Y Basic Photographic Circuits Servo Exposure-Control Systems A SERVO EXPOSURE-METER ASSEMBLY 6 By Larry Lyells In responding to our recent Craftsman survey, many of you asked for some basics on photographic electronics. One reader stated, “We're not all experts -give us some basic information.” But where's @ good place to start? The ‘growing scope of photographic elec- tronics offers many possibilities. However, the servo circuit may provide as 900d a starting point as any. Both stil cameras. and movie cameras often use ‘Servo exposure-control_ systems. Plus, ‘you'll see the decision-making portion of the servo system in other types of photographic circuits. WHERE YOU'LL FIND THE SERVO. Cameras having small lens. apertures (movie cameras, cartridge-toad cameras, etc.) often use a moving-vane system to ‘automatically control the f/stop. In some, 2 conventional glavanometer carties the vanes. But many moving-vane systems replace the galvanometer with @ servo motor. The servo motors tiny DC motor ~as small as the galvanometer. Unlike other DC motors, the servo motor has multiple coils wound in different directions. One of the armature coils serves to open the vanes. Another coil serves to close the A contol circuit decides which coil t use. If the light conditions call for a smaller f/stop, the control circuit sends current through the motor's closing coil. The armature of the servo motor then ‘turns in the direction that moves the ‘vanes closer together. To provide a larger {/stop, the control circuit sends current through the opening coil. And the ar- ‘mature turns in the opposite direction to ‘open the vanes. ‘This decision-making circuitry must be fairly sophisticated. It's more complex than are the circuits required for conven- tional moving-vane systems. However, the servo exposure-control system has advantages ~ so many advantages that ‘even inexpensive cameras often use the What advantages? For one, the servo ‘motor is more rugged than is ‘he conven: tional galvanometer. That's because the servo motor doesn't use a delicate hhairspring or fragile pivots, the weak points in a galvanometer system. Also, the servo provides a lightning- {fast response time. It quickly detects a change in light level and makes a fast cor- rection. The servo motor rapidly drives the vanes to the proper f/stop position. ‘An electronic “brake” then stops the vanes, preventing them from over- shooting the needed aperture size, TheCameraCraftsmanBy contrast, a galvanometer lacks the electronic brake. If the galvanometer ‘moves the vanes quickly, the vanes gather so much momentum that they overshoot the proper f/stop. A galvanometer system may minimize this overshoot by moving the vanes more slowly. But it then sacrifices the quick response. BASICS OF A SERVO MECHANISM ‘The term “servo mechanism” means a “machine that serves.” The servo ‘mechanism is, in a way, capable of “thinking.” But it can only make deci sions about the job i's assigned to per form. In essence, a servo mechanism takes an order and carries out that order. In an exposure-meter system, the order is 10 set the proper diaphragm opening. Carry: jing out the order means the servo mechanism must first think’; the servo mechanism must determine the dif ference between the aperture now set and the aperture which should be set for the proper exposure. The servo ‘mechanism must then perform ~ it must cchange the aperture currently being pro- ‘grammed to the aperture that should be ‘programmed. A breakdown of the required jobs defines a servo mechanism. The servo mechanism must: ‘@ accept an order which defines the desired result (set the right f/stop for ‘the proper exposure) © evaluate the existing conditions (how much light is coming through the lens and what f/stop is now set. ‘ecompare the desired result with the ‘existing conditions (compare the {stop now being programmed with the f/stop that’s needed). The result of this calculation is the difference signal, or the “er- ror” signal. The error signal defines the difference between the present f/stop and the needed stop. ‘issue a correcting order based on the error signal (change the f/stop being delivered to the f/stop needed for proper exposure). We can now put all servo mechanisms into a block diagram, Fig. 1. This ‘mechanism will perform all the tasks just listed, the capabilities required of any ser- ‘vo mechanism. The input isthe power source. Any ser- vo mechanism requires power to do the job, whether that power is mechanical or electrical. The power source feeds the et- ror detector. And the error detector deter- ‘mines the difference between the existing conditions and the desired conditions. Now the error detector has a difference signal - the difference between the actual conditions and the desired conditions. It feeds the difference signal to the con: troller. The controller then operates the load; it controls the load to match the ex: isting conditions with the desired condi- tions. Since the servo mechanism must know ‘when the load (the diaphragm) has reach: fd the desired conditions, it also needs some feedback. The feedback system detects the conditions of the load. It then ‘sends ths information to the error detec: tor. The servo mechanism now knows when the load has reached the proper condition, Let's now change our basic servo mechanism to a specific servo mechanism — one that can control the diaphragm opening, Fig. 2 For an input, well use a battery. The battery powers both the servo motor and the error detector. In an exposure-meter system, the error detector normaly con: sists of a voltage divider. One log of the voltage divider contains the CdS photocell Fig. 3. The power-supply voltage divides be- ‘ween the CdS cell and the fixed resistor ‘according to the light conditions. The brighter the light, the lower the resistance of the CdS cell - and, as a result, the ‘greater the voltage drop across the fixed tesistor. The error signal now appears at point "A," Fig. 3. ‘A servo amplifier amplifies the error signal and then feeds the signal tothe ser- ‘vo motor. Working together, the servo amplifier and the servo motor make up the controller. The controller drives the load (the diaphragm vanes) to the proper opening, That covers everything except the feedback. The feedback may be as simple {as another pair of vanes over the CdS cell. These vanes, also controlled by the ‘servo motor, move with the diaphragm vanes. In fact, the photocell opening and ‘the diaphragm opening are normally formed in the same pair of vanes. As the diaphragm opening stops down, the opening over the photocell also closes. Closing the vanes over the photocell increases the resistance. Why? Because the photocell sees less light. In ‘the same manner, increasing the size of the photocell opening decreases. the resistance. For example, consider again that you have a bright light condition. Because of the low CdS cell resistance, there's a large voltage drop across the fixed resistor, Fig. 3. A large positive error signal then appears at point “A. Figure Figure 3 Figure 2‘COMMON FEEDBACK com Figure 4 The error signal tells the servo ‘mechanism to stop down the diaphragm. ‘As the diaphragm closes, the feedback vanes over the CaS coll also close. Since the CdS call sees less light, its resistance Increasing the resistance of the CdS cell decreases the error signal; more voltage is dropped across the CaS cell land less is dropped across the fixed resistor CdS cell equals the voltage across the resistor. Now there's no error signal -- no dit ference between the two legs of the voltage divider. The servo mechanism knows that it has set the desired condi tion-- the right f/stop. ‘What if you have a through-the-lens metering system? Then, you don’t nen the feedback vanes over the photocell Since the CdS cell sees less light as the diaphragm closes, its resistance in creases. The same vane opening serves ‘both as the load and as the feedback Finally, the voltage across the ‘THE SERVO MOTOR When you're looking at @ schematic of 2 servo exposure-control system, you ‘normally won't see the standard symbol for @ motor. Rather, you'll see symbols for separate cols, Fig. 4. All the coils are in the servo motor; they're just separate windings. We've already discussed two of the colts - the opening coil and the closing coll. Current flows through the closing coil to close the diaphragm. The con: twoller must decide which coil to use, The third col is the feedback coil. The feedback coil has nothing to do with the feedback system we've been describing, Rather, the feedback coil provides the electronic: brake mentioned earlier; it revents a condition known as hunting.” “Hunting” means the vanes must search -- oF “hunt” ~ for the proper aper- ture. Consider that the vanes a Figure 5 closing. As the vanes close, they gather ‘momentum, That momentum causes the vanes to overshoot the correct aperture 10 clase beyond the desired diaphragm ‘opening, Now there's a new error signal. Since the new error signal tells the servo motor to turn in the opposite direction, the vanes open and again overshoot the desired aperture. The vanes continue moving back and forth -- in smaller and smaller increments -- until they finally set tle at the right opening ‘The feedback coil practically eliminates the hunting condition. As either the ‘opening coil ot the closing coll conducts, it develops an electromagnetic field. This field induces @ voltage in the feedback cc The voltage developed across the feed- back coil provides a feedback signal to the error amplifier. This feedback signal serves to reduce the amplifier's gain {As the servo mechanism starts setting the aperture, the high gain of the servo amplifier causes the vanes to move quick- ly. However, the feedback coil reduces the gain as the vanes near the proper aperture. In effect, the feedback coil ap plies an electromagnetic brake to prevent the vanes from overshooting the correct fistop. ‘A COMPLETE SERVO-CONTROL EX- POSURE METER ‘As mentioned earlier, even inexpensive ‘cameras often use the sophisticated servo ‘exposure-control system. The Kodak XL 320, Fig. 5, provides @ good example. With the exception of the servo circuit, there's practically nothing to the schematic, Fig. 6 ‘The one conventional motor symbol in dicates the transport motor, Fig. 6. You ‘can identify the servo motor by the three coils - Li, L2, and L3. Four transistors in the exposure-meter Circuit provide the amplification of the er- ‘signal. Two of the transistors, Q1 and 04, sorve as driver transistors. The collec: tors of the driver transistors connect to the coils of the servo motor. Q1 connects to the closing coil L1; Q4 connects to the ‘opening coil L2 ‘When Q1 turns on, it conducts current through the closing coil L1. The servo ‘motor armature then turns in the direction ‘that closes the vanes. To open the vanes, ‘wansistor 4 must turn on and conduct current through the opening coil L2. “The other two transistors, 2 and OS, are control transistors. Turning on Q2 supplies the base current which switches fon QI. In the same manner, turning on Q5 supplies the base current which switches on Q6. Working together, the four transistors make up the servo amplifier -- the system that detects and amplifies the error signal Coll 13, Fig. 6, provides the feedback signal which minimizes hunting Capacitor C2 couples the feedback voltage to the base of Q5, and capacitor C1 couples the feedback voltage to the bbase of 2. Consequently, the voltage developed across L3 controls the gain of both control transistors. Yet only one control transistor con- ducts at a time. Transistors Q2 and OS are hooked as a differential amplifier. When fone transistor conducts, it shuts off the fother transistor. Why? Because both transistors share the same emitter resistor resistor R3, Consider that transistor 02 is now con- ducting. The emitter current of 02 flows through resistor R3, causing @ voltage drop across the resistor as indicated in Fig. 7. The voltage drop across R3 reverse biases transistor QS. Notice the polarity of the voltage across R3; the positive voltage at the upper end of R3 connects ‘to the emitter of the NPN transistor. But the OS base already has a forward bias provided by the voltage drop across resistor RB, The base-emitter bias of QS is then the difference between two voltage drops ~ the voltage drop across R3 andthe voltage drop across R6. For example, say that RE drops 2.5 volts and emitter resistor R3 drops 2 volts. (5 then has a forward bias of 2.5 — 2 0.50 volt. That's too low a forward bias to turn on the transistor. So the emitter cu rent of 02 now holds QS turned off The forward bias for wansistor 2 comes from a variable source -- the error detector consisting of variable resistor R1 and the CdS cell, Fig. 6. Notice that the CAS cell and R1 form a voltage divider ‘across the battery. Part of the battery voltage appears across the CdS cell; the rest appears across RI. The difference between these two voltage drops is the error signal applied to the base of 02. Q2 turns on when the light striking the photocell increases. With a high light level, the resistance of the CdS cell decreases. Consequently, there's a large voltage drop across R1. The R1 voltage drop forward biases transistor Q2. 2 then turns on, conducting current through the emitter resistor R3. and through the base-emitter junction of Qt Transistor Q1 now conducts current through the closing coil of the servo motor. And the servo motor turns in the irection that closes the diaphragm Closing the diaphragm vanes also closes the aperture over the photocell. As the resistance of the photocel increases, less voltage appears across RI. The decreasing voltage lowers the forward bias applied to transistor O2. The current flowing through resistor R3 decreases as the Q2 forward bias decreases. Finally, when the vanes reach the proper aperture, Q2 switches off Shutting off 2 also turns off Q1 to stop the closing-coil current. Under a low-light condition, Q2 re mains shut off there's not enough voltage across R1 to turn on the tran- sistor. Since 2 isn’t conducting current ‘through 3, transistor Q5 turns on. QS then sends current through the base: emitter junction of transistor O4, In turn, (Q4 conducts current through the opening coll 12 Notice that transistors Q1 and Q2 form ‘Darlington pair. Transistors Q4 and O5 provide another Darlington pair. Thanks to the high gain of a Darlington pai, the servo amplifier makes quick corrections to the vane positions ‘Also notice that you have an adjust ‘ment on one of the inputs to the differen: tial amplifier you can change the resistance of Ri, Fig. 6. Kodak, 3s usual, provides an easy access to the exposure meter adjustment. Remove the plastic baseplate and the cartridge-compartment door by taking out the three screws: Figure 6 Figure 7 LASTIC BASEPLATE SCREWS.Figure 9 Figure 17 shown in Fig. 8. One caution the loose tripod socket, Fig. 9. Now, swing up and lft off the tigger: side decorator plate, Fig. 9. That un covers the clearance slot in the trigger: side housing, Fig. 10. The clearance slot allows you to reach variable resistor R1 without further disassembly The easily accessible adjustment becomes especialy valuable after you've ‘made a repair. You can then reassemble the camera before setting up the adjust ‘ment. Repairing the exposure-meter ‘assembly may be the most common job in ‘any movie camera. So well go through the troubleshooting steps for the circuit ‘shown in Fig. 6; the procedures relate to other servo exposure-control systems. watch for TROUBLESHOOTING THE SERVO EXPOSURE-CONTROL SYSTEM Fig. 11 shows the switches in the Kodak XL 320 after removing the motor-side housing, The servo amplifier components are on a circuit board mounted to the other side of the camera, Fig. 12. The switch-contro! slide, Fig. 11, closes switch S3 as you depress the trigger. Switch S3 makes contact to Figure 12 point "8," Fig. 6, before contacting point “A.” The servo system then gets operating power before the transport motor starts running. And the servo motor sets the proper diaphragm opening according to the light conditions. ‘You can see the edge of the servo motor in Fig. 13. The lucite light pipe visible in Fig. 13 carties the light from the photocell/viewfinder window to the CdS cell. You can also see the moving vanes, Fig. 13. But to service the vanes, you'll have to remove the front-plate assembly Take out the three front-plate ‘screws shown in Fig. 14. Also remove the two black screws (only one shows in Fig. 14). The black screws hold the servo mechanism plate to the front-plate assembly. Now, lift off the front-plate assembly to uncover the diaphragm vanes, Fig. 16. Two pins on the armature of the servo motor fit through slots in the diaphragm vanes -- one pin for each vane. As the servo armature turns counterclockwise, it closes the vanes. Fig. 16. Notice that the vanes form two openings -- one over the photocell and one over the lens. In any moving-vane system -- in- cluding the servo system -- the vanes ‘must move freely. Dirt on the vanes ‘can quickly freeze the action. To test the freedom of the vanes, turn one of the servo armature pins with your tweezers. The armature should tum very freely. If the vanes are sticking, you'll feel the resistance. What if the vanes are sticking? Some technicians clean the vanes without further disassembly; other technicians find they can do the job ‘more easily after removing the vanes. To remove the vanes, lift off the vane retainer, Fig. 16. But be careful — the vane retainer fits tightly over the vane pivot post. Disconnecting the lower ends of the vanes requires even more care. The slots in the vanes fit Within the armature-pin grooves, Fig. 15. You must slightly flex the vanes to disconnect them from the servo ‘motor. Fortunately, the other slots in the vanes (the ‘slots that fit over the mechanism-plate post, Fig. 16) have ‘enlarged ends. Once you disconnect ‘the vanes from the armature pins,move the top vane until the enlarged fend of its slot is above the rmechanism-plate post. You can then lift off the vane. Follow the same pro: Cedure to remove the lower vane. CHECKING THE SERVO MOTOR You can make most of the troubleshooting tests without further disassembly. However, you'll probably ‘want to lift aside the serve mechanism, ‘You can then reach the component con nections and the servo-motor test points. Just remove the two screws holding the servo circuit board. Then, lift aside the servo-motor assembly and the flex strip, Fig. 17. A loose paper insulator in- sulates the underside of the circuit board from the camera body. If you want to completely remove the servo mechanism, unsolder the black wire from the transport-motor terminal, Fig, 11. Then, unsolder the red motor wire from the flex circuit. Remove the screw holding the switch assembly, Fig. 11, and ‘separate the servo mechanism from the ‘camera body. Since the servo mechanism remains in tact, you can test the operation using a ‘6-volt power supply. Connect the positive power-supply lead to the red-wire contact fon the flex circuit, Fig. 11 (the contact from which you unsoldered the red motor wire). Hook the negative power-supply lead directly to the blade of switch S38, Fig. 11. The diaphragm vanes should either open ot close, depending on the ‘amount of light striking the photocell ° PHOTOCELL LEADS Movin VANES Figure 14 Figure 15 BACK OF SERVO MECHANISM. Figure 16 Jutv/Avaust1978 Figure 17 2Figure 18 ‘What ifthe vanes don't operate? If the vanes won't move in either direction, your first suspects should be the vanes themselves. Remember to check the vanes for free movement. If the vanes won't move in one of the two directions, you could have an open winding in the servo motor. One way to test the servo motor is to measure the resistance of the individual windings. Fig. 17 shows the connections at the back of the servo motor. Between the opening- coil connection and the ground connec- tion, you should read a resistance of 130, -140 ohms. You should read around the same resistance between the closing-coll con: nection and ground. Across the feedback coil, you should read close to 7.4 K. However, there's another technique ‘you might find to be faster and easier Just touch the power-supply leads direct- ly tothe coil leads. For example, consider that the vanes won't stop down and you suspect an open in the closing coil. Set the power supply to around 2 volts. Then, touch the negative lead to the ground connection, Fig. 17. And touch the positive lead to the closing-coll connec- tion, Since you're now running current directly through the col, the vanes should ssnap to the closed position. Make the ‘same test with opening coll -- simply move the positive power-supply lead to the opening-coil connection. The diaphragm vanes should then open. If you find a bad coil, you must replace the complete servo motor. Remove the two diaphragm vanes. Then, use soldering wick to remove the solder from the servo-motor connections, Fig, 17. You can now take out the servo motor by removing the two screws shown in Fig. 18. Figure 19 CHECKING THE SERVO AMPLIFIER Let's now say that the servo motor cchecks properly when you're supplying power directly to the contacts. Yet it fl 10 operate when you're supplying power to the flex circuit. That indicates @ prob- Jem in the servo amplifier, Fig. 6. For example, suppose the vanes always ‘lose to the smallest aperture. One possibilty would be a short across the CdS cell. The servo system then thinks its in a bright-light condition Or you could have poor contact in the variable resistor RI. An open across RI ‘would keep transistor Q2 switched on, ‘operating in saturation. Other possibilities are less likely. But you could have a bad transistor, a bad resistor, or a bad capacitor. You can check the transistors using @ shorting technique. While supplying power to the Circuit, try shorting between the collector ‘and emitter of Q2, Fig. 19. ‘The vanes should close. Why? Because shorting across the control transistor 02 should turn on the driver transistor Q1. Similarly, shorting the OS emitter and col- lector should turn on Q4 to open the shorting across the control tran- sistors results in proper vane movement, TheCameraCratsmanyou know the driver transistors must be ‘good. The problem could then be a collector-to-emitter open or a base-to- emitter short in the control transistor. If shorting across the control transistor doesn't cause the proper vane move: ‘ment, the problem could be an emitter-to- collector open or a base-to-emitter short in the driver transistor. In the Kodak servo systems, the two driver transistors are carefully matched. Each is color-coded with a yellow, blue, ‘green, oF red dot. Kodak recommends that you replace @ driver transistor with ‘one having the same color code. You can ‘specify the color code when ordering the replacement transistor. SUMMARY OF SERVO TROUBLESHOOTING STEPS: The sequence for troubleshooting a ‘servo system is about the same as that for conventional moving-vane system. Here are the normal steps: 1. check to see that the servo system is getting power 2. check the freedom of the diaphragm vanes 3. check the servo motor 4. check the servo amplifier Quite often your troubleshooting doesn't even have to be this extensive ‘Many cameras use an integrated circuit for the servo amplifier. In some designs, a ‘malfunction in either the servo motor or the servo amplifier requires that you replace the complete exposure-meter assembly, Fig. 20. If that’s the case, you need only make two tests: check to see if the servo is get: ting power and check for the freedom of the vane moverent. If you're getting power to the servo motor and if the vanes ‘move freely, ether the servo motor or the servo amplifier could be at fault. But it doesn’t mattor which isto blame -- not if ‘you have to replace the whole assembly anyway. For example, consider the Bell & Howell system shown in Fig. 21. The IC shown here is the voltage regulator which supplies @ constant voltage to the servo amplifier IC, Fig. 20. Test the voltage-regulator IC by ‘measuring the voltages to the pins. Par tially depress the camera's trigger. You should then measure the full transport supply voltage at pin 2 (9 volts in this camera). And you should measure the regulated voltage ~- around 3.9 volts at pin 3. The red wire connected to pin 3 of the voltage regulator carries the regulated voltage to the servo amplifier. If you're getting the 9-volt input be- tween pin 2 and ground ~ but not the 43.,9-volt output between pin 3 and ground July/August 1978 vanes Figure 20 Figure 21 you evidently have a defective voltage regulator. And if you are getting the regulated 3,9-volt output? Then, the prob: lem is in the servo amplifier or in the ser vo motor. You could isolate the defective ‘component by using the troubleshooting steps outlined earlier. But if the replace ‘ment parts come as a complete assembly, it doesn’t really matter which component is at faut. A servo mechanism using discrete ‘components, though, may not be so easy to troubleshoot. You must normally pin point the problem. Here's where it’s im portant to understand the differential amplifier. Besides being the heart of the servo system, the differential amplifier has many more applications in photo ‘graphic equipment. [~~ tenon ron WHAT'S NEXT? We'll next take @ look at_memory circuit systems in electronic SLR's. Many ‘automatic SLR’s are now going to digital memory systems (for example, the Canon AE -1 covered in a recent series of Craft. ‘sman articles). But the majority of elec tronically controlled SLR’s still use the memory capacitor for memorizing ex posure data, The memory-capacitor system does have some drawbacks. For one, the memory capacitor doesn't have the life ‘expectency of a digital system. Soit’s not tunusual to replace the memory capacitor. Also, the timing of the memory sequence {is critical. Our next topic will cover the testing and the switch-timing procedures. {or memory-capacitor systems,BASIC PHOTOGRAPHIC CIRCUITS ‘ SLR Memory Systems by Larry Lyells Figure 1 Jn outlast article on basie photographic circuits, Camera Craftsman July/August 1978, we discussed servo systems. Let's now look at the operation, trouble shooting, and adjustments in memory ci cuits. Automatic SLRs use memory ci cuits to memorize the exposure data before the mitror starts to rise. Then, feven though the mittor moves up and Part 2 blinds the photocells, the circuit remembers the exposure data. Most of the electronically controlled SLRs use capacitors to store exposure in formation. The memory-capacitor system teams quite readily with electronic ex posure control. Fig. 1 reviews the basic ‘operation of the electronic shutter. The holding current flows through the control circuit and through the electromagnet. AS long as the holding current continues to flow through the electromagnet coil, the shutter remains open. The timing capacitor must tell the control circuit when the film has reseived the right ‘amount of light. The charging current, Fig. 1, charges the timing capacitor at a rate which cor responds to the exposure variables. In Fig. 1, we've used a CdS cell to sense the light conditions. The resistance of the CdS cell changes according to the amount of light. For the other two variables — the film speed and the diaphragm opening — we've used a single variable resistor in Fig. 1. Setting ether the film speed or the The Camera Craftsmandiaphragm opening moves the slider of the variable resistor. You'l frequently see such a resistor referred to as a funetional resistor, Fig. 2. The functional resistor may also be abbreviated FRE — func: tional resistance element The resistance of the FRE combines with the resistance of the CdS cell to con: trol the charging current. A lower com bined resistance increases the charging current to charge the timing capacitor more quickly. Increasing the total resistance decreases the charging cur: rent. The tiniing capacitor then takes longer to reach the trigger voltage. The result? A slower shutter speed. In Fig. 1, the system works as long as the CdS cell can constantly monitor the light level. That's no problem with a rangefinder-type camera or with an SLR ‘which has external metering. But combin: ing automatic shutter-speed control with through-the-lens metering does present a problem. Why? As soon as the mittor in an SLR starts to rise, the photocell can no longer see the light passing through the lens. As Noverber/December 19792 result, the photocell in Fig. 1 would be blinded’ by the mirror. The photocell would then think you were shooting under @ very low light condition. For automatic operation, there must be some way to lock in the exposure data before the mirror starts to rise, The memory ‘capacitor provided the first — and stil the ‘most popular ~ system. CHARGING THE MEMORY CAPACITOR The memory circuit translates the light, conditions to @ charge on the memory capacitor, Fig. 2. When you close the ‘metering switch, Fig. 3, you're turning on the metering circuit. The metering circuit then relates the light level to @ current flow; the brighter the light, the larger the current Normally, the current flow is converted to voltage, A large current flow through the metering circuit becomes 2 larger voltage at the output of the current:to METERING Figure 3 CAPACITOR ay PHOTODIODE Figured 8 voltage converter, Fig. 3. The memory capacitor now charges to the same voltage. As long as the memory switch, Fig. 3, remains closed, the charge across the memory capacitor can continue to change. The voltage across the memory ‘capacitor always matches the voltage output of the metering circuit. However, when the mirror starts to rise, the voltage output of the metering circuit drops to OV. Yet the memory capacitor must retain its charge as a reference for the exposure calculation, So, just before the mirror starts to move, the memory switch opens, Fig. 3 ‘As a result, the memory capacitor re ‘mains at the voltage which corresponds 10 the light level. Some part of the mirror mechanism usually opens the memory ‘switch, When the mirror returns to the viewing position, the memory switch closes. Now the charge on the memory capacitor can once again change accord ing to the light conditions. Although we used a CdS cell for an earlier explanation, most of the modern ‘SLRs use silicon or gallium photodiodes, Fig. 4 shows how a photodiode can con twol the charge across a capacitor. Here, we've connected a silicon photodiode across the input terminals of an opera tional amplifier lop amp). By using an op amp, the charge across the capacitor changes ina very linear fashion with respect to the light The op amp in Fig. 4 seeks the condition where its two input terminals are at the same voltage. As the light level increases, the photodiode conducts more current. ‘And the voltage at the positive input of the ‘op amp increases. The op amp continues to draw current until the voltage at its positive input approaches the voltage at its negative (inverting) input. As the op amp draws current, it charges the capacitor. The voltage across ‘the capacitor then increases in proportion to the amount of charging current. A high light level results in a large charging cur- rent, As a result, there's a large voltage across the capacitor. USING THE MEMORY-CAPACITOR CHARGE Consider that the memory capacitor has charged to @ voltage which reflects the light conditions. And the memory ‘switch has opened to lock in that voltage. The voltage stored in the memory switch must now control the charging current in Fig. 1 — the current that charges the tim: ing capacitor. Fig. 5 shows one system for controlling the charging current according to the memorized voltage. Notice that the charging current flows through a tan sistor. The memory capacitor, Fig. §, establishes the transistor's forward bias Just before the mirror starts to rise, the ‘memory switch, Fig. 5, opens and locks the charge across the memory capacitor. “The mirror then moves to the taking posi- tion and releases the first curtain. Now the charging current starts flowing through the transistor, Fig. 5. ‘The transistor acts as a valve to control the charging current. To inerease the ‘To CONTROL CIRCUIT i 3 2 i i 5 3 Figure 5 The Camera Craftemen———} to conrrot cincurr Timinc CAPACITOR Figure 6 charging current, it's only necessary to in ‘crease the transistor’s forward bias — the voltage difference between the transistor's base and emitter. More cur rent then flows through the transistor to charge the timing capacitor more quickly. ‘As you've seen, the memory capacitor provides the forward bias. A brighter light level results in a larger voltage across the memory capacitor. As a result, the memory capacitor applies a greater for ward bias to the transistor. And the tran- sistor, by allowing a larger current flow, charges the timing capacitor quickly for a fast shutter speed Many of the memory-capacitor sys tems allow you to override the auto: matically controlled exposures and set the shutter speed you want. With the system shown in Fig. 5, it's relatively easy to add UGHT LeveL DIAPHRAGM Figure 8 ‘November/December 1979 Figure 7 a series of manually calibrated shutter speeds. Fig. 6 shows one method. In Fig. 6, we've added an auto-manual changeover switch controlled by the speed knob. When you set the speed knob to the “auto” position, the ‘changeover switch moves to the solid-line position, Fig. 6. The system then works ‘as previously described; the charge {across the memory capacitor controls the charging current forthe timing capacitor Setting a manually calibrated shutter speed moves the changeover switch to the dashed:line position, Fig. 6. The changeover switch now disconnects the memory-capacitor system. Instead, the shutter-speed resistor connects in series with the timing capacitor. As.a result, the resistance setting of the shutter-speed resistor controls the charging current. FEEDBACK. As is typical, the charge across the memory capacitor only affects the automatic exposures in Fig. 6. But some systems also use the memory-capacitor charge for the manually calibrated ex posures. Setting faster shutter speeds then increases the voltage stored in the memory capacitor. Fig. 7, the auto-manual changeover switch just decides whether the photo: diode or the variable resistor connects to the inverting input of the op amp. At the auto" setting, the current through the photodiode controls the output; the out But of the op amp then goes more positive fora larger light level. At the “manuat” set ting, the curtent flow through the variable resistor controls the output. Setting a faster shutter speed increases the current flow for a larger output ‘As yet, we haven't allowed a provision for setting different film speeds or diaphragm openings. Normally, both the film-speed control and. the diaphragm setting ring move the wipers of variable resistors. With some systems, the film- ‘speed and diaphragm settings affect the voltage across the memory capacitor. The memory-capacitor voltage then in creases for any condition that calls for a faster exposure — a faster flm speed, a larger diaphragm opening, or a brighter light level ‘The three variables may be fed to @ summing amplifier as shown in Fig. 8 When you close the power switch, the ‘summing amplifier adds the three inputs 9and provides a corresponding voltage at its output. Alternately, the fim-speed and diaphragm variables may control the gain ‘of an op amp by changing the feedback resistance. In Fig. 9, the memory circuit applies a voltage the “auto” terminal which cor: responds to the three variables. Again any condition which calls for a faster shutter speed makes the voltage at the ‘auto terminal more positive. With a more positive voltage, the timing capacitor charges more quickly. The circuit shown in Fig. 9 also allows You to select manually calibrated shutter speeds and bulb. Here, the manually calibrated shutter speeds don't affect the voltage across the memory capacitor. At ‘manual, the timing capacitor simply Figure ELECTROMAGNET PHoToceLis, MEMORY CAPACITOR g E 3 g 2 ‘comparator | |5 TIMING 2 CAPACITOR i = 5 3 8 2 2 g 3 é Figure 10 2» charges through the shutter-speed resistor. Setting a faster shutter speed decreases the resistance of the shutter ‘speed resistor for a faster charging time. ‘At bulb, the speed-knob switch moves clockwise to the bulb position, Fig. 9 Pushing the release button releases the mirror and opens the bulb switch. With the bulb switch open, the timing capacitor can't charge; it has no connec: tion to the positive side of the supply. As fa result, the shutter remains open until you let up the release button to close the bulb switch, With other systems, the film-speed and diaphragm settings may not affect the charge across the memory capacitor Both settings may simply control the charging current for the timing capacitor. SHUTTER SPEED RESISTOR In Fig, 10, for example, both the memory capacitor and the timing capacitor con: ect to inputs of @ comparator. The ‘charge on the memory capacitor provides the reference voltage at one input. But, in Fig. 10, the charge on the memory capa itor must decrease as the light level in- creases — just opposite to our earlier ex amples. A higher ight level then results in a lower reference voltage at the top com: pparator input The timing capacitor in Fig. 10 must charge until it equals the reference voltage. When the voltages at the two inputs are equal, the comparator switches. states The comparator output is normally high, keeping the wansistor turned on, However, when the timing capacitor reaches the roference voltage, the com parator output switches low. The low out put then turns off the transistor, Fig. 10, 10 stop the holding current Remember, with the system shown in Fig. 10 high light level couses the memory capacitor to apply alow reference voltage. AS a result, the timing capacitor ‘Quickly reaches the reference voltage and ‘switches off the holding current. The shut- ter then delivers a fast shutter speed to ‘compensate for the bright light. A low light level, though, causes the memory capacitor to charge to a relatively high voltage. The timing capacitor must also charge to a higher voltage before it can match the reference input. Since it takes longer for the timing capacitor to charge to a higher voltage, the shutter provides a slower shutter speed, ‘As you can soe, the memory capacitor determines how high a voltage the timing capacitor must reach. By contrast, the functional resistor in Fig. 10 sets the charg ing rate of the timing capacitor. If you in crease the resistance setting, the timing capacitor takes longer to reach the reference voltage. Any condition which calls for a slower shutter speed must then increase the resistance (a smaller dia- phragm opening or a slower film-speed setting) ‘TROUBLESHOOTING THE MEMORY.CAPACITOR SYSTEM There are two common troublespots in the systems we've discussed — the memory switch and the memory capa: citor. The memory switch, like any ‘switch, can get dirty. And the memory capacitor may develop leakage or an open as it ages. Consider first that the memory switch falls to make good contact. What's the symptom? That depends on the particular circuit, But we can use the circuit shown in Fig. 6 as a good representative. If the memory switch in Fig. 6 fails 10 make good contact, the memory capa: citor can't charge. The circuit then thinks You're shooting under a very low light Condition. in trying to make the necessary compensation, the shutter hangs open, Why? Well, with no voltage across the memory capacitor in Fig. 6, the transistor hhas OV forward bias. Consequently, the transistor can't conduct the charging cur rent for the timing capacitor. Since the timing capacitor doesn’t charge, it never reaches the trigger voltage which shuts off the control circuit ‘Yet the circuit would function correctly at the manually calibrated shutter speeds. In Fig. 6, the manually calibrated shutter speeds don't rely on the memory capa: itor. We can then establish a general rule {or the type of circuit shown in Fig. 6: If the shutter hangs open at the “auto” set: ting — but works properly at the manually calibrated shutter speeds — suspect a problem with the memory circuit. If the memory capacitor has an open or 2 short, you'll see the same symptom — ‘the shutter hangs open on the auto: matically controlled exposures. Notice in ‘The Camera CraftsmanFig. 6 that shorting across the memory capacitor also shorts across the base: emitter junction of the transistor. The short turns off the transistor, preventing the timing capacitor from charging ‘Again, the circuit thinks you're shooting under a very low light condition, A short across the timing capacitor, Fig. 6, also causes the shutter to hang open. But you can quickly determine which capacitor is at fault. A shorted tim: ing capacitor affects the manually cal brated shutter speeds as well as the auto ‘matically controlled exposures. So, if the shutter works properly at the manually calibrated shutter speeds, you know the timing capacitor can't be at fault. An open transistor, Fig. 6, causes the same problem as a shorted memory capa: itor or a defective memory switch. How fever, you can make the transistor your last suspect. Most circuits put such tran sistors inside ICs. W's far less likely to have a problem with the IC than it is 10 have a defective capacitor or switch, There's another common problem you can have with a switch — chattering, ‘Chattering” means that the switch fails te make firm contact. The switch then ‘chatters" open and shut. Chattering in the memory switch causes erratic x: osures, especially under high light levels. ‘You may also find that the memory switch closes properly when the shutter is. in the released position. But the memory switch opens slightly during the cocking cycle. The circuit then remembers the data it compiled before you cocked the shutter It’s easy to miss such a problem when you're testing the camera. Consider that You're holding the lens against the light source of the test equipment. You would normally hold the camera against the light source as you cock the shutter. The test then shows proper exposure. However, suppose that you hold the lens away from the light source as you ‘cock the shutter. You then place the lens ‘against the light source to test the expo: sure. The memory system remembers the light conditions it saw before you cocked the shutter. As a result, the test instrument shows that the camera isn’t delivering a proper exposure (probably too long an ex: posure, if you pointed down the camera as you cocked the shutter! Hore’s another possibilty — the memory switch fails to open. What hap: pens then? Since the memory switch re ‘mains closed, the charge across the ‘memory capacitor continues to change as the mirror rises. And, since the photocell sees less light, the memorized voltage proceeds to drop toward OV. Once again November/ December 1979 the circuit thinks you're shooting in the dark, and the shutter hangs open. ‘Again, the problems we've described only show up when you've set the camera to the automatic function; the manually calibrated shutter speeds work properly But, as mentioned earlier, some circuits ‘also use the memory capacitor for the manually calibrated shutter speeds. The Circuit shown in Fig. 7 provides an exam- ple. Here, a problem with the memory switch or the memory capacitor causes the same problem at the manually cal brated shutter speeds as it does at the automatically controlled exposures. Al though the circuit shown in Fig. 7 gets double mileage out of the memory sys tem, it takes away one of your trouble shooting clues. ‘The circuit shown in Fig. 10 provides yet another exception to our general rule Consider that the memory capacitor in Fig. 10 is shorted. Rather than hanging ‘open, the shutter then delivers no ex posure; both curtains cross the aperture together. In Fig. 10, the charge across the memory capacitor decreases as the light level increases. So, with no charge across the memory capacitor, both comparator inputs start at the same potential. The comparator then switches immediately, turning off the transistor. ‘Other parts of the memory circuit could cause problems similar to those we've described. In many cases, you should frst suspect poor brush contact in the func tional resistor. Depending on the circuit Figure 11 — Using @ voltmeter To check the memory capacitor in the Minolta XG-7. With most memory-capacitor systems, the voltage across the memory capacitor should increase as you increase the light level 2To METER READOUT. ‘To MEMORY CAPACITOR ‘vR2 Figure 12 — Use VAT to adjust the accuracy of the meter readout. Use VR2 to adjust the automatic exposures. Figure 13 Checking the fr speed resistor in the Pentax ME The film speed resistor and the diaphragm resistor connect in series. A problem with either resistor would then result in the same symptom. 2 design, an open functional resistor may cause the shutter to hang open. Or the shutter may deliver only the fastest shut ter speed (or no exposure at all But there's usualy @ handy troubleshoot: ing clue that helps isolate the functional resistor — in most circuits, the functional resistor also controls the meter readout Fig. 12 shows an example. Here, the func tional resistor provides the feedback for the ‘op amp. Changing the film-speed setting or the diaphragm setting moves a brush along the resistance element. The resistance set: ting controls the gain of the op amp by selecting the feedback Notice in Fig. 12 that the output of the ‘op amp drives two circuits — the meter readout and the memory. A malfunction in the functional resistor has the same ef fect on both circuits. In Fig. 12, an open functional resistor prevents the feedback signal from reaching the input. As a result, the op amp has a very high gain. The high gain of the op amp charges the memory capacitor to its maximum voltage. Because of the high voltage, the Circuit always thinks it's seeing a high light level. So, depending on the type of shutter, you get the fastest shutter speed (oF no exposure at all Since the meter readout also sees the high voltage, it indicates the fastest shutter speed. A galvanometer-type readout nor mally pegs the needle beyond the fastest With an LED: type readout, only the LED at the high: speed end of the scale turns on. Since the shutterspeed calibration. + teadout exhibits the same symptom ‘you know that the problem must be something that has th same effect on both circuits ‘A detective op amp or photodiode, Fig 12, could cause the same type of problem ‘as does the shutter ‘problem that would have the same effect on both the meter readout and the However, i's far more likely that you'll find the problem in the functional resistor. You can usually make ‘a quick test to determine whether the op amp or the functional resistor is causing the symptom ~ just use your tweezers 10 short across the functional resistor For example, consider in Fig. 12 that the meter readout shows the fastest ‘speed only. And you want to determine the op amp of the functional resistor. By short ing across the functional resistor, you're connecting the output of the op amp di rectly 10 the inverting input. AS a result, the op amp has no gain. So, if the func tional resistor is the problem, the meter readout goes to the opposite extreme, A ‘galvanometer-type readout pegs the nee: dle to the opposite end of the scale. With fan LED:type readout, only the LED at the which component is at fault The Camera Craftsmanother end of the scale will turn on. You then know that the functional resistor has poor contact or an open resistance element. What if the meter readout doesn’t change when you short across the functional resistor? Most likely, the op amp is defective ‘As an example, suppose that you're working on a Pentax ME in which only the top LED will turn on — the LED above the 1/1000-second calibration. And the shut: ter delivers only its fastest speed at the automatic setting. An open film-speed resistor could cause the symptoms. But 0 could a detective IC. To pinpoint the problem, try shorting between the leads which come from the film-speed resistor, Fig. 13. If the film speed resistor is the problem, the LED in dication moves to the bottom of the scale itindicates a slow shutter speed. Also, the shutter delivers the indicated shutter speed as long as you're maintaining the short. However, ifthe IC is the problem, your short across the flm-speed resistor normally has no effect. CHECKING THE SWITCHES IN THE MEMORY.CAPACITOR SYSTEM. You can trace many of the problems in ‘memory. capacitor systems to the switches. In most cameras, you have three separate switches to troubleshoot — the memory ‘switch, the power switch, and the metering ‘switch. We've already discussed the symp- toms which can result from a defective ‘memory switch. A problem with the metering switch may be relatively easy to isolate. Closing the metering switch turns on both the meter readout and the memory circuit. The memory capacitor then charges, and the meter readout indicates the shutter speed which the camera plans on delivering. ‘Some cameras use the wind lever to close the metering switch, Moving the wind lever to the standott position closes the metering switch to turn on the circuit. Other systems may put the metering switch under the release button. The metering switch then closes when you depress the release button part way. Quite often, the metering switch serves as the master switch forthe entire system. So, if the metering switch fails to make {good contact, nothing works electronical ly; the meter readout won't turn on and the shutter delivers a mechanical action. If the camera has a separate master switch, 3 problem with the metering switch causes 2 different set of functions. The meter read: ‘out still fais to turn on. But, since the memory capacitor can't charge, the shut ter normally hangs open. By contrast, a defective power switch usually has no effect on the meter November/December 1979 POWER Syne. POWER SWITCH Figure 14 iy MEMORY SWITCH. ‘Bottom of the Pentax ME miror cage. Notice that the memory switch i ‘open; this means the mirror isin the taking position. ELECTROMAGNET & Figure 1 readout. Many cameras place the power switch on the mirror cage — often next to the memory switch, Fig. 14. The mirror. ‘cage part that operates the memory switch may also operate the power switch. In most systems, the power ‘switch should close a few miliseconds after the memory switch opens. Closing the power switch connects the electromagnet to the circuit. It would be possible to use the metering switch for the same function. However, you'd then have to hold down the release button for the full duration of the exposure. The power switch maintains the holding cur ont — even if you allow the metering ‘switch to open. If the power switch fails to make good contact, the shutter de livers only its mechanical action. Yet everything else in the camera may func tion properly. ‘What ifthe power switch fails to open after the exposure? In most systems the camera would stil function properly However, the constantly closed power Switch would cause excessive battery drain ‘As a general rule, the power switch should open just before the mirror starts to rise and close when the mirror returns to the down position. But, depending on the circuit, the power switch may open (rather than close) as the mirror starts 10 rise. Fig. 16 shows an example of the ex: ception. Before the exposure, the power switch in Fig. 15 remains closed. The apower switch then shorts the base of the transistor to ground. Since the transistor ‘can’t turn on, there's no current through the electromagnet ‘Just before the miror starts to rise, the power switch in Fig. 15 opens. Opening the ‘power switch connects a positive voltage 10 the transistor’s base. The positive signal turns on the transistor, thereby connecting the electromagnet to the postive side ofthe ‘supply. Current flows through the elec: twomagnet as long as the speed: control cr cuit, Fig. 15, conducts. ‘You can usually check all thee switches the metering switch, the power switch, land the memory switch — after removing the camera's cover plates. The switches ‘may be buried inside the camera. However, wires from the switches often connect 10 the main circuit board. There's only one problem — identifying which wires go where, ‘CONNECT HOOK-UP LEVER THAT OPENS MeMony swircH Figure 16 : tows wren Figure 18 a Consider, for example, the Nixon FE in Fig. 2. Both the power switch and the memory switch are at the bottom of the ‘mirror cage. Yet you can check the ‘switches at the main circuit board. The ‘orange wire and the pink wire, Fig. 2, con rect to the power switch. To check the ower switch, unsolder one of the wires. Then connect an ohmmeter between the disconnected wire and the wire that re- ‘mains attached to the circuit board. The ohmmeter should show no continu ity. However, if you hold open the shutter ‘on bulb, the power switch should close and ‘your ohmmeter should show direct conti ruity. By allowing the diaphragm-closing lever to move down slowly, you can see ex actly when the power switch closes. Hold the diaphragm-closing lever and depress the release rod. Now, while watching the ohm. ‘meter, allow the diaphragm-clasing lever to move down slowly Figure 77 After the diaphragm-closing lever has moved a slight distance, you should feol a ‘mechanical contact; that's the diaphragm losing lever coming against the mirror lifting lever. The power switch should close — and your ohmmeter should show Continuity — just before you feo! the ‘mechanical engagement. It’s also possible to check the power switch by using a voltmeter. Then you don't have to connect either of the wires. Between the orange wire and ground, Fig. 2, you should measure +3V — the positive side of the supply — when you close the metering switch. However, you should measure OV to the pink wire. The (V reading tells you that the power switch is open. When the power switch closes, ‘you should measure 3V at the pink wire. You can use a similar technique 10 check the memory switch, This time hook your ohmmeter between the gray wire The Camera Craftsman{and ground, Fig. 2. Since the memory ‘switch should be closed, your ohmmeter should show direct continuity. Now, while holding the diaphragm-closing lever, push the release rod. As you allow the diaphragm-closing lever to move down slowly, watch the ohmmeter. The memory switch should open just before the diaphragm-closing lever comes against the mirror lifting lover. CHECKING SWITCH TIMING The power switch in the Nikon FE should close slightly after the memory ‘switch opens. Some manufacturers specify the time lag between the switch actions. For example, the switches in the Pentax ME work almost exacty ike those in the Nikon FE. But Pentax specifies the time lag between the two switch actions the power switch should close 10ms after the memory switch opens. As another example, the release button in'the Minolta XD-11 closes the release ‘switch, The release switch then activates an electromagnetic circuit to release the mirror. When the electromagnetic circuit {90es into action, it operates the power switch, Now the mitror stars to rise. A lever on the side of the mirror cage then opens the memory switch, Fig. 16. Minolta specifies ‘that there should be a 58ms time lag be tween the closing of the release switch and the opening of the memory switch, ‘An error in the switch timing could cause incorrect exposures at the automatic function To measure the time lag, you must nor mally measure the time between two voltage signals — one voltage when both switches are open and another voltage when one of the two switches is closed Fig. 17 illustrates the principle in the Minolta XD-11. Here, we've connected a voltmeter between the two switches, Also, we've shorted across the memory capacitor. The shorting wire in Fig. 17 keeps the negative voltmeter lead at ground potential as long as the memory switch remains closed The voltmeter now shows @ positive voltage of around 2.5V. Since the release ‘switch is open, the positive voltmeter lead ‘0s the circuit voltage. The graph in Fig 17 indicates the positive 2.5V reading, When you close the release switch, the positive voltmeter lead connects to ‘ground, Fig. 18. The voltage measured between the switches then drops to OV; there's no difference in potential between the two voltmeter leads. Actually, if it weren't for the shorting wire across the ‘memory capacitor, you'd read @ negative voltage. The negative voltmeter lead November/December 1979 would see a positive voltage at the top of the memory capacitor. The voltage does go negative when the memory switch opens, Fig. 19. Opening the memory switch disconnects the negative voltmeter lead from ground. Now the negative voltmeter lead sees a positive voltage — the same voltage as detected in Fig. 17 but of apposite polar ty. As you can see in the graph, Fig. 19, the voltage goes to minus 2.5V. To find the time lag between the two ‘switching actions, measure the line in: dicated in Fig. 19 — the length of time that the voltmeter reading remains at OV. Unfortunately, you can’t measure this time by using a voltmeter. You need an instrument that plots voltage against time — an oscilloscope. Connecting an oscilloscope in place of the voltmeter gives you a picture of the switching action. I's then possible 10 measure the length of time that the voltage remains at OV. To check the time ‘MEMORY CAPACITOR Figure 20, lag, you might first solder a wire to the memory switch, Fig. 16. Solder another wire to the release-switch connection, Fig, 20. You can then clip the oscil loscope probe to the hook-up wires {rather than trying to hold the probe in place as you're making @ measurement) Also connect a shorting wire across the memory capacitor, Fig. 20. Before connecting the vertical input of the scope to your hook-up wites, position the trace on the center horizontal line of the grid. Now connect the probe to the hook-up wire you soldered to the release ‘switch contact; connect the ground lead of the scope to the hook-up wire attached to the memory switch, Fig. 21. With the scope set to “auto,” you should see the trace rise above the center grid line — a distance that corresponds to 2.5V. Depressing the release button should ‘cause the trace to drop to the center line. When the memory switch opens, the trace should drop around 2.8V below the ‘ORANGE WiRE To Retease Switcn GROUND CONNECTIONACCESS HOLE FOR CytiNDER PLUG Figure 22 Figure 23 centerline as shown in Fig. 19. To get the two switching actions on the scope, set the speed knob to the "X” setting; at the ‘X” setting, the short across the memory capacitor won't cause the shutter to hang ‘open. Set the scope to trigger with an ex ternal DC pulse. Now release the shutter. You should {get 2 race that resembles the graph in Fig. 19. The length of time that the trace remains on the 0 tine tes you the time lag, However, unless you have @ memory scope, you'll probably have to operate the shutter several times to make an accurate The principle of measuring the time lag remains pretty much the same in the dif ferent -memory-capacitor SLRS. fever, the actual connection points and How specifications vary. In many cameras, you ‘must reform switch contacts to change the time lag. But Minolta provides a con venient adjustment in the XO-11. An aie damping piston, Fig. 22, retards. the movement of the lever which opens the memory switch. You can change the amount of damping action by turning the weaded cylinder plug, Fig. 23. Nikon also provides a convenient adjustment a setscrew which positions the memory switch. Remove the lens: mounting ring CONCLUSIONS ON MEMORY-CAPACITOR SYSTEMS Most of the SLRs use memory circuits very similar to the ones we've discussed. The majority of your re pairs on these systems switches — cleaning, reforming, ad lusting. To avoid the problems conven: tional switches can cause, a circuit can se a transistor for the memory switch We described a transistor memary switch when discussing the Minolta XG-7 in an earlier Craftsman article, involve the The Minolta XG design also replaces the conventional power switch with an electronic holding citcuit. When the elec tromagnetic release system triggers the mirror, it turns on the holding circuit to maintain the electromagnet current. ‘A few SLRs have even scrapped the memory capacitor. For example, Canon replaced the memory capacitor with a digital register. And Olympus eliminated the need for any type of memory system by metering the light level after the mieror has moved to the taking position However, at least for the present. digital ‘memories and continuous metering sys toms remain the exceptions. The memory capacitor stil reigns as the most widely used method for memorizing the ex posure data The Camera CratsmanPart 3 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHIC ciRcUITS — 1 The computer age of cameras has efinitely arrived. More and more manufacturers are introducing models with digital control circuitry. Canon deserves credit for initiating the electronics update with the digital memory system in the AE-1. A follow-up Canon model — the Ac} — goes a step further with both digital timing and memory circuits Of all the competitors, though, Contax. seems to be getting the most advertising mileage from the digital concept. Promo- tions for the Contax 139 Quartz point to the use of CMOS logic and a quartz crystal timing circuit as evidence of superior accuracy. Digital circuits for measuring time inte. vals use square-wave oscillators “clocks” — to supply precisely timed out put pulses. For example, the Contax clock supplies the pulses at a frequency of 32,768 Hertz (cycles per second). A 1-second exposure then requires that the shutter stay open for 32,768 pulses. To provide @ shutter speed of 1/8 second, the shutter stays open for 32,768 x 0.125 second = 4096 pulses. In a digital memory system, the clock starts supplying pulses before the mitror fises. The clock feeds a digital counter which counts the pulses. When the 4 BASIC PHOTOGRAPHIC ‘counter reaches a count which cor responds to the exposure conditions, it shuts off the clock Digital counters then replace capacitors in conventional photographic circuits — the timing capacitor in the timing circuit ‘and the memory capacitor in the memory circuit. Like a capacitor, the digital Counter can store a value. But it stores @ digital count rather than a voltage value. From this, you can see one of the basic ifferences between analog systems and digital systems. An analog system ‘measures a voltage or current — such as the voltage across the memory capacitor. By contrast, the digital system counts pulses, So, whereas the analog citcuit ‘measures, the digital circuit counts. Yet digital concepts aren't really new to photographic circuits. Even the earliest electronic shutters rely on the digital prin. ciple. Most camera repair technicians just don’t associate the systems they've been repairing with digital electronics. The digital concept involves systems which switch on and off rather than vary ing continuously. A digital component has only two states — on and off. An electronic shutter applies the digital con: cept to control the flow of current through an electromagnet, Fig. 1 When the transistor in Fig. 1 turns on, it sends through the elec: tromagnet to hold open the shutter. The CIRCUITS by Lary Lyels transistor switches off to end the ex posure, Since the transistor in Fig. 1 has only two states — on and off — it Qualifies as a digital device. ‘The switching transistor provides the key component in electronic shutters. But italso forms the backbone of digital elec: tronics. Practically all of the complex pulsing and counting functions revolve ‘around the transistor switch, ‘THE SWITCHING TRANSISTOR By replacing the electromagnet coil in Fig. 1 with a resistor, Fig. 2, you have the most fundamental ofall active circuits in digital electronics — the inverter. The in verter is just @ common-emiter amplifier ELECTROMAGNET: Figure 1 The Camera Craftsmanstage. As the name implies, the inverter invents any input signal. A more-positive signal atthe base results in a less-positive signal atthe collector. Let's say that the circuit in Fig. 2 works with the voltages of +3V and OV (ground). i you apply the OV signal to the base, the transistor tums off. Why? Because the NPN transistor used in Fig. 2 reeds a positive base dive before it wil Conduct. The OV input makes the base the same potential as the emitter. So, with no forward bias, the transistor turns off. With the transistor turned off, no cur rent flows through the resistor. AS @ result, the entire battery voltage appears across the transistor. The output appears between the collector and ground — 3V. Here, the inverter has changed a OV input signal to @ 3V output signal Next suppose that you apply a 3V signal tothe input, Fig. 2. The positive in- put signal forward biases the base-emitter junction and turns on the transistor. Most digital circuits use @ large base current which drives the transistor into satura- tion. When the transistor saturates, it drops very little voltage Practically all of the battery volage ‘now appears across the collector resistor. You would then measure close to OV be tween the collector and ground. The in. verter has just changed the 3V input signal to a OV output signal Figure? ‘SPEED-UP ‘CAPACITOR Figures ‘March/April 1980 ‘Although we've used 3V and OV in this ‘example, a digital circuit can work with ‘almost any two voltages. Normally, ‘though, digital circuits use OV — ground — 28 one of the two voltage levels. Using ground as one signal level generally ‘makes the circuit easier to design. The Circuitin Fig. 2 achieves the ground signal by driving the transistor into saturation. If ‘the transistor doesn't saturate (conduct as hard as it can), its collector signal will be a higher voltage — somewhere be- ‘tween ground and the positive side of the supply. Driving the transistor as hard as it can {90 has a couple of advantages. For one, the collector voltage drops close to OV. Also, the large base current which drives the transistor into saturation provides an ‘extremely fast turn-on time. That i, the transistor switches very quickly from its off state to its on state. Unfortunately, the turn-off time suffers when the transistor saturates. A saturated tansistor takes longer to turn off than does a nonsaturated transistor. Ideally, the transistor should switch off the moment you remove the base drive. However, with a saturated transistor, the current continues to flow for a spit sec: ‘ond. I's possible to obtain higher switch. ing speeds by using a smaller base drive, fa base current that won't drive the tran sistor into saturation. ‘Some of the high-speed switching cir cuits do use nonsaturated transistors But, to obtain higher switching speeds while stil driving the transistors into saturation, designers have other tricks up their sleeves. Fig. 3 shows one technique {or speeding up the switching actions — ‘2 speed-up capacitor connected across the base resistor. When the base current first starts to flow, the uncharged capacitor acts as a short. The short bypasses the base resistor, allowing @ large base current to quickly turn on the transistor. After the capacitor charges, the base resistor limits the base current tothe level ‘which maintains saturation, Fig. 4. Then, when the circuit removes the base drive, the capacitor discharges. The reverse cur rent indicated in Fig. 4 reverse biases the base-emitter junction to quickly turn off the transistor. ‘The inverter circuit has @ role in just about every digital circuit. As 2 buffer ‘amplifier, the inverter provides isolation between stages, Fig. 5. The square-wave signal, after being processed by several stages, tends to lose those sharp corners. Rounded corners on the square wave cause problems — the digital circuit may have trouble distinguishing between the two levels. However, the buffer amplifier tends to restore the sharp corners be- tween stages. Fig. 6 shows another application of the switching transistor in an inverter circuit = wave-shaping. A digital circuit relies fon square-wave or rectangular-wave signals, Fig. 5. But it's much easier 10 ‘generate @ sine wave. A switching tran- sistor can shape the sine wave into a square wave. In Fig. 6, we're applying @ sine wave to the input ofthe inverter. As the sine wave goes positive, it forward biases the tran- Sisto. A large sine wave can quickly drive the transistor into saturation When the transistor saturates, it can’t ‘conduct any more current. So, even though the sine wave continues to swing in positive direction, the output at the collector remains at the same level — OV in Fig. 6. The sine wave then swings in the negative direction and turns off the transistor. When the transistor switches off, the collector voltage changes to 3V. Figure Base current with speedup capacitor : : ee [1 Figure 6‘A square wave now appears between the collector and ground, The square wave in Fig. 6isn’t perfect; the sloped rise and fall times indicate the turn-on and turr-off times of the transistor. However, you could improve the square wave by Using the output in Fig. 6 as the input to another inverter stage. CONVERTING FROM ANALOG To DIGITAL Digital circuits have a big advantage lover analog circuits — they're more ac- curate, Since an analog circuit must ‘measure values, its accuracy is limited by circuit tolerances. But the digital circuit need only distinguish between two voltage levels. However, there's also an inherent disadvantage to digital circuits — the real world is analog, not digital. For example, the light coming through the lens changes continuously — not ir discrete steps. It follows that the output of the photocell must also be an analog signal A digital metering system must then change the analog signal to @ digital signal ‘At the output, the digital system may have to return the digital signal to the eal world of analog. Otherwise, we may not be able to understand the results. To cchange the analog signal to a digital signal, the circuit uses an analog-to- digital converter. A dgital-to-analog con: verter then restores the processed digital information to the real world. Fig. 7 shows the steps 2 digital ex posure meter might take. The analog out: put of the photocell frst passes through {an analog-to-digital converter where it ‘gets changed to a digital signal. But the ‘output of the exposure-meter circuit in Fig. 7 drives @ galvanometer. Since 3 ‘galvanometer needs an analog signal, 2 igital-to-enalog converter changes. the digital count into a continuously varying current, ‘THE COMPARATOR AS AN A-TO-D CONVERTER You'll frequently see the comparator, Fig. 8, in photographic schematics. Like the switching transistor, the comparator has just two output states — on or off One of the comparator's jobs involves linking the digital circuit to the real wort. In effect, the comparator "compares two input signals. The output level then tells you when the signal inputs the same {a the reference input. You can think of the comparator as a differential amplifier without the feedback resistor. A aitferer tial amplifier, Fig. 9, amplifies the dif- ference between its two inputs, So, if you apply @ 3V signal at one input and a 2V 6 (GALVANOMETER Figure? INVERTING 43V REFERENCE Figure FEEDBACK RESISTOR. Figure 9 +18v Figure 10 signal at the other input, the differential ‘amplifier has a 1V signal to amplify — the difference between 3V and 2V. ‘Multiply the difference voltage by the gain of the amplifier to find the output voltage. Typically, the differential amplifier might have a gain of 10,000 or ‘more. But the circuit can’t use all that gain. Consequently, the differential amplifier relies on negative feedback to reduce the gain to a usable level. ‘The feadback resistor in Fig. 9 returns part of the output to the inverting input (the input marked witha minus sign). Any signal applied to the inverting input ap- pears inverted at the output. The feed. back then returns a signal that’s 180 degrees out of phase with the input signal to reduce the gain, Since the comparator, Fig. 8, uses no feedback, it abways operates with its max: jimum gain. Suppose that you apply a OV input signal to the inverting input in Fig. 8, Notice that we've tied the noninverting input to a +3V reference voltage. The ‘comparator will then tell you when the signal at the inverting input equals + 3V. With OV at the inverting input, the comparator sees a difference voltage of 3V. It then attempts to amplify the dif ference voltage by the gain. With a gain (of 10,000, the comparator wants to sup- ply an output of 3 x 10,000 = 30,000 volts. But the 6 power supply in Fig. 8 can’t come close to that kind of output; the best it can do is 6V. So, with OV at the inverting input, the ‘comparator output switches to +6V ‘the maximum gain which the power sup- ply will allow. Since the signal at the in verting input is less positive than the reference voltage, the output saturates in the positive state. That is, the inverting input inverts the signal at the output Now suppose that you gradually in crease the voltage applied to the inverting input. The comparator output remains saturated at + 6V until the signal reaches the reference. When the input signal reaches 3V, the comparator has no dit ference voltage to amplify. As a result, the output switches to OV. ‘An analog signal applied at the invert ing input has now been converted to @ digital signal at the output, Fig. 8. The ‘output has only two levels — high (+ 6V) ‘and low (OV). How could you use this conversion in @ photographic circuit? Fig. 10 shows a typical example from an elec: tronic shutter-speed control circuit used {8 a switch for an electromagnet. In Fig. 10, the timing circuit applies @ continuously varying signal to the invert: ing input of the comparator. The input signal comes from the timing capacitor. ‘As the timing capacitor charges, the The Camera Craftsmansignal at the inverting input goes more positive. The output of the comparator connects to the base of an NPN transistor. With the voltages as shown in Fig. 10, the com: parator saturates in its positive state — 3V in this example. The 3V signal forward biases the transistor. Asa result, the tran- sistor turns on and conducts current through the electromagnet. W's up to the timing circuit to shut off the transistor at the proper time and end the exposure. As the shutter opens, the timing capacitor starts charging. The signal atthe inverting input, Fig. 10, now ‘908s more and more positive ‘When the voltage atthe inverting input, reaches the + 1.5V reference voltage, the comparator switches. Now the com. parator switches low — OV. The OV signal at the output turns off the NPN tran- sistor, As you can see, the circuit has taken an analog signal — the continuous: ly increasing voltage across the timing capacitor — and changed it to a digital signal which drives the transistor. ‘THE COMPARATOR IN LED METER READOUTS There's another common application for the comparator in photographic cir- cuits — driving the LEDs in digital meter readouts, Fig. 11. Once again the com parator converts an analog signal to a digital signal. It changes the analog ‘metering signal it gets from the photocell amplifier to a digital signal which turns an LED on or off For explanation purposes, consider ‘that the comparator in Fig. 12 switches between 3V and OV. Notice that the anode of the LED connects to +3V. So, when the comparator switches high (3V), there's no difference in potential across the LEO — both the anode and the cathode see the same voltage. As a result, no current flows through the LED. ‘The comparator must switch low — OV in Fig. 12 — to turn on the LED. With OV at the output of the comparator, the LED sees a forward bias of 3V. Now the LED turns on. The comparator just compares the metering voltage from the amplifier to 2 reference voltage. In photographic cir ‘cuits, you'll normally find that a single IC ‘ives all the LEDs in the display. Each LED then connects to @ different com: parator output. For example, the display shown in Fig. 11’ has three LEDs for a semiautomatic metering system. The IC must then have three comparator outputs — one for each LED. Fig. 13 shows how three separate ‘comparator stages can dive the three LEDs, ‘All three LEDs in Fig. 13 connect to the ‘March/Apri 1980 positive side ofthe supply when you close the meter switch. Consequently, the LEDs always see the positive voltage at their anode connections. Whether or not 2 particular LED turns on depends on the voltage at its cathode end — the voltage supplied by the comparator stage Consider in Fig. 13 that each com parator can switch between a high voltage of 2V and a low voltage of 1.5V. When a comparator switches high, the LED connected to that comparator sees a forward bias of 3V - 2V = 1V. That's too low a forward bias to turn on the LED. However, when the comparator switches ‘ow, its output drops to 1.5V. Now the LED ‘connected to that comparator sees a for ward bias of 3V - 1.5V = 1.8V. The 1.5V forward bias turns on the LED. Although LED circuits are pretty easy to troubleshoot, you may be limited in the number of repairs you can perform. Usually, you can’t obtain the LED display Figure 17 Figure 13 Cr the IC individually. If either is defective, You must normally replace the complete Circuit board. Stil, most repairs don't involve the IC or the LED display. if none of the LEDs will turn on, you might first check for the battery voltage at the LED anodes, Fig. 13. A defective meter switch or poor solder connections might be preventing the battery voltage from reaching the LEDs. Also check for OC power to the IC that drives the LED display. ‘You can often use quick shorting tests 10 check the individual LEDs. In Fig. 13, shorting between one of the comparator output pins and ground should turn on an LED. The short bypasses the IC and runs current directly through the LED which connects to the comparator pin. But don't hold the short across the LED for any longer than necessary; you just want to See if the LED will urn on. The short applies the full 3V across the LED and bypasses any current-limiting resistors. To check the IC, you can measure the voltages at the comparator output pins. You should be able to make the outputs switch states as you change the light level Cr the camera settings. True, you may not ‘always know what the two voltage levels should be. But that's one of the beauties of the digital concept — as long as you ‘get two different voltages, you can be reasonably sure that the system is work ing properly ‘Again, a failure ofall the LEDs normally indicates that either the IC or the LED display isn't getting operating power. I's more common to find that just one of the LEDs will turn on — usually an LED at fone end of the display or the other. The same LED remains on regardless of the light level or the camera settings. This ‘symptom frequently points to a problem with one of the outboard components — the diaphragm resistor, the film-speed resistor, the shutter-speed resistor, or (least likely) the photocell. ‘With an open oF poor brush contact in, the variable resistors, the metering signal Fig. 13, doesn’t change. You can usuallyFigure 15 Figure To “COMPARATOR IC Figure 17 Pentax ME e pinpoint the guilty resistor by shorting ‘across its leads, a technique we described in the last article on basic photographic circuits. For example, suppose that only the overrange LED will turn on. When You short across the leads of the film speed resistor, the LED indication changes to the opposite end of the display. Your shorting test has now pin- pointed an open or poor brush contact in the film-spoed resistor. What if the LED indication doesn’t change during your shorting tests? You might then suspect the IC. Fully automatic cameras often provide separate LEDs for each shutterspeed calibration. The LED display then tells you What shutter speed or diaphragm opening the camera will automatically program. In ‘most cases, the driver IC has many com: parator outputs as the display has LEDs. For example, the IC in Fig. 14 has thie teen comparator outputs — one for each LED. Fig. 14 shows the top of the flex cir- cuit in the Olympus OM-10. The meter readout in the OM-10, as in the OM.2, Uses a completely separate circuit from the system which automatically programs the shutter speeds, ‘The LED display in the OM-10 attaches, to the wind-lever end of the flex circuit it then tucks through a slot in the side of ‘the mirror cage. We've removed the LED display in Fig. 15 to show the connec: tions. If you count the connector strips between the LED display and the IC, Youll arrive at fourteen. Thirteen of the Connectors go to individual LEDs; the ‘other connector carries the battery voltage to a common terminal — a ter ‘minal to which all of the LEDs connect, Fig. 15. Unlike the other systems we've described, the OM-10 has a positive ‘ground. All thirteen of the LED cathodes then connect to negative battery, Fig. 16. But each anode connects tots own com: parator pin on the IC. Each of the thirteen comparator out puts can switch between -2V and -1.5V. ‘with an output of -2V, the LED connected to that comparator sees a potential dit ference of 3V - 2V = 1V. The LED then turns off. But when the output switches to -1.5V, the LED has a 1.8V forward bias; the anode is 1.5V more positive (or less negative) than is the cathode. none of the LEDs wil turn on, the battery voltage may not be reaching the cathode terminal, Fig. 16. You should measure -3V between the common ter: minal, Fig. 15, and grounds if not, check the black wire that goes to the battery compartment (on the wind side of the flex circuit). You can check individual LEDs by shorting between an anode terminal, The Camera CraftsmanFig. 15, and the common terminal. But ‘again, the shorting test applies the full 3V ‘across the LED; in normal operation, each LED sees a forward bias of only 1.5V. If only one of the LEDS will turn on, suspect one of the components that pro: vide the signals for the driver IC, Fig. 14. ‘An open CdS cell, for instance, causes the T-second LED to remain on. To verify the problem, just short across the photo- cell leads — the two pink wires in Fig. 14. If the CaS calls causing the problem, the short causes the overrange LED (rather than the 1-second LED) to turn on. Or, suppose that only the overrange LED wil turn on. In that case, suspect an ‘open film-speed resistor or an open diaphragm resistor. The two resistors connect in series. Shorting across either resistor should then cause the LED indica tion to move to the bottom of the display = the 1-second LED should turn on. Insome LED circuits, you may find that ‘the display has more LEDs than the IC has comparator outputs. The Pentax ME, for ‘example, has sixteen LEDS in the display. But the driver IC, Fig. 17, has only eight ‘comparator outputs. You can count the ‘comparator connections in the stip of flex circuit that goes to the LED display. As in the OM-10, the ME display slips through a slot in the side of the mitror cage. The flox-crcuit strip has eight connec tors — one for each comparator output. Each comparator must then drive two LEDs. Fig. 18 shows how eight com- parators may drive sixteen LEDs. Each LED jin Fig. 18 connects between two Figure 18 : & g 8 ‘Merch Apri 1980 comparator stages. So, if the comparator connected to the cathode of a particular LED switches low, that LED stil may not turn on, Before the LED can turn on, the ‘comparator connected to its anode must switch high, In the ME, the comparators switch be- tween OV and +3V (negative ground) ‘Suppose, then, that comparator A in Fig. 18 is at OV. Comparator E must be at 3V before LED 1 turns on. If comparator € is ‘at 3V and comparator B is at OV, LED turns on. The current-limiting resistors, Fig. 17 and Fig. 18, hold the LED current 10 a safe value. AAs you might expect, a defective IC or ‘a defective LED display in the ME requires that you replace the complete flex circuit. But, if the LED display doesn't change, you might check the metering voltage at pin 1 of the IC, Fig. 19. The voltage should go more positive for any condition which demands a faster shutter speed — 4 higher light level, a larger */stop, o @ faster film speed. If the voltage at pin 1 goes high — around 2.3V — and stays there, suspect either the film-speed resistor or the diaphragm resistor. You ccan check the resistors by using the shorting test we described eater. “Most cameras with LED readouts use ‘systems similar to the examples we've described. But more elaborate LED dls- plays actually form numbers — just like pocket calculators. To cover these circuits ‘and the more complex digital switching systems, we'll have to provide some basics (on the two types of digital circuits — logic Circuits and muttvibratorsPart 4 Logic ciRcuITs So for, we've just considered switching, circuits — digital devices that switch on ‘and off to control current flow. Yet, basic {as these devices may be, they do make logical decisions. They consider a set of input conditions and make logical deci sions as to what the output should be. Logic circuits make up one of the basic circuit categories in digital electronics Since a digital device has only two states, it must perform all its logic by working with two voltage levels. Those ‘two voltages can be just about any values — as long as they're different. For exam- ple, one level could be + 18V: the other level could then be ground (OV). Or one level could be OV and the other level -5V. Rather than specify the actual voltages, though, it's common to use the indica- tions 1 and 0 jn referring to the two ‘A logic 1 may mean that the digital device is turned on. n that case, a logic 0 ‘means thatthe digital device is turned off. However, these logic assignments can just as easily be reversed; the O can in-

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