Physical Science

First Quarter
How the elements
found in the universe
were formed
Content Standard
The learners demonstrate an understanding of:
1. the formation of the elements during the Big
Bang and during stellar evolution
2. the distribution of the chemical elements and
the isotopes in the universe
Performance Standard
The learners shall be able to:
make a creative representation of the
historical development of the atom or the
chemical element in a timeline .
Learning Competencies
The learners:
1. give evidence for and describe the formation of
heavier elements during star formation and
evolution
2. explain how the concept of atomic number led to
the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory
Prove that the following equation is
valid by means of resolution:

xp(x)v xq(x)→xp(x)vq(x)

Why can’t you do this problem?

Vector Calculus Operations

You cannot do these

problems because you
do not know the math
between what you now
know and what you
would need to know to
do the problem!
You will have the same problem with understanding
the process that scientists call the big bang.

Just because you cannot understand some of what

scientists say about the big bang does not mean
that scientists do not understand it clearly!

They know the science between what you know and

what is needed to be known to understand the big
bang!
The Big Bang
Theory
Think of a crime scene investigations.
Did the detective see the explosion?
No. They must figure it out from evidence.
Astronomers take evidence from
space to figure out the science.
Origins of the universe 101
National Geographic
The origins of the
universe
Radiation era
• Planck epoch
• Grand Unification Epoch
• Inflationary epoch
• Electroweak epoch
• Quark epoch
• Hadron epoch
• Lepton epoch
• Nuclear epoch
Super force:
Gravity
Strong nuclear
Weak
Electromagnetic
Radiation era
Plank epoch - The period immediately after the Big Bang, typically
viewed at around one Planck time, whereby all forces were unified.
What happened in the Planck epoch?
During the Planck epoch, the temperature and average energies within
the universe were so high that even subatomic particles could not
form and even the four fundamental forces that shape our universe
were combined and formed one unified fundamental force.
Radiation era
The Grand Unification Epoch took place from 10^-43
seconds to 10^-36 seconds after our universe was born.
Quantum theory allows us to form a clearer picture of this
Epoch compared to the mysterious Plank Epoch. During the
Grand Unification Epoch, the universe was still extremely
hot and incomprehensibly small.
Radiation era
The inflationary epoch was the period in the evolution of
the early universe when, according to inflation theory, the
universe underwent an extremely rapid exponential
expansion.
Radiation era
the electroweak epoch was the period in the evolution of the
early universe when the temperature of the universe had
fallen enough that the strong force separated from
the electroweak interaction, but was high enough
for electromagnetism and the weak interaction to remain
merged into a single electroweak interaction above the
critical temperature for electroweak symmetry breaking
Radiation era
What happened in the quark epoch?
During the quark epoch, the universe was filled with a
dense, hot quark–gluon plasma, containing quarks, leptons
and their antiparticles. Collisions between particles were
too energetic to allow quarks to combine into mesons or
baryons.
Radiation era
The hadron epoch started 20
microseconds after the Big
Bang. The temperature of the
universe had fallen sufficiently
to allow the quarks from the
preceding quark epoch to bind
together into hadrons.
Radiation era
The lepton epoch was the period in the evolution of the
early universe in which the leptons dominated the mass
of the Universe. It started roughly 1 second after the Big
Bang, after the majority of hadrons and anti-hadrons
annihilated each other at the end of the hadron epoch.
Standard
Model of
Elementary
Particles
Radiation era
The onset of the nuclear epoch is defined as the time
when primordial nucleosynthesis begins. Nucleosynthesis
is the creating of nuclei. It may seem odd that the atomic
epoch came after the nuclear epoch but remember that
we define atoms as nuclei having bound electrons.
Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis
Matter era
• Atomic epoch
• Galactic epoch
• Stellar epoch
History of the Universe
Helium nuclei were the first to gather a full purse of
electrons en masse.

Why not hydrogen or lithium?

Helium is the first “noble gas” on the periodic table—the

first atom with enough electrons to completely fill the
available slots in its electron shell.
Origins of the universe
Big Bang
• occurred 15 billion years ago
• model for the beginning of the universe
Building a Universe

• infinitely dense point not

governed by our physical
laws or time

• all matter and energy

contained in one point

http://rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu/courses/v1001/7.html
Building a Universe

• instantaneous filling of
space with all matter

http://rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu/courses/v1001/7.html
The expansion of the
Universe
In 1912, Vesto Slipher observed
that spectral lines in light from
galaxies were shifted from their
normal positions.
He explained these shifts by
suggesting that galaxies were
moving towards or away from us.

Credit: Lowell Observatory

http://www.lowell.edu/Research/library/paper/vm_slipher_pict.html 38
The Doppler effect
• Spectral shifts can be explained using the Doppler effect.
• Light from an object moving away from us appears to have a
longer wavelength (it is shifted toward the red end of the
spectrum).
• Light from an object moving towards us appears to have a
shorter wavelength (it is shifted towards the blue end of the
spectrum).

39
The Doppler effect

40
Velocities of galaxies
• Slipher used measurements of spectral shifts to calculate
velocities of galaxies.
• He discovered that a few galaxies were approaching Earth, but
most were moving away.
• This information was later interpreted as evidence for the
expansion of the Universe.
• We now know that some objects within our local group of
galaxies are blueshifted (approaching us), but most are redshifted
(moving away). This is due to the Doppler effect.

41
There are three types of spectral shift:

• Doppler shift is caused by relative motion between a source and an

observer. Red and blue shifts observed from objects within the Local
Group (which includes the Milky Way, Andromeda galaxy, Large and
Small Magellanic clouds) are due to the Doppler effect.

• Cosmological redshift is caused by expansion of the Universe itself.

• Gravitational redshift is a shift in frequency when a photon (A photon

is a tiny particle that comprises waves of electromagnetic radiation.)
moves to a lower energy state as it climbs out of a gravitational field.
This presentation does not explore the concept of gravitational redshift.
 How The Big Bang Theory
came to be………………
• In 1927. a Belgian priest Georges
Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître
proposed that the universe began
with the explosion of an early
atom.
• His proposal came after observing
the red shift (objects moving away
from us) in distant nebulas.
• Years later, Edwin Hubble
found experimental
evidence to help justify
Lemaître's theory.
• He found that distant
galaxies in every direction
are going away from us
with speeds proportional to
their distance.
Edwin Hubble
• Universe is continuously expanding

• Galaxy’s velocity is proportional to its distance (galaxies

that are twice as far from us move twice as fast)
• taken every galaxy the same amount of time to move
from a common starting position to its current position
• NASA named the
Hubble Space
Telescope after
Edwin Hubble due to
his great
contributions to
astronomy.
Hubble’s Evidence
• Doppler shifting - wavelength emitted by something moving
away from us is shifted to a lower frequency
• Sound of a fire truck siren - pitch of the siren is higher as the
fire truck moves towards you, and lower as it moves away
from you
• Visible wavelengths emitted by objects moving away from us
are shifted towards the red part of the visible spectrum
Hubble’s Evidence

• The faster they move away from us, the more they are
redshifted. Thus, redshift is a reasonable way to measure the
speed of an object (this, by the way, is the principal by which
radar guns measure the speed of a car or baseball)
• When we observe the redshift of galaxies outside our local
group, every galaxy appears to be moving away from us -
universe is expanding.
Is the universe expanding?
If the universe is expanding at
some time, it must have been
concentrated in a single point.
What continues to support this theory today?

• The universe is currently expanding as observed

by the movement of cosmic background
radiation.
• Most of the most distant stars observed to be in
red-shift (they are moving away from Earth)
If our galaxy was a raisin, notice that every
raisin is moving away from every other raisin.
In fact, a raisin far away from you is moving
away faster than those that are closer. Our
expanding universe acts the same way.
The Raisin Bread Analogy
From our position in the universe,
it looks like we are the center
because everything appears to be
moving away from us. But we are
not.
Some sort of “event”
occurred to cause the change
that formed the universe we
have today.
Cosmic Microwave
Background (CMB)
Radiation
The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
is the cooled remnant of the first light that could
ever travel freely throughout the Universe. This
'fossil' radiation, the furthest that any telescope
can see, was released soon after the 'Big Bang'.
Scientists consider it as an echo or 'shockwave'
of the Big Bang.
Fifty years ago today, two astronomers made a
discovery that forever changed our
understanding of the universe. On May 20,
1964, American radio astronomers Robert
Wilson and Arno Penzias were working at the
50-foot-long Horn Antenna in Holmdel, New
Jersey, at what was then Bell Telephone
Laboratories.
Robert Woodrow Wilson and Arno Penzias
How Two Astronomers Accidentally
Discovered the Big Bang
Imagine: Cosmic Microwave Background
(CMB) is like an oven that was used to make
cookies. The cookies are not visible, but the
smell is there (evidence) and when you open
the oven door there is just a little bit of heat
still there (piece of evidence).
Primordial helium
Helium-3 is primordial, created shortly after the Big
Bang and acquired from the solar nebula as the Earth
formed. Geochemical evidence indicates the Earth has
deep reservoirs of helium-3, but their locations and
abundances remain uncertain
What does the discovery of the primordial helium
indicate brainly?
The discovery provides an important confirmation of
predictions made by prevailing theory as to the creation
of the light elements; hydrogen and helium in the
expanding, cooling conditions in the immediate
aftermath of the Big Bang
Evidence for Big Bang
• Red shift - as light from distant galaxies approach earth there is an
increase of space between earth and the galaxy, which leads to
wavelengths being stretched
• In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, discovered a noise of
extraterrestrial origin that came from all directions at once - radiation
left over from the Big Bang
• In June 1995, scientists detected primordial helium in the far reaches
of the universe - consistent with an important aspect of the Big Bang
theory that a mixture of hydrogen and helium was created at the
beginning of the universe
The search for further evidence

Three major scientific projects are currently being

planned or are in the early stages of the search for
further evidence of the Big Bang.

76
76
1. The Square Kilometer Array

• The SKA is a radio telescope with collecting area of one

square kilometre.
• Its high resolution will allow astronomers to see further than
any previous radio telescope.
• It will be used to research questions in physics, cosmology
and astrobiology.
• The Murchison region of Western Australia is one of two
possible locations for the SKA.

77
2. Gravitation wave observatories
• Gravitational waves are predicted by Einstein's general theory
of relativity, but none have yet been detected.
• The Big Bang is believed to have created gravitational waves
that still fill the Universe.
• Gravitational wave detectors are interferometers with arms
several kilometres long.
• Gravitational wave observatories have been built in the USA
(LIGO), Japan (TAMA) and Europe (VIRGO). Australia
plans to build a full-scale detector (AIGO) at Gingin WA.
78
3. The Large Hadron Collider

• The Large Hadron Collider is a gigantic particle accelerator,

located near Geneva in Switzerland.
• It collides beams of particles together at almost the speed of
light to research conditions similar to those that existed in the
Big Bang.
• The results will provide information about the fundamental
particles of matter and forces in nature.

79
79
Alternatives to Big Bang theory
• The Big Bang theory is our most successful theory of
cosmology because it explains most experimental
observations.
• Refinements to the theory are continually being made as
observations are improved.
• Mathematical theories, including string theory and
supersymmetry, may one day offer a deeper understanding of
the origin of the Universe, but today’s evidence for the Big
Bang is very strong.
80
Who are they?
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein was a German-born
theoretical physicist who
revolutionized our understanding of
the universe with his groundbreaking
theories. He is best known for his
theory of relativity, which includes
both special relativity, published in
1905, and general relativity, published
in 1915. Special relativity introduced
the concept that time and space are
not absolute, but instead are relative
to an observer's frame of reference,
leading to the famous equation
E=mc^2, which describes the
equivalence of mass and energy.
General relativity, on the other hand,
provided a new understanding of
gravity as the curvature of spacetime
by mass and energy, explaining
phenomena such as the bending of
light around massive objects.
Einstein's contributions to physics
fundamentally transformed our
comprehension of space, time, and
gravity, solidifying his legacy as one
of the greatest scientific minds in
history.
Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking was a renowned theoretical
physicist, cosmologist, and author who
significantly advanced our understanding of
the universe despite battling amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis (ALS). His work focused on
the physics of black holes, where he
formulated theories regarding their formation,
radiation, and eventual evaporation,
culminating in the concept of "Hawking
radiation." This groundbreaking idea
suggested that black holes emit radiation and
gradually lose mass over time, challenging
established notions of black hole
thermodynamics and quantum mechanics.
Hawking's contributions to
cosmology, particularly his
efforts to unify general relativity
and quantum mechanics, made
him one of the most influential
scientists of the modern era,
leaving an indelible mark on our
understanding of the cosmos.
Neil deGrasse Tyson is an American
astrophysicist, author, and science
communicator. Tyson studied at Harvard
University, the University of Texas at Austin,
and Columbia University. From 1991 to 1994,
he was a postdoctoral research associate at
Princeton University.

He is most famous for popularizing

science with such books as The Pluto Files
(2009) and through his frequent appearances
on television as a talk show guest or hosting
his series about science, Cosmos: A
Spacetime Odyssey (2014).
 We are part of this
universe; we are in this
universe, but perhaps
more important than both
of those facts, is that the
universe is in us.

- Neil deGrasse Tyson

The four most common chemically active elements in the
universe—hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen—are the four
most common elements of life on Earth.
About 99% of the mass of the human body is made up of six
elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and
phosphorus.
The End