the blades towards the fine pitch
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position. Low pressure fluid, displaced from the space forward the cylinder, passes through the
cylinder guide and central ducts of the piston valve as well as through drive shaft to return to
the gerotor pump.
A consequent increase of turbine speed occurs, until the pre-determined governing speed is
reached. At this stage, the governor weight force equals the opposing piston valve spring
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force. Any tendency of the turbine to change speed is corrected by variation of the position of
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the governor weights and piston valve. This maintains a balance of pressures to keep the
speed constant.
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13.14.6 Filters
The hydraulic filter system has two main purposes:
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 To filter the hydraulic fluid in order to grant the correct operation of the different
components of the hydraulic system.
 To control the direction of the fluid.
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Hydraulic oil filters systems are designed to provide an extra-refined degree of filtration in
increasingly complex hydraulic system. These systems protect all the components used in
these systems from foreign-born contaminants and contaminants generated by normal system
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operation. Removing these contaminants is crucial in order to protect the fine clearances
found in hydraulic system components. This permits these systems to operate more efficiently
and for extended periods of time.
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There will usually be two interchangeable filter systems, one for each independent hydraulic
system, so that, in case of failure, one unit will be able to filter the fluid for all hydraulic
systems.
Each filter group performs the following tasks:
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 Filtration of pressure and return fluid.
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 Indication of filter clogged.

 System ON/OFF selection.
 Caution of low system pressure.
 Protection against excessive system pressure.
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Each unit includes the following components:
 Body assembling.
 Filter assemblies.
 Filter clogged indicators.
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 Pressure switch.
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 Pressure relief valve.

 Check.
An example of the filter group installation is represented in the figure below.

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Fig. 14.13 - Hydraulic filter assembly
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13.14.7 Pressure control
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Since systems are designed to be employed at a constant value of pressure, some regulation
devices are essential. These mechanisms have the task of maintaining the pressure within a
predetermined range of values. These devices are known as pressure regulators. Regulation
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devices, which adjust the flow rate according to the requested value, are installed too. There
are essentially 2 different methods of regulation:
 The flow rate of the pump is kept constant and a regulation valve is installed after the
line, near the users.
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 Some regulation devices, that change the rpm or the volume of the pump, are installed
in the system. In this way only the necessary flow rate is produced.
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In fact, in order to keep a constant pressure, a variable flow is necessary. When no actuators
are working, the pump will supply a very limited flow, which is enough to maintain pressure
and to compensate when leakages occur. When one or more actuators are moving absorbing
fluid from the system, a greater flow must be generated in order to maintain a constant
pressure.
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Constant flow rate

In the case of the constant pressure system, a valve is installed after the pump. This valve
controls the pressure and guarantees a constant value. This valve is a device with a cursor,
normally kept open. According to the pressure value of the system, the opening of the orifice
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can vary. By opportunely calibrating the spring used to open the orifice, it is possible to set the
valve on different pressure values. However, this system involves a waste of flow rate and, as a
consequence, of power because the pump must always operate with the maximum flow rate
that can be requested by users.
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Fig. 14.14 - Constant flow rate technique
Variable flow rate

In case of constant pressure, it is possible to regulate parameters through a reaction on the
pump. Close to the pump, there is a pipeline that transfers the system pressure to a small
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mobile cylinder. Attached to this device, there is the swashplate of the pump, which is inclined
in order to let the pump produce the requested flow rate. This method is more efficient than
the previous one, because the pressure of the system is maintained constant, while the
requested flow rate can be easily changed. It can also vary according to the angular velocity of
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the engines. However, this regulation technique is mechanically more complex and more
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expensive.
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Fig. 14.15 - Variable flow rate technique
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13.14.8 Power distribution
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To guarantee the power distribution in hydraulic systems, different pipelines and valves are
installed to reach the users, which are called actuators.
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Pipelines
Pipelines of the hydraulic system are classified as delivery lines and return lines.
The delivery lines are characterized by high pressure values and are generally made of stainless
steel. The return lines are usually characterized by low pressure and for this reason, they are
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made of aluminum alloys.
Pipelines must be as rectilinear as possible and in case of direction changes, they must have a
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wide enough radius. Moreover, some branches can be realized with flexible pipes, if there is
the necessity to follow the movements of a mobile device.
Pipelines must have sections adequate to the oil flow circulating in it. The choice of the
diameter of pipes is based on a compromise between the weight and the allowed pressure
loss.
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Materials and sizes of pipes are standardized by American Military standards. These
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regulations are known as MIL standards.

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Fig. 14.16 - Tube sizing – Part A

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Fig. 14.17 - Tube sizing – Part B

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Fig. 14.18 - Tube sizing – Part B

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Valves
Valves have the fundamental function of checking the circuit and allowing the introduction of
controls for different actuators. A wide variety of valves can be found in hydraulic systems.
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One of these valves is the control valve. An external control is applied to this device and as a
consequence, the valve connects in different ways the pipelines that merge together in the
same valve. This device is characterized by the number of connections (that is the number of
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pipes which meet in the valve), and by the number of positions that the valve can assume. A
typical control valve is represented in Fig. 11.17.
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Fig. 14.19 - Control valve

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The initials “HP” represent the high pressure line, while “LP” indicates the low pressure line.
The input signal can be a pressure, a mechanical signal or an electric signal. Depending on how
the sliding spool is moved by the signal (left or right), the oil flowing in the actuator lines will
move in 2 different directions. A spring brings the spool of the valve in neutral position, when
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no input signal is applied.
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Another kind of valve is the check valve. This device permits the passage of the flow only in
one direction and it is thus used to intercept oil flows that move in undesired directions. A
typical check valve is represented in Fig. 11.18. This valve is made of a sliding spool, held in the
closing position by a spring with low rigidity.
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Fig. 14.20 - Check valve
The relief valve is usually installed in hydraulic systems of aircraft. This device is automatically
activated to protect the system from oil overpressures by opening a return line to the
reservoir. These valves have the function to guarantee that the pressure does not exceed the
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maximum designed value, in order to avoid damages in the circuits. These valves are made of a
mobile element, which is pushed towards the valve main body by a calibrated spring. When
the pressure exceeds the setting value, the elastic force of the spring is overreached and the
pressure line of the hydraulic system is connected to the return line of the reservoir. The relief
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valves must be opened, when the pressure value is vastly greater than the nominal value, but
they must be quickly closed, when the pressure returns to the nominal value or to an inferior
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one.
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Fig. 14.21 - Relief valve
The sequence valve instead is employed to control the sequence of two or more actions, for
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example the extraction of the landing gear, considering that this action must occur after the
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opening of the landing gear door. This valve is similar to the safety valve, with the only
difference that instead of sending the liquid in excess to the reservoir, it uses the oil to feed
the successive maneuver.
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The shuttle valve is installed close to some users that can be supplied by two different
hydraulic circuits, usually the main one and the emergency one. This simple device allows the
selection of the emergency unit in case the pressure in the main system is reduced. The spool
of this valve recognizes what circuit is working and moving, and consequently it feeds the user,
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without unloading the oil in pressure in the other system.
The spool position is determined only by the differential pressure of the main and emergency
systems. If the main system pressure drops to a value lower than that of the emergency
system, the spool excludes the main system and allows the auxiliary system to operate.
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Fig. 14.23 - Shuttle valve
Another type of valve installed in the hydraulic system is the exclusion valve. The exclusion
valves closes the entrance of the hydraulic pump in an emergency condition (for example in
case of fire), in order to reduce the oil quantity that flows in the circuit.
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Servo-valves are proportional valves able to change pressure and flow rates, in accordance
with the input signal. They are two stages systems and the low power stage generates a
pressure difference. This difference controls the main valve of high power. The advantage of
this device is the fact that it requires an input signal of low pressure, this because it is made of
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two stages. The servo-valves are electrically controlled and are able to adopt specific
intermediate positions between the full opening and the full closing of the device.
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Fig. 14.24 - Servo-valve

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Actuators
Actuators are devices that transform hydraulic energy into mechanical power. There are two
main types of actuators:
 Linear.
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 Rotational.
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Linear actuators are normally called jacks, while rotational actuators are called motors.
Generally, these devices are connected to all systems that will be activated, such as the control
surfaces, the mechanism of the retractable landing gear and all aircraft doors.
The most common jacks are those with simple or double effect, according to whether a
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displacement has to be caused in one or two directions. Jacks allow the easy realization of
rectilinear controls, without the need of complex devices. It is important to remember that
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jacks are able to bear only axial loads.

A jack is composed of a mobile cylinder inserted in a piston. The piston rod, on which the force
is applied, can be simple or passing.
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Fig. 14.25 - Different types of jacks

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The presence of necessary gaskets between the cylinder, the piston and the rod, causes
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friction. For this reason, the real available force is less than the theoretical one.
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13.14.9 Indication and warning systems
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The indication and warning systems are placed on the central panel of the pilot. These systems
include:
 Pressure indicators.
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 Oil quantity indicators.
 Temperature indicators.
 Pumps low pressure indicators.
 Low oil quantity indicators.
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 Oil overheating indicators.
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In fact, in the cockpit there are some control switches for pumps, some pressure and quantity
indicators, and some warning lights related to low pressure or high temperature. The low
pressure warnings are activated when the circuit pressure is under 6.9 bar (100 psi), while
those of high temperature are activated when the oil temperature exceeds the value of 93 °C
(200°F).
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Warnings concerning the hydraulic system are both acoustic and visual. On glass cockpit
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aircraft all parameters of the hydraulic circuit are displayed by the ECAM (Electronic
Centralized Aircraft Monitor) system, in the page designed for this circuit. The hydraulic ECAM
HYD page is automatically presented on the system display when a failure happens. This
system provides all parameters concerning the circuit. For example, the oil quantity present in
the tanks is displayed at the bottom of the page. During normal conditions, the information is
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displayed in green, while if a problem occurs the damaged element is colored in amber.
Moreover, on the control panel of the hydraulic system a FAULT light concerning the failure
switches on and an acoustic sound is emitted.
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Fig. 14.26 - ECAM hydraulic page
The pressure and temperature measures are performed by a transducer. Transducers are
devices that provide as output an electrical parameter, which is proportional to the variation
of a certain physical characteristic. A transducer can be classified according to the physical
principle on which its operation is based.
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The main important parameters that characterize a transducer are:

 The physical element that is measured.
 The sensitivity, that expresses the ratio between the variation of the output parameter
and the corresponding variation of the input one.
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 The range of the employment, that is the input values interval in which the device
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correctly operates.
 The output signal, which indicates the signal type that the sensor provides as output. It
can be digital or analogue and it can be represented by a voltage, a current, a
resistance etc.
Temperature transducers are devices that transform temperature in an electrical parameter.

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This sensor, called thermocouple, bases its operation on the Seebeck effect. Two different
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conductors are joined together at one extremity and separated at the other. When the two
connectors at the extremities feel different temperatures, a current is generated. This current
is proportional to the temperature difference.
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There are different types of thermocouples on the market. For example, there are T type
thermocouples (made of copper and constantan), J type (iron and constantan), N type (nickel-
silicon) or K type (chrome-aluminum). The main difference is the temperature range in which
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they operate linearly.
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Fig. 14.27 - Thermocouples
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Another transducer used to measure the temperature is the thermo-resistance. Thermo-
resistances are sensors made of a unique metallic filament (typically platinum or nickel),
whose electrical resistance is related only to the temperature at which the same filament is
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placed.
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Fig. 14.28 - Thermo resistance
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Pressure transducers are devices that transform a pressure applied in a specific area of the
transducer in an electrical signal. Pressure sensors are generally made of 2 parts. One part is
realized with springs or semi-conductor substances, and deforms, if a pressure is applied. The
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other one, through a position transducer, transforms the displacement in an electrical signal.
Generally, transducers are realized with integrated circuits. On the surface of the chip a
diaphragm of silicon that contains 4 bridge connecting resistances is placed. The measurement
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of the physical parameter is accomplished by measuring the voltage difference created when a
pressure is applied on the device.
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Fig. 14.29 - Pressure transducer
Level transducers are devices that measure the level of a liquid inside a tank. A typical sensor is
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realized with a float. A float is inserted in the liquid and fixed to a potentiometer system. The
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increase or decrease of the fluid in the tank causes a vertical displacement of the float. The
output voltage of the potentiometer proportionally changes with the variation of the liquid
level.
There is also a capacity transducer that uses the proprieties of an electrical field. Two polarized
electrodes are immersed in the liquid and the fluid then acts as the dielectric of the condenser.
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Another sensor is the high temperature warning circuit. The overhead detection box contains
three independent detection channels, blue, green and yellow. The overheat sensor consists of
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one arm of a resistor bridge. The bridge output signals are amplified and when the
temperature gets too high (85°C) and the threshold is reached, it triggers a transistor, which
grounds the TEMP HI light and the master warning input corresponding to the HYDRAU MWP
light and the single stroke chime.
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Pressing the TEMP HI light caption unbalances the resistor bridge to simulate a high
temperature.
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13.14.10 Interface with other systems
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The airborne hydraulic system interfaces with all aircraft systems that must be mechanically
activated. The most important user connected to this system is related to all the commands of
the control surfaces. In fact, the oil in pressure inside the hydraulic system can move ailerons,
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rudder, elevator, flaps and spoilers.
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Fig. 14.30 - Interfaces of the aircraft hydraulic system
Each aileron is operated by dual servo actuators, mechanically controlled from the cockpit by
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the control wheels. The actuators consist of two independent and identical cylinders, installed
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side by side and operated in parallel.

Each actuator is powered from a different hydraulic system (main and auxiliary). One hydraulic
system only is sufficient to safely maneuver the aircraft. Even in case of a total loss of hydraulic
power, it is possible to fly the aircraft manually.
If the control linkage disconnects, the affected actuator is centered by a spring. Each cylinder
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has an integral bypass valve, which allows direct interflow between both sides of the piston,
when hydraulic power is not available in order to prevent hydraulic lock of the servo actuator.
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Also when the aircraft is on ground, the hydraulic circuit is essential, especially in order to
activate the brakes and to steer the nose wheel. Moreover, the hydraulic system is necessary
to open and close both passengers boarding doors and freight doors.
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Fig. 14.31 - Hydraulically powered aileron control system
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13.15 Ice and rain protection
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13.15.1 Ice formation, classification and detection
There are different atmospheric conditions that can make the flight less sure and cause
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accidents:
 Wind gusts.
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 Hail.
 Ice formation.
 Lightning.
Wing gusts and hail phenomena regard the structural aspect of the aircraft. International rules
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provide indication concerning the wind gusts intensity that an aircraft can support. The
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problem of atmospheric discharges involves both material used for the construction of the
plane, the electrical system and the avionic sector. Also this aspect is regulated by specific
international rules.
One of the problems associated with the use of aircraft in bad weather condition is the risk of
ice formation on the structure and engines.
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The formation of ice consists in the condensation of water contained in the atmosphere on the
plane during a flight. The nature of this deposit, the speed with which it is formed depends on
many factors as the physical constitution of the air (clouds, precipitation), the aircraft type,
speed etc.
The parts of an aircraft more subjected to ice formation are: sw
 Leading edge of the wing and horizontal stabilizer.
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 Engine air intake.

 Control surfaces.
 The cockpit windows.
 External transducers (angle of attack, temperature probe, etc.).
 Toilets discharge.
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Fig. 15.1 - Aircraft parts more exposed to ice formation

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The problem of ice formation requires the installation of a dedicate system on the aircraft. In
fact, in some conditions, the ice formation can be particularly intense and it can reach a
considerable importance, sensibly compromising the flight safety.
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The combined presence of humidity and temperatures close to zero can cause the ice
formation on the aircraft surface, both when the plane is on ground and when it is in flight.
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Environmental conditions on ground can present various temperatures over and under the
zero point. The aircraft must be able to operate from the sea level to a high altitude, passing
from positive temperatures, over the zero point, to negative temperatures of about -50 °C,
with different humidity conditions. The conditions of the relative air humidity can be very
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variable. The climb is a critical flight phase for the ice formation, because the conditions can be
favorable to the formation of super-cooled clouds and the aircraft attitude augments.
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Moreover, also long ground stops during rain or snow precipitations, characterized by low
temperatures, represent a risky condition for the ice formation.
This ice will have to be removed before departure because it can provokes a series of negative
effects:
 The alteration of the aerodynamic shape of surfaces, with the consequent variation of
the aerodynamic flow.
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 The isolation of important sensors.

 Mechanical damages on surfaces, that are invested by ice originated from wing
surfaces or leading edge of engine sockets.
 The loss of visibility through aircraft windows.
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Each of the effects listed above is the result of a certain type of ice formation and requires the
adoption of certain protective actions. For example, if the ice formation is concentrated on the
wing, a high deterioration of wing aerodynamic characteristics occurs because the profile
shape is modified. In this situation, a stall can happen, even if variations of the angle of attack
are not recorded. A stall of this type is very dangerous because it is unexpected and it is not
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signaled by specific instruments.
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The ice formation on air sockets of the engine causes instead an abnormal functioning or stall
of jets compressors, with a consequent engine power off.
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The formation of ice can occur according to numerous modalities and diverse ice types present
different risks. We can have:
 Rime ice.
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 Clear ice.
 Opaque ice.
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Fig. 15.2 - Rime ice
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If an aircraft with a wet external surface enters in an area with temperature below that
freezing, the water layer transforms itself into rime ice. This type of ice forms a thin layer that
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does not cause serious aerodynamic problems. However, it provokes a loss of visibility through
windows and the occlusion of little air sockets. The rime ice is generally white and its build-up
is relatively slow. Moreover, it is fragile and little substantial, and so it can be easily removed.
The water vapor present in the atmosphere can become saturated and it can condense due to
low temperatures. The vapor, condensed into water, concentrates into drops with very
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variable diameters.
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According to their diameter, the water drops can be divided into:
 Droplets, with diameters less than 100 micron.
 Rain drops, with diameters greater than 100 micron.
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An aircraft that flies towards a high humidity region will encounter an area containing a big
quantity of unstable water drops. In fact, it is possible to find some not frozen droplets in
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unstable condition, in a temperature range between -15 °C and 0 °C. The clouds in this region
are called clouds of super-cooled rain, and they represent a danger for the aircraft.
In fact, these drops can freeze on aircraft impact surfaces. In this case the ice formation can be
composed of clear ice or opaque ice.
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The clear ice and the opaque one are extremely dangerous for the aircraft. The clear ice has
generally a transparent aspect and it is normally caused by large super-cooled drops. This type
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of ice forms very quickly and adheres to the surface with tenacity. The clear ice is very difficult
to eliminate. The opaque ice instead is caused by drops of normal dimensions and it is
generally more fragile.
For an ice formation to generate, the water super-cooled drops should meet the aircraft.
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Usually, this encounter takes place on stagnation points of the structure, such as wing leading
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edges, tail planes and blade leading edges. The distribution of the ice formation is related to
the air temperature and it normally depends on the attitude.
The flight crew need instruments able to detect the ice presence on different aircraft surfaces.
Many different methods are used to detect the presence of ice. The method used depends on
the aircraft type and manufacturer. In some aircraft there is a main detector system with a
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back-up system.
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Fig. 15.3 - Clear ice
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Fig. 15.4 - Opaque ice
Visual detection
Sometimes, the visual detection is used. With the visual detection system the crew simply
observe the aircraft structure and he checks that there is no ice on it. Generally, this method is
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applied to control the windshield and the leading edge of wings. Moreover, to do these
inspections during a night flight, some appropriate lights are installed. These lights illuminate
the specific surfaces. The black hot rod ice detector consists of an aluminum alloy base on
which is mounted a black steel mast detector of aerofoil section, angled back from the vertical
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and installed on the outside of the fuselage, so that it can be seen from the flight deck. The
detector houses a heating element, and in the base there is a built-in lamp. The heating
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element is normally off and when icing conditions are met, ice accumulates on the leading
edge of the mast, which can be seen by the crew as it turns white. During night operations the
built-in lamp may be switched on to illuminate the mast.
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Fig. 15.5 - Hot rod ice detector

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Vibrating rod
The technique of the electronic ice detection is used to identify possible ice formations in
critical areas that are not visible by the crew. This method is used in the air engine sockets and
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in probes of instruments.
The vibrating rod ice detector senses the presence of ice and provides an indication in the
flight deck. The system consists of a solid-state ice detector and a warning system. The ice
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detector is attached to the fuselage with its probe protruding in the airflow. The ice detector
probe is caused to vibrate at a frequency of 40 kHz.
When the ice forms on the probe, the frequency decreases. The ice detector circuit detects the
change in probe frequency by comparing it with a reference oscillator. At a pre-determined
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frequency change the ice detector circuit is activated. Once activated, the probe de-icing
heater is trigged to de-ice the probe and then returns to its normal frequency. The heater turn
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off, to allow the probe to ice up again (if icing conditions still exist). This cycle is counted by the
system and after a certain number of cycles an ice warning signal is emitted.
The cycle will be repeated as long as the icing conditions exist. When the icing conditions
cease, the system re-set itself, turning the ice attenuation lamp off in the flight deck.
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Fig. 15.6 - Vibrating rod ice detector

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Fiber optic sensors
Nowadays, we tend to use fiber optic sensors, in order to detect the ice presence on different
aircraft surfaces. They are a new class of safety device, and they are small enough to be used
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on all aircraft types (little plane, wide boy and military jets) and on helicopters. These sensors
are made of glass and stainless steel and they have a particular diameter, which permits to
install them on different points of the aircraft structure. Until now, the completed tests
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indicate that they have a sensibility higher than electro-mechanical sensors currently in use.
Moreover, the fiber optic sensors have not mobile parts and so they are greatly reliable.
During the normal use, the optical answer of the indicator is scarcely influenced by local
conditions. The completed studies have verified that also heavy rain do not modify the
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reflection capacity of the sensor surface. When the ice starts to create a reflection on the
sensor surface, the type of reaction changes in a significant way and the device announces to
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the pilot the ice presence, just when it is almost invisible by unaided eye. Moreover, the sensor
is able to detect the ice formation of various ice types.
Pressure operator ice detector

Another method uses a pressure operator ice detector. This consists of a short tube, which is
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closed on its outer end and installed at right angles to the airflow. Small holes are drilled in the
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leading edge and in the trailing edge of the tube. A heater element is fitted to allow the
detector head to be cleared of ice. During the flight the Pitot pressure will increase inside the
case and push the diaphragm down. This will keep the switch in the position, as shown in the
figure.
When ice generates on the leading edge of the probe, the Pitot pressure is cut off. The air
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pressure now drains away through the calibrated orifice and static vents. The natural
springiness of the diaphragm will cause it to move up and the switch to close, thus giving a
warning signal to the flight deck.
The switch operation will also cause the heater element to switch on in the probe, thus de-
icing the probe and resetting the system. This cycle will continue until icing conditions no
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longer exist.
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The warning system can be set in order to remain active, until one clear cycle of the system
has been completed, this prevents the flight deck warning lamp from flashing on and off
during the cycling process.
The system is connected to the weight switch or to an airspeed capsule.
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13.15.2 Anti-icing systems: electrical, hot air and chemical
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The aim of the ice protection system is that of permitting the prevention or removal of ice. The
aircraft mission takes place in very different environmental conditions, both in flight and on
ground.
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Fig. 15.7 - Ice risk

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The ice protection system has to manage the impact of the external environment on the
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aircraft systems, in order to guarantee their safety and correct functioning during all operative
conditions. The devices and modalities used for the protection depends on the surface to
protect, on available energy sources and on single used technologies.
In the aeronautical sector the category of the environmental protection systems includes also
devices of different type, such as wipers, anti-fog systems and repellant liquids. However, the
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necessity to prevent or remove ice formations is the main goal of the ice protection system,
which can act in two ways:
 The prevention of the ice formation (Anti-icing systems).
 The ice removal, when the ice is just formed (De-icing systems).
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These systems are called anti-icing systems. They are pre-activated at the beginning of the
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flight, if this takes place in conditions favorable to the formation of ice. According to their
operational principles, we can recognize two categories of anti-icing systems:
 Hot air methods.
 Electrical methods.
 Chemical methods.
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Chemical methods
The first preventive measure on ground consists in the liquid perfusion of the external aircraft
surface, when there are risky atmospheric conditions. Before the take-off, this treatment is
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performed by using substances based on ethylene or propylene glycols. This operation, called
anti-icing, happens in appropriate bays of the aerodrome or directly in the parking bay where
the aircraft is parked, through the use of specific tankers. This technique belongs to the
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category of the chemical protection methods. Generally, this procedure is connected to the
de-icing process.
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Fig. 15.8 - Anti-icing operation
The anti-icing operation protects the aircraft from possible contaminations or precipitations.
This process is performed by using a viscous fluid on the critical surfaces. The anti-icing fluid
must be applied cold and it does not have to be heated. In fact, it must be emitted at room
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temperature.
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The duration of the protective effect, is called holdover time. The holdover time is related to
external air temperature, meteorological conditions and to the type of fluid used for the
operation. There are 4 kinds of fluids, which are used according to the aircraft type or to the
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requested time of protection. Generally, for civil commercial aviation fluid of types II and IV
are used.
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Hot air methods
The anti-icing system mainly used on board, in order to prevent the ice formation, consists in
the heating of areas where the ice formation is likely to occur. The heating methods are based
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on the use of pneumatic or electrical energy.
The pneumatic heating is possible on aircraft with turbine engines. The first stages of the
compressor receive a certain amount of air, as the temperature increases; this air is then
distributed on the surface to warm it up. This action causes engine deterioration and for this
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reason it is activated only when it is requested by atmospheric conditions. This system is
simple because it is made of a valve of interception and some pipelines that convoy the air in
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the area to warm- up.
Electrical methods
Electrical prevention systems are used for small surfaces, such as air sockets of gyroscopic
instruments or all surfaces that are not reachable with air conducts. This method uses some
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electrical resistances that heat the part with ice formation by exploiting the Joule’s effect.
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With this process also huge surfaces can be warmed, but in this way an over-dimensioning of
electrical generators is requested, causing an important increase in the aircraft weight.
There are various methods of employing electricity for the ice prevention:
 Spraymat.
 Heat mats.
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13.15.3 De-icing systems: electrical, pneumatic and chemical
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The systems, which have the task of removing the ice formation, are called de-icing systems.
These systems must be activated after the ice has reached a specific thickness. They are
classified according to their operational principles:
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 Electrical methods.
 Pneumatic methods.
 Chemical methods.
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Fig. 15.9 - Ice on wing
According to the energetic point of view, all these systems are cheaper than the anti-icing
procedures, which avoid the ice formation through a preventive heating. However, it is evident
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that de-icing systems are more dangerous because they operate only when a certain amount
of ice is already present on the aircraft surfaces.
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Moreover, the aircraft configuration should be designed in such a way that no ice coming off
the interested surfaces may hit the tail unit or enter the engine sockets.
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The de-icing is often connected to the anti-ice operation. Generally, these procedures are
performed at the end of the turn-around phase and they take place in appropriate bays,
alternatively it is possible to directly act in the parking bay where the aircraft is parked, using
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specific tankers.
Chemical methods
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The de-icing process is accomplished with the use of hot water or a mixture of hot water and
viscous fluid. The minimum temperature of the output of the supply gun reaches + 60 °C. Once
the surface is warmed, the anti-icing operation can start. This procedure can be accomplished
in one or two steps. In the one step method, also called de/anti-icing, the aircraft is cleaned
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and protected in only one move. If the two steps method is adopted, the de-icing action
should be performed first, and then the anti-icing process can be completed. Between the de-
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icing and the anti-icing no more than 3 minutes should pass. The decision about which method
to adopt is up to the pilot.
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Fig. 15.10 - De-icing operation
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The weeping wing de-icing systems pump fluid from a reservoir through a mesh screen
embedded in the leading edges of the wings and tail. A switch in the cockpit activates the
system, the liquid flows all over the wing and tail surfaces, deicing as it flows. As the fluid
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flows, it breaks the bond between the ice and the skin of the aircraft, and the fluid and ice
together are blown away by the airflow. The porous metal element may be made of sintered
stainless steel or laser drilled titanium. It can also be applied to the prop and windshield.
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Fig. 15.11 - Weeping wing deicing systems

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In order to grant the de-icing of the propeller blades, the system provides a film of the de-icing
fluid to the propeller blade surfaces during flight, this film mixes with the water or ice and
reduces the freezing point of the mixture. When ice has already formed on the blades, the
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fluid penetrates under the ice and loosens it sufficiently to be removed by a centrifugal action.
Fluid is distributed on each propeller blade from a slinger ring, which is mounted on the back
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of the propeller hub. The pump is pumped into this ring through a delivery pipe.
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Fig. 15.12 - Propeller fluid deicing
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Pneumatic methods
The de-icing pneumatic system is essentially employed on leading edges of lift surfaces. This
method is based on the use of discontinuous inflatable systems, called boots, that are able to
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remove the ice, when it has just formed. The system is made of one or more elastic sheaths
that are pasted in the area of the leading edge. The boots are made of rubber or a polymer
material and are manufactured in such a way as to produce inflatable tubes that run span wise
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on some boots and chord wise on others. The external surface of the boots is covered by a
conducting film to allow the discharge of static electricity.
When the boots deflate, a “bridge” of ice remains. This cannot be removed during the next
inflation cycle. Although some residual ice may remain after a boot cycle, “bridging” does not
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occur with any modern boots. Pilots can cycle the boots as soon as an ice accumulation is
observed.
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By cyclically sending some air in pressure inside these sheathes, a deformation of the elastic
element is provoked. The air comes from the pressure side of an engine driven vacuum pump
or from a high pressure reservoir or in the case of some types of turbo-propeller aircraft, from
a tapping of an engine compressor stage.
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Fig. 15.13 - Pneumatic de-icing system

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At the beginning the central sheathe is inflated and it divides the ice layer into two parts. Then
it inflates both the superior element and the inferior one, with the aim of putting away the ice
previously detached from the aircraft surface.
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Fig. 15.14 - Pneumatic de-icing system
The system can be switched on by the pilot or it can be automatically activated by the ice
detection system. The timing of the cyclic distribution valves is carried out by an electronic
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control, and flight deck indications include indicating lights and electrically operated pressure
and vacuum gauges. For a specific installations you must refer to the appropriate AMM.
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The de-icing pneumatic system has the disadvantage of causing a disturb in the wing
aerodynamic, also when elastic elements are flat. Moreover, this system requests the
identification of the exact moment of action and the control of the material deterioration. The
advantage of this system is represented by very limited energy consumption, and for this
reason it is commonly used on leading edges of turbo-prop aircraft.
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The majority of inspection and maintenance associated with this systems is related to the de-
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ice boots, since their location on an aircraft makes them vulnerable to damage from airborne
debris and ground handling.
The overall condition of boots should be carefully considerate. This applies particularly to the
soft pliable rubber, which may easily be damaged during service operations.
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Another method is represented by the hot air de-icing systems. In general the leading edge
sections of wings, tail units, intakes and slats are usually provided with a second inner skin to
form a small gap between them and the inside of the leading edge section. Heated air is
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ducted to these sections and passes into the gap, providing sufficient heat in the outer skin of
the leading edge to melt the ice already formed. The air is exhausted to the atmosphere
through outlets in the skin surface and also, in some cases, in correspondence of the tips of
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wings and tail units. The temperature of the air within the ducting and leading edge sections is
controlled by a valve system, which depends on the type of aircraft.
The air can be obtained from:
 A tapping from the compressor stage of a jet engine.
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 A combustor heater.
 A heat exchanger using the exhaust gases from a jet engine and ram air.
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The control of the air temperature within ducting and leading edge sections is important, as
overheating and burning of the metal and ducting may occur. In a typical compressor bleed
system, control is affected by temperature sensing units located at various points in the
ducting as well as by valves in the air supply ducting. Then, sensing units and valves are
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electrically interconnected and valves are automatically controlled to regulate the flow of hot
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air.
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Electric methods
The de-icing electric method uses some resistances, opportunely located on the aircraft
surface. This system is made of a net of thin films of conductor material, which are electrically
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supplied in a continuous way. In this way, the ice created does not come in a single unit but it
develops as separated sheets. The pilot supplies panels inside this net in a cyclic way, in order
to obtain the ice detachment from the aircraft surface.
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The application of this system on tail units does not involve great energy consumption, while
its use on wing surfaces, which are huge, requests a high generation of electrical power on
board.
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Fig. 15.15 - Electrical de-icing system
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Another electric system is the electro-impulse deicing. An electromagnetic coil under the wing
skin induces strong eddy currents on the surface. It delivers mechanical impulses to the
surface on which ice has formed. Strong opposing forces generate between coil and skin,
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resulting in an acceleration of the ice removal process. This method can fight ice as thin as
0.05”.
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Fig. 15.16 - Electro impulse deicing system
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It is important to remember that frosting can occur on the surface of aircraft windscreens. The
methods of preventing the formation of ice on windscreen are:
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 Dry air sandwich.

 External fluid spray.
 Gold film.
Basically the dry air sandwich windscreen consists of two transparent panels spaced apart to
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allow an air gap and sealed by a frame of Vinyl. It is a double glazed windscreen. This method is
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also used for transparent plastic windows on the fuselage as well as for some windscreens.
The inter space insulates the inner panel from the outer panel, thus reducing the coldness of
the inner panel and helping to prevent condensation. To fight against misting in the inter
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space, complete dryness is necessary and is achieved by electrically-heated elements or more
generally by the use of a desiccant such as silica gel.
The external fluid spray system includes a de icing fluid tank connected by a pipe line to an
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electrically operated pump, the delivery side of which is coupled to a spray device arranged in
front of the windscreen. It is fitted with inlet, vent and supply pipes, together with a small
drain pipe. The inlet and vent pipes are connected to the fluid tank, the supply pipe to the
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spray device and the drain to the atmosphere. The pump is controlled by a switch in the
cockpit.
Electrically heated windscreens are used on the majority of modern civil aircraft for ice and
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mist prevention and to increase the resistance of the panel against bird strike at very low
temperatures.
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A transparent film element (Gold Film) is fitted between the laminations of the windscreen
and connected to the electrical system. The gold film is thin enough to see through but will
host an electric current and act as a heater. A temperature sensitive element is incorporated in
the panel to automatically regulate the temperature.
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Cat. B2 - 13.16 Landing gear
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13.16 Landing gear
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13.16.1 Construction, shock absorbing
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Construction
The landing gear is one of the main components of an aircraft. It represents a typical example
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of an aircraft system, which has important interferences with the structure, aerodynamics and
flight mechanics. In addition, considering weight related problems, it represents a great part of
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the maximum take-off weight and of the empty weight.

The landing gear is made of a series of components:
 Shock absorber.
 Brake.
 Wheel.
 Tire.
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 Some possible extraction and retraction devices.
The tasks of the landing gear of an aircraft are numerous, but they can be summarized as
follows:
 Supporting the aircraft weight when it is on the ground. To satisfy this condition 3
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contact points with the ground are needed.
 Permitting the aircraft movement on ground. This purpose requests the presence of
wheels, steering devices and brakes.
 Performing the landing. This task requests the landing devices to be able to absorb the
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kinetic energy of the aircraft, when it touches the ground.
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Fig. 16.1 - Elements of an aircraft landing gear

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It is important to underline that some important design indications are derived from the study
of all these functions. These suggestions must be taken into account during the development
of the landing gear design.
Regarding the wheels, the typical configurations include the landing gear with a single wheel,
mainly used for little aircraft, and the landing gear with a high number of wheels. Generally,
the number of wheels increases when the estimated load acting on the considered leg
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increases.
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Considering the legs position instead, the tricycle configuration is the most common. In the
tricycle configuration, the two legs, called main legs, are located in the same longitudinal
position, that is as near as possible to the centre of gravity. The third leg, called secondary leg,
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is located as far as possible from the center of gravity. The third leg can be located under the
tail or more frequently under the nose.
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Fig. 16.2 - Landing gear configurations

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The configuration with a rear wheel is now in disuse, because it presents different
disadvantages:
 On the ground the aircraft keep a nose-up attitude.
 During the braking, a braking torque is generated that tries to overturn the aircraft
forward.
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 During the landing the aircraft tends to increase the attitude at the touch down phase.
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 The aircraft suffers of lateral instability.
The only advantage of this solution is the fact that it is very simple both in design and
construction.
The configuration with a fore wheel instead is the most common used in the aeronautical
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sector. The advantages of the nose wheel configuration are:
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 On the ground the aircraft can have an horizontal attitude, with visibility advantages
for the pilot.
 During the braking, the fore wheel obstructs the forward overturn of the aircraft.
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 During the landing, a nose down moment is created causing a natural decrease of the
angle of attack, with consequent loss of the lift.
 The aircraft is laterally stable.
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Configurations with more than 3 legs are adopted for particular aircraft, when it is convenient
to increase the number of legs, in order to divide the weight of the aircraft on more structures.
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Fig. 16.3 - Landing gears with 3 or more legs

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Shock absorbing
The shock absorber represents the main component of the landing gear and it has the task of
absorbing energy during its deformation, giving back only a part of it while dissipating the
remains in heat. It is possible to develop shock absorbers according to different principles, but
in the aeronautical sector the most common type is the oleo-pneumatic shock absorber. This
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system ensures a better performance having the same weight of other systems.
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Fig. 16.4 - The shock absorber
Only on board of little aircraft of the general aviation the use of this type of shock absorber can
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be avoided. In fact, the leg of these aircraft is fixed and inclined, and it operates as a bending
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spring at ground impact. In this case, the energy is dissipated by the friction created by the
transversal movement of the tire on the ground.
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Fig. 16.5 - The landing gear of light aircraft
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In an oleo-pneumatic shock absorber three areas are present. In one of these, the gas is
compressed while in the others, which are separated by some orifices, the oil can move. The
gaseous element of the shock absorber accumulates energy and it then gives back a great part
of it. The hydraulic element of the shock absorber instead generates some dissipative forces,
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which are proportional to the velocity of deformation of the shock absorber. Schematically,
the shock absorber can be considered as a cylinder containing a movable piston, whose stern is
connected to the wheel.
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Fig. 16.6 - The oleo-pneumatic shock absorber
The static component, which is the gas, follows an adiabatic transformation, while the viscous
element, the oil, has a trend in relation to the crushing of the shock absorber. The overlapping
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of these 2 effects causes the resultant reaction of the accumulator. When the maximum
crushing is reached, the shock absorber starts the return towards the position of static
equilibrium, which is reached after little oscillations.
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Fig. 16.7 - Shock absorber schematic representation

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Fig. 16.8 - The reaction of a shock absorber

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The area under the reaction curve represents the work absorbed by the system. An interesting
indication is given by the ratio between this work and the work that could be ideally absorbed
with a constant maximum force Rmax and a maximum stroke δ, called efficiency:
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The ideal absorber has efficiency equal to 1 and is a perfectly stiff plastic system. A modern
hydraulic shock absorber has an efficiency ranging around 0.8-0.9.
A modern shock absorber, which is typically used in the aeronautical field, must meet the
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following requirements:
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 Its damping during compression must be different from its dumping during extension.
 During all taxing phases it must be soft.
 It must be constructed with multi-layers, so that different behaviors are possible
according to the aircraft speed.
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 It must be able to absorb energy, when an accident happens.
There are three main types of oleos:
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 The liquid spring type.
 The gas/oil type with separator.
 The gas/oil type without separator.
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With the liquid spring type the energy of landing is absorbed by the increase in pressure and
by the compression of the fluid within the unit. Control of recoil is performed by controlling
the rate of fluid passing through a piston. In the other two types the landing gear shock is
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absorbed by the increase in pressure and the compression of the gas. Recoil control is carried
out by controlling the rate of fluid flowing through a piston.
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The liquid spring oleo

Sometimes, it is called Oil Compression Oleo. At pressure up to about 3000psi the amount of
compression of a fluid is small, for hydraulic system purpose it is considered as negligible.
However, as the pressure increases, the fluid becomes more compressible until at very high
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pressures it behaves like a gas.
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This unit consists of a thick walled cylinder housing a piston with a large diameter piston rod.
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Fig. 16.9 - Liquid spring oleo
These very high pressures are difficult to contain with conventional seals, so a special high
pressure gland assembly is used. The idea behind the gland assembly is to control the friction
between the gland and the piston rod, whilst still keeping a fluid tight joint. It achieves this by
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progressively increasing the seal pressure on the rod as the pressure rises.
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On the landing phase, the piston is caused to enter further into the cylinder reducing its
internal volume by the amount of piston rod entering. This compresses the fluid and raises its
pressure. During compression, the valve is open and fluid passes across the piston head. On
rebound, the piston moves out of the cylinder and the valve plate closes. This reduces the
number of holes that the fluid can pass through, thus the rate of piston movement is reduced.
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The maintenance is really important. During a visual inspection, it is necessary to check for the
security of attachment, damage and leaks. Check for the correct deflection. No leakage is
permitted and if a leak is found, the unit must be changed. In some cases the Aircraft
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Maintenance Manual calls for a scragging test. This involves repeated collapses and extensions
of the oleo and checking each time that full extension is achieved. A duration test may also be
called, with the unit being kept collapsed for a period of time and then released to check for
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full extension.
Gas/oil oleo with separator

This unit has two means and each one has its own role to play. In general term the gas absorbs
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the energy by compressing and the oil controls the recoil. The oil is at about the same pressure
as the gas, but because it does not work at such high pressure as the liquid spring type unit,
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the oil does not compress very much.
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Fig. 16.10 - Gas/oil oleo with separator

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The gas/oil oleo with separator consists of an inner cylinder sliding inside an outer cylinder.
The top of the inner cylinder has a piston with a flutter plate fitted on it. Inside the inner
sliding tube is a floating piston or separator. Above the separator is oil, below is nitrogen.
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There are oil filler plugs in the top of the unit and a gas charging valve at the bottom of the
inner cylinder.
With the weight of the aircraft off the unit, the gas pressure forces the separator to the top of
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the cylinder forcing all the oil into the top of the unit and extending the unit fully. In this
condition the oil is at little or no pressure and the gas is at its normal charge pressure (1.9
MPa).
On the landing stroke, the downward energy collapses the unit, forcing the inner cylinder and
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piston head upwards. This causes the oil to pass through all the ports in the piston head and
forces the separator down. This causes the gas to compress and the pressure to rise. The
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compression of the gas absorbs the shock of landing, converting it into pressure energy and
hence heat energy.
At the end of the compression stroke when all the energy has been converted/absorbed, the
pressure in the unit is greater than that required to support the static weight of the aircraft
and the unit is pushed to extend rapidly. However, this must not happen. As the unit extends,
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the fluid flows back through the piston and in doing so the flutter plate closes. This restricts
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the flow of fluid to a limited number of holes and permits a comparatively slow rate of oleo
extension, thus recoil is controlled.
After landing, the static weight of the aircraft is supported by the unit that has collapsed
sufficiently, so that the internal pressure is enough to just balance the weight of the aircraft
acting through that leg.
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The maintenance procedures are not too different from that used for the liquid spring oleo.
The charging and topping up procedures, however, are different.
Periodically, the unit will need topping up with nitrogen, but it is important that the oil
quantity is correct before doing this. If there is any doubt, the oil quantity must be checked
before attempting to charge the gas pressure. sw
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Gas/oil oleo without separator

This type of unit is more popular in civil aircraft manufacturers because it is more simply to
use. With no separator, there is a oil/gas interface and the gas must be at the top with the oil
underneath.
This unit consists of one sliding device inside another, with the inner one having a restrictor
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head. A centre rod or metering tube slides within the restrictor head. On some units the centre
rod is tapered with no fluid port in the middle. The taper gives a progressive deceleration of
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the unit, as it collapses, less oil is able to squeeze past the rod.
The centre tube of the unit is used to brake the end of the oleo extension after take-off. The
total travel for the shock absorber can be of 45 mm.
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Valves are fitted to control recoil. They allow a seasonably fast collapse of the unit on landing
and a closer control of the rate of extension on recoil.
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Fig. 16.11 - Gas/oil oleo without separator
On landing, the unit is caused to telescope and this forces the fluid to move from the bottom
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chamber to the top. The fluid will pass through the port in the centre rod and through the
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open restrictor valves. Both the fluid and the gas will increase in pressure with the gas
compressing in volume, this absorbs the shock.
On recoil, the fluid is pushed downwards by the gas and moves to the bottom of the unit. This
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will cause the restrictor valves to close, so that fluid can only pass through the small holes in
the outer restrictor valve and the port in the centre rod; in this way the recoil is controlled.
In the static weight condition, the internal pressure times the circular internal area of the unit
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equals the weight acting through the undercarriage leg.
The unit is of the direct nitrogen fluid contact type and is filled with oil and nitrogen through
one common filling and charging valve. This is located at the top of the unit and is connected
to a short stack pipe, which automatically limits the amount of oil able to enter.
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Nitrogen pressures and compression distances are given on a chart attached to the leg and in
the Aircraft Maintenance Manual. Ramp servicing is limited to visual inspection for damage,
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leaks and correct extension.
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Fig. 16.12 - Direct acting and levered suspension undercarriage

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Another main element of the landing gear is the torque link. The torque link keeps the landing
gear pointed in a straight-ahead direction. In fact, it has the purpose to ensure that at all times
the wheel is aligned correctly with respect to the airframe.
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Usually, one torque link is connected to the shock strut cylinder, while the other is connected
to the piston. These links are hinged at the center of the structure, so that the piston can move
up or down in the strut of the landing gear.
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13.16.2 Extension and retraction systems: normal and emergency
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The dimensions that the landing gear can reach to support loads during landing are often
cumbersome. This causes a considerable increase of the aircraft drag coefficient. In this case,
during the flight, a retraction of the landing gear inside the aircraft is necessary.
However, the retraction of the landing gear implies some important constructive complications
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and a big weight increase. In fact, the retraction and the consequent extraction of the landing
gear, causes the development of a particular mechanism. In addition, to make some
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movements of the landing gear possible, a kinematic system has to be installed. Nevertheless,
the aerodynamic advantages derived from the use of this technique, justify the shown
disadvantages.
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Fig. 16.13 - Different solutions of retractable landing gears

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Nowadays, the most common solution is also the simplest and consist in using 2 bars of an
articulated quadrilateral align, which create an arc with 3 hinges. This structure includes a
vertical bar that absorbs the most part of the landing gear load, and a diagonal bar, which has
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the same function of a bracing element. The study of the movement mechanism is very
important for a safe and correct operation of the retractable landing gear. The device is
realized so that, during the extraction, a backwards movement of the gear happens, in order to
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add aerodynamic forces and promote the operation. The efficiency of this mechanism is about
70-80%.
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Fig. 16.14 - Piston load stroke diagram
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The diagram representing the piston load versus its stroke will be of the type shown in the
figure. Refraction is obtained by applying a force to contrast the drag and the moveable
equipment weight, while extraction can be initiated by gravity and completed by drag. The
area under the load line represents the amount of work needed.
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On large aircraft, the landing gear movement is managed by hydraulic jacks, while on small size
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aircraft some electrical jacks are used.

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Fig. 16.15 - Landing gear extension

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The landing gear system includes the following components for each landing gear:
 A selector valve.
 A jack for the landing gear drive.
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 A jack for the unlocking of the gear in the retracted position.
 A jack for the locking of the gear in the extended position.
 A jack for the doors control.
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 A control valve for the doors.
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Fig. 16.16 - Landing gear system

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When the lever is placed in the UP position, if the hydraulic system is pressurized, the
hydraulic fluid flowing through the valve feeds the selector jacks to remove the blocks DOWN
of the gear and the jacks that make the retraction.
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A sequence device, controlled by the movement of the gear, drives the control valve of the
doors allowing the hydraulic fluid to control, through the proper jacks, the opening and closing
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of doors. The gear and the doors are held in the retracted position by hydraulic pressure.
Moreover, mechanical systems (hooks, off-center, and locking mechanisms inside the cylinder)
ensure the livelihood of the gear and of the doors in case of pressure drop.
To extend the gear, the lever is placed in DOWN position, in this way the UP circuit is
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connected with the return, while the line DOWN is pressurized. In this way, the hydraulic
energy causes the release of gear and doors from the retracted position as well as the opening
and consequent locking of the gear in the extend position.
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The emergency extension system lowers the landing gear, if the main power system fails.
Some aircraft use a manual system to extract the landing gear in emergency conditions. On
these aircraft there is an emergency release handle in the cockpit, which is connected through
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a mechanical linkage to lockouts of the gear. When the handle is used, it releases the lockouts
and allows the gears to free-fall under their own weight.
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Fig. 16.17 - The emergency handle for the landing gear extension
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The design configuration of some aircraft makes the emergency extension of the landing gear
impossible to be performed only by gravity. For this reasons, there are some installations
designed so that a hydraulic fluid or compressed air provide the emergency pressure to extract
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the landing gear. The hydraulic pressure for the emergency operations may be provided by an
auxiliary hand pump or an electrically powered pump, depending upon the design of the
aircraft.
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The accidental retraction of a landing gear must be prevented by some safety devices, such as
mechanical locks, safety switches and ground locks. Mechanical locks are built-in parts of a
gear retraction system and they are operated automatically by this system.
The landing gear safety switch is usually installed on a bracket of one of the main gear shock
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struts. This switch is activated by a linkage through the torque links of the landing gear.
In addition to these safety devices, most aircraft are equipped with additional safety devices to
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prevent the collapse of the gear, when the aircraft in on the ground. These devices are called
ground locks. The most common type of ground locks is a pin installed in aligned holes that are
drilled in two or more units of the landing gear structure. All ground locks usually have some
red streamers attached to them in order to easily indicate their presence.
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13.16.3 Indication and warning
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To provide a visual indication of landing gear position, some indicators are installed in the
cockpit. Gear warning devices are incorporated in all retractable landing gear, and they usually
consist of some aural devices and a red warning light. The aural warning is activated and the
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light switches on, when one or more levers is set according to landing configurations but the
landing gear is in any position other lowered and locked.
Nowadays, several designs for gear position indicators are available. The most common type
consists of tab-type indicator marked with UP, to indicate that the gear is up and locked. This
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system shows red and white diagonal stripes when the gear is unlocked and so the warning
light is on. To indicate that the landing gear is locked in down position, the system displays a
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silhouette of each leg gear.

Micro switches or proximity switches are operated by the up and down locks and are wired
into indicator lamps in the flight deck. There is usually one lamp for each indication and
undercarriage. Where lamps are used, standby lamps may be provided. Lamps indications may
be:
 Green: unit locked down.
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 Red: unit unlocked.

 No light: unit locked up.
In some aircraft an amber light will show if the aircraft is on ground and the fairing door is
moved from its normal position.
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To warn the pilot if the gear is not locked down on approach an additional warning system is
provided. This may operate via the throttle switch, through the ground proximity warning
system or wired into a Pitot pressure operated micro switch.
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If the gear is on its way down, the down lock micro switch operates to switch off the red light
and switch on the green one. If the throttle is pulled back past a certain limit, the throttle
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micro switch is activated and in case the landing gear is not locked down, aural and visual
warnings are activated.
However, the tendency is to replace all indication and warning systems with an electronic
integrated device. This device is called ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor).
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Fig. 16.18- The ECAM wheel page

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The ECAM WHEEL page displays information about:

 Main landing gear.
 Nose landing gear.
 Landing gear doors.
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 Brake temperature.
In the upper part of the ECAM WHEEL page information concerning the wheels and landing
gear doors are displayed. When triangles are green, the gears are down and locked. If some
problems occur, the color changes in amber or red.
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Below this set of information, the pilot is given the temperature of the aircraft brakes and all
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the indications concerning the anti-skid and the auto-braking systems. In the center of the
ECAM WHEEL page, green and amber messages can be displayed to provide indications about
normal and abnormal operations of the system. At the bottom of the page the position of the
wing spoilers is displayed.
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In addition to light signals, a continuous acoustic alarm is emitted when the aircraft is in
landing configuration(backward engine throttles, flaps extended) and the carriage is not fully
extended and locked.
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13.16.4 Wheels, brakes, antiskid and autobraking
Wheels
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The wheels have the double function of carrying the tire and, in many cases, hosting the
brakes. Aircraft wheels are made of aluminum or magnesium alloys, to avoid a strong increase
of the aircraft weight.
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There are two types of wheels:

 Split wheel.
 Demountable flange wheel.
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The split wheel is made of two halves bolted together and with their connection line sealed by
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an o-ring. The demountable flange wheel is made of a main wheel body closed on one side by
a bolted flange. The wheel is then installed on the axle by a tapered roller bearing, which is
capable of withstanding high radial and lateral loads. To increase the safety, some thermal
coverings are installed, in order to avoid that the heat generated by the brakes spreads to the
tires.
Wheels can be installed in different ways. The camber angle of a wheel is defined as the
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inclination of the wheel with respect to the vertical plane, when viewed from the front or the
rear of the aircraft. Most large aircraft have a zero angle of camber for all wheels but many
small airplanes do have cambered landing wheels.
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Fig. 16.19 - Camber angle

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Positive camber is obtained when the wheel is inclined away from the aircraft, while negative
one occur when the wheel is inclined towards the aircraft. Camber is checked by using a
clinometers placed on the rim of the wheel. The aircraft should be jacked for this operation.
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It is important to remember that the wheel parts require frequent maintenance consisting in
cleaning and lubrication.
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Brakes
The brakes used on aircraft must satisfy different requirements, such as:
 Slow down the aircraft during landing until it stops.
 Control the aircraft motion both in direction and airspeed.
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 Keep the aircraft still in parking condition and during engine tests.
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Among all these requirements, that of landing braking is the most onerous because of the
considerable amount of kinetic energy to dissipate. The brakes must absorb the energy,
transforming it into heat, and so they are subjected to a remarkable heating. In fact, in
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aeronautical brakes, the tendency is that of accumulating heat rather than dispersing it
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immediately. This technique can be adopted because between one braking and the other one
a certain time passes.
Moreover, the braking control is realized with two independent systems, one for the right leg
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and the other for the left one. These systems are controlled by two brake pedals. This allows
the execution of a differential braking, that is used to control the aircraft direction when it is
on ground.
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Fig. 16.20 - Aircraft brakes

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The brakes of an aircraft are lodged inside the wheels and they are hydraulically controlled. All
brakes used in aeronautics are disc brakes, because they are cheaper than drum brakes, and
they also provide a better heat dispersion.
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The main components of a disc brake, which is usually powered by the hydraulic system, are:
 Pressure plate.
 Stator discs.
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 Rotor discs.
 Back plate.
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The rotor is a collection of discs installed on the axis and they are coupled to the rim, in order
to rotate with it. The rotor discs have some radial carvings with the function of reducing the
twist caused be the heat. As an alternative to rotor discs, there are stator discs made of a
metallic ring and working as a support for the brake pads. At the rotor extremities there are
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two discs, called pressure plate and back plate. The braking action is achieved by tightening
the disc package against the back plate, through the action of some hydraulic pistons that act
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on the pressure plate.

The stator disc at the opposite extremity, or pressure plate, brings lining blocks on one side
only and, during braking, is pushed against the first rotor disc of the assembly by a series of
hydraulic pistons. This action compresses the entire disc package, because rotor and stator
parts are all free to move along the wheel axis, with exception of the back plate at one
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extremity, which contrasts the pressure.
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Since the rotor and stator discs are in relative rotation, the contact between the lining blocks
and the rotor discs will generate a tangential friction, responsible for braking. The higher the
hydraulic pressure, the higher the normal contact force and then the friction force. When
pressure is reduced, the discs are released by a series of springs.
The rotor discs usually have radial slots, to minimize disc deformation during heat up. The discs
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can be made of steel but carbon discs have a lower weight. For a short period of time in the
60’s these discs were made of beryllium; however, costs and difficulties excluded it from
standard use. The stator disc is usually made of steel. The lining is fragmented into sector
blocks because it is made of a brittle compressed mixture of metals and ceramics, that may be
broken if the pressure is not uniformly distributed on the entire surface.
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Fig. 16.21 - The structure of aircraft brakes

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Until 1963 the discs of the rotor were built in steel. Now carbon is preferred because of its
remarkable advantages in terms of weight, specific heat, conductivity, thermal expansion and
mechanical resistance to high temperatures. In fact, the brakes temperature can reach 500 °C
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during a normal braking and it can exceed 1000 °C in case of an aborted take-off.
The sending of pressure to the braking groups depends on a control valve actuated by the
pedal through a mechanical system. The pipes that go to the brakes are equipped with flow
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limiters that have the duty to protect the hydraulic system from losses in case of pipes failure.
The system supplies several accumulators located downstream of a valve and of the brake
control valve, which is normally closed. A pressure transmitter, located downstream of the
accumulator, sends signals about the pressure available for the brake. From the control valve
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two branch lines are directed to the brakes of the left gear and to the brakes of the right gear.
As the pedals in the cabin are pressed, the mechanical control valve is driven. This valve
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includes two drawers, one connected to the left pedal, which controls the brakes on the left
gear and the other connected to the right pedal, which controls the brake on the right gear.
The hydraulic fluid is sent to the pipes at a pressure proportional to the braking effort exerted
on the pedals.
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Fig. 16.22 - Brake system

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On aircraft other two systems are installed, they are:
 Antiskid system.
 Auto-braking system.
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Antiskid system
In order to have the maximum efficiency during a braking, it is necessary to avoid the wheel
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lock. If this phenomenon happens, it can cause serious consequences, such as:
 An increase of the braking distance because the friction coefficient is reduced.
 A loss of guidance control, due to the loss of tire grip.
 A risk of tire explosion.
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The wheel lock is hardly controllable by the pilot, especially in case of an intense braking
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executed by landing gears with many wheels. This problem is resolved by installing on board
some anti-skid devices able to control the pressure level on every brake.
The anti-skid systems used in the past were analogue, while modern ones are digital. Recent
systems have a very refined control of the wheel-lock signal, and are able to keep the wheel at
an optimum level of slip. These systems compare the signal of the angular speed standard with
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the calculated aircraft speed. In this way, the wheels slip on the ground is analyzed. When this
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value exceeds a specific level, the pressure of the system decreases proportionally to the slip,
until the braking desired intensity is obtained.
In order to activate the anti-skid system, it is necessary that a switch command "ANTI-SKID" is
in the ON position and gears are extended and locked.
As long as the aircraft is in flight, the antiskid system prevents hydraulic pressure to reach the
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braking group, in case the wheels of the main landing gear gain a certain speed (reference
speed) after touching the runway.
From the moment the main gear wheels meet or exceed the reference speed until the aircraft
speed does not decrease below a certain value, if the pilot applies a pressure higher than that
required for maximum action brakes, antiskid system adjusts the brake pressure of each wheel
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in order to obtain the maximum braking effect during the braking.
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Each wheel is also protected against slippage. In order to avoid the slippage, its speed is
compared with the reference speed and stored in a computer.
The above functions prevent the complete block of the wheel, reducing the pressure, and thus
the braking of the wheels concerned. With the parking brake engaged, the antiskid system is
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not working and therefore is unable to perform any of the protections described above.
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The system consists of: tacho generators located on the wheels, a complex electronic control,
antiskid electrical valves, one or more warning lights that allow any malfunction to be
reported.
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Fig. 16.23 - Anti-skid system
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Autobraking system
The auto-braking system is generally connected to the anti-skid system. If the auto-braking
system is activated, the anti-skid device is working too. When the taxing control is set on the
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auto-braking, the pilot does not push pedals to brake, because the maneuver is automatically
executed. If the system is set on the landing modality, the brakes are activated few seconds
after the signal of the compressed shock absorber, or after the extension of the air-brakes. In
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this way a braking with a constant intensity, which is pre-set by the pilot, is generated. When
the system is set for the take-off, if the pilot starts a procedure related to an aborted take-off,
the auto-braking system activates at its maximum velocity. However, in all cases the pilot can
deactivate the auto-braking system, pushing the pedals beyond a defined excursion.
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On some types of aircraft the automatic braking system is installed, with different levels of
deceleration.
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The only action required to the pilot is that of selecting, before landing, the rate of
deceleration required to stop the aircraft. This is performed through a control panel, which
presents the following sections: OFF-MIN-MED-MAX .Once MIN, MED or MAX are selected,
this system is automatically activated at the hand cuffs when the engine is at idle, the plane is
in the land condition and the main landing gear wheels begin to rotate.
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To fulfill the above conditions, the braking system will operate up to a full stop of the plane.
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When the switch is set to MIN or MED (minimum or average deceleration), the system self-
calibrate the hydraulic pressure sent to the brakes in order to obtain and maintain the selected
deceleration rate (MIN - 4feet/sec2/MED-feet/sec26).
If the selector is set to MAX, the brakes will receive the maximum pressure.
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In addition to the selection panel, the system includes:
 A computer.
 A pressure relief valve.
The computer of the antiskid provides the signals for the auto-brake.
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The advantages of using auto-brake are:
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 Automatic activation of brakes within two seconds after the main landing gear touches
ground, with a consequent reduction of issues related to track availability, resulting
from any delay in the application of the brakes by the pilot.
 Reduction of wear of tire and braking groups.
 Increased level of comfort for passengers during deceleration to stop the aircraft after
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touching the ground.
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Fig. 16.24 - Auto-brake system
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13.16.5 Tires
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The tires of the landing gear are similar to those used in cars, even if they are different in
relation to pressure, tread design and thickness.
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Fig. 16.25 - Wheel and tire assembly
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The cord body of the tire is a multi-layer of nylon fibers, which are located along different
directions and drown in the rubber. To ensure a correct coupling with the wheel, the tire toes
contain some metallic beads, around which the fibers of the cord body are connected.
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Fig. 16.26 - Aircraft tires
The toes give the necessary rigidity to the frame and ensure the adherence of the tire to the
flanges of the wheel hubs. Externally the body is covered with a rubber layer of varying
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thickness, the tread, which offers high resistance to abrasion. The tread pattern is
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characterized by circumferential grooves which, in the event of water on the runway, are
designed to limit loss of grip on the track by reducing the effects of hydroplaning.
Between the cord body and the tread, additional canvases are interposed. According to their
position, they are intended to reinforce the cord body and/or the tread by improving the
resistance to lateral and centrifugal forces.
The worn out tread can be regenerated. This operation consists in restoring the original profile
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of the tire by vulcanization of a new layer of rubber and can be performed several times on the
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same cord body. The casing is coated inside with a thin layer of rubber, very flexible, which
ensures air tightness. This type of tire, without the chamber of air, is called tubeless.
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Fig. 16.27 - Wear of tires

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An Over-inflation is less severe than a low pressure, but it determines:

 Reduction of grip with the track.
 Increase intension of the canvas frame, resulting in decreased elasticity, essential to
absorb shock.
 Increased vulnerability to tread damage (cuts), due to the increased tension of the tire.
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13.16.6 Steering
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Light aircraft are able to perform the nose-wheel steering, thanks to a simple system of
mechanical linkage hooked to the rudder pedals. Large aircraft instead employed a power
source for the nose-wheel steering. This system is necessary because large aircraft have larger
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mass and heavier weight. Even though large aircraft steering systems are different in their
features, each steering circuit usually contains:
 A cockpit control, to start or stop the action of the system.
 Some connections for transmitting cockpit control movements to a steering unit.
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 A control unit.
 A source of power, generally the hydraulic system of the aircraft.
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 Pipelines to carry the fluid.

 One or more steering cylinders.
 Safety valves to allow the wheels to trail, in the event of a hydraulic failure.
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During taxing, steering hand-wheels (one for the pilot and one for the co-pilot) are used to
control the direction of the aircraft. The steering hand-wheel provides 75° of nose wheel
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deflection both in left or right direction. Signals from each hand-wheel are summed up: if the
two hand-wheels are moved in the same direction the nose wheel deflection will be equivalent
to the sum of the hand-wheel commands. While the aircraft is taxing for the take-off, the pilot
must check the flight controls. To check the rudder, the pilot presses a switch to disconnect
the rudder pedal. This button disconnects the nose wheel steering from the rudder, so that the
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pilot can check the full deflection of the tail rudder.
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Fig. 16.28 - The aircraft steering control

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To allow the nose unit to caster when towing the aircraft, the powered steering should be
disconnected or isolated. This process can be performed in several ways:
 A by-pass valve fitted in the system. When the steering is switched off, the valve is
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opened allowing free movement of fluid between both sides of the jack. When
steering is selected the valve is closed by hydraulic pressure.
 By disconnecting the torque links during towing/pushback. This allows the unit to
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caster without moving the steering jack.
 By the use of an isolating pin which is inserted into a special hole in the nose unit by
the pushback crew, this effectively isolates the nose gear steering mechanism. The pin
is removed after pushback and the usual procedure consist in showing it to the pilot
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before he taxies the aircraft away..
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Power steering systems are usually operated hydraulically and the main system can operate
either:
 A single jack with equal area both sides of the piston, or
 Two jack of the unequal area type.
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Fig. 16.29 - Steering jack arrangement

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Steering is controlled from the flight deck by:
 A separate steering wheel on the side of the flight deck.
 The rudder pedals.
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 The aileron control wheel.
Control is provided to both pilot and co-pilot positions. The steering control will select a
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hydraulic four way selector to port pressure fluid to one side of a jack, whilst opening up the
other side to return.
The jack may be a simple jack or may incorporate a:
 Self centering jack.
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 Shimmy damper.
 Relief valves.
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An important phenomenon connected to the employment of the landing gear is the shimmy.
Shimmy is a term referring to the torsion flutter phenomenon of aircraft landing gears. The
reason why these vibrations arise spontaneously and are self amplified, is linked to the motion
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of the system itself and depends on factors like the interaction between tire and ground,
landing gear design parameters and aircraft taxing speed. Due to these self-excited
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oscillations, the landing gear is stressed by dangerous phenomena of wear and fatigue, which
can lead to serious damages.
A way to oppose this phenomenon consists in installing the shimmy damper on the landing
gear. The shimmy damper is a little piston able to provide the necessary damping to cancel or
reduce vibrations. This device improves stability conditions, but it does not remove the causes
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of the problem, which should be identified by studying the nature of the system, the structure
of the landing gear and its interactions with the ground through the tire.
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13.16.7 Air-ground sensing
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Most air-ground sensing is done by means of a switch or sensor on the landing gear. The
switch will open or close whenever the aircraft weight is either transferred to or removed from
the landing gear. Usually most aircraft and helicopters have these switches located on the
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main landing gear, but on some aircraft or helicopters these devices are also installed on the
nose gear. Most aircraft and helicopters employ some type of Weight On Wheel (WOW)
Sensor or Switch that activates when the aircraft is on ground. The WOW devices can have
different sizes, shapes and technologies.
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The WOW systems complete the circuitry required to permit or avoid actions and systems
functioning on the aircraft/helicopters, for example thrust reverse operation or nose wheel
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steering. Usually, the anti-skid system works in conjunction with the air-ground sensing
system: the brakes for instance cannot be activated before landing because the aircraft would
skid immediately. The WOW systems manage not only the landing gear systems, but also other
systems of aircraft or helicopters. Systems that are run through the WOW system are
exclusively used either in the air or on the ground.
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A faulty or incorrectly adjusted WOW system may cause failure of vital systems.
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Fig. 16.30 – WOW sensor

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WOW systems
The WOW system is composed by a number of switches installed on the aircraft/helicopter
landing gear legs. The WOW systems can be divided into two basic types:
 Mechanical switches.
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 Proximity sensors.
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The functioning of the mechanical switches are based on mechanical contacts that close or
open the circuit connections. The mechanical switches are easy to test.
The proximity sensors do not use direct mechanical contacts; they use circuitry to decipher
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when the magnetic field is interrupted. The proximity sensors are more reliable, but their
troubleshooting is more difficult.
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The great advantage of the proximity sensors is that they can be partially open and partially
closed at the same time due to the use of the circuitry. This is the main difference than the
mechanical switches that are either open or closed.
Proximity sensors measure the physical relationship between two aircraft components (sensor
and target). If the components are close, the sensors provide a “near” signal. If the
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components are separated, a “far” signal is generated. In this case, the WOW system is based
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on shock absorber movements.

The switches are hermetically sealed and equipped with gold contacts for reliability. The main
landing gear switches are positioned on the side of the shock struts and are closed when the
shock strut torque arm rotates, as the aircraft weight compresses the switch arms. The nose
gear switch is wired differently, with the switch arms closed when in flight and open when the
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aircraft is on the ground - wiring logic is reversed to provide a signal compatible with the
switches on the main landing gear.
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Example of WOW system
The electronic circuit of the WOW system sends an output signal to the corresponding Landing
Gear Unit (LGU). Each LGU receives the electric signals relevant to the status of the nose and
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main landing gears. These signals are exchanged between different LGU in order to provide the
system redundancy. The signals are generated when the sensitive element is near or far from a
prefixed target.
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The LGU receives the signals from each WOW system dedicated to each landing gear leg. The
LGU transmits the signals to the Flight Control Computers (FCC), the Actuator Control
Computers (ACCs) and to the internal AND/OR functions.
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Fig. 16.31 - Example of WOW system

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The WOW circuit is completed by a series of position micro-switches that monitor the
extended, retracted and locked conditions of each actuator of the main and nose landing gear.
These micro-switches also provide the landing gear status on the landing gear control panel:
 Nose and main landing gear retracted micro-switches: they are operated when the
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landing gears are fully stowed in the aircraft bay.
 Nose and main landing gear extended and locked micro-switches: they are operated
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when the internal mechanical lock is engaged.
 Main landing gear shock absorber actuator extended micro-switches: they are
operated by the shock absorber when the shock absorber actuator is fully extended.
 Main landing gear shock absorber actuator retracted micro-switches: they are
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operated when the shock absorber actuator is fully retracted.
 Main landing gear shock absorber actuator locked micro-switches: they are operated
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by an internal device when the shock absorber actuator is fully retracted.
The following figure shows the positions of the micro-switches when the aircraft is on ground
and the landing gear is down and locked.
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Fig. 16.32 - Micro-switches for aircraft on ground and landing gear down and locked
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Maintenance operations
Sometime during maintenance activities it is necessary to simulate the in-flight conditions. The
process of manually tricking an aircraft into flight mode typically involves mechanically closing
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or opening the actuator of the WOW switch or using ferrous and non-ferrous materials to
“fool” proximity sensors.
The WOW override switch permits to simulate the in-flight conditions in a simple way:
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 ON position: it override the WOW sensor and allows the operator to transmit radio
frequency energy at high power level, while the aircraft is on ground.
 OFF position: it turns off the override function of the WOW sensor, preventing the
system from transmitting radio frequency energy at high power level, while the
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aircraft is on ground.
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When an airplane/helicopter is placed on jacks, its weight is not sustained by wheels: the
aircraft is in air mode and will behave accordingly.
Extreme care must be taken with regard to systems such as Pitot-static heat, prop de-icing,
and wing/body thermal de-ice systems, when tricking an aircraft into air mode. Severe damage
would be caused by a high temperature difference between ground level and cruising
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altitudes. Precautions should be taken before simulating the in-flight condition, in order to
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ensure the air/ground sensing will not cause automatic activation of any heater element.
New generation systems

A new WOW system is based on strain gauges, installed on the shock absorber. This system is
able to detect a very small load also when the stroke position of the shock absorber does not
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change.
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Cat. B2 - 13.17 Oxygen
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13.17 Oxygen
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13.17.1 Introduction
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On civil aircraft the oxygen is supplied for emergency purpose only. Events that require the use
of oxygen are:
 Failure of the pressurization system at altitude.
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 Fumes or smoke in the pneumatic system supply to the cabin.
 Medical conditions, difficulties in breathing, fits, heart attacks etc.
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Fig. 17.1 - Physiological effects of altitude
The pressure of the atmosphere, the partial pressure and the total content of the oxygen
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decrease with the increase in altitude. If this effect is felt by the body, it will result in a
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deficiency of oxygen in blood and tissues. This condition, known as anoxia, seriously impairs
physical and mental abilities and a prolonged exposure to it can be fatal. Therefore, the
purpose of oxygen systems in aircraft is that of preventing the effects of anoxia by supplying
oxygen through a breathing mask at a controlled rate of flow.
According to its use, oxygen can be divided into the following categories:
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 Therapeutic: oxygen given to people affected by a reduction of oxygen.
 Emergency: oxygen required in the event of cabin decompression at high altitude.
 Emergency therapeutic: oxygen required by those people suffering from the effects of
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decompression at high altitude, when the aircraft has reached a safe altitude.
 Additional: oxygen required to increase the partial pressure of oxygen in the air at high
altitudes.
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 Protective: oxygen required to protect the crew from smoke or toxic gases.
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13.17.2 System layout: cockpit and cabin
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The numerous redundancies of the pressurization and conditioning system guarantee the
operation of the circuit. However, failures and problems may still happen. For example, the
presence of smoke or pollution gas in the conditioning circuit during a flight can be detected,
or an anomaly, which can compromise the functioning of the whole system, can be found.
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For this reason, even though these situations happen only occasionally, the law imposes the
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development of an emergency system for the oxygen distribution. The task of this circuit is
that of preventing passengers and crew to develop breathing difficulties during the time
needed to perform emergency maneuvers, for example to conduct the aircraft to an altitude,
where pressurization is not necessary.
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The technical solution adopted for the emergency oxygen system is double:
 To install some systems of supply dedicated to passengers and crew.
 To equip the aircraft with oxygen tanks. These tanks can be fixed or portable.
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Fig. 17.2 - Example of oxygen system layout
Oxygen can be supplied in several ways:

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 Gaseous: stored in oxygen bottles at a pressure ranging between 1000 and 2000 psi
and directed into pressure reducing valves, before being supplied to the regulator
valves/oxygen masks.
 Chemical: stored as a chemical (sodium chlorate and iron block) but released as a low-
pressure gaseous supply to the mask.
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 Liquid: stored in its liquid state at very cold temperatures. It is used on military aircraft.
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 Sieve system: a special type of filter system that filters O2 out of the ram air for crew
use. It is used on military aircraft.
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The main features of the systems, installed on aircraft designed for civil transport, can be
resumed into the following points:
 Pipelines and equipment are not allowed in fire zones.
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 Devices able to show the crew that oxygen is selected and provided.
 If the aircraft has to fly above 30000 feet, oxygen masks must be automatically
provided to passengers, before the cabin altitude reaches 15000 feet. If the automatic
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system should fail, the masks should be able to be deployed manually.
 There should be at last 10% extra dispensing units distributed throughout the cabin.
 All flight deck crew should have a pressure demand regulator. It should be installed so
that it can be fitted to the face in 5 seconds with one hand, without disturbing the
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sight. The mask should cover the face, nose, mouth and eyes. Provision should include
the ability to allow each crewmember to perform his/her normal duties and allow
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normal communication. The supply should last at least 15 minutes at a pressure

altitude of 8000 feet at 30 liters per minute.
 Toilets and galleys should have at least two outlets and masks.
 When oxygen provided to passengers and crew comes from the same supply system,
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there must be the possibility to set the system so to give the minimum supply to the
crew.
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On civil aircraft, the system dedicated to the oxygen supply in the cockpit requires the
installation of a particular tank that generally operates at 1850 psi (12.7 MPa). The high-
pressure cylinders are identified by the color green and the word "BREATHING OXYGEN
aviators." The distribution net must reach every single position of the crew, such as the pilot
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and co-pilot seats.
A direct reading pressure gauge installed on the top of the cylinder indicates the pressure. If
this becomes excessive, a safety disc breaks and allows oxygen to be discharged outside the
aircraft through a special pipe.
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A green plastic disk that prevents dust and dirt from entering the line protects the drain hole
on the fuselage.
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With the shut-off open, the oxygen flows through a transducer and a pressure reducer. The
transducer has the task of transforming the pressure signal into an electrical signal fed to the
pressure indicator in the cabin. The pressure reducer reduces the oxygen pressure until it is
negligible, if compared to that existing in the cylinder.
Through the distribution pipes, oxygen flows to regulators and then to the masks installed on
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each crewmember’s seat.
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The flow controllers regulate the flow of oxygen as a function of the internal pressure of the
aircraft. They can be installed close to the pilots’ seats or embedded in the masks. Each
regulator can control the oxygen flow according to different operation modes:
 Provision of oxygen mixed with air on demand.
 Provision of oxygen only on request.
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 Provision of continuous flow of oxygen at a pressure double in comparison to the two
previous cases.
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Fig. 17.3 - Pilot mask sw

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Fig. 17.5 - Pilot masks cockpit container

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The pilot mask is contained in the cabin, in a dedicated bay on the side of the control panel.
The masks for the crew are of the mouth-nose type and contain a microphone connected to
the intercom on board.
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On military jets, the pilot breathing is guaranteed through a mask, similar to that of the
picture. This mask is usually used during the whole flight and the oxygen concentration that it
provides varies according to the aircraft altitude.
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Fig. 17.6 - Military mask

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The system dedicated to the oxygen supply in the passenger cabin requests the installation of
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some particular tanks similar to those designed for the crew. The number and features of
these oxygen tanks are linked to the number of certified seats.
The passengers’ oxygen masks are allocated in some specific bays, closed by some protection
doors with automatic opening. Generally, these masks are located in the overhead panels.
These devices are powered by the distribution net of the system, and the supplied oxygen is
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modified according to the altitude. Usually, oxygen is diluted with air.
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The opening of the mask containers allows the masks to come down. However, it is important
to remember that the oxygen supply occurs only when passengers activate a tear device by
bringing the mask to their mouth. In fact, each mask comes down from the slot but is held
back by a special cable that prevents the rupture of the hose. The action of removal and
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adjustment of the mask on the face causes the removal of a security pin, which by opening the
valve allows oxygen supply.
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Fig. 17.7 - Passenger masks

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There are many types of oxygen masks in use, which vary widely in design. It is important that
the used masks are compatible with the particular oxygen system involved. Passengers’ masks
are simple cup-shaped rubber moldings, sufficiently flexible to adapt to any individual. They
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have a simple elastic head strap, to hold them on the face.
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Fig. 17.8 - Passenger mask operation

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The operation of the masks occurs as follows: each time you inhale, the depression created in
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the chamber of the mask causes the opening of the inhalation valve and of the diluting valve.
The first valve allows the intake of oxygen of the economizer bag, while the other one allows
the intake of air from the outside atmosphere.
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In the chamber of the mask the air is mixed with oxygen. Dilution valve also works as a safety
valve in case oxygen is missing. The discharge happens through the drain valve.
All oxygen masks must be kept clean, in order to reduce the danger of infection and to extend
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the life of the mask. The mask must be washed with a mild soap and water solution, and then
rinsed with clear water. The mask must also be disinfected.
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Moreover, in the case in which there is the necessity to transport some passengers in critical
health conditions, some special equipment must be employed. These devices, such as
stretchers, oxygen nozzles with a long endurance and other medical fittings, must be expressly
installed.
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On aircraft, the circuit for oxygen therapy is installed on request, and it is located near the
stretchers-seat booked for the specific passenger. This system is equipped to be independent
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and allows a quick installation.

The oxygen therapy circuit is similar to the systems that we have previously analyzed.
However, this system is also equipped with an oxygen reserve in order to guarantee a
balanced supply during the flight.
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13.17.3 Sources, storage, charging and distribution
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The technical solution generally adopted on passenger aircraft consists in equipping the
aircraft with an oxygen provision in tanks and with a distribution net able to reach each person
on board. This solution presents some problems connected with the weight and obstruction of
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tanks and all distribution devices.
The gaseous system is divided in two categories:
 Continuous flow.
 Pressure demand.
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Continuous flow system
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When the line valve and cylinder valve are turned ON, oxygen will flow from the cylinder
through the high pressure pipe and reach the pressure reducing valve, which reduces the
pressure as required at the mask connection points. Reducing valves may be fitted directly to
cylinders together with shut off valves, or they may be separate units designed for in line
coupling. A calibrated orifice is normally provided in the sockets to control the flow of oxygen
delivered to the mask.
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The passenger system may consist of a series of supply sockets with mask plugs connected to
each passenger seat group, or it may be organized as a drop out mask arrangement where, in
the event of pressurization system failure, individual masks are presented automatically to
each passenger from overhead service units.
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When the masks are pulled to the usable position, valves are opened to permit oxygen to flow
to the masks, the flow being indicated by a simple flow indicator within each mask hose.
Any automatic control in the main ring supply can be manually overridden by a member of the
crew. Service units may also be provided with a plug in receptacle for attaching a separate
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The flow of oxygen in this system is continuous both during the breathing in and breathing out
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cycles.
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Fig. 17.9 - Continuous flow system
The system is fitted with line valves that allow the replacement of components and
maintenance operations. The bottle valve allows the bottle to be shut off for replacement
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purposes. Under normal circumstances it is fitted/removed while pressurized. This helps to
ensure that there is no water precipitation within the bottle and possible oxygen
contamination.
The system has provision for external charging, and gauges are fitted for maintenance
purpose. The NRV (Non Return Valve) is fitted to prevent any blow- back of oxygen during the
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recharging process. If pressure/flow rates are indicated on the flight deck then these
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parameters will be transduced and the gauge in the flight deck will be a moving coil type
instrument, alternatively CRTs may be used.
The requirements for the pressure to be supplied on a continuous flow system for flight
crewmembers are laid down in JAR 25. These requirements contemplate a mean tracheal
partial pressure of 149 mm Hg, when breathing 15 liters per minutes at 700 cc up to 18500
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feet. Above this altitude the values are 83.8 mm Hg, 30 liters per minute and 1100 cc.
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Demand system
The actual supply system is not too different from that of the continuous flow system.
In the diluter-demand or pressure demand system the oxygen is diluted with air and the
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mixture is supplied only when the user inhales. There is a regulator for each crewmember,
who can control it according to his/her requirements.
Depending on the demand regulator fitted the following provisions may be available:
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 Diluted supply.
 A diluted supply at little or no pressure.
 A diluted supply at a positive pressure at altitude.
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Fig. 17.10 - Pressure demand system

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Tanks
The tanks, which contain the oxygen, are usually at high pressure (at about 1850 psi or 12.7
MPa). They are equipped with some safety devices for the opening, the regulation and the
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control of the pressure. For example, every single tank has a break diaphragm, which is
connected to an external dumping line and to some visual and acoustic alarms. This safety
device automatically activates in case of system overpressure. Moreover, each connection
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between the tank and the mask of the user requests a pressure adaptor.
Portable oxygen bottles

On the aircraft, some portable oxygen bottles are installed. They are located in some pre-
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determined positions. Their number is coherent with the certification of the aircraft. These
bottles operate at a pressure of about 1850 psi (12.7 MPa), and they are equipped with some
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safety devices, similar to those used in fixed oxygen tanks.
Chemical oxygen generators

Nowadays, in certain aircraft there is a preference for some chemical oxygen generators, in
which the reaction is activated after a command of the pilot. These devices are especially used
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for the oxygen system dedicated to passengers. These generators are made of a metallic
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container, including a candle of chlorate sodium that is activated by a pressure detonator.

From this exothermal reaction the oxygen is released.
Generally, the single reactor powers 3 masks and it is equipped with a safety valve, calibrated
at 65 psi (about 0.45 MPa). During the reaction, inside the generator a temperature of 260 °C
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(500 °F) is reached, and so it must not be touched, while the reaction is in action. When this
technique is applied, all devices connected to the use of the oxygen tanks, such as pipes, are
eliminated, and weight problems and system maintenance actions are reduced.
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Tubing and fittings make up most of the oxygen system and connect the various components.
All lines are metallic, except where flexibility is required. Where flexibility is needed, rubber
hose is employed. There are different sizes and types of oxygen tubing. The most frequently
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used is made of aluminum alloy. Tubing made of this material resists corrosion and fatigue and
is light in weight. Usually, the distribution net works at 0.62 MPa (90 psi).
Installed oxygen tubing is generally identified with color-coded tape applied to each end of the
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tubing, and at specific intervals along its length. The tape consists of a green band with the
words “BREATHING OXYGEN” printed on it and a black rectangular on white background.
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Fig. 17.11 - Chemical oxygen generator

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Cleaning
The cleaning process is important due to the fact that contamination can provide noxious or
toxic fumes to the user, preventing system components from operating properly, or causing
fires and explosion. Contamination of the exterior components surfaces may also cause fires in
presence of leaking oxygen and possible sources of ignition.
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Charging of oxygen system
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For the recharging process breathing oxygen at British Standard N3 must be used. Oxygen
produced for other applications may contain an excess of water, which could freeze and
obstruct pipelines, regulators and valves of the oxygen system. Also the moisture may cause
oxygen to become contaminated and noxious.
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Oxygen contamination
At specified periods, or if for any reason the system is thought to be contaminated, the oxygen
should be tested and if necessary the system purged. The drainage should always be carried
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out when the system is empty.
The main cause of contamination is moisture and this may be due to dampened recharging
equipment or cylinders recharged when their initial pressure is below a certain minimum
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value. Furthermore, also the small amount of moisture contained in breathing oxygen may
cause contamination, because of repeated recharging especially in cold weather.
Although the introduction of moisture into the aircraft oxygen system can be considerably
reduced by using the correct recharging procedure, cumulative condensation cannot be
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entirely avoided. There have been cases in which oxygen systems, unused for long periods,
have developed an unpleasant smell.
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To test the moisture content of oxygen in the aircraft system a hydrometer, based on the dew-
point principle, is used. By determining the dew point of oxygen and referring this to a
conversion chart, the moisture content of the oxygen is obtained.
Masks installation
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The procedure for the installation of the masks largely depends on the type used, as stated in
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the Aircraft Maintenance Manual. Some rules need to be respected:

 Masks should be stored without kinking or twisting of the hoses.
 Masks and hoses should be free from cracks, breaks and other damage or
deterioration. Plug-in couplings should be checked for proper insertion and removal.
 Stowage compartments should be inspected for cleanliness and general condition.
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 Reservoir bags must be correctly placed and folded to ensure efficient drop-out.
Masks maintenance
Another important aspect concerning the oxygen system is maintenance.
The maintenance of the oxygen system must comply with specific safety procedures, in order
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to avoid serious damages to the circuit and to people. The main rules to follow are:
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 The technicians must always remember that oxygen, if in contact with greases, oils or
flammable solvents, causes explosions.
 The cleaning of connections of the system must be performed only with approved
products.
 The action on the tubing must be subsequent to the absence check of the residual
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pressure.
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However, the general recommendation is that each maintenance activity on the oxygen
system must be carried out strictly respecting safety rules.
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13.17.4 Supply regulation
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A demand regulator must supply oxygen at a tracheal partial pressure on inspiration of 122mm
Hg up to 35000 feet and 95% oxygen between 35000 and 40000 feet, when breathing 20 liters
per minute. Provision must be made to select 100% oxygen.
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The control of regulator allows crewmembers to select various options in relation to different
flight conditions, such as:
 Flow supply (ON/OFF).
 Emergency lever, to give a pressure supply regardless of demand.
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 100% or NORMAL, for oxygen or diluted oxygen.
 Flow indicator, to show when oxygen is passing to the mask.
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When ON is selected, the operation of the diluter/demand regulator relies on the movement
of the demand diaphragm. The topside of the diaphragm is subjected to the pressure admitted
by the mask. The demand valve is opened by the movement of the diaphragm and closed by
spring pressure.
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With the supply lever in the ON position, oxygen enters the regulator and reaches the demand
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valve at a pressure of approximately 70 psi. With the emergency lever in the OFF position,
when the mask wearer inhales, a pressure drop is felt via the mixing valve and on top of the
diaphragm. Because the pressure is below it, the diaphragm will rise, opening the demand
valve.
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Fig. 17.12 - Schematic of a diluter/demand regulator
With the oxygen lever in the NORMAL position, a supply of oxygen will pass round the mixing
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valve together with some cabin air, which is progressively modulated by the capsule open to
cabin pressure. With a high cabin altitude the capsule contracts and the mixing valve covers
the port from the cabin, restricting the amount of air dilution, so that the mask wearer will get
a higher concentration of oxygen. A check valve prevents oxygen from escaping into the cabin.
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The air inlet can be closed by placing the lever to the 100% position. This will close the dilution
line allowing nothing but oxygen into the mask regardless of cabin altitude.
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This could be done when:

 Fumes or smoke pass into the flight deck.
 A crewmember feels he/she is suffering from low oxygen intake.
 Oxygen starvation occurs.
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When the emergency lever is placed in the ON position, it overrides the demand diaphragm
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commands and lifts the demand valve off its seat. Oxygen will then flow under pressure to the
mask regardless of demand.
All the functions of the regulators has to be checked prior to flight by crew member, and they
are left supply ON and 100% ready in case of an emergency.
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Demand regulators may be fitted into aircraft for passengers use, where the maximum
passenger number is low. In large aircraft continuous flow systems are used. The demand
regulator has to sense the reduced pressure from the wearer in order to work efficiently. This
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recorded pressure is very low and may soon be lost if:
 The mask fits the face poorly.
 The length of tubing from the regulator valve to the mask is long.
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To help the efficient work of the regulator, the mask should fit the face tightly and the tube
length should be kept as short as possible.
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On wide body aircraft, the crew control the oxygen system for the cockpit and cabin, through
the OXYGEN panel, located on the cockpit overhead panel.
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Fig. 17.13 - Oxygen system control panel
The red button is the control of the mask bays in the passengers compartment. When it is in
the AUTO position, the mask bays automatically open as the cabin altitude exceeds 10000 ft
(about 3050 m). When the guard is lifted and the button is pressed, the mask bays open,
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regardless of the cabin altitude.

The central indicator shows the condition of the system of the passenger cabin. It illuminates
in white, when the oxygen mask bays are unlocked and masks are deployed.
The last indicator regards the crew oxygen supply valve. When the valve is open, low-pressure
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oxygen is supplied to the masks. When the indicator is in the OFF position, the valve is closed.
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On glass cockpit aircraft, the indications and warnings concerning the oxygen system and the
pressurization circuit of the aircraft are shown on the DOOR page of the ECAM system.
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Fig. 17.14 - Oxygen system ECAM page
In Fig. 17.14 the indications corresponding to the oxygen system are displayed in the upper
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right corner of the page. They are shown according to the standard colors code, in order to
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provide clear information about the system status.

The OXY writing is displayed in green, if pressure is in its normal range. When an oxygen low
pressure is detected in the circuit, an amber color is used.
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The number next to the OXY writing indicates the value of the oxygen pressure. This value is
expressed in psi. In normal conditions the information is displayed in green, while if the value
is too low, amber colored is employed.
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There may be also amber half-frame, which appears as an alert to the pilot, when the oxygen is
slightly below 1500 psi (10.3 MPa). This condition calls for the pilot attention, but it does not
signal a critical situation.
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The REGUL LO PR writing appears only when a low pressure is detected in the masks.
Dedicated oxygen servicing panel gauge lines for the crew and passenger oxygen cylinders are
installed to allow the view of oxygen pressures on two gauges located on the oxygen servicing
panel.
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A pressure gauge sensor is also installed on each line to sense oxygen pressure on the gauge
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line. Sensed pressures are transmitted as electrical signals to dedicated pressure gauges
located on the OXYGEN SYSTEM control panel. The crew oxygen cylinder gauge line sensor
receives power from the Left Essential DC bus through the CREW OXY IND circuit breaker. The
passengers’ oxygen cylinder gauge line sensor receives power from the Right Essential DC bus.
The passengers’ oxygen system circuit breaker name and location are determined during
airplane outfitting.
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The overboard discharge port is covered by a overboard discharge disk. In addition, to prevent
contaminants from entering the overboard discharge line, the disk acts as a visual indicator to
the flight crew to signal that an overboard discharge has occurred. It is green and labeled OXY.
H.P. RELIEF.
Pressure switches are installed between each cylinder pressure regulator and check valve to
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monitor pressure in the cylinder supply line. If a switch senses a line pressure below a
predetermined value, a discrete is sent to Data Acquisition Unit (DAU) #1. DAU #1 in turn
causes the Crew Alerting System (CAS) to display an amber CREW OXYGEN OFF and/or PAX
OXYGEN OFF caution message. The purpose of these messages is to signal the flight crew that
the oxygen cylinder has been manually shut off at the cylinder. Oxygen is supplied to the crew
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by quick donning mask/regulators with an inflating harness, inflation valve, microphone, hose
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with quick-disconnect fitting and a communication harness. Each mask is contained in a quick
release storage unit, which contains a PRESS-TO-TEST AND RESET control switch, flow blinker
and a quick-disconnect supply hose fitting. The mask/regulator may be tested while in the
stowed position. The sliding NORMAL/100% control on the mask/regulator provides diluted
oxygen, regulated according to altitude and demand. A pressure flow of 100% oxygen is
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supplied when the slide is set to 100%.
The PRESS-TO-TEST/EMERGENCY control located on the mask/ regulator has three functions. If
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momentarily pressed, it is used to verify that the regulator valve supplies oxygen under
constant pressure.
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On NORMAL (fully counterclockwise) configuration, it allows the regulator to provide diluter-
demand flow. In the EMERGENCY (fully clockwise) position, it sets the regulator to provide
constant pressure of undiluted oxygen.
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Fig. 17.15 - Indications and warnings of the oxygen system

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The PRESS-TO-TEST AND RESET control switch, located on the mask/regulator storage
container, allows leak testing of the regulator while stowed. When the control switch is
pressed the flow indicator (blinker), also on the storage container, will display a yellow cross
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(+) and then return to black, indicating that the regulator is leak-tight. If the blinker remains
yellow, there may be a leakage in the system and further investigations are needed.
The PASSENGER OXYGEN control panel is installed to control oxygen flow, annunciate oxygen
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flow and display system pressure to passenger oxygen masks. It is located immediately aft of
the OXYGEN SYSTEM control panel on the copilot’s right console panel, and has the following
components:
 OFF / AUTO / MAN Knob: the OFF / AUTO / MAN knob controls the oxygen flow to the
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passengers’ oxygen masks. In the OFF position, oxygen flow to passengers’ masks is
inhibited. The AUTO position allows the PASSENGER OXYGEN control panel to deploy
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(drop) the passenger oxygen masks automatically when cabin altitude reaches 13,000
ft. Oxygen flow to the masks is then regulated based on cabin altitude. Manual
selection to the MAN position deploys the passenger oxygen masks and provides a
constant preset flow.
 PASS OXYGEN ON annunciator: when oxygen flow through the PASSENGER OXYGEN
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control panel is sensed, a pressure switch inside the PASSENGER OXYGEN control panel
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closes, causing a discrete to be sent to Data Acquisition Unit (DAU) #1. DAU #1 in turn
causes the Crew Alerting System (CAS) to display an amber PAX OXYGEN ON caution
message and associated caution chime. The pressure switch also causes the PASS
OXYGEN ON annunciator on the control panel to illuminate in amber (or green,
depending on serial number).
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 OXYGEN SUPPLY PRESSURE Indicator: the OXYGEN SUPPLY PRESSURE indicator displays
the oxygen system pressure available to the passengers’ oxygen masks.
 ALT TEST Port: the ALT TEST port is used by maintenance personnel to check the
automatic operation of the PASSENGER OXYGEN control panel.
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Fig. 17.16 - Oxygen test

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Cat. B2 - 13.18 Pneumatic and vacuum
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13.18 Pneumatic and vacuum
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13.18.1 System layout
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On aircraft it is useful to use the energy deriving from compressed air, especially when the
aircraft has some turbine engines, so that it is possible to use the air tapped by the
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compressor. The purpose of the airborne pneumatic system is that of supplying air at
controlled temperature and controlled pressure to a series of users. The users vary according
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to the type and the mission of the aircraft, and according to the environmental conditions, in
which the flight occurs. However, the main users of the pneumatic system are:
 The pressurization and the conditioning system.
 The anti-ice system.
 The system dedicated to the start-up of engines.
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Fig. 18.1 - Aircraft pneumatic system users

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The hot air supplied by the plant can be used to obtain the mechanical energy needed by
organs with rotary motion, such as motor starters, the refrigeration system, hydraulic pumps,
or may be employed to pressurize cabins, tanks and drinking water plant. In addition, the
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thermal energy of the air supplied from the system can be used to heat the air intakes of the
engines, the leading edge of the wing surfaces, luggage and in some cases it can be employed
to operate the facility reverse thrust (reverse) of the engines.
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On ground the plant can receive the compressed air from the on-board Auxiliary Power Unit
(APU-) or from one or more external groups.
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Fig. 18.2 - Pneumatic system overview

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The pneumatic system must be able to operate in extremely variable load conditions, in
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relation both to the users requesting energy, and to the external environment in which the
aircraft flies.
The pneumatic system is composed of a series of components that permit the management of
the circuit:
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 Some pneumatic sources (to use in both normal and critical situations).
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 A distribution net.
 Some control devices, for pressure and air temperature.
 Some safety devices, such as safety valves and check valves.
 A series of users.
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Fig. 18.3 - Pneumatic system layout

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A great amount of low-pressure air is normally supplied through large diameter ducting. This
pneumatic supply can be used to deliver air to any of the following systems:
 Wing, fin, tail-plane, slat and windscreen anti ice.
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 Cargo compartment heating.
 Engine anti-ice.
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 Air conditioning packs for cabin air conditioning.
 Air driven hydraulic pumps.
 Hydraulic reservoir pressurization.
 Engine starting.
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 Thrust reverser.
 Portable water.
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 Smoke detector aspiration.

 Probe heating and aspiration.
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13.18.2 Sources: engine, APU, compressors, reservoirs and ground
supply
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According to flight conditions, air can be obtained from different sources, such as:
 The engines compressors.
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 The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU).
 The ground generators (ASU, Air Started Unit).
A diversification in the pneumatic sources is necessary because the operative conditions in
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which the aircraft mission can occur are numerous:
 To execute a ground start-up.
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 To do a stop on served or not served airport.

 To perform a standard or a particular mission.
 In presence of failures in the engine system.
 In presence of failures in some components of the airborne systems.
Engines
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The engines represent the primary source of air used during a normal flight condition. Air is
obtained by the compressor of the engine, especially in case of jet engines. The compressor
has many stages, in which air is in different conditions of pressure and temperature.
However, before distributing this air into the circuit, it should be regulated in temperature and
pressure, through a heat exchanger and a pressure regulator valve. With this technique, only a
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little percentage of air (about 2-8%) is tapped from the compressor but a great amount of
pneumatic energy is obtained.
Compressed air can be generated by two types of compressors:

 The volumetric compressor.
 The turbo-compressor.
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In the volumetric compressor the machine causes a reduction in the volume of the fluid on
which it operates, thus obtaining a direct increase in its pressure. The volumetric compressors
pressurize an air mass reducing its volume. These devices use a typical cylinder-piston system.
The volumetric compressors are activated by internal combustion engines.
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Fig. 18.4 - Engine compressor

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Fig. 18.5 - Pressure and temperature of the 8th and 14th stage of a compressor
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The turbo-compressors instead are actuated by a turbine, and are mainly used on aircraft that
have jet engines. These devices first compress the air, accelerating it either in a radial way (in
case of centrifugal turbo-compressors) or in an axial way (in case of axial devices), and then
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they slow it down to obtain high value of pressure. The transfer of energy is obtained by a
change of the momentum of the fluid. The air bleeding happens in two different stages (one at
high and one at low pressure) in order to minimize the influence on the power generated by
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the engine.
For this reason, the low pressure bleeding is always open, while the high pressure one is open
only in case of necessity and only when the engine is not providing the maximum thrust.
Volumetric compressors are preferred in case you need to develop a restrained fluid flow and
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provide it with a high hydraulic head. The turbo machinery operators are preferred in case of
large flows and low hydraulic heads.
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Fig. 18.6 - Air bleeding
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APU
The APU is an auxiliary power unit installed on board of the aircraft and made of a gas turbine
of limited dimensions. Usually, it is located in the tail cone. When the aircraft is on ground, the
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main purpose of the APU is to provide energy necessary to start the engines. When the aircraft
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uses this turbine, it is independent and it does not need assistance; in fact, the APU is able to
fulfil all aircraft necessities until the engine start-up.
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Fig. 18.7 - APU

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Fig. 18.8 - Gas turbine of APU

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The APU is activated by an electrical or hydraulic motor, through the use of a battery or an
external source (such as the GPU, Ground Power Unit). In this way, the APU begins to operate
and when it reaches its maximum velocity, it has enough energy to start the main aircraft
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engines.
A check valve is installed, so that when the APU is not running, air from the pneumatic
manifold cannot go back through the APU.
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There is also a bleed control valve and some form of dump valve. These two work in opposition
to each other. When one is open, the other is closed. The bleed control valve is similar to the
engine bleed valve but in this case it is a simple shut-off valve.
Air pressure from the APU is controlled by altering the inlet guide vanes to the load
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compressor. An APU cannot stop producing air when it is running, even when the system does
not require it. The dump valve or surge bleed valve opens when the bleed valve is closed to
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allow this air in excess to bleed overboard.
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Fig. 18.9 - APU details

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In recent years, in many airports some regulations forbidding the use of this turbine for noise
and air pollution reasons were emitted. When these rules are in force, the aircraft must use
different airport facilities. During a flight, the APU is used to activate the main flight controls
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and to check the operation of different aircraft systems when there is a failure in the
pneumatic circuit.
For normal maintenance activity it is not desirable to run the engines or APU every time
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pneumatic pressure is needed. Ground connections are provided for this. On the panel there
are data concerning operating instructions and maximum pressures allowed. There is a non-
return valve to prevent the normal system pressure from going out into the atmosphere
through the ground connections.
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The ring is connected to the system after checking the Aircraft Maintenance Manual and
making sure the aircraft is configured for the test. The engine is started on the ring, and
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pressures and flow rates are adjusted to the figures given on the panel.
ASU
The Air Start Unit (ASU) is a ground support handling equipment, which is employed in airport
when the APU is not operative or cannot be used for particular reasons.
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Fig. 18.10 - ASU

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An ASU is a vehicle with a built-in gas turbine engine that, during the start of the aircraft
engine, gives the necessary amount of air to start the engine. The ASU blows the airflow into
the turbine engines.
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For aircraft systems that use high pressure, the air is usually stored in metal bottles, at a
pressure ranging from 1 to 3 psi (6.9 -20.7 KPa), depending on the particular system employed.
This kind of air bottle has two valves, one of them is a charging valve. A ground-operated
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compressor can be connected to this valve to add air to the bottle. The other valve is the
control valve. It acts as a shut-off valve, keeping air trapped inside the bottle until the system
starts operating. Although the high-pressure storage cylinder is light in weight, it has a
disadvantage. Since the system cannot be re-charged in flight, its operation is limited only to
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emergency conditions; for example, it is used for the landing gear or the brake system.
However, the benefits of this system can be increased, if other air-pressurizing units are added
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to the aircraft. In fact, some modern aircraft are equipped with air compressors that have been
added to re-charge air bottles, whenever the pressure is used for the operation of a unit.
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13.18.3 Pressure control
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The air provided by the pneumatic system must be regulated in quantity and in physical
characteristics (pressure and temperature), according to the variation of served users as well
as in relation to operational and environmental conditions. In fact, various users have
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independent connection logics and their operational combination changes the energy
absorption and so the requested air quantity. For this reason, the pneumatic system must be
connected to a circuit of control and regulation, in order to recognize the different situations
and generate a correct quantity of energy having the requested physical characteristics.
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Fig. 18.11 - High pressure bleed valve

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In case the bleeding occurs at stage 8 of the compressor, the characteristics of the tapped air
are quite similar to the requested employment conditions. So, downstream of the bleeding
point, a bleed valve only is installed. This device regulates the air pressure before it enters the
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distribution circuit. The pressure value generally requested is around 45 psi (0.3 MPa). In case
air bleeding occurs at the high pressure stage, downstream of the bleeding point more valves
are installed:
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 A high-pressure bleed valve. The air taken from the stage of high pressure passes
through a high-pressure shut-off valve (High Pressure Bleed Valve), electrically
controlled (by means of a switch on the panel of the flight engineer) and pneumatically
driven.
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 A check valve, which avoids that the air is short-circuited, which means that the
tapped air is not allowed to come back in the low-pressure stage of the compressor.
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Fig. 18.12 - Check valve

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 A bleed valve, aimed at regulating the operating pressure in the distribution net. The
purpose of the bleed valve is very important, especially when the air bleeding happens
at a high-pressure stage. If it does not operate properly, it is possible to have an
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introduction of air in the pneumatic circuit at a too high pressure. This can cause
serious damages to the tubing and to their users. To avoid this condition, an over-
pressure valve is installed in the circuit. This device starts closing when the pressure
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reaches values close to 65 psi (0.45MPa). A complete isolation of the system is
obtained, when the pressure reaches the 85 psi (0.58 MPa); the valve is then re-
opened when the pressure comes down to 40 psi (0.27 MPa)
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Fig. 18.13 - Bleed valve

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 An over-pressure valve. In case of excessive pressure in the duct air, an overpressure
valve (pneumatic type) allows isolating the system. This valve is normally open and
starts at a predetermined pressure value (<65 psi), reaching the fully closed position
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when the pressure reaches a maximum value (<85 psi).
The valve opens when upstream pressure drops below a preset value (<40 psi).
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Fig. 18.14 - Over pressure valvesw

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Fig. 18.15 - Engine pneumatic system

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The spillage from the intermediate stage LP8 and a high-pressure stage HP14 is shown in the
figure.
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Fig. 18.16 - Pressure control scheme

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The withdrawal from the intermediate stage is normally obtained through a check valve, while
the removal of air from high-pressure stage is performed through a selector valve. The
operation of this valve follows two approaches. The valve can be of the ON-OFF type or of the
modulating one. In the ON-OFF valves, the opening is linked to the pressure upstream of the
valve. As soon as the pressure falls below a certain value the valve opens, and it vice versa
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closes when the pressure increases. The check valve on the 8th stage prevents the reverse flow
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into the engine, when the high-pressure selector is open.

The modulating valves work operated by referring to the minimum pressure downstream of
the valves themselves and as soon as the pressure tends to fall below this value, the valve
begins to modulate the opening, while maintaining a constant pressure.
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After adjusting the air pressure from the engine by means of the valves listed above, the
temperature may need to be adjusted.
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The air temperature of the pneumatic circuit depends on the stage in which the bleeding
happens, on the external conditions and on the user necessity. Generally, the tapped air is at
temperatures higher than those requested by the system and so it must be cooled before it is
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introduced in the circuit. The most used cooling technique consists in installing a heating
exchanger of air-air type.
The cooling fluid, which is essential for the operation of the heating exchanger, can be:
 External air, obtained by dynamic action, which means that it is efficient only in flight.
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 Air tapped by the 1st stage of the compressor, where the temperatures are still low
and close to external one. This solution is mainly used by transport aircraft, because it
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is efficient also when the aircraft is on ground.
The regulation of the temperature must be performed for the low and high pressure bleeding.
This adjustment is generally achieved by means of two systems.
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The first system used on aircraft equipped with engines of the type "turbofan", involves the
use of an electrically controlled valve, pneumatically actuated and spring pre-compressed at
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the end, called "Fan Air Valve." This valve regulates the quantity of air cooling from the fan
through a pre cooler, so that the air temperature at the exit of the latter has a value ranging
between 170 °and 200 °C. sw
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Fig. 18.17 - Turbofan temperature control

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The second system is obtained through an external air intake (Ram Air), which involves a heat
exchanger/ air.
The temperature setting should only get the exhaust duct through a door driven by an electric
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actuator.
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Fig. 18.18 - Ram air temperature control
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The control Fan Valve of the airflow is normally closed by a pre-compressed spring. The control
of this valve is normally electronic. Appropriate sensors, which feel the temperature
downstream of the heat exchanger temperature, constantly send signals to the electronic
control. As soon as temperature approaches the maximum threshold, the electronic control
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opens the Fan Air Valve.
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The controller can establish different thresholds, depending on temperature and on activated
systems. It chooses a lower threshold, if the user is the only air conditioning and a higher
threshold, if there is also the de-icing.
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13.18.4 Distribution
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The distribution net of the pneumatic system is made of a series of pipes and components, in
order to efficiently connect the pneumatic sources of the different users. The pipes of the
distribution net spread along the whole aircraft, starting from the engines, the APU and the
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connections of ground units. In correspondence to the particular connections of pipes, some
detection systems of failure are installed. Moreover, the distribution net is divided in
separated sections and is served by every engine. In fact, for safety reasons, the pneumatic
system must be designed and build-up so that the right net can be powered by the right
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engine but it can also operate when only the left engine works.
In particular operational conditions, such as an engine failure, the two branches of the system
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must be able to be connected together. Some cross bleed valves accomplishes the connection.
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Fig. 18.19 - Typical pneumatic system manifold

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The air bleeding requested from the different supply sources is controlled by the crew, while
the management, the regulation and the protection of the circuit are controlled by some
dedicated computers, called Bleed Monitoring Computers (BMCs). The pneumatic system is
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automatically controlled and monitored by 2 BMCs. There is one BMC for each engine bleed
system. However, both BMCs are interconnected and if one fails, the other takes-over most of
its functions. If in the pneumatic system a leak is detected, a signal is readily sent to the BMC.
This computer automatically isolates the affected area of the circuit.
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Through the control panel of the pneumatic circuit, the pilot can control and manage:
 The bleed valves.
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 All temperature and pressure indicators.

 The high temperature warnings lights.
 All warnings concerning the possible failures of the system (damage of the
connections, failure of the energy sources, etc).
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Fig. 18.20 - Aircraft pneumatic system control panel

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The controls of the pneumatic system are part of the AIR COND panel, which is located on the
overhead panel in the cockpit.
The engine bleed valves can be controlled by the first and last button. When the ENG BLEED
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buttons are in light out position, it means that the engine bleed valves are automatically
controlled. When the OFF label switches on, the engine bleed valves and the high-pressure
valves are closed. If the amber FAULT label lights up, it means that a failure in the engine bleed
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system is detected. From the control panel the pilot can also check the APU system. If the APU
BLEED button is in light out position, it means that the APU bleed valve is closed. When the
valve is open, the ON blue indication lights up. If a leak is detected in the APU circuit, the
amber FAULT label switches on. When the cross bleed selector is in AUTO position, it means
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that the cross bleed valve is automatically controlled. However, when this valve is manually
opened or closed, the selector is respectively on the OPEN or SHUT position.
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Information concerning the pneumatic system is also displayed on the lower part of the ECAM
BLEED page. On this page the valves of the pneumatic system are represented by a little circle,
with a line inside.
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According to the position of the line, the pilot can check if the valve is open or closed. If this
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line extends the line representing the pipe, it means that the devices are open. While, if the
line does not continue the drawing of the pipelines, the valve is closed.
Moreover, if all lines and circles are green, the system is working in normal conditions. If a
failure happens they change the circles will become amber.
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If we analyze the system starting from the left side, we find:
 The bleed valve of engine number 1.
 The high-pressure valve of system 1.
 The APU valve.
 The high-pressure valve of system 2. sw
 The bleed valve of engine number 2.
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Fig. 18.21 - ECAM bleed system page
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At low engine speed, when the pressure and temperature of the IP air are too low, the system
bleeds air from the HP stage and maintains it at 36 ± 4 psi. An intermediate pressure check
valve downstream of the IP port closes to prevent air from the HP stage from circulating to the
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IP stage.
The HP valve closes automatically:
 Pneumatically
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i) In case of low upstream pressure.
ii) In case of excessive upstream pressure.
 Electrically, when the bleed valve is closed electrically.
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Fig. 18.22 - ECAM bleed system valves
The bleed valve, which is downstream of the junction of HP and IP ducting, acts as a shut-off
and pressure regulating valve. It maintains delivery pressure at 44 ± 4 psi.
The bleed valve is fully closed:
 Pneumatically
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i) If upstream pressure goes below 8 psi.

ii) If there is return flow.
 Electrically by means of
i) The BLEED pushbutton switch (switched OFF).
ii) The ENG FIRE pushbutton.
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iii) The Bleed air Monitoring Computer (BMC) in the following cases:
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(1) Over temperature

(2) Overpressure
(3) Leak
(4) Open start valve
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(5) APU bleed being ON

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If pressure regulation fails, the overpressure valve closes as the pressure goes over 85 psi.
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Fig. 18.23 - ECAM bleed system valves indications

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Air form the APU load compressor is available on the ground and in flight. The APU bleed valve
operates as a shut off valve to control APU bleed air. It is electrically controlled and
pneumatically operated. The APU BLEED pushbutton switch located on the AIR COND panel
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controls the APU bleed valve. When the flight crew selects ON with the pushbutton, the APU
air bleed supplies the pneumatic system, if the APU speed is above 95%. This opens the cross
bleed valve and automatically closes the engine bleed. A check valve near the cross bleed duct
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protects the APU when bleed air comes from another source.
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Fig. 18.24 - ECAM bleed system indications

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A pre cooler downstream of the bleed valve regulates the temperature of the bleed air. The
pre cooler is an air to air heat exchanger that uses cooling air bleed form the engine fan to
limit the temperature to 200°C.
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Leak detection loops detect any overheating near the hot air ducts in the fuselage, pylons, and
wings. In the pylon and APU, the sensing elements are tied to form a single loop and in the
wing, a double loop. When the two wing loops detect a leak, or when one loop detects the
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leak and the other one is inoperative, they activate a wing leak signal.
BMC1 and BMC2 present identical control logic:
 A wing leak signal causes:
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i) The bleed valve on the related side to close automatically.
ii) The associated FAULT light on the AIR COND panel to switch on.
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iii) The x-bleed valve to close automatically.

iv) The APU bleed valve to close automatically.
 A pylon leak signal causes:
i) The bleed valve on the related side to close automatically.
ii) The FAULT light for the related engine on the AIR COND panel to switch on.
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 An APU leak signal causes:

i) The APU bleed valve to close automatically.
ii) The FAULT light for the APU bleed pushbutton switch located on the AIR COND
panel to switch on.
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Fig. 18.25 - Detection loops

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If one BMC fails, the adjacent BMC takes over the monitoring of the bleed system to issue the
following ECAM warnings, if necessary:
 Overpressure.
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 Over temperature.
 Wing leak.
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Nevertheless, the associated FAULT light on the AIR COND panel is lost, and the associated
belled valve does not close automatically. ENG BLEED LEAK warning is lost for the associated
engine as the APU BLEED LEAK warning, if BMC1 has failed.
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Fig. 18.26 - Control and indicators
1) ENG 1 and ENG 2 BLEED pushbutton switch

 ON, bleed valve opens if:
(1) Upstream pressure is above 8 psi. sw
(2) APU BLEED pushbutton switch is off or APU bleed valve is closed.
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(3) There is no onside wing or pylon leak, and no overpressure or over-

temperature has been detected.
(4) The ENG FIRE pushbutton has not been popped out.
(5) The engine start valve is closed.
 FAULT, this amber light comes on and caution message appears on ECAM, if:
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(1) There is an overpressure downstream of the bleed valve.
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(2) There is a bleed air overheat.

(3) There is a wing or engine leak.
(4) The bleed valve is not closed during engine start.
(5) The bleed valve is not closed with APU bleed ON.
 OFF, the bleed valve and HP valve close. The white OFF light comes on.
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2) APU BLEED pushbutton switch:
 ON, the APU valve opens if N>95% and there is no leak in the APU or in the left
side bleed. The blue ON light switches on.
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 OFF, the APU valve closes.
 FAULT light, this amber light switches on, and a caution message appears on
ECAM, when the system detects an APU leak.
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3) X-BLEED selector switch:
 AUTO, the cross bleed valve is open, if the APU bleed valve is open too. The cross-
bleed valve is closed, if the APU bleed valve is closed too, or in case of wing, pylon,
or APU leak.
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 OPEN, the cross bleed valve is open.
 CLOSE, the cross bleed valve is closed.
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Fig. 18.27 - Warnings
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13.18.6 Interfaces with other systems
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The airborne pneumatic system interfaces with numerous aircraft systems. The main users of
the pneumatic circuit, in term of quantity, are certainly the pressurization and conditioning
systems. However, the pneumatic energy is also used for many other systems.
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On board, the most common user of the compressed air are:
 The anti-icing system.
 The pressurization system of oil tanks, fuel tanks and water tanks.
 The ventilation circuit of fuel tanks.
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 The engines start-up system.
 The operation of some pneumatic actuators, especially in critical conditions.
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A simple example of pneumatic system interface is the boots systems. A deicing boot consists
of a thick rubber membrane installed over the surface. As atmospheric icing occurs and ice
accumulates, a pneumatic system inflates the boot with compressed air. This expansion in size
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cracks any ice that has accumulated, and the ice is then blown away by the airflow. The boots
are then deflated to return the wing or the surface to their optimal shape.
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Another example of pneumatic system interface involves the engine start-up procedure. The
normal engine start procedure is the AUTO START procedure. In this case, the FADEC prevents
start malfunctioning such as hot start, stall etc. It recognizes all these conditions and takes
appropriate counteractions, by reducing fuel flow, cranking the engine, attempting new starts
or cutting fuel flow, for instance. The air from the APU (APU bleed) allows to start 2 engines
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simultaneously.
The engine start up sequence is simple: engines 1 and 2 are started firstly to pressurize the
green and blue system, which supply the parking brakes and hydraulic actuators. An actuator is
a little box that converts the electrical inputs to real rudder movements. So, engines 1 and 2
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first, followed by 3 and 4. Check thrust levers idle. Then, set IGN/START to START and check if
APU bleed is stable. ENG1 Master switch is set to ON, followed by ENG 2, when N2 of Engine 1
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has reached 10%. Now monitor and check in the right order: Start valve open (now high
pressure bleed air, minimum 30ps, air is blown into the engine), N2 IGN A or B, Fuel flow, EGT
OIL PRESS ignition rising. FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control) closes the start valve,
when N2 reaches 50%. Monitor EGT and ENG Vibration and the engine AVAIL, which
illuminates when the start sequence is over. The same is repeated for ENG 3 and 4.
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When all engines are running, set the IGN / START switch back to NORM, this will automatically
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switch the Packs back ON. If, for any reasons, an abnormal start occurs, DO NOT interrupt the
FADEC process and just follow the ECAM instructions as they appear.
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Fig. 18.28 - Ice boots

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Cat. B2 - 13.19 Water and waste
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13.19 Water and waste
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13.19.1 Water system layout, supply, distribution, servicing and
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draining
Aircraft designed for civil transport must guarantee an adequate comfort. This need varies
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according to expected service standards and flight duration. During the flight some different
services must be guaranteed in accordance with the required standards:
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 The catering service.

 The toilet service.
The catering service requests the installation of some galleys, trolleys, standard containers to
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store food and beverages, ovens for the heating of meals and a system that provides hot and
cold potable water. Toilet service instead requests the presence of sinks with hot and cold
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potable water, and of a WC with a mixture of water and chemical additives.

The on-board presence of these systems involves the necessity to project a series of functional
connections with the electrical system and the venting one, in order to guarantee and control
the correct operation of the circuits.
The system will have several functions. The drinking water system (called Potable Water)
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consists of:
 Storage: sufficient water has to be stored for the duration of the flight. A system has to
be provided to allow quick and clean refilling of the tanks.
 Heating: the water has to be heated to the right temperature for hot water taps, it has
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 Cooling: water for drinking fountains on board require the water to be cooled.
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 Distribution: there should be enough pressure to force the water to all the taps,
heaters, beverage makers etc. This requires the tanks to be pressurised and a system
of pipe has to carry the water to the required cabin areas.
 Contents indication: this needs to be available to the engineer when filing the system.
Also the cabin crew need to be able to see the contents of the tanks in flight.
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 Anti-frost system: in order to prevent water from freezing in the supply pipes, electric
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heaters are placed around some pipes.

 Removal of wastewater: the waste water must be removed from sinks, drinking
fountains etc.
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Fig. 19.1 - Typical water supply system
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The system, dedicated to the potable water supply, is made of a series of elements, which can
be classified into 3 categories:
 A system intended for ground supply.
 A circuit of storage.
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 A user distribution net.
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The functionality of these sub-systems is determined by the execution order according to

which operations must be performed.
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Fig. 19.2 - Potable water system

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The recharge of the potable water system is executed during the handling operations
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performed on aircraft before the take-off. The refill is directly done in the parking bay, through
the use of small tankers connected to the service panel of the aircraft. The service panel is
used when the aircraft is on ground. This panel is connected to the water system, and it is
generally located on the side of the fuselage. The service panel is equipped with an inlet to
connect the refuelling pipe to the water supply line. These panels are also equipped with other
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links, such as:
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 A connection with the pressurization system.

 A link with the anti-icing system.
 A connection with the draining circuit of the residual water controlled by some valves
with electrical or manual command.
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Fig. 19.3 - The service panel for the aircraft water system
During the refill operation, the water is directly sent to the aircraft tanks. The connection
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between the tank and the supply line takes place through a dedicated refuelling valve, which is
located near the same tank. In the tank some sensors are installed. They are connected to
lights, placed on the service panel. These lights progressively switch on, when the water level
reaches the corresponding sensor. When the refill is complete, some dedicated valves of
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draining remove the residual water in the supply line, in order to avoid its freezing during the
flight.
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The storage system of the potable water requests the installation of a tank able to feed all
different users. The water quantity that the tank must contain depends on the number of
passengers that the aircraft transports. In general, an amount of water ranging from 2 to 4
liters is required for each passenger.
The tank is usually pressurized. The pressurization is necessary to allow the water transfer to
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the different users. During the handling phase, the refilling unit, through an external inlet,
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provides the pressurization. During the flight instead the tanks are pressurized using air
coming from the pneumatic system. Generally, the pressurization reaches a value of about 40
psi (0.27 MPa). Moreover, in the upper part of the tank a safety valve is present. This valve
operates in case the internal pressure is excessive. Another important aspect is the tank
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hygiene, which is guaranteed by some periodic cleaning operations of the system, and by some
dedicated filters installed on supply lines.
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Fig. 19.4 - Potable water tank

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From the tank, through a net distribution, the water reaches different users, passing through a
shut-off valve. This valve allows to exclude the supply in case of necessity. The distribution
system is made of a series of conducts that reach both the galleys and the sinks of the toilets.
The water destined to be drunk is usually cooled through a dedicated refrigerating system. The
water used for the toilet sinks is warmed through some electrical circuits.
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The water distribution system is also equipped with a net of dumping and a circuit of draining.
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The solutions for the dumping system can be different, but usually the water of the sinks is
sent to the black water tank of the WC. The water of the galleys instead is emptied outside the
aircraft through some warmed fins. These devices are warmed in order to avoid ice formation
that can cause their block during the flight.
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Fig. 19.5 - Dumping system

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Water for drinking fountains normally requires cooling. The cooler uses 200 V AC supply to
drive a motor that, once the water temperature has rose above 10°C, drives a fan, which blows
air across the thermoelectric units, using energy change entropy to reduce the water
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Fig. 19.6 - Potable water service panel
As the tanks are full, the water is forced up the stack pipe and through the overflow and will
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start to flow from the overflow port on or near the water service panel.
The fill valve handle is stowed and this turns the valve into flight condition. In this way, the
overflowing of water from the tank is prevented and, at the same time, the tank is pressurized.
Drained is also carried out from the water service panel. Firstly, the fill handle is pulled, so that
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it rotates the fill valve and vents the tank. To drain the tanks, the drain valve is rotated, which,
as it is located at the bottom of the system, allows the water to drain through gravity action.
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This water should not be reused.

On large aircraft there may be two or more drain points under the fuselage, one in front of the
wing section and one behind. This is because sometimes the pipe-work has to rise to get over
the wing centre structure.
In order to obtain tank pressurization, compressed air is fed into the tanks to force the water
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up the risers to the toilet and galleys. This supply of air can come from the aircraft pneumatic
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supply, or from a built compressor.

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A water pressurization system consists of:
 A filter, normally a paper throwaway type, to prevent particles from entering the
water tanks.
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 A pressure regulator to control the air pressure and keep it at an acceptable value.
 A pressure relief valve to relieve the pressure, if it becomes dangerously high.
 A pressure switch that switches the compressor on when the system pressure drops
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below a pre-set trigger level. Normally, pressure is provided by the aircraft pneumatic
system and the compressor is used for back-up/ground operations.
 A compressor interlock switch fitted to the ground service panel door that will turn off
the compressor, when the servicing door is opened.
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Water drained from the sinks is dumped overboard though a series of pipes and heated rain
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masts. As the plug is lifted on the sink, the water is allowed to flow down the pipe to the drain
mast. The water can then flow overboard. This presents no environmental issues, as the water
is moderately clean. When the plug is lifted, the line is open to atmosphere. As the aircraft is
usually pressurized, some of the air from the cabin will exit via the plughole. This action helps
the fast removal of the water from the sink. However, a couple of problems rise, in that the
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noise generated is high and the loss of air from the cabin causes inefficiencies. A poorly fitting
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plug, will cause noise and lead to fuel penalties. This noise problem is largely overcome by
putting a muffler in the outflow line.
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13.19.2 Toilet system layout, flushing and servicing
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There is a distinction between the water waste from the sinks, called gray water, and the
water waste form the toilets, called blue water or black water. Unlike the gray water waste
system, the blue water must never be deposited overboard. Besides being very unpleasant, it
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presents a health hazard to all who are below the aircraft flight path. Severe fines are being
imposed on operators whose aircraft have had blue ice found on them, or blue ice deposits
have fallen from them.
Aircraft designed for passenger transport are also equipped with some toilet units, provided
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with toilets and sinks. These units are located along the pressurized cabin. Their location
depends on different factors, such as:
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 The aircraft dimension.

 The number of classes in which the passenger cabin is divided.
 The number of passengers that the aircraft can transport.
 The commercial sector in which the aircraft operates.
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Toilet system can be divided into three groups:
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 Removable toilets, often called Elson type.

 Re-usable toilets, liquid flush type.
 Clean water flush type, or vacuum flush type.
Removable toilet
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The removable toilet, sometimes referred to as Elson type, consists of a container (stainless
steel or composite) located within a toilet unit on top of which there is a toilet seat. Inside the
container, there is a small amount of chemical mixture that acts as disinfectant.
Servicing this type of toilet is simple, and involves removing the toilet container, emptying,
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cleaning, recharging with chemical mixture, replacing and securing. The container itself is
clamped to the floor to prevent movement and spillage in times of turbulence.
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It is usually fitted in smaller executive jets, often within a plush decor paneled unit within a
lavatory unit. The container may have a lightly spring loaded stainless steel flap on the top,
aligned with the toilet seat.
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Reusable liquid flush type
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The toilet is a module equipped with two water circuits (one potable and one destined to the
WC), an electrical lighting system, a system of lighting and acoustic alarm and a circuit of air
venting. The constructive logic must achieve a good compromise between comfort, hygiene,
reliability of functioning, rapidity of handling operations and limited weights.
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Fig. 19.7 - Aircraft toilet system
The single toilet unit has a sink that distributes hot and cold potable water, and a WC that uses
a management system of black water instead. This system is made of a tank containing a
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liquid, which is treated with chemical additives. These substances protect from the
fermentation and the development of bacteria.
The black water tank is refilled on ground and during the flight through appropriate valves,
which are equipped with filters and waste triturators. Moreover, these systems allow the
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washing of the WC. The aircraft is equipped with different tanks, each one giving aid to
different toilets. The tanks are connected to toilets through some supply and recovery
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conducts.
After the use of the toilet, the passenger must activate the lever of the washing, which sends
an electrical signal to a motor located in the black water tank. The motor activates a pump,
which, through a filter with a rotating spade, sucks in the liquid contained in the tank. The
liquid is then sent to the washing collector. This device is placed on the internal part of the
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bowl of the WC. The filter has the function to crumble all solid substances that are sucked in by
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the pump, in order to avoid the blockage of the pipelines and the washing collector. After the
washing, the water comes back in the tank and can be then employed for other washing.
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Fig. 19.8 - Aircraft toilet circuit

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Maintenance activity on the system will usually involve filling the tanks completely with a
strong cleaning solution periodically, checking for leaks and draining. Any leaks must be
rectified.
Vacuum flush type

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On large aircraft, a vacuum system for the toilet flushing is installed. This system, in order to
clean the bowl of the WC, uses the pressure difference that exists between the interior and
the exterior of the aircraft. When the passenger pushes the lever to flush the WC, for a
fraction of second a valve opens and creates, for a pressure difference, a strong whirlpool. In
this way, the waste present in the WC is sucked in the dump pipeline, which convoys it in the
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black water tank. When the aircraft is on ground, there is no pressure difference between the
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interior and the exterior, and so the toilets must be equipped with an electrical motor, which
activates a pump in order to create the whirlpool.
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Fig. 19.9 - Vacuum toilet flush type
Moreover, at the bottom of each tank there is a dump valve necessary for the emptying on
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ground. This valve is opened by a cable, activated by a lever placed on the service panel. The
draining, the washing and the refill of tanks happen during the handling phase, through a
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connection of a tanker to the service panel of the aircraft. Generally, the aircraft are equipped
with one panel for each toilet tank. The service panel is located on the left side of the aircraft
and it is provided with some standard connections, to easily link it to the tanker. The drainpipe
union is connected to the tanker to permit the emptying and washing of the tank by sending
clean water to it. At the end of the handling phase an adequate mixture of water and
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disinfectant is sent in every tank.
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Fig. 19.10 - Toilet system service panel
The vacuum flush system, unlike the re-usable liquid flush system, has less disinfectant fluid in
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it. During servicing only a small pre-charge is added to a very large tank. This means that there
is a slightly higher health risk when servicing this type of system because of the higher
concentration of effluent.
When dealing with the servicing of any toilet system the following cautions should be taken:
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 Ensure that your injections are up to date. The policy regarding injections is up to the
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company and the risk assessment carried out. The injections could include anti
tetanus, hepatitis A and B, polio, typhoid etc.
 Wear bio protective clothing to include disposable gloves, overalls, face-wear, etc.
 Use special dedicated toilet tools.
 Bag any removed items and clearly label as Bio Hazard.
 Remove protective clothing and label them as biological waste.
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 If cut or grazed when working on these systems, immediately wash with soap and
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water and seek medical attention.

 Wash thoroughly after work on these systems.
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The toilet units installed on the aircraft vary considerably from airline to airline and aircraft to
aircraft. Generally, the main elements are:
 A small hand-wash faucet and sink.
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 A soap dispenser.
 A toilet paper dispenser.
 A dispenser of paper towels.
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 A garbage can.
 A mirror.
 A call button for assistance.
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The toilet and sink are often made of plastic or stainless steel. The floor is usually a non-slip
surface.
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Moreover, on newer aircraft the first class lavatories are roomy and they often they offer more
toiletries and other comforts.
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13.19.3 Corrosion aspects
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Water and chemical additives can easily cause corrosion. The presence of moisture and a
potential difference can originate a corrosion cell. The toilet floor does not have an easy access
for maintenance and is subjected to moisture, so it is a common place where corrosion can
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start. To avoid corrosion some extra protections are required.
The aircraft floor structure is mainly made of aluminum alloy. Corrosion can easily affect it,
especially in the area under re-usable liquid flush toilet in which strong chemical additives are
used.
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Fig. 19.11 - Aircraft floor structure

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An easy method to avoid corrosion consists in using titanium for the toilet floor. Titanium can
be affected by corrosion but at such a slow rate that it is considered non-corrodible for all
practical applications.
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Other anti-corrosion methods include:
 Use of corrosion preventative fluids.
 Use of taped floor panel clips.
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 Use of cushioned floor panels.
 Sealing of the floor panels.
 Use of moisture barriers.
 Constant checks to trace and cure leaks in the toilet.
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Corrosion preventative fluid

A Corrosion Preventative Fluid (CPF) is a fluid that displaces water by adhering to the
aluminum surface. This substance can be sprayed on the structure but care should be taken,
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since it can be harmful if inhaled. It must be used in ventilated areas and only while wearing
face masks. The main disadvantage of CPF is that it acts as a debris collector. CPF must be
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removed during routine maintenance and before any structural inspections.
Taped floor panel clips

Tapes used to protect areas around clips are usually made of vinyl. This solution allows
protecting the area from scratching. Over the clips, foam is applied to prevent cuts in the
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structure, due to floor panels and to give a comfortable elastic effect.
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Fig. 19.12 - Protective tape
Cushioned floor panels

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A resiliently adhesively applied cushioned floor system is made of a plurality of floor panels
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secured to a support base by an adhesive spread on at least one of the support base or on the
floor panels with a generally uniform thickness. A number of elongated support members,
fabricated from pre-cured elastomeric material, are placed between the floor panels and the
support base. The floor panels are forced toward the support base, so that the adhesive forms
a bond between the floor panels and the support base or between the support members and
the support base.
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Fig. 19.13 - Cushioned floor panels
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Sealing of the floor panels

Floor panels can also be sealed using different methods and techniques depending on location
and removal requirements. Sealants are mainly of two types:
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 Wax based: this kind of sealant is solid at room temperature, while it becomes liquid
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when heated. It can be poured in gaps between panels and left until solidification. It
provides a watertight seal but it is still subjected to corrosion. It can be easily removed
and it is then used where panel removal is often required.
 Poly-sulphide based, which comes from a two-part solution. This sealant acts after a
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chemical products and water but it is so difficult to remove and can damage the
structure. For this reason this kind of sealant is used only on fixed panels.
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Fig. 19.14 - Floor panel sealing

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Moisture barrier
After corrosion prevention has been carried out, a moisture barrier must be applied on all
possible wet areas. Once the process is completed, toilets and galleys can be installed.
A special attention is required for galleys installation due to the presence of drains around it.
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Dams collect water and fluids in order to direct them to the drains, instead of letting them
lying on the floor structure.
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The toilet vacuum flush system is an important solution that prevents water from getting on
the floor and permits to maintain the structure in good conditions.
Leaks must be identified as soon as possible. Toilet leaks usually lead to water coming from
lower bilge drain ports on the lower side of the fuselage. Liquid coming from bilge drain ports
can be:
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 Clean water, such as rain, condensation or potable water.
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 Liquid coming from a cargo.

 Toilet water.
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13.19.4 Galleys
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Galleys are used for storing and heating food, making drinks and storing kitchen rubbish.
Galleys may be fitted at the back of the aircraft or at the front, on large aircraft. Galley
equipment includes:
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 Storage locations for trolleys and small carts
 A device for chilling cold cupboards
 A device for heating the food
 Beverage makers
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 Ice makers
 Water supply
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 Water heater
 Trash compactors
 Lighting
 Interphone system
 Fume extraction system
 Water waste system
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 Toasters
 Screen curtains
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Fig. 19.15 - Aircraft galley
Galleys are located and bolted down to the seat track. In addition tie rods are attached
between the top of the galley and the aircraft structure.
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Galleys use a considerable amount of electric power, and have their own feeder circuits.
Power may come directly from the secondary aircraft busses or be provided through Electric
Load Units, ELCU. These units measure the current being drawn by the galleys and prevent
overload. They also act as a switch to remove the power to the whole galley complex, if the
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Galleys usually have an electric distribution panel accessible from the front allowing the
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individual isolation of ovens. This panel often has lights to indicate that power is being given to
the galley.
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Cat. B2 - 13.20 Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA)
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13.20 Integrated Modular Avionic
(IMA)
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13.20.1 Introduction
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Electronic devices operated on aircraft are generally summarized as “avionic = aviation
electronic equipment”. The first avionic devices applied 70 years ago on aircraft were radios
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for communication and navigation. Forty years later, analog and digital electronic controllers
began to re-place mechanical aircraft functions and equipment. The airline demand for a
better and smarter functionality on modern aircraft systems has since then pushed an
exponential request for advanced avionic performances. The traditional concept: one function
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= one computer could no longer be maintained. In the early nineties, air framers and system
suppliers developed systems whose multiple software (SW) functions were integrated on
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single avionic computing devices, in order to keep the volume, weight, power consumption
and cost of avionic within reasonable limits. However, multi function integration on a single
processor leads to in-transparent fault propagation, which significantly turns the reliability of
the controllers down and maintenance cost up. Modifications and upgrades became difficult to
perform.
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13.20.2 IMA and Open IMA concept
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A new concept, labeled “Integrated Modular Avionic (IMA)”, first presented by Honeywell for
cockpit functions on the Boeing 777 aircraft in 1995, provided a possible solution. It designed a
modularized cabinet packaging with time triggered back plane data communication and an
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Application Program Interface (API) middleware, with specific services for strong SW/SW
partitioning, HW/SW segregation, precise fault monitoring, on board SW loading etc. The IMA
concept proved to meet the performance, reliability and flexibility requirements for highly
integrated avionic systems. Today, IMA cabinets can be provided from different avionic
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suppliers. IMA is a standard on many new aircraft and helicopter programs.
In Europe, Airbus together with THALES-DIEHL went a step further in order to develop an
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“Open IMA” technology concept for the A380 program. While maintaining the IMA segregation
features and API services, the modularized cabinet and backplane solutions are abandoned. On
the A380, ARINC 600 Standard avionic boxes are chosen to host the general purpose
controllers, labeled CPIOM (Core Processing & IO Module). In addition, an “Aircraft Full DupleX
(AFDX)” 100Mbit Ethernet data communication network is provided to connect all CPIOM and
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other computing devices on the aircraft. Ethernet switches and CPIOM are designed
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accordingly to the common aeronautic ARINC standards and are thus open to all potential
avionic manufacturers.
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13.20.3 Federated architecture and its limits
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On the A380, the standard CPIOM is applied to both cockpit and utility functions. Due to the
concept of Open IMA, responsibility for the development of systems and functions remains up
to system manufacturers. The assembler acts as Integrator, putting together the CPIOM with
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all the application SW provided by different system suppliers. This is a new and complex
industrial process, which demands for new methods and tools.
We would give you information on the state of the art of the A380 Open IMA concept, in terms
of technical aspects and with a strong focus on the means and process features of this
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technology (configuration, incremental qualification, tools, industrial roles and responsibilities,
liabilities etc.).
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Aeronautic is the field where SW embedded system concepts have been applied as early as the
microprocessors entered the scene of industrial application. Military aviation did not precede
civil air transportation in the use of computers within safety critical systems like flight control,
flight guidance, engine management etc. The drive towards computer-centered information
processing on board is generated by an increase demand for safety, dependability, and quality
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keeping costs down. The exponential increase of the performance does not only apply to
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memory capacity, which host the application SW code and the respective processing power for
getting it executed, but involves also signal interfaces.
The Moore's law derives from the observation that over the history of computing hardware,
the number of transistors on integrated circuits doubles approximately every two years. The
period often quoted as "18 months" is due to Intel executive David House, who indicated this
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period of time as that needed for a doubling in chip performance (being a combination of the
effect of more transistors and their being faster).
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The law is named after Intel co-founder Gordon E. Moore, who described the corresponding
trend in 1965. In his paper he noticed that the number of components in integrated circuits
had doubled every year from the invention of the integrated circuit in 1958 until 1965 and he
predicted that this trend would continue "for at least ten years". His prediction has proven to
be uncannily accurate, in part because the law is now used in the semiconductor industry to
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guide long-term planning and to set targets for research and development.
The capabilities of many digital electronic devices are strongly linked to Moore's law:
processing speed, memory capacity, sensors and even the number and size of pixels in digital
cameras. All of these are improving at exponential rates as well. This exponential improvement
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has dramatically enhanced the impact of digital electronics in nearly every segment of the
world economy. Moore's law describes a driving force of technological and social change valid
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in the late 20th and early 21st century.

This trend has continued for more than half a century. Sources in 2005 expected it to continue
until at least 2015 or 2020. However, the 2010 update to the International Technology
Roadmap for Semiconductors registered a slow down at the end of 2013, with a doubling in
transistor counts and densities only every three years.
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Up to the 90s aircraft system design followed the “federated architecture” principle “one
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function - one computer”. This approach finally faced its natural limit when the weight and
volume of the “black boxes” hit the envelope restrictions of the aircraft. Furthermore, the
huge number of different “black boxes” charged airlines with significant maintenance costs. In
order to shrink volume, weight and costs, the aerospace industry took the step to integrate
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multiple functions on single computing devices. This indeed obtained the desired effect on
weight and volume reduction but not on costs. The high level of function integration forced
fault propagation and in-transparent functional interference, which turned the reliability of the
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“black boxes” down. Troubleshooting and modifications became severe cost drivers.
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13.20.4 Basic elements composing IMA
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The first step in this direction was taken by Honeywell in 1995 with the concept of Integrated
Modular Avionic (IMA). Avionic devices were decomposed into their basic functional elements:
Processing, I/O, Power Supply and Gateway. These functions were allocated to distinct
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modules (CPM = core processing module, IOM = I/O module, PSM = power supply module,
GWM = gate way module). These modules were physically assembled within a cabinet frame.
The communication between the modules provided a back plane bus (SAFE BUSTM). The back
plane bus protocol and the module operating system middleware provided certified services
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for strong SW/SW partitioning, HW/SW segregation, and failure monitoring. This IMA
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controller concept was first applied on the Boeing 777 aircraft for cockpit functions (AIMS =
Aircraft Information Management System). It turned out to achieve reliability figures and “No
Fault Found (NFF)” rates higher than any comparable device the aeronautical industry had
used before.
The manufacturer adopted the same approach of avionic design for A380 but it developed
three further properties:
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1. It abandoned the proprietary cabinet and module standard of Honeywell and selected
the open ARINC 600 specification for the avionic modules.
2. The back plane bus was replaced by a 100Mbit Full DupleX (AFDX) switched Ethernet
network according to the commercial open standard to which all types of avionic
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devices stick.
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3. The IMA modules were applied to all types of aircraft functions, for example cockpit
and utility systems.
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Fig. 20.2 - OPEN IMA Layout
According to these principles the manufacturer labeled this concept as “Open IMA”. One main
consequence of this approach approach is that the modules and the communication devices
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might be obtained from third party avionic suppliers according to the specification owned by
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Airbus. The aim is that of developing a market for the open IMA standard in order to control its
costs.
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13.20.5 System development and integration process
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In order to develop standardized IMA controllers linked to the Aircraft Data Communication
Network (ADCN), the aircraft assembler has to modify the conventional development
processes and responsibilities. The IMA system development and integration procedure is split
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between:
 The Avionic Module Supplier.
 The Aircraft System Manufacturer and the aircraft assembler.
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Firstly, the aircraft assembler specifies the basic features of the IMA modules according to the
ARINC standards 600, 615 and 653. This covers the module packaging, the API services, the
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monitoring, data loading etc. Then, the assembler collects and merges the specific
requirements of the different system functions, which should be processed by IMA modules.
This concerns special signal types, processing cycles, memory use, EMC, etc. to be added to the
basic module specification. Starting from these specifications, the avionic module
manufacturer develops the respective standardized multipurpose IMA modules (CPIOM = Core
Processing and I/O Module).
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In the following figure the systems affected by the IMA architecture are represented.
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Fig. 20.3 - Systems working on IMA
The system specifications are issued to the system manufacturers who are obliged to use
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those standard CPIOM controllers within their system design. This requires that the system
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suppliers are provided with a very detailed description of the CPIOM. This is the “Module User
Guide”, a manual, which explains the CPIOM design features and how it must be operated. An
additional exchange of information takes place between the system suppliers and the module
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manufacturer in the frame of “requirement capturing workshops” under the governance of the
aircraft assembler, who works as a supervisor, in order to complete the module design and to
promote a mutual understanding.
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This is the step in which we can determine the responsibility of each parts involved in the
process, it is therefore very important to understand the IMA philosophy.
When the system suppliers start the function development, a complete tool chain is delivered
to them, which supports their development process. The tool chain provides software
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configuration tools, software linkers and loaders and module emulation devices. These tools
enable the system manufacturers to debug and verify the software functions in the very early
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stage of the development cycle, even if the physical CPIOMs are not yet available (desktop
validation). The efficiency of this approach can be deduced from the fact that on the A380 the
system function qualification on IMA modules was achieved up to one year earlier than with
conventional controller design.
When the IMA modules are ready, the assembler distributed them to each system
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manufacturer, who runs their application on a CPIOM. On site, the different suppliers perform
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their local single function integration and system qualification. The modules are preconfigured
by the assembler according to the final integration condition on the aircraft when several
functions from different system suppliers will have to be processed on the module. This is the
process of “incremental qualification”, which means that each system manufacturer only gets
its own function integrated to the module without being obliged to consider the presence of
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any function from other system vendors, which will be integrated to the same module
afterwards. The incremental qualification approach is supported by the strong partitioning
property of the IMA modules. The validity of the strong partitioning property of the IMA
modules has to be verified by the assembler.
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Fig. 20.4 - First step of development process

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Fig. 20.5 - Second step of development process
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Fig. 20.6 - Third step of development process
The partitioning is a concept concerning software and hardware development, it consists in

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the fact that each system is not affected by the others and it can therefore be tested
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separately. Moreover, system faults are contained and there is the possibility to add a new
system after the certification.
For this purpose, a specific test suite is applied to the modules, in order to prove that the
different Software partitions on a CPIOM cannot interfere under any condition. The tests must
comply with the demands of the aircraft certification process. The verification of the
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partitioning mechanisms is worth the effort because it enables Aircraft manufacturer to
integrate the module with several pre-qualified functions from different system suppliers on
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the aircraft, without the obligation to re-qualify the system functions after the final
integration.
The open IMA concept puts the assembler into the position of the IMA system integrator. The
development responsibility for the single systems and their functions remains at the system
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manufacturers. The avionic module supplier provides “empty” IMA modules to both the
system manufacturers and assembler. The system manufacturer applies the CPIOM for the
local function implementation and qualification. The assembler, in turn integrates his own
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empty CPIOM with the ADCN on the aircraft, in order to establish the basic computing
resource for different system functions.
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13.20.6 The ADCN and CPIOM development
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Before the system functions can be processed on the IMA Network, the assembler has to
generate appropriate configuration files for the ADCN communication and for the CPIOM
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operation.
The ADCN configuration mainly concerns the address tables of the Ethernet switches, the data
frame size, their transmission rate and the required bandwidth of the Virtual Links (VL). The VL
features communication lines, which the signals take along the network. They can be
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considered as virtual wires, which transmit data according the ARINC429 standard protocol
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across the AFDX switches and cables. Adding new or changing subscribers to the ADCN only
means to establish a new VL between the transmitting and the receiving device. This makes
the configuration and the modification of the avionic architecture quite flexible.
The configuration of the CPIOM concerns the allocation of memory space, signal ports and
processing cycle times to different application SW partitions. The configuration data is laid
down in configuration table files, which are loaded on the CPIOM in order to get the operating
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system performed as required by different SW applications. Application SW and configuration

files always constitute a single entity, which must not be confused or mistaken. This is why the
application SW loads and the respective configuration files are subjected to a validated version
management, implemented on appropriate databases and Product Data Management (PDM)
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tools.
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Upon completion of the local system functions qualification, the system suppliers provide their
respective application Software partitions to the assembler. The assembler assorts and collates
these files according to the individual IMA system configuration, which depends on the actual
serial production number (MSN) of the aircraft and adds the respective configuration tables.
Application SW partitions plus configuration table files make up the final SW load that is
delivered to the final assembly line, where it is installed on the empty CPIOMs on the aircraft
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under production. A protected database, the “SW Ground Repository SGR” , is installed as
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interface between the assembler IMA SW integration facility and the final assembly line for the
handover of the “final SW loads”.
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13.20.7 IMA Development and Integration State of Art
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The Integrated Modular Avionic is a new concept and it is still under development; however a
high reliability level has already been reached.
The Open IMA concept development by Airbus can be summarized in the following steps:
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 The CPIOM basic features for incremental function integration, such as strong
partitioning, fault monitoring and HW/SW segregation, have been verified by tests at
the avionic supplier’s facilities and crosschecked by Airbus to be in compliance with
the certification rules for safety critical avionic systems.
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 Airbus has set up the configuration tables for the ADCN and CPIOM. The final IMA
system configuration has been qualified.
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 Each individual system function that is due for integration on the CPIOM was qualified
in the frame of the respective system validation and verification at the system
supplier’s facilities.
 After single system qualification, the individual application SW partitions have been
delivered to Airbus.
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 Airbus has compiled the different application SW partitions and the respective
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configuration tables for the final CPIOM SW load.

 The validity of the final SW load and the respective configuration table for each
individual fully integrated CPIOM has been approved.
 The respective application SW load and configuration files have been transmitted to
the final assembly line through the SGR
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 The application SW and the configuration files have been loaded to the IMA system on
board the flight test aircraft (MSN 1).
 After “power on” the correct operation and configuration of the IMA Network has
been verified and approved on the aircraft.
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 The Ground Tests for the fully integrated IMA /AFDX network in context with the
connected aircraft systems has been accomplished.
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The successive step would be the in flight test of IMA Network.

The handling of the IMA devices, the understanding of their technical features and behavior,
the management of the new three lateral IMA processes and interfaces had been successfully
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performed within a worldwide network of distributed stakeholders. Considering the ratio of
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local and remote assistance Airbus had to provide, it is possible to conclude that the manuals
and tools, which support the development are already in a quite satisfying condition. Due to
the data of the IMA development plan and the early availability of network and module
emulators, the system function integration to the IMA CPIOM was achieved between six and
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twelve months earlier than on classic controller devices. It is important to mention that the
design and qualification responsibility remains at the system manufacturers. This especially
protects the independence of SME system suppliers.
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13.20.8 Core Processor Input/output Module (CPIOM)
IMA provides a federated architecture, to achieve reductions in size, cost and weight by
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providing a set of flexible hardware and software resources that can be statically or
dynamically mapped to a set of required avionics functional capabilities. This introduces a
number of new complexities.
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The Core Processor Input/output Module (CPIOM) is the common avionics computer resource
supporting most of the software-implemented functions of the aircraft. The CPIOM is a
standard hardware platform designed to host several independent aircraft functions.
For example, CPIOMs for the Utilities domain perform fuel management, measurement and
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display, they also control the landing-gear extension and retraction systems, braking, and the
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aircraft nose-wheel steering software. CPIOMs in the Energy domain use the standardized
architecture to control electrical power distribution.
CPIOMs in the Cabin domain host interrelated functions, including cabin pressurization control
systems, air conditioning and ventilation. These are also integrated with other applications,
such as the fire and smoke-detection system, as well as the electronics monitoring the status
of the aircraft doors and evacuation slides.
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Today, the CPIOM operative system is based on the latest version of the ARINC 653 standard.
ARINC 653 (Avionics Application Standard Software Interface) manages time and space
between safety critical avionic systems and normal operative systems. Moreover, it can host
multiple applications of different software levels. sw
Its configuration is similar to a typical A380 CPIOM, where the hardware and software basic
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components are clearly identifiable.

It is necessary to pay particular attention to the ARINC 653 (A 653) box, placed in the basic
software group and to the AFDX placed in the hardware one.
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Fig. 20.7 - CPIOM block diagram

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13.20.9 Aircraft Data Communication Network (ADCN)
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The Virtual Link (VL) concept of the ADCN turned out to be a very flexible system for the
handling of modifications and the extension of communication requests. Whereas in the past
new wires had to be physically installed on the aircraft, the activity is now reduced to the
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definition of a new VL, which simply means to enter a new address and some data frame
transmission parameters to the configuration table of the network.
IMA modules are equipped with in depth fault monitoring, instrumentation services and Built
In Test (BIT) facilities at a very early stage of function integration. These provisions can be used
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for debugging and troubleshooting of the system, saving the time and cost of an additional test
installation.
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In order to fit the IMA CPIOM to the collective function requirements of the users (for
example, the system manufacturers), background knowledge has to be exchanged between
system vendors and IMA supplier. For this purpose, Airbus has organized “requirement
capturing workshops”, which proved to be an efficient way to get a comprehensive view on
the necessary provisions that have to be implemented on the IMA devices in order to meet the
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functional application demands of the users.
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In case of ambiguous failure cases, Airbus has established an arbitration board, which includes
system, avionic and aircraft experts who investigate the situation in order to find the cause
and agree on a reasonable solution.
However, there are some items, which still need improvement. In particular:
 The allocation of the various system functions and SW partitions to the different
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CPIOM within the ADCN is still a manual process at design time. This was feasible on
the A380, since only part of the aircraft functions were integrated on the IMA network.
If on the next aircraft program the IMA integration level will increase, the resource
allocation process has to be supported by an appropriate configuration optimizer tool.
Airbus is currently developing such facility. sw
 The CPIOM not only provides digital I/O but also analog signal interfaces with
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individual links to sensors and actuators. This limits the flexibility of the CPIOM in
terms of function allocation. It is obvious that a CPIOM, which is linked to specific
sensors or actuators, can host the functions of the system to which it is wired. In a next
step the analog signal interfaces shall be removed from the CPIOM (in order to get a
more or purely digital module). The analog signals can be shifted to smart units,
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Remote Data Concentrators (RDC) or Switching Devices (SD), linked by serial data
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buses and Gateway Modules to the ADCN. Thus, the system function will be no longer
bound to a specific CPIOM. The communication between module, sensor and actuator
will be only a matter of ADCN signal routing (i.e. VL configuration). This will lead to a
more economical use of the available computing resources and especially to more
flexibility in case of redundancy management and failure reconfiguration.
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13.20.10 Common Remote Data Concentrator (CRDC)
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The Common Remote Data Concentrator (CRDC) and the heart of the IMA, the Core Processing
Input/Output Module (CPIOM), serve as the two main computing units within the IMA system
unit for the long range, wide-bodied Airbus A350 XWB. The CRDC is an avionics unit generally
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installed outside of the avionics compartment. It concentrates data from analog and discrete
signals in remote locations (for example, in proximity to associated sensors and actuators) and
then communicates this data to computer processing resources on the aircraft. Using new
technologies, the CRDC replaces a significant number of input/ output units previously specific
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for each on-board application. The CRDCs will be developed and manufactured by Diehl
Aerospace in conjunction with Thales.
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Fig. 20.8 - CRDC

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13.20.11 Avionic Full Duplex Switched Ethernet System (AFDX)
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The data streams of many avionics functions, such as those for air conditioning, cockpit data
communication and air-to-ground data routing, electrical power supply, fuel management,
landing gear, brakes, and steering can be processed via the Integrated Modular Avionics
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system. The principle of standardization is applied to ensure a smooth and secure
communication between the different systems. A standardized data communication bus is
provided based on the IMA and the Avionic Full Duplex Switched Ethernet System (AFDX) data
transmission standard. The AFDX bus supports a data transfer rate of 100 Mbits/s as well as a
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multitude of end systems (up to 5,000 service access ports at full data transfer speed).
This system in IMA has taken the place of backplane bus.
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Fig. 20.9 - AFDX

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13.20.12 IMA Rack
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Airbus and Boeing were just the pioneers of IMA concept that today has become a reality
almost for all new aircrafts.
The IMA concept is employed also in the military sector, for example the A400M has IMA
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Fig. 20.10 - Airbus A400M
Since the military nature of the aircraft, IMA racks were subjected to high vibrations and
electromagnetic fields. Therefore, IMA rack has been reinforced in order to resist to these
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phenomena and provide the necessary protection against lightning.
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Fig. 20.11 - IMA rack

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Cat. B2 - 13.21 Cabin systems
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13.21 Cabin systems
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Cabin systems include all those units and components that provide entertainment for
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passengers and communications inside the aircraft (Cabin Intercommunication Data System,
CIDS) and from the aircraft to ground stations (Cabin Network Service, CNS).
Nowadays, these systems include data, music, video and voice transmission and are included
in ATA chapter 44 (ATA44).
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13.21.1 Cabin Intercommunication Data System (CIDS)
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The Cabin Intercommunication Data System, or CIDS provides the interface between the flight
crew (cabin/cockpit) and the cabin systems.
The main improvements in modern CIDS are related to the exclusive use of touch-screen
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interfaces, common software platforms and a common user-friendly interface to obtain fleet
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uniformities and to reduce costs. These systems are generally operated through control
panels.
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Fig. 21.1 - New cabin attendant panel
These panels simplify the control of different systems and the related Line Replaceable Units
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(LRU). This is made possible thanks to the introduction of Ethernet system networks, which
substitute the classic electrical wiring and the traditional “one-system/one function” system.
The first generation of this kind of equipment was simple and generally based on dials or little
LCDs; from those panels the crew could control only basic functions related to the cabin, such
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as cabin temperature and ventilation, cabin lighting, and visualization of water/waste levels.
The communications between the cabin crew and the cockpit or the passengers were
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managed through a simple interphone system.

This type of system was based on simple looms of electrical cables linked to each seat area.
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Fig. 21.2 - Previous cabin attendant panel
The modern flight attendant panels allow the control of more functions. In fact, the system is
based on a network and the quantity of information and relative settings for each seat area are
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directly controlled through a touch screen operated by the cabin crew.
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In the new generation Airbus planes, CIDS operates and monitors various passenger and crew
functions, such as:
 Passenger / Cabin Announcement
 Cabin Temperature Control
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 Water / Waste Tank Level Indication
 Cabin Illumination
 Emergency and Evacuation Signals
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 Lavatory Smoke Warning and Indication
 Aircraft Doors and Slides Status
 IFE System Status
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 Various Optional Functions
Most of these functions were generally controlled exclusively from the panels installed in the
cockpit; with the use of new touch screens it is possible to perform some little adjustments.
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For example, the lighting dimmer, the cabin temperature, the use of each monitor and access
to entertainment contents could be checked and operated by the cabin crew touch-screen
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panels: the crew can select in real time the settings for each seat, row or area inside the
aircraft.
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Fig. 21.3 - New touch screen attendant (page for cabin lighting control shown)
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From these screens it is also possible to access the media contents menu to select a certain
content and the area where it will be supplied.
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Fig. 21.4 - Screenshot of the flight attendant panel
with the overhead video content control shown
On executive aircraft it is also possible to adjust some parameters directly from the seat: a
remote control placed on the armrest allows the temperature adjustment (with an
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increase/decrease within 15°C).
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Fig. 21.5 - Cabin remote control panel

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In some cases, executive cabin are also provided with a touch screen control panel to manage
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the main cabin system and to access media contents: this is, for example, a feature of the
Gulfstream G280, where a Full HD 19” panel is installed on the cabin bulkhead and 12” or 9”
LCD personal monitors are installed on the side ledge.
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Fig. 21.6 - Gulfstream G280 cabin interior
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13.21.2 Cabin Network Service (CNS)
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The Cabin Network Service (CNS) is a new kind of system that allows interconnecting the entire
aircraft system to the available services: communication, entertainment, diagnosis system,
flight data, etc.
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The principle of operation of the CNS can be compared to that of a common pc network,
where data runs on wires and transmits information to all the connected stations.
The first advantage is that with a single wire it is possible to transmit more information to
different LRUs and on board systems.
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For example: modern planes are connected to the manufacturer base and to the Company
maintenance base. The information regarding the flight, the systems status and other
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parameters are sent to these stations and monitored.

An example of this development could be taken from the evolution undergone by the Airbus
family: starting from the A340-500/600 the cabin services went from a simple in-flight
information system to the A380, where other new capabilities have been implemented
(enhanced wireless backbone, on-board mobile telephone, enhanced services and function) to
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reach the future A350 with ALNA-Connected aircraft, enhanced connectivity, fully integrated
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networks and greater Airline applications.

Sometimes it happens that data flux is not really fast or it is limited: the new systems, based on
modern high-speed on-board net and on satellite communication avoid these limits and the
airplane flight parameters can be deeply checked.
The demand for new connection capabilities is based on the new mobile connectivity: PDA,
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smartphone, and notebook.
The interaction of these devices with the cabin system can be divided into three levels:
 Level 1 – the portable device is simply placed on-board with no links to the cabin
system;
 Level 2 – the portable device can be connected only for battery charging and power
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supply;
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 Level 3 – the portable device is fully connected to the cabin system and can interact
with it.
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Fig. 21.7 - Integrated phone docking station (Rockwell-Collins)
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Gulfstream, for example, provides a complete set of dedicated applications for iPhone and
iPad devices on its website
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Fig. 21.8 - App page on Gulfstream website

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Fig. 21.09 - Gulfstream cabin control app for iPhone
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Each anomaly is processed and sent to the ground monitoring system: in some cases, the
anomaly can be corrected directly from the engineers on ground or routed to a
troubleshooting process to provide the plane crew with instructions useful to solve the
problem.
All data included in publications and manuals are now accessible in a real-time update with no
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need to store them on-board. Anyway, for safety purposes, some manuals are still stored on-
board in paper format and/or on data supports such as CDs.
The CNS controls all the data fluxes, processes them and redistributes the data load to every
single unit. sw
According to these new technologies, the entertainment system has been redesign too: old
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systems (magnetic tapes) have been replaced with new ones based on digital system (hard
drive).
Digital systems work more efficiently and satisfy more requirements such as weight reduction
and the quantity of data that can be uploaded on board.
For example, instead of charging three or five movies on board on magnetic tapes for the
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Passenger Entertainment System (PES) with a fixed rotation and a limited number of languages
available, the new hard-drive systems allow selecting from a long list of movies and languages
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and each passenger can select them from his seat through a Personal Control Unit (PCU).
Also the PCU has been updated with new capabilities. Honeywell with its “Ovation Select
200C” introduced a new concept of PCU: starting from an HD color touch-screen LCD,
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passenger can select parameters for illumination, temperature, audio selection, music&video
contents, etc.
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Fig. 21.10 - Honeywell Ovation Select 200C control panel
For each item there is one or more sub-menu that allows a complete control of the selected
system.
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Fig. 21.11 - Some screenshot of the Ovation Select 200C control panel
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In case of failure of one panel, the 200C can be directly replaced with a new one or another
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from the same plane: this is possible because the features of each single position in the cabin
are pre-set by means of jumpers on the fixed connector installed in the housing (“aircraft
side”).
At the moment, the Honeywell system is designed for executive planes, such as part of the
Falcon family, the Global Express, Gulfstream II / III / IV, etc.
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Another important feature of the new digital system is linked to the real-time access to all
flight related data.
Thanks to this feature, the crew can access all passengers data: checked-in passengers, missed
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passengers, connections with other flights, authentication of the registration of a passenger,
etc.
Also communications are improved with the new system: the crew communication (crew-
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crew, crew-cockpit, crew-cabin) and the passenger communication (phone call, data transfer,
mailing, etc.) are more efficient, while normal wirings and Wi-Fi connections are now available
onboard.
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Regarding sat-communications, the principle standard is the SwiftBroadband (UMTS), based on
the Inmersat 4 (I-4) constellation.
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Fig. 21.12 - Inmersat satellites coverage
The “I-4” satellites give higher bandwidth and are designed for an efficient use of the L-band
This is possible thanks to the employ of very narrow spot beams.
This allows:
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 An efficient re-use of the available spectrum.
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 To dynamically allocate the resources on the areas where they are most needed.
SwiftBroadband is provided through three separate classes of terminals in relation to the

antenna in use:
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 Class 6 installations - high gain antenna type (max 4 channels/ aircraft), data speed up
to 432kbps/channel;
 Class 7 installations - intermediate gain antenna (max 2 channels/ aircraft), data speed
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up to 332kbps/channel;
 Class 15 (SB200) installations – omni-directional low gain antenna (single channel),
data speed up to 200kbps/channel.
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The SwiftBroadband provides many services on-board such as:
 Email service;
 Internet access;
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 Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection;
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) service;
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 Voice calls;
 Fax service;
 Video conferencing
 In Flight Entertainment (IFE) integration;
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 Use of GSM/GPRS Cell phone on-board.
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The following systems are the main systems/subsystems that compose a typical CNS.
Cabin system
The cabin system is made of units and elements that provide entertainment to passengers and
ensure on-board cabin communications and plane-ground communications, including voice,
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data, music and video transmissions.
Cabin core system

The cabin core system is the part of the cabin system used to execute the integrated functional
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control operations, perform the testing and monitoring of cabin systems and govern all those
elements that guarantee the cabin comfort (ex. active noise control).
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The cabin core system includes elements such as controllers, cabin control interfaces, signals
and speakers.
In-flight entertainment system

The in-flight entertainment system includes all cabin systems used to give “entertainment” to
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passengers; it also includes elements such as controllers, cabin control panels, audio and video
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equipment.
Entertainment is usually provided by means of:
 Videos and movies
 Music and radio
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 Information (altitude, flight speed, time to destination, etc.)
 Games
 Satellite Television
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The satellite television is the most recent innovation for in flight entertainment system.
It allows a satellite to cover the main area of flight navigation with Digital Broadcast Satellite
(DBS).
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The covered areas and the relative satellites are:
 West Europe (ASTRA and HOTBIRD)
 East Europe, Russian zone (EUTELSAT W4)
 North Africa and Mid-East (ARABSAT and NILESAT)
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 India (INSAT 4B)
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United States are covered with the DIRECTV® service
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Fig. 21-13 - Satellite television areas
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Cabin address system

The cabin address system is the system used by the cabin crew (and eventually by the flight
crew) to send messages to all passengers, some of them or to a single one.
Cabin mass memory system

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The cabin mass memory system is the system that provides storage for all data on the plane
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network.
In the cabin mass memory system all cabin data are stored and processed: from the main
system configuration data to the multimedia programs.
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The storage of data can be based on physical Hard Disks (HD) or on the new Solid State Discs
(SSD) that avoid the development of damages caused, for example, by vibrations or wear of
the disc bearings.
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The cabin mass memory system includes elements like:
 Controllers
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 Terminals
 Keyboards
 Disk drives
 Printers
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 Modems
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Cabin monitoring system
The cabin monitoring system is used to monitor the different areas of the cabin.
It includes components such as motors and cameras for the aircraft surveillance system, with
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the exception of the anti-hijack system or the external video monitoring.
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Fig. 21-14 - Cabin monitoring system screenshot
Miscellaneous cabin system

The miscellaneous cabin system includes all those components that support cabin
miscellaneous functions. sw
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Cat. B2 - 13.22 Information system
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13.22 Information system
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13.22.1 Flight Deck Information System
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The modern flight deck layout is horizontal in shape, similar to that of Boeing 747-400 shown
in the following picture.
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Fig. 22.1 - Boeing 747-400 flight deck
Features included are:

• Important flight, navigation and engine information is presented on six large display
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screens incorporating advanced liquid-crystal display technology.
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• The new displays save space, have a lower weigh, require less power and generate less
heat, which contributes to greater reliability and a longer service life.
• The flat panel displays remain clearly visible in all conditions, even direct sunlight.
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• Three multipurpose control display units (CDU) provide data display and entry
capabilities for flight management functions. These units are the primary interface
with an integrated Airplane Information Management System (AIMS). The CDUs have
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color displays. Adding color allows pilots to assimilate the information more quickly.
Today a lot of integrated systems added to the classical configuration help flight crew to
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execute their job, avoiding possible accidents and with an increased situational awareness. A
list of these systems is reported below:
 Ground Maneuver Camera System (GMCS), designed to assist the pilot in ground
maneuvering of the aircraft with camera views of the nose gear and main gear areas.
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The cameras are located on the leading edge of the left and right horizontal stabilizers
and on the underside of the fuselage. The images are displayed at the Multi-Functional
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Display positions in the flight deck, in a three-way split format as shown in the figure
below.
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Fig. 22.2 - GMCS Display
 A three-axes "fly-by-wire" flight control system saves weight, simplifies factory

assembly if compared to conventional mechanical systems relying on steel cables, and
requires fewer spares and less maintenance.
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Fig. 22.3 - Fly By Wire Controller
 Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS) is a standard equipment. The

EGPWS displays potentially threatening terrain and gives an audible alert up to a
minute prior to possible terrain conflict, a lot in advance in comparison to the 10 to 15
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seconds registered in previous systems. It incorporates a digital terrain map, which it

continuously compares to airplane position data from the navigation system.
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Fig. 22.4 - EGPWS Module
 Integrated Airplane Information Management System (AIMS) provides flight and

maintenance crews with all pertinent information concerning the overall condition of
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the airplane, its maintenance requirements and its key operating functions, including
flight, thrust and communications management.
Moreover, for new flight deck information system a Boeing-patented two-way digital data bus,
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ARINC 629 has been adopted as a new industry standard. It permits airplane systems and
associated computers to communicate with one another through a common wire path (a
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twisted pair of wires) instead of through separate one-way wire connections. This further
simplifies assembly and saves weight, while increasing reliability through a reduction in the
amount of wires and connectors.
There are cards that allow a self-monitoring of the entire system (Transmitting and Receiving
Interface card).
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These boards provide a convenient means for transmitting and receiving data over an ARINC
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629 bus, in accordance with the transmission and reception program defined by data written.
In particular, this product can emulate up to 120 terminals transmitting on an ARINC-629 data
bus, whilst correctly maintaining the Basic Protocol.
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ARINC-629 Input/Output occurs via a connector on the board module faceplate. Two further
connectors on the faceplate provide Arinc-629 Pseudo-Bus connection and external power for
the ARINC-629 SIM and stub cable.
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Fig. 22.5 - Transmitting and Receiving Interface card
The module provides configuration registers, which allow to:

• Automatically identify the module and its revision status.
• Identify connector cables connected to the module. sw
• Assign address space for the module data buffer memory and registers (Plug-in and
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Play).
• Control and monitor the PCI bus interface to the module.
• Read module interrupt configuration as assigned by the POST software as it initializes
and configures the system.
Additional features are:

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• 16 Independent Cyclic-Data-Buffers, each with a capacity for 4k x 32-bit words.
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• Direct access to the Cyclic-Data-Buffer Read / Write Pointers.

• High resolution time-stamping of received data.
• PCI interrupts on Module Events.
• Direct access to Module registers and application memory.
• Interface compatible with 32bit PCI Local bus Specification.
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13.22.2 Aircraft Maintenance Information System
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Nowadays, also the maintenance system has undergone several innovations that have brought
to the definition of an Aircraft Maintenance Information System (AMIS), where all
maintenance actions performed on the aircraft are recorded.
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Until now, the technical log book has fulfilled this task but now an integrated system with a
built-in memory allows to check the maintenance actions executed on the aircraft. Moreover,
AMIS provides a constant monitoring of aircraft status, especially for components subjected to
fatigue stresses such as landing gears. For example, a Maintenance Agency will be able to
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check at any time how many landings that aircraft has performed or to evaluate how long ago
a certain component was replaced.
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We will now consider an example of procedure that can be performed on software compatible
with AMIS, obviously each software procedure will be different according to the provider. The
following software runs on any browser based on a 32-bit technology. The first step consists in
entering all pertinent information of structural components in "registered" order. Such
information is the basis for the central database. Information required is completely
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exhaustive, thus allowing a full flexibility in researches. Further data details grant the entering
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maintenance rules (deadlines) and other information, such as interchangeable items list. There
is also the possibility to view the application list, in order to see where the specific component
is used. It is also possible to create an aircraft configuration. Configurations creation for every
aircraft typology provides an easy way of handling single components and representing the
aircraft structure in its whole. The system continually certifies that the effective structures are
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aligned with the appointed configuration. We are now ready to board the components in
structure. Information regarding the component current wears will be required. In this way it is
possible to check the entire "airline" efficiency status at any time.
Appointed supervisors can therefore check possible inabilities causes and provide a plan with
appropriate instruments, in order to decide what priorities are. sw
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13.22.3 Passenger Cabin and Miscellaneous Information System
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Today, there is the tendency to make passengers increasingly involved in the flight and
informed on data related to it, particularly in case of medium and long-range flights.
This function is performed by the passenger cabin information system, which must not be
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confused with the entertainment cabin system.
PCIS supplies useful information to passengers, such as real-time flight data and worldwide
moving maps and allows the flight and cabin crew to inform passengers about particular flight
data.
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The system reads flight data from the aircraft bus and displays the information selected by the
viewer:
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 Distance traveled
 Groundspeed
 Altitude
 Time left to reach the destination
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They provide a wide range of streaming information to passengers and reduce workload in the
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cockpit. Nowadays, these systems are easy to use and install. They are certified on many
different aircraft types.
We report below an example of two typical versions of a commercial cabin information
system.
The cabin information system is designed to operate independently of flight crew inputs. The
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full-color, full-motion Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Display (AMLCD) comes in a variety of sizes,
ranging from compact 6.4-inch to impressive 10.4-inch units. With this system, passengers are
welcomed on board and kept informed while in flight through customized screen graphics.
These graphics can be changed easily using the remote computer delivered with system built-
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in configuration software. It is also possible to display information in one or multiple line
formats, and in any order. Its interfaces include ARINC 429, analog and Ethernet.
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An upgraded version built on a tradition of superior performance and efficiency, is represented

by the sixth-generation cabin display technology, combining the remarkable flexibility and
customization of the displays with worldwide moving maps. This version provides passengers
with accurate, real-time flight data, as well as moving maps showing the aircraft position.
Users can select map zoom levels in order to track the aircraft progress in real time. Moreover,
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it has the capability to display customized graphics as well as integrate PowerPoint
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presentations and video clips, providing an opportunity for in-flight presentations.

This system employs a full VGA, bright, flat-panel Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Display
(AMLCD), allowing a completely digital information stream.
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13.22.4 Means of storing
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Information stored on board of the aircraft can be classified in three levels:
 Cockpit Voice Recorder and Flight Data Recorder data
 FMS Flight Management System data
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 In-Flight Entertainment system data
Memories used on modern aircrafts are SSD Solid State Drives that have completely replaced
the older technology based on the Hard Disk Drive HDD.
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Fig. 22.6 - Solid State Memory

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The advantages of the SSD compared to the HDD are:
• Low breaking risk caused by the absence of moving parts such as disks. The rate of
breaking for solid-state drive is about 0.5-1.2% against the 10% of HDD.
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• Lower power consumption during reading and writing operations.
• Very low access and storage times, in the region of tenths of second, while HDDs have
access times even 50 times higher.
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• SSD does not need defragmentation.
• SSD is more shock resistant than the HDD.
• SSD produces less heat than the HDD.
• No noise.
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Usually this kind of drive is based on flash memory. Flash memories use the features of
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Floating Gate MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor), a field effect

transistor able to store electric charge for a long time. The limit of flash memories is that they
cannot be re-wrote and read limitless, they have a limited lifecycle.
Another disadvantage of solid-state drives is their costs, higher than that of an hard disk, even
if nowadays costs are dropping.
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Memories are typically embedded in racks configurations, organized in slots of 0.25 or 0.5
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Terabytes. In commercial aircraft the installed memory can vary from one to three Terabytes,
depending on the number of seats. The Cockpit Voice Recorder and Flight Data Recorder
dedicated memory is a write only memory that will be read in the event of accident or
investigation.
In relation to the second level data storage, the flight management system has an internal
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memory with an internal slot useful for expanding memory capacity. This kind of memory is a
read only type and must be updated at least every 28 days.
The information to and from the aircraft on the FMS is managed by the ADS-B (Automatic
Dependent System – Broadcast) used also for ATC (Air Traffic Control). Data are digitalized,
sent to a concentrator and then to the FMS. ADS-B interfaces with a Mode S transponder
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linked to a GPS device able to compute its own position and to send this information in the
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ether periodically, so that others aircraft close to the transmitter can receive this signal and
avoid collisions. The signal is sent in broadcast mode because the transmitter is not interested
in who will receive the signal, which is sent automatically.
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Fig. 22.7 - ADS-B sw

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The third level data storage concerns the IFE, In-flight entertainment system data. IFE data can
be divided in:
• Flight Data
• Films
• Music
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All these data are stored in a SSD with a capability of about one Terabyte, depending on the
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number of seats. This memory stores all films and music available for passengers who on
demand can have access to these contents directly from their seat. Films, music and flight
data, travel on a single bus that delivers them to the output device, headphones or displays.
Also this memory is of the read only type and can be updated to refresh the contents.
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Fig. 22.8 - Seat Display
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Aircraft Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems: Aviotraceswiss - SA Aviotraceswiss - SA Aviotraceswiss - SA

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NULL NULL N PFCU

13.1.C.2 Basic operation of helicopters .................................................................................. 50

13.2.A.1 Fundamentals of structural systems: classification of structures ............................ 69

13.2.A.6 Fundamentals of structural systems: tail.................................................................. 92

13.3.6 Yaw dampers .............................................................................................................. 151

13.3.11 Stability augmentation system in helicopters .......................................................... 171

13.4.3 Fundamentals of transmission lines........................................................................... 194

13.4.7 Working principles of ELT ........................................................................................... 225

13.4.12 Working principles of ILS .......................................................................................... 271

13.4.24 ARINC communication and reporting ...................................................................... 362

13.5.4 AC power generation ................................................................................................. 391

13.5.8 Inverters, transformers and rectifiers ........................................................................ 427

13.6.1 Electronic emergency equipment requirements ....................................................... 456

13.7.A.3 Active load control .................................................................................................. 486

13.8.5 Pneumatic instruments .............................................................................................. 539

13.8.9 Gyroscopic principle ................................................................................................... 562

13.8.13 EFIS and glass cockpit ............................................................................................... 589

13.8.17 Fuel quantity indicating system ............................................................................... 609

13.9.2 External: navigation and anti-collision lights ............................................................. 629

13.10.5 Structure monitoring ................................................................................................ 696

13.11.2.3 Distribution systems.............................................................................................. 717

13.11.3.3 Cabin pressure controllers .................................................................................... 733

13.12.A.2 Fire extinguishing systems .................................................................................... 747

13.13.2 Fuel tanks ................................................................................................................. 758

13.14.5 Emergency pressure generation .............................................................................. 804

13.14.10 Interface with other systems ................................................................................. 832

13.15.3 De-icing systems: electrical, pneumatic and chemical ............................................ 849

13.16.3 Indication and warning ............................................................................................ 885

13.17 Oxygen............................................................................................................................. 909

13.18.6 Interfaces with other systems .................................................................................. 966

13.19.4 Galleys ...................................................................................................................... 987

13.20.3 Federated architecture and its limits ....................................................................... 991

13.20.7 IMA Development and Integration State of Art ....................................................... 999

13.20.12 IMA Rack .............................................................................................................. 1005

the airplane vertical Z axis or normal axis.

Fig. 1.1 - Aircraft axes

on the raising wing is not deflected.

Fig. 1.3 - Elevator

Fig. 1.4 - Variable incidence stabilizer

Fig. 1.5 - Stabilator

But, the canard configuration present some important disadvantages too:

Fig. 1.7 - Rudder

Fig. 1.8 - Elevons

Fig. 1.9 - V tail configuration

Fig. 1.10 - Slat and flap

the approaching phase of landing.

Fig. 1.14 - Krueger flap

Fig. 1.15 - Aircraft equipped with flaperons

In many aircraft, spoilers accomplish three tasks.

the trim tabs on control surfaces reduces their deflection.

Fig. 1.17 - Fixed tab

sw Fig. 1.18 - Controllable tab

Fig. 1.19 - Servo tab

The antiservo tab

The spring tab sw

airspeed the pilot operates the control surfaces as normal.

sw Fig. 1.20 - Spring tab

Fig. 1.21 - Elevator tab movement

Fig. 1.22 - Aileron tab movement

Fig. 1.23 - Rudder tab movement

rectangular shape are installed.

Fig. 1.25 - Subsonic aircraft