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 California State University, Fresno

Henry Madden Library, Interlibrary Loan

5200 N. Barton Ave. M/S ML34

·Fresno, California ·93740-8014

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law of the U.S.

iTitle 17, U.S. Code).

Best
Available
. Copy
 THE STA VE CHURCH IN ITS
NATURAL SURROUNDINGS

Everyone who has been to Norway must have looked at a Stave church. What an
extraordinary structure! It is built entirely of wood, with gable roofs piled steeply one
on top of another; the wood is dark shiny black, pitch brown, or ochre yellow.
Dragon heads project from the many gables as if in exclamation. Fretted decorative
boards like combs surmount the ridges. Roofs and outer walls are covered with a scaly
skin of wooden shingles; there are no windows. The whole building has the appear-
ance of a legendary animal of mythical times transformed into a house.
The older and more primitive the church the more striking is this impression. Many
a visitor must have asked himself: "How can this be a Christian church, a house of
peace and devout prayer?" A more characteristically pagan, defiantly self-assertive
building could hardly be found.
Let us bear in mind this first impression and go further. There are very few clues in
the history of Western art to help us to understand the formal language of this
architecture. There is nothing similar in Romanesque or Gothic. Instead, a relation-
ship to the architectural styles of the Far East may perhaps occur to us. Not only the
symbol of the dragon-the gables, too, piled up in the manner of a pagoda may
suggest a connection with Ancient China. And yet the character is different-quite
apart from the fact that an external historical connection between the Old Germanic
North and the Orient is hardly conceivable. If there were indeed any relationship, it
could only be of a spiritual kind.
Standing in front of the church, one's eyes turn to the surrounding country, and
gradually it becomes evident that this building would not be at home anywhere but in
this austere northern landscape. You wilJ not find Stave churches in the warm South
or in colourful villages, but standing alone in a valley threatened by avalanches, with
bare mountains towering above and a green river rushing down from a glacier. Here in
a landscape that seems on the edge of the Ice Age, you can see churches such as the 9
 Dragon head from the gable of the
Stave church at Borgund in Sogn.
Circa 1150. These projecting gable
dragons have the air of shouting
threateningly into the ai r.

one in Borgund, not far from the Sognefjord. Yet although the landscape is wild and
unruly, its details are delicate and unspoiled : the bright veil of saxifrage blossoms on
the damp black rock-face, or the young birches with their white trunks, and the
aromatic juniper. This landscape played a part in the creation of the Stave church.
Carved out by avalanche and storm it inspired the master builders, and left its imprint
on the churches. Not in the sense that the natural forms have been imitated in the
Stave church- it is related to the countryside in a more intimate way which is difficult
tc put into words, that has to be experienced.
Of course there are Stave churches which are not situated in such bleak, rocky
surroundings as the one in Borgund. The venerable church at Urnes, for example,
stands on a knoll by the fjord, looking out towards distant hills; and the one in
10 Valdres stands on a hilltop above dark woods. It is interesting to observe how the
appearance of the churches alters according to the landscape, how the architectural
gesture can become more subdued, the image more compact. The imprint of the
surrounding countryside is often visible even in the design of the interior. So anyone
who pays close attention can become aware of a relationship resembling a dialogue, as
if the House of God had to carry on a perpetual discussion with the tumultuous forces
of nature.
This impression is embodied in several popular legends. The following tale is told
with slightly differing details of several old Stave churches: during the conversion of
Norway to Christianity, at the beginning of the eleventh century, St. Olav, the king,
roamed the valleys commanding the people to adopt the new faith. The peasants often
refused, and said they had no intention of abandoning the gods of their fathers. But
the king never gave in, and there was conflict. But on cne occasion, the armed strength
of the peasants was so great that the king decided it would be better to settle the
dispute without force, and the peasants agreed. They said they would be willing to be
baptized if the king could build them a church in three days. Placing his trust in God,
the king consented ; but he had no idea how this was to be done. Walking in the woods
in the evening, he met a Troll, explained his plight, and made a bargain with him. The
Troll was to build the church during three nights, and as a reward the king was to give
him the sun and the moon. The Troll set to work so fast that soon the king was in a
new predicament; how was he to get hold of the sun and the moon? On the eve of the
day on which the reward was due he was walking along the mountainside when he
heard a rough voice singing a lullaby :
Hush, hush, my child,
Father Finn will soon
Bring you sun and moon. 11
 So now the king knew the name of the Troll; and it is well known that no Troll can
bear to be called by his name. "Good morning, Finn," called the king as the Troll
came to meet him next day. Finn was immediately turned into a rock and the church
was saved.
This legend serves as an example of the Norwegian people's deeply-rooted feeling
that there is something mysterious about the origin of the Stave churches, that some-
thing has been handed down from ancient heathen times; and that not only human
beings did the work but an invisible hand helped with the building. Nature beings took
part, but they were cheated of their reward. A later story describes how their quiet was
disturbed by the church bells, and the giants, the original inhabitants of the country,
hurled rocks at the towers. That is why so many huge rocks lie near the churches; but
God has preserved them from being destroyed in this way.

12
 STRUCTURE OF THE BUILDING

When a Stave church is closely examined the signs of age are evident. Some of the
wood is very weatherbeaten, and some boards are out of place. Wind and weather
have had their effect upon the work done by human hands seven or eight centuries
ago. You can almost imagine the Stave church greeting you with a stanza from the
Edda:

Snow covered me,

Rain beat down on me,
Dew fell on me,
Long I seemed dead.
An invisible hand was indeed at work through many a stormy night; the powers of
nature have left their mark. Of course this is not the only reason, indeed not the chief
reason, why only about twenty Stave churches have survived of the seven or eight
hundred built from the eleventh to the thirteenth century in Norway: or why not all of
these remaining few are well enough preserved to give us a complete picture of the
Stave church. As always man's lack of understanding was a decisive factor.
The church in Borgund, built presumably in the middle of the twelfth century, is
typical of the period, and so we shall have it in mind in describing the characteristics
of the Stave church.
Standing in front of the West entrance you look through a small open portal into
the mysterious, dark interior. The tripartite arch over the entrance is most striking.
Letting your eyes wander over the building you see the roofs mounting in three levels
to the ridge. Above this is a superstructure, the so-called ridge turret, also consisting of
three sections, so that there are six levels from the ground to the top of the tower. The
two lower roofs enclose the whole structure like a cloak, and are interrupted by small
projecting gables above the West, South and North entrances. On the Eastern side is a 13
 Stave church at Hedda!. South view.

Stave church at Heddal. West front.

rounded apse with a small turret. The slope of the many roofs is not the same, but
becomes a little steeper towards the top. The difference is small but contributes to the
lively mobile effect of the whole.
The first of the two lean-to roofs is very low and covers the arcaded outer ambula-
tory- svalgang in Norwegian-which was always exposed to the violence of the wea-
ther so that in many churches it has gradually disappeared, partially or totally. Yet it
is as essential to the design of the Stave church as the outer court once was to the
temple. At Borgund it is covered by the roof so that it stands under the protection of
the church.
A small open portal leads into this ambulatory and you are immediately confronted
by the astonishing carvings of the ornamental frame of the door. The door itself is
made of two wide boards joined together and rounded at the top, and is remarkably
plain, so that the frame is all the more striking. At first it is not clear what the carving
represents; one can only make out a mass of wriggling snakes or dragons. It prompts a
slight hesitation, as if it would not be right to walk straight through thoughtlessly.
After a while details become recognizable. At the lower corners there are two open-
mouthed heads of animals of some kind-it is difficult to say whether they are
intended to represent dragons or ancient nature-beings of some sort. An ornamental
design of interlacing bands springs from their jaws and develops into two large winged
dragons at the top. It is hard to distinguish individual animals-animal-like forms are
linked in such a way as to suggest a symbolic rendering of animal qualities rather than
the representation of specific creatures.
The characteristics of the Borgund church are found with few variations in almost
all Stave churches, sometimes in a modified or less fully developed form.
The carvings of the Borgund church cannot be called beautiful in the generally
14 accepted sense, but they are executed with great boldness and skill. Surely this carving
Fragment of a wooden relief from a
former Stave church in Horning,
near Randers in Denmark. Circa
1050.
Early forms often show in their
ornament-as here in the snake
motif-the original movement from
which endless designs of interweav-
ing bands and lines could later
develop.

was not intended solely as decoration, but originally bad a spiritual significance and
function. Remembering the words written above the temple at Delphi: "Know thyself",
one wonders whether this carving had a similar meaning. Is it meant as a challenge to
self-knowledge, or even as a guardian of the threshold? The doors are so simple and
the frame so threatening! It is high and so narrow that those entering could only have
passed through one by one.
In many portals it is obvious that the carved jambs have been trimmed and slightly
mutilated. This is because a decree made in 1823 was carried out without enough
consideration. The year before a church had caught fire during the service, and the
entire congregation had died. Everybody had pressed against the doors and had pre-
vented them from being opened, as they could only open inwards. After this tragedy
the decree was issued that all doors should be altered immediately, so that they opened
outwards. In order to fix new hinges notches were cut in the pillars with no respect for
the carving.
We know from the Old Testament that at one time only the priest was allowed to
enter the sanctuary of the temple. The people had to stay in the outer court.
This practice changed, and anyone may come into a Christian church, and even
enter the chancel. As a result of this development the "outer court" has become less
important.
Before crossing the threshold of the narrow door it is good to follow the ambulatory
round the church, past several bays and the semi-circular apse, coming back to the
West Portal. Walking from one segment to another gives one the feeling of being in a
small labyrinth. In the Middle Ages all the processions which left the church probably
made this circuit around the church. At one time weapons were also left here, so that it
is often called the "armoury", as is the porch of later stone churches. The laying down
of arms represented the rejection of the everyday before entering the sanctuary. 15
 Figure from a capital in the Stave
church at Hurum.

The ambulatory also served a more mundane purpose. Apart from protection from
wind and weather it provided a place for trade agreements and business of all kinds,
since the church was naturally a central meeting place for the scattered community.
Many documents have been preserved with the conclusion" .. . written in the sva/gang
of the ... church in the year . .. ".
The svalgang is actually only an appendix to the main structure. The outer edge of
the lean-to roof rests on a balustrade with an arcade, small pillars linked by round
arches. The capitals of the small piJlars show that they are copied from Romanesque
stone architecture. Around the apse on the East side the ambulatory is enclosed by a
thick wall-the church's back if we see the human form as the prototype of the temple.
But down the sides the sun shines through the arches and you can look out into the
countryside-you are neither completely cut off from the world nor have you stepped
right into the sanctuary.
Stopping in front of the South Portal, we face more woodcarving. The jambs left
and right expand to capitals linked by a carved arch. Two creatures standing on the
capitals are most conspicuous. They are usually described as lions, but they are quite
unnaturalistically portrayed and could just as well represent some mythical beast,
centaur or sphinx. The heads are rounded and the eyes look straight ahead in an
almost human way. The animal body is seen from the side, but its raised neck is turned
towards us, so that on entering you have the peculiar feeling that it has just noticed
you and turned to face you. This impression is frequently heightened by the inclination
of its head, as if the creature were scrutinizing you with its searching eyes and asking:
"Who are you?"
After turning the many corners of the ambulatory you return to the West Portal and
cross the threshold into a rather dark room. Very little light comes through the small
16 holes high up in the sides of the tiered nave. Our eyes have to become accustomed to
Cross section through the Stave
church at Gol in Hallingdal , now in
the open-air museum of Bygdoy,
Oslo. Twelfth century.
The section shows the principle of
construction of a Stave church. The
framework of posts and beams en-
closes the space harmoniously.

the dim light. The interior of lhe church was intended to be lit by the candles on the
altar, but they are no longer in use, and the visitor has to rely on his own imagination
to complete the picture.
The warmth and liveliness of the golden brown wood is very appealing. Twelve high
masts stand vertically, like columns, forming a rectangle which is clearly the basic
framework of the structure. They are connected by arches, and higher up by two
continuous horizontal beams between which the pillars are connected by intersecting
diagonals, forming beautifully carved St. Andrew's crosses. Immediately above there
are arches again, and then the masts meet the outer wall and follow it to the cornice,
where they are capped by carved human or animal-like heads. 17
: - SON
 Simplified picture of the construc-
tion of a Stave church roof and a
Viking ship.

It has been widely accepted that the masts were the "staves" which gave the Stave
churches their name, but this may not be correct. It is possible that the Norwegian
term stav referred to any vertically placed timber-for in strong contrast to the tech-
nique of blockwork architecture the wood is chiefly placed vertically in the Stave
churches. Also the name "Stave church" is more recent than the churches themselves ;
which leads to the conclusion that the people took the stave work so much for granted
at the time of building that no special term was necessary.
Here in Borgund the masts are not completely circular, but slightly flattened at the
sides, so that they are elliptical. In this way they are in accord with the space which
they enclose. With some other churches, for example that at Lorn in the Gudbrands-
dal, this is still more definite.
The masts do not divide the interior into nave and aisles but rather into one high
central space surrounded by an inner ambulatory which is not so high. The central
space is crowned by the open roof truss. From below it looks almost like the inside of a
ship, the ridge corresponding to the keel and the rafters to the ribs of a ship. This view is
shared by Lorentz Dietrichson who writes in his definitive thesis on the Stave churches:
"The trussed roof* resembles a ship placed upside down over the church. The ridge-
beam corresponds to the keel, the rafters to the ship's ribs. (It is not for nothing that
the curving rafters which support the collar beam of each roof-truss are called ' keel
arches' in Norwegian.) A row of arches, upside down, is placed between adjacent
rafters, just as it was between the ribs of a Viking ship. In the ship these ribs were not
attached to the keel, and similarly the rafter arches and the scissor beams (tie beams)
are separated from the ridge-beam in the church. The entire church, not merely the
roof-construction, recalls shipbuilding technique. It is strengthened throughout by
elbow joints and brackets, just as the Viking ships were. The fl oor planks are fitted
18 * See Plates 70 and 85.
Longitudinal section through the
Stave church at Gol in Ha llingdal.

flush with the sleepers* just as the deck planks were fitted flush with the cross beams in
the ship. The foot of each pillar (or mast), is rounded to help in erecting it just like the
mast of a ship. All this proves not only how closely related the churches are to Viking
ships, but also that the methods and style of building reaches back into heathen
times- even the dragon heads sprouting from the gables are the same as those on th'!
prows of the ships. The relationship is most evident in the ornament ... "
The interplay of cross-beams, supporting and tie beams is delightful to the eye; they
are joined by brackets made of curving pieces of wood. Each part seems naturally
related to the whole design. The sharp corners are mostly rounded off by mediating
• These sleepers supported the entire building. There were no separate floor-joists. 19
 brackets; the transition from wall to roof is most gracefu1. Only the two huge cross-
beams provide a dissonant note in the structural harmony.
A quietly mysterious atmosphere is created not only by the dim light, but mainly by
the wood, and the structural pattern arising out of its use, which differs so radically
from the hard bare effect of the material and technique of stone architecture. In a
Stave church, everything breathes and lives. It can remind us of Ho]derlin's saying
about wood: "The spirits of the forest are still at work in it."
The very narrow side aisles of inner ambulatory served mainly to widen the space of
the interior, and in some churches low benches are stil1 to be found here. During the
service these could only have been used by the aged or infinn, since it was customary
for everyone else to stand. Originally there were no other seats in the Stave
churches.
The appearance of the roof is particularly delightful from the side aisles, as you see
it through a row of arches lying at a surprisingly oblique angle between the wall and
the masts, and continuing all round the inner ambulatory surrounding the rectangle
formed by the twelve masts. Apart from its structural purpose it is also aesthetically
very satisfying. Herman Phleps exactly describes the impression it makes when he
writes: "The roofing rays protectively out from the nave to the outer walls, like a hen
spreading her wings over her chickens."
The outer walls are built up in two levels; the upper part united with the masts, and
the lower part enclosing the inner ambulatory. The lower part is linked to the masts in
two ways: first by the roof of the ambulatory and secondly by the previously men-
tioned row of arches, which in a sense forms a crown round the central nave, as the
curves of the arches lie on the outer walls, and they are supported on the cross-beams
of the masts.
20 Standing in the nave you are surrounded by the masts and the arches which connect
Wrought-iron altar candlestick in
the form of a ship from the Dale
church in Sogn.

them. In the roof truss you see more arches, upside down as if mirroring the others.
They start at the meeting of upper wall and roof and reach towards the ridge, cross
each other and hit the opposite side of the roof. The purpose of this construction is to
strengthen the sloping roof and gables. It also communicates an artistically meaningful
image, for they can be seen as parabolas, streaming down from the heights. Looking
up you can say: "This is how thoughts come to us in the house of God.'' Looking
around we say to ourselves: "This is how we think when we link one thought with
another." We can also experience the arches in the roof as the final echo of a theme
which is begun helow where the arches unite the masts.
J n the Borgund church the very simple chancel is a little narrower than the nave and
could be described as structurally an annexe completed by the apse. The inner ambula-
tory comes between chancel and nave, so that these appear more distinct than is usual.
This impression is strengthened by the two masts which stand between the nave and
the chancel.
The chancel was not always so sparsely furnished as it is today. It was probably
decorated with large tapestries at one time-the tapestry hooks can still be seen in
some churches, for instance in Hopperstad. On the altar there used to be gold vessels
and candlesticks, and probably an altar picture or reliquary; but unfortunately none of
these survives in Borgund. They probably fell victim to the iconoclasts during the
Reformation. The present pulpit and altarpiece date from after the Reformation.
Though the old inventory has disappeared, there are several clues pointing to the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, such as the runic characters which appear on interior
and exterior walls. As in the other Stave churches, they consist chiefly of names and of
requests for the fulfilment of wishes. In Vinje (Telemarken), for instance, there is the
following rune:
" Sigurd Jarlsohn carved these runes on the Saturday after St. Botolf's day when he 21
 Runic writing on a plank from the
demolished Stave church at Vinjc in
Telemark. Circa 1200.

sought refuge here, not wishing to be compared to his brother Sverre, the murderer of
his father and his brothers."
Another one in Stedje (Sogn) reads thus: "This stave was donated by Sigrid von
Hval, asking grace for Arnthor's soul and for her own." By the West entrance of the
Borgund church you can see the following inscription: "I rode past this place on St.
Olav's Day (29 July) The Norns did me much harm as I rode by," which shows that
people were still aware of the mythical Norns long after Norway was converted to
Christianity.
In some Stave churches there were brightly coloured paintings on the walls and
ceiling of the chancel, but few of these are still in existence. When the Al church was
demolished the painted panels from the walls and ceiling were placed on display in the
Oslo University Museum (of Antiquities). In Hallingdal, where only the nave has been
preserved, and also in Torpo, * there are large wood-panelled canopies with paintings
representing Christ enthroned, the Book of the Law in His hand, surrounded by the
emblems of the four Evangelists. There are also very imaginative representations of the
apostles and scenes from the life of St. Margaret. The Historical Museum in Bergen
also contains paintings from demolished Stave churches.
The main achievements in this type of painting occur about 150 years after the
greatest period of building. By this time Norwegian Christianity had sought closer ties
with European culture and so the motifs used in the paintings are taken from the
well-known iconography of the Middle Ages: Mary represented with a high forehead
and delicately shaped mouth, the Saviour with red-blond hair and beard, scenes from
popular adventurous legends-often expressed in a crudely vigorous style. The brush-
strokes suggest that the painter's hand was also accustomed to holding the plough.
The style is simple yet radiates a warmth, sincerity and depth offeeling which testifies
22 • Plate 108.
 . ' -~
~'--
i
I
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l_____.______
to the new enthusiasm aroused by Christianity. The architecture and carving seem to
be carried out by more competent hands than the painting, both artistically and
technically. It is clear that the handling of wood is founded on a tradition reaching
back into heathen times, and this is borne out by the findings of archaeologists. The
ability to create with colours only came to these Northerners with the advent of
Christianity. This is not to suggest that the architectural style was simply an inheri-
tance from the old heathen culture-it has not yet been finally established how much
of it depends on the architecture of heathen times and how much was newly created
with Christianity. The basic architectural principle and the tradition of craftsmanship
in wood along with knowledge of its special requirements go back to ancient times.
But the conception underlying the building as a whole is new. This can never be fully
described in words and can only be observed and spiritually explored like the
archetypal idea of a living being. The guiding conception of the Stave church will
become increasingly real to anyone who listens to the " structural language" (to bor-
row a phrase from Herman Phleps), who experiences the relationships between beams
and rafters, and observes the harmonious solution provided for problems of interac-
tion of lines and planes. Where structural elements shape space, for example in the
corn~rs the mediating "knee-timbers" which bridge the polarity of vertical and hori-
zontal, or wherever the technical tasks of different parts of the building are combined
with artistically harmonious inter-relationships, it can be felt. Technically the curved
wooden brackets are there to strengthen the structure. From an artistic point of view
they overcome the severity of the corner. Artistic beauty is always a matter of how;
here, how the masts, the arches and all the various parts hold, support, and help each
other in relationships which connect opposites in aesthetically satisfying ways. This
mediation and connection is both a basic Christian idea and a structural principle of
the Stave church. 23
 Cross and longitudinal sections
through the Stave church at Hurum
in Valdrcs. Circa 1200.

Cross section through the former

single-mast church at Ncs in Hall-
ingdal. The mast stands on a cross-
base in the centre of the church,
sends out branches upward in all dir-
ections and is tied to the outer walls.

The Borgund church has the best preserved exterior, in fact the only one undamaged
since the Middle Ages; but this superiority does not apply to the interior, in compar-
ison with other Stave churches. The interior is imperfect in general form and in fine
detail. The surrounding country has always been thinly populated and relatively poor.
These conditions may have protected this church from the extravagant decoration
which mars some churches, and occasionally includes details imitating Romanesque or
even Moorish stone architecture. On the other hand the surfaces in the Borgund
church arc not so harmoniously related and the details not as carefully worked out as
parts of a whole as in the churches at Lorn in Gudbrandsdal, Hurum in Valdres, or
Kaupanger on the Sognefjord. The Norwegian scholar Anders Bugge correctly des-
cribes the Borgund church as "neither the beginning nor the climax of Stave church
architecture but a good average example".
The exteriors of other churches have either lost their original structure completely or
else regained it by restoration. Many of the churches became too small for their
congregations and had to be enlarged, mostly after the Reformation. The enlightened
pastors also considered them too dark and had windows built in. They also often
added low ceilings in order to conserve warmth in winter. Today efforts are being
made to restore the Stave churches as far as possible to their original state, and this
work has already been completed for many churches. The Got church in the cpen-air
museum at Bygdoy near Oslo, the Fantoft church near Bergen, the Hopperstad and
Kaupanger churches in Sogn and the large Heddal church in Telernark are all success-
fully restored churches of the same type as in Borgund.
The Valdres church represents another type, without the piling up of roofs which
characterizes the Borgund exterior and with only four free-standing masts. In this type
24 of church, in Hegge, Hurum and Lomen, the design of the interior is especially
Cross section through the nave of
the Stave church at Reinli in Val-
dres.

The relationship to sh ip construc-

tion is here especially plain. The roof
mast, which formerly carried a larger
tower, is now, like the mast of a sail-
ing boat, anchored to the rafters
spanning the roof-space.

harmonious and the play of lines is almost perfect. There are plans for the restoration
of these churches too, starting with the one in Hegge.
In Numedal there are some one- and two-mast churches. The ones at Uvdal and
Nore are particularly interesting, although they have been altered considerably. The
walls and ceiling of the Uvdal church are painted with flowers and garlands giving it
an unusually checrful Whitsun-like atmosphere. The chief supporting masts are right
in the centre of the interior. Finally there are a few small churches which have no
free-standing masts, o nly corner-posts.
There is a sermon in a medical book of homilies written in Old N orse, which gives a
contemporary exposition of all the details of the Stave church. Here it is said:
"Since in books the word Church is used to mean both the building and the
Christian people we shall here explain why the people can be called the Church and
the Christians the house of God. For the Apostle Paul said: 'You are the temple of
God, if you build it in yourselves.'
"The church is created out of many parts in the same way as the Christian faith
unites many nations and languages. Part of Christendom is with God in heaven, part
in this world, so part of the church means the divine glory and part Christianity on
earth. The chancel means the saints in heaven, the nave the Christians on earth. The
altar signifies Christ. All gifts offered to God must be hallowed on the altar and in the
same way our deeds are only pleasing to God when they are hallowed by the love of
Christ.
" The sleepers signify the apostles of God who sustain all Christendom. The door
opening is right faith , which leads into the universal Church. The wings of the doors
stand for the judicious men who protect the entrance to the church from heretics. The
floorboards represent the humble people who think little of themselves and serve the
people a ll the more, because they are willing to be humiliated by all. The benches 25
 Dragon head from the gable of the
Stave church at Lom in Gudbrands-
da l. End of the twelfth century.

along the walls can be compared to compassionate people who patiently help the weak
and infirm. The two parallel walls of the church suggest the Jews and the heathen, the
two peoples who were joined into the one community. The gabled roof which joins the
walls to make one house signifies Our Lord, linking two peoples in one faith, and acting
as shield and guardian of His community. The wall between nave and chancel repre-
sents the Holy Spirit-just as we enter the community with the aid of Christ so we can
hope to enter heaven by the gracious door of the Holy Spirit. There is a large opening
in this wall so that everything that goes on in the chancel can be seen from the nave,
because every man who finds the gracious door of the Holy Spirit can see many
spiritual events with the eyes of his soul. The four corner-posts stand for the four
Evangelists, whose teachings are the strongest pillars of Christianity. The framework
of the roof represents those who turn their backs on the material world, and protect
the community from temptation by their prayer, as the roof protects the church from
rain. The beams supporting the roof are like the elders who guide the community. The
wooden joints between beams and rafters are like those men who establish peaceful
relations between worldly princes. The bells are the priests, sounding for God and
man. Cross and crucifix represent the ascetics, who suffer the wounds of Christ on
their own bodies.
"While the church stands for the whole of Christendom, it also represents the
individual Christian who makes himself into a temple of the Holy Spirit through good
action. Every man should build a church in himself out of good deeds pleasing to
God ; with prayers and psalms as his choir, love as the altar, and the good deeds
arising out of love as the altar-cloth.
"Everything in the design of the church and the preparation for the service must be
understood in its spiritual meaning and reflected in our inner life. It is essential for us,
26 dear brothers, to cleanse our hearts before celebrating the festivals so that God does
 not find anything displeasing there. We would not appear at a festival in dirty clothes,
and we should also wash clean the stains of our sins with tears of remorse, and make
good o ur failings by good deeds. At festivals we allow ourselves excellent meals, and
we should also provide our souls with special nourishment, with the Word of God which
is our spiritual food. It would not be fitting if our bodies were to parade proudly, well-
dressed and well-fed, while our souls suffered, ill-clothed and ill-nourished."
This comparison of an external structure with the inner life of man is not merely a
symbolic interpretation of a building. Its real significance lies in its recognition that a
space st ructure possessing true artistry, as does the interior of a Stave church, has
individually and socially an educative power. Although builders and carpenters may
not have been as conscious of this as the author of the sermon, such thoughts none-
theless influenced the way they used the axe or knife or chisel. The emotional life of
those taking part in a service is gradually influenced by the environment in which it is
held. In these dimly lit churches the eleventh-century Norwegians experienced a kind
of purification, and their violent emotions were subdued, their manner of life became
m ore gentle. Gradually they found their way out of the o ld heathen tribal existence
into the new Christian community.
The contrast between exterior and interior of the church is a visual manifestation of
this transformation. The exteri or is unrestrainedly self-assertive, still very much under
the sign of the dragon. The interior is straightforward and clear, breathing the warmth
of the wood. Standing inside one can say in the words which Rudolf Steiner uttered on
entering the Stave church at Gol : "Deeply Christian."

27
 THE METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

Wood was the most obvious and readily available building material in the old Ger-
manic North, as in the Celtic West. The technique of stone architecture was only
gradually introduced under the influence of the Romans.
Wood is distinguished from stone as a building material by its dependence on the
growth and character of the tree, which determine the length and strength of the beam,
and the way in which it has to be cut. As a live material wood has limitations, and at
the same time offers exceptional possibilities.
The two basic techniques used in wooden architecture are blockwork and frame-
work construction. Blockwork, or full timber construction, depends on a system of
horizontal beams. Tree trunks, round or slightly flattened, are placed hodzontally one
over the other and dovetailed at right angles at the corners of the building, creating a
sturdy wall for the roof to rest on. The crevice between trunks was frequently stuffed
with dry moss or wool in order to protect the house from frost and wind. The
framework technique of construction uses tree trunks to create a frame which is filled
in with planks or panelling. Originally the planks were always placed vertically, and
this gave rise to the description reiswerk, from the Norwegian verb reise, to place
something upright. Later, however, the framework was often filled out with horizontal
planks.
The sturdy, primitive appearance of blockwork buildings could give the impression
that this technique is the older ; but experts agree that the framework method is based
on a palisade construction which is more ancient. The date of the first blockwork
buildings in Scandinavia is difficult to establish, but the technique had certainly long
been used by the time of the Vikings.
We know very little about the appearance of pre-Christian places of worship, where
sacrifices were made to the old Germanic gods, but it is supposed that they consisted of
28 primitive stave work, with masts placed directly into the earth. There is a particular
solemnity about vertically placed timbers. The priest stood to celebrate the Mass, and
the congregation also stood; in worship an inner uprightness was striven for, and an
uplifting of the soul. This inner effort is mirrored by the vertical wood. The horizontal
placing of beams characteristic of blockwork only became popular after the Reforma-
tion, for churches as well as for private houses, when it became the custom for the
congregation to be seated.
There are many indications that the early Stave churches were built at the places
where heathen sanctuaries had stood, and in some cases there is decisive evidence. This
was a natural choice of site, as it gave continuity to their religious life. It is even said of
a remote church in R0ldal that when it was first built the Christian Mass was only
celebrated every second week, so that the heathen gods could be worshipped in bet-
ween. At the beginning the differences between the Christian and the heathen faiths
were not so strongly marked; but the Church claimed a final victory in taking over the
old hallowed ground.
The building sites had to be dry, as nothing is so harmful to a wooden building as
damp ground. It was found preferable to avoid this completely, rather than to take
special measures to prevent rising damp. Thus with many Stave churches there is little
in the \\lay of foundations. The wood used was almost exclusively pine, which is very
common in Norway, though some elm seems to have been used in the Urnes church at
Sogn. Long narrow tree-trunks were chosen for the masts, and before felling them part
of the bark was scraped off. In this way the tree died gradually, becoming impregnated
with its own resin; it dried so slowly that there are very few of the cracks usually
associated with wooden buildings. Shorter, thicker trunks were chosen for boards and
planks, felled straight away, preferably in very cold weather, and cut to size on the
spot to make them easier to transport. Only two planks were made out of each trunk.
Bent wood (grown timber) was also needed for the arches linking masts and rafters, 29
 and for the brackets used to strengthen the joints at corners and angles. The arches
between masts were too wide for one trunk, and had to be made out of several pieces,
which were so carefully joined that even today after eight centuries you can barely
detect the joints. Suitable wood had to be collected for the shingles, struts and all the
various parts--even the nails were made of wood. The Stave churches were built
entirely out of wood except for the iron lock, its mountings, and the door hinges.
The only implements used by carpenters at the time appear to have been axe, auger,
a primitive plane, and various knives and chisels. The so-called "goat's foot" was used
in the carving of reliefs. It is difficult to imagine how they achieved so much without a
saw, which was known at this time but was so difficult to make with the forging
equipment available that it was very rare. A flat knife was used to cut tongues and
grooves, and also for decorative notches, which were frequently painted with a mixture
of tar and pine soot.
Particularly strong trunks were used for the sleepers, which were placed on the low
stone foundations in different ways according to the type of church. For a one-mast
church the first two sleepers were laid in the form of a cross, and then surrounded by a
square made of four others, so that six huge tree trunks were needed. For a church
with four or more masts the first pair of sleepers would be placed over the stones
intended to bear the weight of the longitudinal rows of masts, usually in an east-west
direction; these were followed by two shorter sleepers, completing the rectangle repre-
senting the area of the central nave. The ends crossed each other and projected three
or four feet beyond their points of intersection; four additional sleepers were dove-
tailed to these ends forming a larger rectangle.
This method raised the church slightly above the ground, and brought as conse-
quence that the builders did not like to make a church larger than was permitted by
30 the length of tree trunk available.
Diagrammatic plans of a single mast
church, one of the Valdres type,
and of a many-mast church.

The space between the first set of sleepers determined the size of the nave, and the
distance between this and the outer rectangle fixed the size of the side aisles or inner
ambulatory. Since the inner sleepers had to be aligned with the floorboards their
surface was planed. The outer sleepers were set on edge and given a sturdy mortise
ready to receive the outer walls.
Then the masts were attached to the sleepers. The method of raising the masts was
discovered by examining the pivot holes when demolishing several churches. The outer
half of the mortise sinking was rounded and the inner half cornered so that the masts
could be slid in at the rounded side. The linking framework of the masts was com-
pleted while they were still on the ground, so that when they were raised they fitted
together and could immediately be joined. This linking framework usually consisted of
two parallel tie-beams clamping the masts from both sides. The row of square spaces
created between masts and beams were filled by the St. Andrew's Crosses which are so
characteristic of the Stave churches. They were often decoratively carved and orna-
mental discs were placed over the crossing joints.
The masts were further connected by arches made out of bent wood, usually in two
rows, one above and one below the crosses and tie-beams, the upper one also serving
as support for the sill carrying the upper wall of the nave. The masts also support the
upper wall; in fact they continue through it to the junction with the roof. Here at the
top they are often carved with the heads that have been mentioned, which have
sometimes a grotesque humour.
What is the significance of these mask-like heads? Have they a symbolic meaning?
It has been suggested that they might be descendants of heathen idols. In the Hegge
church there is a one-eyed grinning head with his tongue sticking out, as if his face were
contorted in disgust at the Christian Mass celebrated below. Perhaps such conceptions
were indeed the starting-point when these masks were carved. Many imaginative 31
 Horizontal section showing the tim-
ber construction of the Stave church
at Lomen. Second half of the twelfth
century.
The surrounding vault ties to-
gether the outer walls and the masts
supporting the central space. The
apse is joined to the main structure.
The curving brackets at the corner~
of the main space soften the hard-
ness of the right-angles, and round
off the space.

conceptions inherited frcm heathendom still existed in Christian times, and only
gradually were men able to free themselves from them entirely. The heads are placed
high in the church and so dimly lit that they are almost more a matter of conjecture
than vision. They are gathered high in the roof like messengers from a magical world,
which contains elements both wise and demonic, of austere nobility and grotesque
crudeness. Manifold in expression, but bound to their places, they are included in the
task of the masts, to support the roof. Though they appear to be related to the old
gods, the reverence they were once given has changed into the liberating sense that
they are nothing but idols. They certainly look down on the congregation with the
wide-awake piercing eyes of silent watchmen. Sometimes the:y have faces without
mouths ; they have no power of action, for it is at the altar that the Word is spoken.
Perhaps it was felt to be necessary to provide the community with the visual antithesis
of their piety. Just as Greek tragedy required comedy as its companion, so religious
devotion called for humour. There was certainly a therapeutic value in such juxtaposi-
tion- where the Divine is addressed in prayer, demons may give their answer as well.
The masts had to take the weight of the roof and its tower, but the corner-posts on
the outer rectangle of sleepers were added first. Short but sturdy trunks were used for
these, often with a circumference of four or five feet- in Urnes there is even one of six
feet. They were rounded off at the foot and instead of being attached with a stub
tenon, to give greater stability they were placed over the dovetailed corners of the
sleepers. Two grooves were cut in them so that they were clamped around the edges of
the sleepers. Since they are thus perched on top of the sleepers they are well protected
from the damp.
Mortise grooves were carved in both sleepers and corner-posts; the latter had not
only to support the roof, but also to hold the side walls, which consisted of wide
32 boards three or four inches thick, also attached to each other with mortise and tenon
The ornamental heads at the ends of
the masts in many buildings reveal a
common idea. The wedge-shaped
surfaces of the mast bring a bout a
widening of space where-as though
to reinforce their task as bearers-
they end in fully sculptured heads.

Sculptured head on a mast of the

Stave church at Stedjc in Sogn. Circa
1185. Now in the Heibcrgskc Collec-
tion, Sogn.

Right: Sculptured head on a mast

of the Stave church at Al in Halling-
dal. Circa 1150 to 1175.

joints. The precision with which this is carried out is amazing in view of the simplicity
of the tools at the builders' disposal. They must have been highly skilled in handling
plane and chisel. The central board, which had to be knocked into the wall from
above, was made slightly wedge-shaped in order to ensure a tight fit. Some walls also
had middle posts, which hardly seems necessary considering the thickness of the
planks. A horizontal beam called a staflagja was placed on top of the wall, creating,
together with sleepers and corner-posts, a strong framework for the wall. The interior
of the wall was often given the additional support of diagonal braces. The upper part
of the exterior is protected by shingles, the lower by the outer ambulatory.
In the Stave church the side aisles are actually part of an inner ambulatory which 33
3- SCIN
 Mast construction of the Valdres

..
and Borgund church type.

runs right round the nave, even between nave and chancel. As mentioned in the
previous chapter, the roof construction of this ambulatory is particularly original and
beautiful. Its lean-to roof is attached to the nave at the point where the masts join the
upper wall. The horizontal beams at this level support both the upper wall and the
lean-to roof of the outer ambulatory. Naturally this construction needed buttressing in
order to be safe from the pressure of strong winds. This is done with a row of rafters
clamped between elbow joints giving rise to the beautiful sloping arcade already des-
cribed. The upper walls of the nave were built on the same principle as those surround-
ing the ambulatory, except that they were divided into smaller sections by the masts.
The longitudinal parts have several small holes for light, measuring barely six inches,
and the west wall sometimes has a small window. The sill at the top of this wall, the
staftagja, was either fitted on to the masts, at the top (which meant that they had to
retain their full thickness right up), or they were joined by mortise and tenon; the former
was apparently the older technique. These walls were also shingled on the outside.
The roof of the nave rests on a skilfully cut five-edged beam. One of its edges rests
on the sill or staftagja, then there is the outer vertical edge, and then a sloping edge for
the roof to rest on. The next edge forms a base for the diagonal struts which reinforce
the roof, so that it has to be cut at a slightly acute angle to the previous one; and the
fifth edge links this to the base again. The care and precision with which such details
are executed is astonishing.
Special construction was necessary to protect the roof from the pressure of storms
and heavy rainfall, and this was provided by the diagonal struts which cross each other
in the space immediately below the roof-ridge and are further strengthened by a
horizontal collar-beam-called a "cook beam" in Norway-and sometimes given a
decorative arch. The tie beams which stretch across the nave from cornice to cornice
34 provide additional stability.
 The rafters which link cornice and roof ridge are joined below by arches which give
the impression of mirroring the arcade between the masts. Several purlins were placed
on this framework, parallel to ridge and cornice, on to which the roof could be nailed.
(It was most important that only well-dried wooden nails should be used, as they
might otherwise gradually dry up, shrink, and fall out of their holes.)
It is an extraordinary experience to be in a Stave church during a storm. Professor
Lorenz Dietrichson, the revered pioneer of Stave church research, recalls the descrip-
tion given by an architect who had this experience in the Borgund church. At the first
blast the church began to sway and the joints creaked and groaned; but after a while
the noise abated; tongues and grooves had settled into new positions, and he had the
impressio n that the church was giving way slightly to each buffet of the storm, almost
like the top of a tall fir tree-a further proof of the amazing ingenuity of the construc-
ticn.
On the top of the roof there is usually a small turret in three stages. Two short beams
were placed at right angles to the ridge beam and linked by two further beams to make
a rectangle, determining the size of the first section of the turret. Four vertical timbers
were placed at the corners, standing on the roof and running up the sides of the turret.
Wall planks were added in the usual way, and pierced with decorative carvings, usually
circles of interlaced linear pattern. A saddle roof was placed on top with dragon heads
springing from eastern and western gables. In the classical type of Stave church this is
topped by another turret, smaller but otherwise identical and finally a little " helmet''
roof topped by a slim wooden spire.
Architecturally the chancel can be seen as a small annexe to the main building. It
presented no problems for churches without side aisles as these had no free-standing
masts or inner ambulatory. The lean-to over the inner ambulatory made the addition
of the chancel more complex. The lean-to roof had to be continued right round the 35
 0 0 0 0

chancel in order to preserve the architectural unity of the church. The vertical wall of
the choir continued above the lean-to roof to the cornice of the main roof so that the
roofing was in two levels.
Otherwise the chancel is built on the same basic pattern as the nave. There are two
corner-posts between nave and chancel, and the chancel walls run from these along
sills to the two eastern corner-posts. The usual stajfagja binds the walls at the top and
supports the lean-to roof already described.
A semi-circular apse completes the east end of the chancel, though not in all chur-
ches. It appears in about fourteen of the surviving churches, but there are also clues,
such as notches, which suggest that the east wall of the chancel was originally in a
straight line between corner-posts.
Structurally the apse may seem to be an unjustified addition yet the overall picture
would be poorer without it. Along with the turret it is the only part of the building
which serves no specific purpose. Its curve has a subtly enlivening effect. The turret on
the ridge was probably originally intended to hold the bells ; it embodies an obvious
and readily comprehensible symbolism, whereas the apse contains a mystery; the
presence of the divine is to be felt in it. The curve is significant, since it must have
been difficult to build in those days. It contains the germ of a new formal
language. There is usually a small cylindrical tower with a conical roof over the apse.
The outer ambulatory running right round the church, was structurally the weakest
part of the building. It had to protect the foundations against the destructive effects of
rain and snow. The Borgund church is one of the few with an outer ambulatory
dating from the Middle Ages, and even this one must have been added on later, as the
outer walls of the aisles, now protected by the ambulatory show clear signs that they
were once exposed to wind and weather. The style of the arcading also points to a later
36 period than that of the main church.
Ground plan of the Stave church at
Borgund in Sogn. Circa 1150.
- -
I
~

•
-
·~
---,_c ,

1.:.
-
-I
"')
I
I

1 - .-
"--
·c • ...
K
......
-

The ambulatory is shut off round the choir and apse because here it served as a
sacristy, and was linked to the chancel by a door. It seems quite natural that the
church should be shut off at the back. There were also openings in the wall between
chancel and ambulatory, presumably for confessions, as they were all filled in after the
Reformation. Other holes slightly higher were probably for lepers to receive Commun-
ion without coming into contact with the congregation.
The outer ambulatories have mostly disappeared, because they were built separately
from the main structure, and only attached to the walls of the aisles in a quite
primitive way. The rafters of the lean-to roof are either pushed through the wall and
fixed on the inside with little bolts or attached to a beam running along the wall at this
height. It is not surprising that they were easily broken down, or that so many
churches were damaged and gradually became dilapidated. Because of their ram-
shackle condition the order was once given to demolish several of the remaining
churches. The one at Fortun which is now at Fantoft near Bergen, the Hopperstad
church, the Vane church in Valdres which was removed to Brilckenbero in Silesia, the
Torpo church whose chancel had already been pulled down, and the Gol church
were all only saved in the last moment. In the museums there are carved portals from
fifteen to twenty demolished Stave churches.
Today we take it for granted that ancient buildings must be preserved, but this was
not always so. In the last century the people who fought for the preservation of the
Stave churches often had to struggle against powerful cpposition, at great personal
sacrifice, and they should be remembered although their names are forgotten like those
of the builders. Every surviving Stave church is a memorial to both.

37
 Left: North side door of the Stave
church at Umes. Panel ornament.

Right: South side door in the apse of

the Stave church at Hopperstad in
Sogn.
The tall doorways-out of all pro-
portion to the size of a man-in all
Stave churches are astonishing.
Here two upright snakes touch
each other and curve back on them-
38 selves. See Plates 65 and 67.
 THE WORK OF THE SMITH

Besides their skill in the use of wood, which is rooted in an intimate knowledge of the
material, the Old Norse craftsmen were also adept in the art of the forge, which was
equally dependent on a thorough familiarity with the nature of iron. The locks and
mountings of the doors of the Stave churches, and the altar candlesticks (shaped
usually like ships) provide evidence of their skill. Otherwise no metal was used in
their building.
Like wood-carving, iron-work used to be a very popular craft. Almost every farm
had its own small smithy where simple tools were made and repairs carried out. If
someone showed himself to be particularly skilful other villagers brought him more
complicated work and he gradually became the village smith. At that time the art of
the forge depended less on refined technique than on practical experience and natural
aptitude. So there is some doubt as to whether the locks and mountings on the Stave
churches were the work of full-time smiths or were carried out by farmers working at
the forge as a side-line.
The art of the forge developed particularly in the valleys where iron was to be found.
In those days iron was obtained from bog ore, and this method has a history of its
own going back into mythological times. According to early belief this art, like every
other special skill, was taught to man by mysterious spiritual powers, in this case by
the gnomes. Since they Jived underground, they knew all about iron, and passed on
their knowledge only to those who had gained their favour, who then became smiths.
Whatever one's attitude to this belief, it is still a mystery to us today how the
extraction of iron from bog ore first came about. Ferruginous rocks are very common
in Norway; the rain water trickles over them and carries iron down to the swamps and
marshes in the form of rust. Here the organic acids remove the oxygen and the iron
gradually sinks and sett]es at the bottom of the marsh.
The "Blaster'' smith-the name comes from blowing bellows-who knew about this 39
 Door handle furniture from the west
door of the Stave church at Borgund
(in original form). Circa 1150. The
furniture is ornamented on all four
sides with pairs of dragons carrying
two double crosses. A four-footed
dragon-like creature looks down
40 from above.
 Upper and lower door hinges from
the Stave church at Uvdal. Thirteenth
century.
The iron hinges are of a high level
of craftsmanship and the design is
strikingly original.

store, set out across the moor with an iron-tipped rod, and prodded the bed of the
marsh until he heard a sound which told him he had struck iron. The ore was then dug
up, and carried in the winter on sledges to an open-air smelting furnace. This consisted
of a cavity in the ground lined with bricks, with an air duct in the centre connected to
a pair of bellows. It was filled with alternate layers of iron ore and charcoal, and lit
from below. With the help of the bellows heat was built up until the iron melted and
collected at the bottom of the furnace. The smith observed the "blossoming" of the
iron, that is the form of the sparks when he worked the bellows, so that he could
determine the temper of the metal. To make malleable iron for the decorative mount-
ings of a church door the iron could not be allowed to glow for too long, but for the
harder iron needed for lock and key, or to make steel for an axe, it had to be left in the
heat for a long time. To separate the iron from the slag it was hammered vigorously on
the anvil.
The medieval technique of forging door mountings was not so very different from
today's methods. The tools were also the same as those found in a modern forge: the
anvil, and hammers, tongs and chisels in various sizes and shapes. The basic technique
involved beating out and compressing the iron repeatedly. Very little filing was done-
the smith demonstrated his skill by creating the required pattern by precise use of
hammer and chisel alone.
The door mountings are of two kinds; the door hinges and hinge band ornaments,
and the keyplate surrounding the lock. The hinge bands surround the hinges and then
continue across the door as an ornament. Even the heads of the nails are part of the
decorative pattern. Usually the more imaginative ornament is round the locks, but
occasionally there are exceptional hinge ornaments, for instance in the one-mast
church in Uvdal. Many hinges had probably to be replaced owing to rust. 41
 (Right) Door handle from the West
door of the Stave church at Heda\cn
in Valdres. Notable here are the
lively animal forms on the enclosed
sides which develop above into fully
formed heads. Corresponding to the
cross between the lower two dragons
a winged figure appears above.

(Left) Wrought iron door handle

from the west door of the Stave
church at Umes. Circa 1140 to I ISO
(in original form).

The fittings were apparently never polished. Clearly the smiths were proud of
executing such flawless work that no subsequent burnishing was necessary. The sur-
faces are frequently so evenly wrought that the marks of the hammer are hardly to be
seen. But the prevention of rust must have been a problem. The obvious course was to
preserve the iron by painting it with tar, but this wore off after a time. The outer
ambulatories provided a certain amount of protection, but when these disappeared the
iron did not last. On some doors the outline where the mountings used to be is to be
seen, Jike a shadow on the wood.
There is little information about the stylistic history of the keyplate ornaments. It
would be interesting to know whether there is any connection with the design of early
medieval shields. This seems a reasonable possibility, since the purpose of the door is
also protective, and the ornament is also built around a centre, in this case the lock.
The work is certainly based on an extensive and deeply rooted traditicn, for many of
the same basic designs and ornamental patterns are to be found in widely separate regions.
With some caution one can speak of two basic keyplate designs. In both of them the
pattern unfolds in four directions starting from the lock or handle and leading to a
42 square or cross form. The square design usually has dragon heads sprouting from the
 Wrought iron door handle furniture
from the Stave church at Rcinli (in
original fonn).

corners, with the body of a man with arms spread out, or an angel with wings
unfurled, between the two upper corners. Below and at the sides are diagonal interlac-
ing or foliate patterns. There are very fine examples of this design in some Valdres
churches (Reinli and Hedalen) and round the lock of a demolished Vestland church
now in the Historical Museum in Bergen. The latter has a cross in place of an angel. A
similarity of ornament between the Urnes and the Hopperstad churches is to be
observed, suggesting a definite unity of style, and also indicating that the different
elements of the carving were completed in advance and the design of the keyplates
then based on them.
In spite of its severity this ornament appears to greet one on entering. The meaning
is clear ; the human or angelic figure gives welcome, while the dragon heads to Jeft or
right flee from its outstretched arms. The hard material and primitive techniques
necessitated great simplification which makes the gesture naive but striking.
Where the basic form of the ornament is a symmetrical cross, the pattern rays out,
offering many possible variations. These patterns can be considered as stylistically
Gothic since the leaf and dart-like pattern is quite geometrical. So these mountings are
probably not as old as the others. 43
 Ring of door handle from the Stave
church at Tonjum in Sogn with the
runic inscription: Ave Maria gratia
plena / Dominus tecum / bcnedicta
tu in mulieribus / et be (nedictus).
44 Historical Museum, Bergen.
 Iron work on the south door of the
Stave church at Hopperstad in Sogn.
Circa 1150 (restored).
The winged snake figure descend-
ing from above and thrusting its
head through a disc appears here as
the Midgard Snake. It holds in its
jaws the ring handle formed of two
winged and intertwined dragons.
The round disc is held by seven
double-tailed snakes.

The door handle usually consisted of a ring, frequently in the form of a snake biting its
own tail. The door handle of the Hopperstad church in Sogn is said to represent the
Midgard Snake. It hangs on the door through which long ago children used to be
carried for their christening. On leaving the church afterwards the christening robe
used to be pulled through this ring, to give the child the protection and the strength of
iron on his path through life. 45
 MYTHOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
THE BATTLE WITH THE DRAGON
AND THE SAGA OF SIGURD

According to an ancient legend the temple at Delphi was built over the spot where
Apollo had overcome a dragon.
This principle is most important: the overcoming of evil is always a foundation for
the ascent to something higher. Without this basis-represented in mythology by the
conquered dragon-no ascent would be possible. The good cannot grow out of noth-
ing, but only by the conquest of evil. Spiritual economy is at work here. The dragon-
nature has to be transformed, not destroyed. The essential deed and virtue of man is to
transform the conquered dragon into the stones of a temple.
In mythological times gods and heroes walked before mankind. Their battles and
victories provided men with great ideals, and whole civilizations arose under their
influence. With changing times and forms of consciousness this also changed. Today
the gods have disappeared, the heroes have been killed, and we Jack their example. Yet
still each man may fee] called upon to battle with his dragon, taking up his spiritual
sword.
The northern Stave church is a significant monument for the transition from the
mythological attitude of soul, in which vision and feeling are concentrated on the
example of the heroes, and that of the present time, in which each man is dependent
on the strength of his own individuality. The Stave church reminds one of the con-
quered dragon in a way that hardly any other building does. Sigurd is the conqueror of
the dragon which greets us on the doorways. Among the subjects represented are
Sigurd piercing the dragon's heart with his sword, or listening to the language of the
birds, Regin forging the sword, and Gunnar in the snake-pit. Unfortunately all the
Stave churches whose portals are carved with these scenes, except the church at Uvdal,
have been demolished, so that the carvings can only be seen in museums.
But everyone who entered the churches had to face the dragon, the great serpent.
46 Even if it was only in passing and on the frontiers of his mind, he was affected by the
The Sigurd Saga as it appears on a
stone at Ra msundsbergct (Sweden).

picture of the dragon, or was shaken by a deep, not yet completely conscious self-
knowledge.
We keep coming across conceptions which originate in the Celtic and Germanic
pagan wo rld. How are these themes related to medieval church dogma?
Many experts in Stave church research have encountered this question, but have
generally evaded it by saying that the myth of the dragon and the legend of Sigurd
could not really have meant anything to the builders, with their Christian faith ; and
that the old themes were carried over from ancient times through a continuity in the
style of ornamentation and the traditions of wood-carving; the beliefs themselves were
quite different at the time of building the Stave churches.
The crafts may well have continued in this way externally: but in their inner life the
people still lived in legends, moods and imagery belonging to the fading mythology.
Apart from the Stave church carvings, evidence of this is given in all the northern
medieval poetry known to us through folk-songs, fairy tales, legends and customs. A
little story from the eleventh century is typical: when a Skald was being christened,
and he was called upon to abjure the heathen gods, he was very reluctant, saying that
as a Skald he could not fulfil his task without the old gods.
We must not imagine that the people of the time experienced an irreconcilable
conflict between the old mythology, rooted in a condition of soul that was deeply
interwoven with nature, and the new experience communicated by the Christian ser-
vice. They grew into Christianity not through the teachings of the church but through
the effective fact of the holy ritual. At first they experienced this in a magical way.
The contents of belief were not important, even less a conscious understanding of the
service. What mattered was the event itself, and the feelings called forth by every
Mass. The Mass was held in little understood Latin, which did not assist intellectual 47
 Relief on a badly damaged plank
from the destroyed Stave church at
Mel in Tclemark. (Bygdi:iy Museum,
Oslo.) The otter skin decked with
gold is shown above. and below
(presumably) Regin in the smithy.

comprehension. It is hardly worth discussing whether this state of affairs can be seen
as Christianity experienced in a heathen way, or whether the legends, tales and semi-
mythological conceptions of the time should be considered as part of heathendom
illuminated by Christianity. The pagan world of Heroes, gradually sinking into the
twilight of the gods, went hand in hand for several centuries with a form of Christian-
ity not yet grasped intellectually. Sigurd the conqueror of the dragon and the Risen
Christ-both had their appropriate place in the Stave churches. It should be noticed,
u•here in the church the sign of the dragon, and the battle with him, appears; and
where we meet the specifically Christian symbols and pictures. The "heathen" pictures,
the dragon in particular, always appear on the exterior of the church, as already
described; in the interior, there are only occasional themes from the Dragon Myth or
the Sigurd Saga carved on chairs or benches. Otherwise the carvings, which are always
concentrated around the chancel, are taken from general Christian iconography.
Perhaps it is possible to suggest that the exterior of the church is related to the interior
in the same way as the Old Testament to the New Testament, but that here the Dragon
Myth and the Sigurd Saga take the place of the Old Testament.
Is this surprising?
We can picture the situation at the time of the Christianization of the North.
Christianity could not here link on to an ancient Hebrew tradition, to father Abraham
or the visions of the Prophets. Nor could anyone do as St. Paul did when he stood
with the high priest Dionysius before the altar of the "Unknown God" on the Areo-
pagus in Athens; there was no Orpheus in the North and no Osiris, who could have
been described as forerunners. In the North the only possible link was with the
so-called "Germanic Apocalypse", the downfall of the old gods and heroes. The
Sigurd legend tells of this downfall, the dark shadow that fell on human destiny
48 following the twilight of the gods. It describes in deeply moving terms the way in