Machine Learning in Agriculture
Bindu T D and Phani Kumar Pullela
School of Computer Science Engineering (SOCSE),
RV University, RV Vidyanikethan Post,
8th Mile, Mysuru Road, Bengaluru – 560059
Abstract
Machine Learning (ML) technology has made
harvesting, processing, marketing, disease pest,
and water detection possible without human
interference. ML is the scientific field that allows
machines to learn without being specifically
programmed. It has enabled a combination of in-
ground sensor data of moisture, fertilisers and
national nutrients to predict and analyse plant
growth patterns. The concept of smart farming is
emerging, which makes agriculture more efficient
and effective, and the mechanism that drives
smart farming is ML. While the traditional way of
species recognition involves manually comparing
the shape, size and colour of species, ML has now
introduced the capacity to provide more accurate
and faster results by analysing the leaf vein
morphology, which carries more Information. A
Survey of the application of ML to reduce
problems in the pre-harvesting, post-harvesting
and harvesting stages of agriculture is also
discussed. ML has given more precision and
accuracy to agriculture. ML and Remote Sensing
(RS) have moulded precision agriculture in many
ways, like crop identification water stress
management, with better accuracy than just using
and remote sensing. The paper also brings into
light various ML algorithms that can be utilised
to build models to solve multiple agricultural
issues. Many studies have used ML models based
on land use data to map land suitability
efficiently. This research embodiment presents a
review of research dedicated to the application of
ML in Agriculture.
Keywords: Computer Application, Machine
Learning, Agriculture, Remote Sensing, Smart
Farming
I. INTRODUCTION
ML is a subset of Artificial Intelligence and
Computer Science. It focuses on using data and
algorithms to learn the same way humans do. ML is
already playing an essential role in agriculture by
making it more efficient and effective. Precision
agriculture includes gathering data, processing and
analysis for more efficient agricultural production.
Today, we can collect data using technology such
as GPS-based soil sampling, automated hardware,
sensors, cameras, robots, drones, etc. ML
technology has made harvesting, processing,
marketing, crop prediction, disease-Pest detection,
and water detection possible without human
interference. Artificial Intelligence, ML and
Internet of Things sensors now provide real-time
data that significantly help the agriculture sector.
Artificial Intelligence and ML-based surveillance
systems can look into every crop field's real-time
video and identify any animal or human breaches,
sending an alert immediately. Another place where
ML plays an important role is by reducing
accidental destruction of crops by domestic or wild
animals and break-ins or burglaries in remote-form
locations. Twenty 20 solution is a leader in the field
of ML, which has helped farmers secure remote
facilities, optimise crops and deter trespassers with
the help of ML to identify people who work on-
site. Artificial Intelligence and ML, using real-time
sensor data and visual analytics data from drones,
help predict crop yield. ML has enabled a
combination of ground sensor data of moisture,
fertiliser and natural nutrients for predicting and
analysing crop growth patterns. [1]
Agriculture is the world's primary sector, and ML
plays an essential role in improvising this Sector.
The concept of smart farming is emerging, which
makes agriculture more efficient and effective. ML
is the mechanism that drives smart farming. Big
data technology and high-performance computing
have made way for, unravel, qualify and
understand data-intensive processes in agriculture.
The use of ML in agricultural operations begins
with a seed being planted in soil, soil preparation,
seed breeding, and water required measurement
and ends when robots, with the help of ML and
Artificial intelligence, pick up the crop by
determining its ripeness using computer vision,
proving ML is everywhere throughout the whole
growing and harvesting cycle. Below are some
areas where ML is used in agriculture (a) Species
breeding. When the data of almost a decade is
loaded into the model, it analyses the crop
performance in various climates and new
characteristics developed in the process. Based on
this, a model that would predict which genes will
be beneficial to a plant is built, (b) Species
recognition: while the traditional way of species
Figure 1: Machine Learning In Agriculture
II. PRIOR ART
Vishal Meshram et al. expressed that food is an
essential requirement for everyone and is provided
to us through agriculture. Agriculture is also
considered an economic background and the
primary source of employment in many countries,
recognition involves comparing the shape, size, and
colour of specie by humans, ML now has
introduced the capacity to provide more accurate
and faster results by analysing the leaf vein
morphology which carries more Information, (C)
Crop quality: in comparison to humans, the
machine can make use of the seemingly meaning
fewer data and connections to reveal new attributes
that would help in an overall increase in quality of
the crops. Thus, increasing the market value of the
crops and reducing waste. [2]
Figure 1 details the role of ML in Agriculture. The
above figure gives a quick view into what ML is.
The machine can learn to live the human brain
does. Drones are being used for spraying pesticides
and insecticides. ML is also used to carry out crop
and soil analysis, agriculture robots for harvesting,
to detect the ripeness of the harvest and a lot more.
The figure above depicts a gist of the same. [3]
including India. There are three main stages in
agriculture: pre-harvesting, harvesting and post-
harvesting. Technological advancements in ML
have enabled farmers to improve their harvest, get
the right price, and market their crops. It has also
benefited agriculturists in reducing loss in yield by
providing them with information about crops and
providing recommendations in each stage of
agriculture. The author presents a survey of the
application of ML in agriculture to reduce
problems in the pre-harvesting, post-harvesting and
harvesting stages of agriculture. Advancements in
ML have given more precision and efficiency to
agriculture. [1] Anna Chilingaryan et al. have
brought to our notice the application of ML and
Remote Sensing (RS) inaccurate estimation of yield
and optimising nitrogen management which is
essential in agriculture. RS is currently being used
to improve yield and nitrogen management while
reducing costs and adverse effects on the
environment. Agriculturists face problem with
remote sensing is that it requires processing a large
amount of remotely sensed data from various
platforms. This is the season attention is now being
deviated to ML due to its ability to process data and
handle nonlinear tasks. This paper draws attention
to various research developments conducted within
the previous 15 years on ML-based technology to
predict accurate crop yield and nitrogen status
estimation. The paper concludes by bringing
readers' attention to the fact that quick
advancements in ML will pave the way for cost-
effective solutions for better crop and decision-
making. More development of ML techniques
combined with other technologies might be a part
of precision agriculture shortly. [4]
Thenmozhi kasinathan et al. have expressed the
classification and detection of insects in the field
using ML techniques. Food is the minimum
requirement of all humans, and the agriculture
sector plays the utmost important role in fulfilling
food needs and providing people with nutritious
and sufficient food. But one of the significant
challenges faced by agriculturists is pests and
insects since they damage a substantial amount of
crops and cause hindrances in the quality of the
harvest. Traditional way or manual way of pest
detection is a tedious process and will require a
well-trained taxonomist to identify the
morphological features of the pest accurately. Due
to this drawback, experiments were conducted to
classify 9 and 24 insect classes of Wang and Xie
(insect dataset) to overcome this. The insect shape
feature was the key data. ML techniques such as
Support Vector Machine (SVM), Naive Brayers
(NB), and K- Nearest Neighbours (KNN) were
used. The result of this experiment was the
accuracy of classification used to recognise the pest
at an early stage enabling the agriculturists to get
rid of it soon, paving the way to enhanced quality
and quantity of agricultural harvest. [5] Evan J
Croopersmith et al. have viewed the use of ML for
assessing soil drying in the field used for
agricultural planning. The traditional way of
wetting and drying plays a very important role in
agriculture and involves heavy machinery, and
unpaved terrain makes it difficult. If the soil
condition turns moist, the equipment can get stuck
in the mud, leading to more expenses and delays.
One of the ways to assess soil dryness is by
remotely monitored in situ sensors. Farmers refuse
to install this for various reasons: cost, complexity,
and sometimes a lack of physical visits to remote
locations. This paper has addressed these
limitations by carrying out the wetting-drying
process through ML procedures. The data required
for this is hydrologic data which assesses soil
condition using publically available resources.
These analyses concluded that accurately
predicting current soil conditions is possible using
only precipitation and potential evaporation data.
This is how ML helped in decisions without
needing more time, visit expenses or expensive
sensory grids. [6]
Yaping kai et al. have analysed the use of ML for
high performance and in-season classification of
field-level crop type. An infield-level classification
system for corn and soybean is put forward in this
paper. Accurately and timely spatial classification
of crops is essential for both practical and scientific
purposes⋅ Crop type information can be used for
the estimation of crop area and, in turn, be used for
crop insurance, land rental, financial marketing
forecasting and many others. The experiment was
carried out to know what information is required
for training the ML model for crop type
classification. The conclusion was that the method
put forth in this paper promises accurate and cost-
effective classification. [7] Figure 2 details the
evolution of ML in agriculture. The figure above
gives the readers an idea of ML's evolution. It tells
the readers that ML and deep learning are the
subsets of Artificial intelligence. Then it proceeds
to educate the reader on building an ML model.
The step begins with data collecting, then comes
training the machine, making the model and ends
with implementing the model in the real world. The
application of the ML model that is built is used in
plant disease detection. It helps the agriculturist by
predicting market values, forming a map to detect
the area, and even predicting soil erosion.
 Figure 2: Prior Art in Machine Learning In Agriculture
III. THEORY
Shyamala S. Virnodkar et al. have detailed remote
sensing and ML for crop water stress determination
in crops. ML provides a practical approach to
construct a model for regression and classification
of a multivariate and non-linear system and learns
from past experiences. To date, the technologies of
ML and RS have given hope to farmers and
decision-makers to teach this technology to meet
the worldwide food demands and have also
improved agricultural outcomes. ML and RS have
moulded precision agriculture in many ways, like
crop identification and water stress management,
with better accuracy and efficiency than using only
RS. [8] Ryan H.L et al. have opinionated on using
ML for crop protection. Crop protection is one of
the most crucial steps of agriculture, and it explains
the science of protecting and managing crops from
pests, weeds, and insects. Since pests and weeds
have evolved resistance to herbicides, farmers face
complexity in controlling weeds. The technology of
big data and ML for weed control is very assuring.
Markov Random Fields (MRF) are also used in ML
for herbicide resistance modelling of ryegrass is
also taken into account. This approach has had an
excellent result for crop protection. [9]
Robert J McQueen et al. have discussed the
application of ML to agricultural data. The process
of acquiring knowledge from empirical data is very
tedious and prone to errors. Many techniques and
technologies have also been developed to learn and
simplify the same. Though these techniques are
plausible, very well theoretically and work good on
more or less artificial data sets, they depend on
making sense of real-world data. Hence, to
overcome these problems regarding agricultural
data, a wide range of ML strategies are applied in
agriculture and horticulture. [10] Garcia Pedrero et
al. have an opinionated ML approach for
agricultural parcel delineation. Delineation refers to
the portraying. A correct portrayal of agricultural
parcels is of primary importance for any parcel-
based application, as in estimating agricultural
subsidies. Though RS images provide helpful
information to delineate parcels, it is very time-
consuming. Hence, arose a need to create methods
to produce this automatically. ML approach to
delineate panels is explored to combine Super
pixels and supervised classification to decide which
adjacent is supposed to be merged, converting
segmentation issue into ML matter. The visual
evaluation of results obtained through this
methodology has shown that applying ML
algorithms to this field is promising. [11]
Maya Gopal P.S and Bhargavi R have analysed the
performance evaluation of the best feature subset
for crop yield prediction using ML. The demand
for crop yield prediction has increased due to the
rapid innovation and liberal market economy in
agriculture. ML algorithms and the selected
features play a significant and vital role in accurate
forecasts. The performance of any ML algorithm
will improve when provided with a distinct set of
features in the training dataset. The paper has stated
the essential features for the accuracy of crop yield
Figure 3: Process of Agriculture and Machine Learning’s use in each step
IV. APPLICATION
Rashmi Priya and Chawanth Ramesh have detailed
ML-based sustainable precision agriculture.
prediction. ML algorithms like Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN), Random Forest (RF) and
Support Vector Regression (SVR) are used, and
results show RF produces the most accurate crop
yield prediction. [12] Figure 3 details the process
involved in agriculture and ML's uses in each step.
The above figure brilliantly takes the reader
through the various stages in agriculture while
educating them about how ML is implied, applied
and used in every step. The cycle begins with soil
preparation, where ML is used to detect the amount
of nitrogen and other mineral content. At the same
time, sowing seeds ML robots are used. Adding
fertilisers utilises ML in detecting the type of
fertilisers and uses drones. ML is used in irrigation
by letting the agriculturist know the water level.
Weed protection is looked at by pest detection and
insecticide spraying ML technology. Harvesting
and storing marks the end of the cycle. It uses an
ML robot to detect the proper harvest and the
predicted price.
Agriculture is a source of survival and the
economic backbone of any country. Rapid growth
in precision agriculture has helped the agricultural
industry enter the world of ML and big data
technologies. The advanced machine-wearing
technology would bring up many agro-sectors.
There are different types of data sets available from
various sources. ML offers favourable
computational as well as analytical solutions for the
study of the same. The study introduces the core
concept of ML to understand its application in
agriculture. The paper also brings into light various
ML algorithms that can be utilised to build models
for various agricultural issues. [13] Hailei Zhao has
analysed future price predictions of agricultural
products based on ML technology. The future of
agricultural products is as important as agriculture
is to economic development. Predicting agricultural
products' future prices plays a crucial role in the
stability of the market's future economy. To
improve the accuracy of the future price prediction
of agricultural products by keeping ML algorithms
as the basis, this study uses ML methods by
analysing fundamental factors affecting agricultural
product future prices. The research results show
that the proposed model has specific effects and
provides a theoretical reference for related
research. [14]
Tanzeel. U. Rehman et al. detailed ML's current
and future applications for agriculture machine
vision systems. With the increase in population and
demand for more and more food, the need for good
food production has arisen. But due to decreased
agricultural land, it is challenged to meet the
demands. Machine vision seems like a solution to
this as it ensures increased crop production by
using automatic, non-destructive and cost-effective
techniques. In previous years agriculture has seen
remarkable development and achievements
combined with ML techniques on machine vision.
Despite many applications of different ML
techniques, this paper focuses on statistical ML
technologies with machine vision systems. [15]
Aqib Ali et al. have expressed the ML approach for
classifying corn seeds. Seed purity is one of the
most critical indicators of crop seed quality. Corn is
an essential crop with 40% worldwide production.
This was the primary reason for experimenting
with corn. This experiment aimed to learn the
usefulness of the ML approach for classifying
different types of corn seeds. Six corn varieties
were taken through a digital camera. The acquired
dataset was converted to a hybrid feature dataset.
For each corn image, a total of 55 hybrid features
were collected. Nine optimised features have been
obtained. To build a classification model, Random
Forest (RF), Bayers Net (BN), Logit Boost (LB)
and Multilayer Reception (MLP) were used. When
compared, among 4 ML classifiers, MLP
performed the best. [16]
S. Sahoo et al. have viewed ML algorithms for
modelling groundwater level changes. Water is as
essential to plants as it is for human beings.
Climate, groundwater interaction and water flow
have a nonlinear relationship with groundwater
levels in agricultural regions. A new assembling
modelling framework using spectral analysis, ML
and uncertainty analysis as the basis was used to
predict the groundwater. This model was developed
as an alternative to very complex and
computationally advanced physical models. Data is
inputted by combining mutual information, Lag
analysis and genetic algorithm and then used to
stimulate seasonal groundwater level change. [17]
Figure 4 explains the application of ML in the
agriculture sector. The application of ML in
agriculture is vast, and the above figure gives a
glimpse of its extensive applications, involving
crop monitoring drones, crop spraying drones,
health assessment drones, irrigation drones and
much more. The agricultural yield has increased
manifold times due to the indulgence of ML.
 Figure 4: Application of Machine Learning in Agriculture
V. CURRENT STATUS
Dilli Paudel et al. have detailed ML for large-scale
crop yield forecasting. In this research
embodiment, amounts of data are being collected
and published hence, ML is a promising method. It
is combined with agronomic principles of cop
modelling. An ML baseline, which is workflow
emphasising correctness, and modularity for large
crop yield forecasting, is built. This workflow is
used to run repeatable experiments, and the results
serve as starting point for further optimization. The
baseline is further improved by adding new data,
designing more predictive features and evaluating
ML algorithms. [18] June Anne Caladcad et al.
have analysed the process of determining coconut
maturity levels using ML in the Philippines. Since
coconut is a tropical fruit with a unique structure, it
tends to have limited studies. In this research
embodiment, a classification of a real coconut
dataset is collected by tapping system and learned
by three well-known ML techniques - ANN, RF
and SVM. One hundred twenty-nine coconut
samples were well collected and divided into three
maturity levels-premature, mature and over-mature.
A 3-second tapping system collected 1,32,300 data
points through signal processing and house
reduction. Each model predicted maturity by
considering patterns of the transformed frequency
spectrum. The result was that all models expected
the over-mature coconuts right, but they got mixed
up with mature-premature and matured with over-
matured coconuts. [19]
Jan Behmann et al. have discussed the advanced
ML methods for detecting biotic stress in precision
crop protection. Crop protection requires early and
precise detection of biotic stress. Several methods
and techniques of ML have been used in recent
years, which include Neural Networks and SVM
for classification, self-organising maps and u-
means for unsupervised learning. These methods
work for linear and nonlinear models and adapt to a
wide range of data when provided with few
statistical assumptions. Triumphant application of
the above-mentioned technique includes early
detection of plant disease by
considering spectral features and weed detection
because of shape description. This is possible by
the supervised or unsupervised ML method. [20]
Konstantinos G Liakos et al. have reviewed ML in
agriculture. ML is the scientific field that allows
machines to learn without being specifically
programmed. Agriculture is the foundation of
economic stability for many countries, including
India. Pressure on the agriculture system is
increasing with the increasing population. This
research embodiment presents a review of research
dedicated to the application of ML in agriculture,
which include categories line (a) crop management,
which includes application in yield prediction,
weed, pest, insect detection, crop quality detection,
species recognition, (b) water management
involving water stress management, irrigation
management, (c) livestock management and soil
management. [2]
Enrico Biffis and Erik Chavez discuss satellite data
and ML for weather risk management and food
security. The increase in the severity and
unpredictable nature of the weather poses a strong
inconvenience and risk factor for agriculturists and
the agriculture sector globally. This research
embodiment shows how ML is used to overcome
this problem. ML can be used to mine data from
satellites and identify the pixel-level optimal
weather indices. This research model has an ML
Figure 5: Current Status of Machine Learning in Agriculture
VI. FUTURE SCOPE
Vimal.K. Shrivastava and Monoj K. Pradhan have
expressed a classic example of ML using rice plant
disease classification by detecting colour features.
model implemented on maize production in
Mozambique. This model showed how the above
approach could help produce country broad risk
profiles by considering aggregation of local,
heterogeneous exposure, rainfall precipitation and
excess temperature. Then a framework was
developed to quantify the economic gains. [21]
Figure 5 explains the present status of ML in
agriculture. The figure first exposes the reader to
various fields which use ML in the current world.
This includes medicine, finance, traffic prediction
(Google Maps), facial recognition and many more.
Then it proceeds to the current status of ML in a
few areas of agriculture, including precision
agriculture, determining the phenotype, reducing
deforestation and managing forest fires, to name a
few.
The traditional way of seeing rice plant disease is
subjective, whereas it is time-consuming in the
laboratory. Due to this, developing image-based
systems for detecting and classifying rice plant
disease is a growing research area in the
agricultural domain. Colour is the essential feature
for detecting rice disease, 14 different colour
spaces were explored, and four features were
extracted from each colour channel giving rise to
172 features. Then the ML technique of the SVM
classifier was used to achieve an accuracy of
94.65%. Training and testing of models were
performed on 619 images of a dataset. [22] Anat
Goldstein et al. have analysed applying ML on
sensor data for irrigation recommendation. Jojoba
Israel is a world-leading producer of jojoba
products, and they have sensors that collect data on
moisture content in the soil to look into the plants'
needs in real time. In addition, the data on weather
irrigation and yield are recorded from different
sources. To date, there has been no attempt to use
the entire data set and conclude. This part of the
research focuses on how other ML models are used
for the same. The ML models were derived using
eight different variable types to know which model
and which variable gave the most accuracy. In
comparison, it was concluded that Gradient Booster
Regression trees were the most accurate regression
model with 93.1% accuracy and Boosted Tree
Classifier was the best classification model with
95.1% accuracy. [23]
G.Sambashivam and Geoffrey Duran Opiyo have
stated a predictive ML application in agriculture by
taking Cassava disease detection. This research
aimed to detect Cassava disease using five fine-
grained Cassava leaf disease categories with 10,000
labelled pictures. The detection is usually and
traditionally carried out by physical inspection.
But, this can be tiresome and expensive, and the
farmers might not get the results on time.
Therefore, a machine warning approach was used.
A particular dataset provided by the ML technique,
Convolutional Neural Network, was very
challenging to use due to the dataset being small in
size and the dataset had high-class imbalance and
was very biased towards Cassava Mosaic
Disease(CMD) and Cassava Brown Streak vinyl
disease. This class imbalance is problematic in ML.
This research embodiment, therefore, focuses on
techniques soon to achieve accuracy despite
inequalities using ML techniques like SMOTE and
focal loss with deep convolutional neural networks.
[24] Anders Bjørn Møller et al. have researched if
machine warnings can be used to assess
agricultural land suitability. The farmer needs to
know which land is suitable for them to grow their
crops. Many studies have used ML models based
on land use data to map land suitability efficiently.
This is wholly based on the assumption that
agriculturists & cultivate their crops in best-suited
areas. The assumption is not tested. This research
embodiment aimed to test this assumption. Forty-
one suitable areas were marked for speciality crops
using ML. Then the predicted land suitability was
compared with the mechanistic model ECROP
(Ecological Crop Requirement). There was only a
little agreement between the two. Most of the time,
ML predicts Socioeconomic suitability, but the
term land suitability may lead to misinterpretation.
[25]
Newman Gamal Rezk et al. have expressed an
efficient Internet of Things (IoT) based smart
farming using ML algorithms. This study suggests
IoT for smart agriculture and an ML technique
called WPART for drought prediction and crop
productivity. This new technology of drought
prediction and crop productivity benefits
agriculturists and countries that depend on the
agriculture sector. In this work, an intelligent
method based on the blend of wrapper feature and
PART classification technique in ML is put forth
for crop productivity and drought prediction. Five
data sets were used for the same, and the results
were robust, accurate and precise compared to
existing techniques. [3] Figure 6 details the future
scope of ML in agriculture. The future of ML in
agriculture shines bright. The above figure takes us
through some new technology and already existing
fields that can undergo many more innovations.
There is the evolution of agriculture from the
traditional ways to now becoming precision
agriculture and smart farming by inculcating many
ML technologies. There is future Scope for ML in
agriculture, and still, a long way to go and advance.
 Figure 6: Technology that awaits in Machine Learning in Agriculture
CONCLUSION
ML is a subset of Artificial intelligence and
computer Science. It focuses on using data and
algorithms to learn the same way humans do. It is
already playing an essential role in agriculture by
making it more efficient and effective. Using
Artificial Intelligence and ML-based surveillance
system, agriculturists can look into every crop
field's real-time video and identify any animal or
human breaches, sending an alert immediately. The
use of ML in agricultural processes begins with
seed being planted in soil, soil preparation, seed
breeding, and water requirement measurement. It
ends when robots, with the help of Artificial
Intelligence and ML, pick up crops by determining
their ripeness using computer vision. Compared to
humans, machines can make use of seemingly
meaningless data and connections to reveal new
qualities that would help in an overall increase in
the rate of crops. Technological advancements in
ML have enabled farmers to improve their harvest,
get the right price, and market their produce. It has
also benefited agriculturists in reducing loss in
yield by providing them with information about
crops and recommendations in each stage of
agriculture. ML approach to delineate parcels is
explored through combining superpixel and
supervised classification to decide which adjacent
superpixel is to be merged, converting the
segmentation issue to ML matter. To improve the
accuracy of the future price prediction of
agricultural products by keeping ML algorithms as
basic several methods and technologies of ML have
been used in recent years, which include Neural
Networks and SVM for classification and U-means
and self-organising maps for unsupervised learning.
The class imbalance is problematic in ML.
Therefore, there are techniques shortly that would
help achieve accuracy despite inequalities using
ML techniques such as SMOTE and Neural
Networks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is funded by a student research grant
from RV University through a technical writing
course.
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