Chapter 1

About Science
 Scientific Observation and
Measurement
How do you know whether the earth is flat or round?
Is there any evidence that we can see from here?
Where would be the best place to find this evidence?

Evidence:
Best place – on a large body of water – large, flat, level surface
Activity – watch a boat sail out over the horizon

Observations – (Evidence for a curve surface)

Boat disappears sailing out – bottom first
Boat reappears sailing in – top first
Climbing to a higher vantage point brings the boat back
into view.
 Other Observations
The Sun and moon are round so why not the earth?
The shadow of the earth on the surface of the moon during
an eclipse of the moon showed that the surface of the earth
was round.

When did people first figure out the earth was round?
~500 B.C. – Pythagoreans gave the similar shape
reasoning (Induction argument)

~300 B.C. – Aristotle used the disappearing boat

argument.

Educated people knew the earth was round in the 3rd century
B.C. but didn’t know how to measure it.
 Size of Earth

Eratosthenes (Egyptian director of the Library at

Alexandria) – 1st known calculation of the size of the earth.

~235 B.C. Eratosthenes performed a measurement in

Alexandria, Egypt that allowed him to calculate the radius
of the earth.

Somehow, Eratosthenes came to know about the well in

Aswan (where the big dam is located), south of Alexandria,
where the sun shines straight down to the bottom of the
well at noon on the summer solstice
Mathematics – The Language
of Science
Science and mathematics came together some four
centuries ago.

Physics is based on concepts and mathematics provides

an efficient, unambiguous means of expressing the
relationship between theses concepts.

We will be emphasizing the understanding of the

concepts of Physics.

But we will use equations for their ability to

summarize relationships.
 Mathematics
In some cases we will use simple mathematics to
estimate relative sizes to further aid in understanding
the concepts.

There is no math prerequisite for this course – all the

math we will need will be developed right here.
• Similar triangles
• Ratios
• Estimation techniques
• A little trig
 Scientific Method

Hypothesis → Experiment → Confirmation

A Theory must explain currently known phenomena.

A Theory must make predictions that can be tested.

Goals:
• Theory as simple as possible
• Few or no adjustable constants
 Scientific Method
CONCEPT - an abstract or generic idea generalized from particular
instances.

FACT - something that has actual existence <space exploration is

now a fact>. Or an actual occurrence <prove the fact of damage>

HYPOTHESIS implies insufficient evidence to provide more than a

tentative explanation <a hypothesis explaining the extinction of the
dinosaurs>.

LAW implies a statement of order and relation in nature that has

been found to be invariable under the same conditions <the law of
gravitation>.

THEORY - a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle

or body of principles offered to explain phenomena <wave theory of
light>
 Scientific Method

As soon as a theory is established scientists start to

investigate how far it can be stretched:

• smaller dimensions,
• larger dimensions,
• larger and smaller masses.
 Scientific Method
Disagreements with established theory
• Initially attempt to modify the theory to fit in the new results
• Try to add new concepts to theory

Discoveries are not always that orderly but can benefit from
luck, accidents and a prepared mind.

X-Rays were discovered when leaks in shielding exposed some

nearby photographic plates.

Cosmic Background Radiation was discovered when trying to

eliminate electrical noise in telephone transmission equipment.
Feynman Scientific Method

(15) Feynman on Scientific

Method. - YouTube
1.5 Scientific Hypotheses

To determine whether a hypothesis is

scientific or not, look to see if there is a test
for proving it wrong.
1.5 Scientific Hypotheses
A scientific hypothesis must be testable.
• It is more important that there be a way of proving it
wrong than that there be a way of proving it correct.
• If there is no test for its possible wrongness, then it is
not scientific.
1.5 Scientific Hypotheses
Here is a hypothesis that is scientific:

“No material object can travel faster than light.”

Even if it were supported by a thousand other experiments,

this hypothesis could be proven wrong by a single
experiment. (So far, we find it to be true.)
1.5 Scientific Hypotheses
Here are hypotheses that are not scientific:
• The hypothesis: “The alignment of planets in the sky
determines the best time for making decisions” cannot
be proven wrong, nor can it be proven right. It is
speculation.
• The hypothesis: “Intelligent life exists on other planets
somewhere in the universe” can be proven correct, but
there is no way to prove it wrong if no life is ever found.
• The hypothesis: “Most people stop for red lights”
doesn’t link up to our general understanding of nature,
so it doesn’t fit into the structure of science.
1.5 Scientific Hypotheses
think!
Which of these is a scientific hypothesis?
a. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter.
b. The universe is surrounded by a second universe, the
existence of which cannot be detected by scientists.
c. Albert Einstein was the greatest physicist of the 1900s.
1.5 Scientific Hypotheses
think!
Which of these is a scientific hypothesis?
a. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter.
b. The universe is surrounded by a second universe, the
existence of which cannot be detected by scientists.
c. Albert Einstein was the greatest physicist of the 1900s.
Answer:
(a) is scientific, because there is a test for its wrongness.
(b) has no test for possible wrongness and is therefore unscientific.
(c) is an assertion that has no test for possible wrongness.
1.5 Scientific Hypotheses

How do you know if a

hypothesis is scientific?
Assessment Questions
1. The science that is basic to the other sciences is
a. physics.
b. chemistry.
c. biology.
d. astronomy.
Assessment Questions
1. The science that is basic to the other sciences is
a. physics.
b. chemistry.
c. biology.
d. astronomy.

Answer: A
Assessment Questions
2. The language of science is
a. mathematics.
b. nature.
c. common language.
d. English.
Assessment Questions
2. The language of science is
a. mathematics.
b. nature.
c. common language.
d. English.

Answer: A
Assessment Questions
3. The classic scientific method, followed by Galileo and Bacon,
a. is the method guaranteed to lead to scientific discoveries.
b. is one of many ways that scientific discoveries are made.
c. is today outmoded, and of little value.
d. required memorization.
Assessment Questions
3. The classic scientific method, followed by Galileo and Bacon,
a. is the method guaranteed to lead to scientific discoveries.
b. is one of many ways that scientific discoveries are made.
c. is today outmoded, and of little value.
d. required memorization.

Answer: B
Assessment Questions
4. When someone says, “That’s only a theory,” that person likely doesn’t
know that a scientific theory is a(n)
a. guess that involves a bunch of facts.
b. type of hypothesis.
c. vast synthesis of well-tested hypotheses and facts.
d. untested explanation.
Assessment Questions
4. When someone says, “That’s only a theory,” that person likely doesn’t
know that a scientific theory is a(n)
a. guess that involves a bunch of facts.
b. type of hypothesis.
c. vast synthesis of well-tested hypotheses and facts.
d. untested explanation.

Answer: C
Assessment Questions
5. For a hypothesis to be scientific, it must
a. be in agreement with what we know is true.
b. have a test for proving it right.
c. have a test for proving it wrong.
d. be based on an existing scientific theory.
Assessment Questions
5. For a hypothesis to be scientific, it must
a. be in agreement with what we know is true.
b. have a test for proving it right.
c. have a test for proving it wrong.
d. be based on an existing scientific theory.

Answer: C
Assessment Questions
6. Technology is a
a. body of scientific knowledge.
b. tool of science.
c. form of science.
d. solution to all of humankind’s problems.
Assessment Questions
6. Technology is a
a. body of scientific knowledge.
b. tool of science.
c. form of science.
d. solution to all of humankind’s problems.

Answer: B
Assessment Questions
7. Science differs from art and religion because it
a. describes the human experience.
b. discovers and records natural phenomena.
c. describes the source, purpose, and meaning of everything.
d. is based on faith.
Assessment Questions
7. Science differs from art and religion because it
a. describes the human experience.
b. discovers and records natural phenomena.
c. describes the source, purpose, and meaning of everything.
d. is based on faith.

Answer: B
Assessment Questions
8. Which of the following statements about progress today compared
with progress centuries ago is true?
a. Progress today is slower than it was centuries ago.
b. Progress today is faster than it was centuries ago.
c. Progress today is the same as it was centuries ago.
d. There is no way to determine if progress today differs from
progress centuries ago.
Assessment Questions
8. Which of the following statements about progress today compared
with progress centuries ago is true?
a. Progress today is slower than it was centuries ago.
b. Progress today is faster than it was centuries ago.
c. Progress today is the same as it was centuries ago.
d. There is no way to determine if progress today differs from
progress centuries ago.

Answer: B
Success in science is linked to emphasis on

a. experiments.
b. luck.
c. trial and error.
d. philosophical discussions.
Success in science is linked to emphasis on

a. experiments.
b. luck.
c. trial and error.
d. philosophical discussions.
 The language of science is

a. mathematics.
b. Latin.
d. Chinese.
d. Arabic.
 The language of science is

a. mathematics.
b. Latin.
d. Chinese.
d. Arabic.
 A scientific hypothesis can be disproved
with

a. one reproducible experiment.

b. disapproval of other scientists.
c. many tests by many scientists.
d. philosophical reasoning.
 A scientific hypothesis can be disproved
with

a. one reproducible experiment.

b. disapproval of other scientists.
c. many tests by many scientists.
d. philosophical reasoning.

Explanation: Note the correct answer is an experiment that is

reproducible! Many claims are made that don’t stand up
under repetition.