Module 4 - Pure Substances and Vapour Power Cycles

BASIC THERMODYNAMICS 2018
THE PURE SUBSTANCE

OBJECTIVE: Introduce the concept of a pure substance and Illustrate the P-v , T-v and P-T
property diagrams and P-v-T surfaces of pure substances. Demonstrate the procedures for
determining thermodynamic properties of pure substances from tables of property data.
STRUCTURE:
4. Introduction
4.1 Application of 1st law of thermodynamics for a closed system
4. Introduction: The system encountered in thermodynamics is often quite less complex and consists of
fluids that do not change chemically, or exhibit significant electrical, magnetic or capillary effects. These
relatively simple systems are given the generic name the Pure Substance.
“A system is set to be a pure substance if it is (i) homogeneous in chemical composition, (ii)
homogeneous in chemical aggregation and (iii) invariable in chemical aggregation.”
Pure Substances
Define Pure Substance:
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance such as water, air,
and nitrogen.
A pure substance does not have to be of a single element or compound. A mixture of two or more phases of
a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as the chemical composition of all phases is the same.
Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 82

Phases of a Pure Substance

A pure substance may exist in different phases. There are three principal phases solid, liquid, and gas.
A phase: is defined as having a distinct molecular arrangement that is homogenous throughout and
separated from others (if any) by easily identifiable boundary surfaces.
A substance may have several phases within a principal phase, each with a different molecular structure.
For example, carbon may exist as graphite or diamond in the solid phase, and ice may exist in seven
different phases at high pressure.
Molecular bonds are the strongest in solids and the weakest in gases.
Solid: the molecules are arranged in a three-dimensional pattern (lattice) throughout the solid. The
molecules cannot move relative to each other; however, they continually oscillate about their equilibrium
position.
Liquid: the molecular spacing in liquid phase is not much different from that of the solid phase (generally
slightly higher), except the molecules are no longer at fixed positions relative to each other.
Gas: the molecules are far apart from each other, and a molecular order does not exist. Gas molecules move
randomly, and continually collide with each other and the walls of the container they are in.
Molecules in the gas phase are at a considerably higher energy level than they are in liquids or solid phases.
Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances:
Consider a process where a pure substance starts as a solid and is heated up at constant pressure until it all
becomes gas. Depending on the prevailing pressure, the matter will pass through various phase
transformations. At P0:
1. Solid
2. Mixed phase of liquid and solid
3. Sub-cooled or compressed liquid (means it is not about to vaporize)4. Wet vapor or saturated liquid-
vapor mixture, the temperature will stop rising until the liquid is completely vaporized.

5.Superheated vapor (a vapor that is not about to condense).
Fig. 1: T-v diagram for the heating process of a pure substance.

 At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance starts boiling is called the saturation
temperature, Tsat.
 Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance starts boiling is called the
saturation pressure, Psat.
 During a phase-change process, pressure and temperature are dependent properties, Tsat = f (Psat).
 The critical point is the point at which the liquid and vapor phases are not distinguishable
 The “triple point” is the point at which the liquid, solid, and vapor phases can exist together. On P-v or
T-v diagrams, these triple-phase states form a line called the triple line.
Table 1: Critical and triple point for water and oxygen.

Critical Point Triple Point
P (atm) T (K /°C) P (atm) T (K /°C)
H2O 218 647.30/(374.14) 0.006 273.17 (0.01)
O2 50.136 154.80/(−118.36) 0.0015 54.16/(−219)
Vapor Dome
The general shape of a P-v diagram for a pure substance is very similar to that of a T-v diagram.
P
critical point
SUPERHEATED
sat. vapor line VAPOR REGION
COMPRESSED
LIQUID
REGION T2 = const. >T1
SATURATED
sat. liquid LIQUID-VAPOR
line REGION T1 = const
P-v diagram of a pure substance.
The P-T or Phase Change Diagram

This is called phase diagram since all three phases are separated from each other by three lines. Most pure
substances exhibit the same behavior.
 One exception is water. Water expands upon freezing.

phase diagram of pure substances.

There are two ways that a substance can pass from solid phase to vapor phase i) it melts first into a liquid
and subsequently evaporates, ii) it evaporates directly without melting (sublimation).
 the sublimation line separates the solid and the vapor.
 the vaporization line separates the liquid and vapor regions
 the melting or fusion line separates the solid and liquid.
 these three lines meet at the triple point.
 if P<PTP , the solid phase can change directly to a vapor phase
 at P<PTP the pure substance cannot exist in the liquid phase. Normally (P>PTP ) the substance
melts into a liquid and then evaporates.
 matter (like CO2) which has a triple point above 1 atm sublimate under atmospheric conditions
(dry ice)
 for water (as the most common working fluid) we are mainly interested in the liquid and vapor
regions. Hence, we are mostly interested in boiling and condensation.
Property Tables
For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too complex to be expressed by
simple equations. Thus, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables, see Table A-4.

The subscript “f” is used to denote properties of a saturated liquid and “g” for saturated vapor. Another
subscript, “fg”, denotes the difference between the saturated vapor and saturated liquid values of the same
property.
For example:
vf = specific volume of saturated liquid
vg = specific volume of saturated vapor
vfg = difference between vg and vf ( vfg = vg – vf)
Enthalpy: is a property defined as H = U + PV (kJ) or h = u + Pv (kJ/kg) (per mass unit).
Enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat): represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of
saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure. It decreases as the temperature or pressure increase, and
becomes zero at the critical point.
1- Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture

During vaporization, a mixture of part liquid part vapor exists. To analyze this mixture, we need to know
the proportions of the liquid and vapor in the mixture. The ratio of the mass of vapor to the mass of the total
mixture is called quality, x:
m vapor
x mtotal  mliquid  mvapor  m f  m g
m total
Saturated liquid-vapor mixture is treated as a combination of two sub-systems (two phases). The properties
of the “mixture” are the average properties of the saturated liquid-vapor mixture.
V  V f  Vg
mt v ave  m f v f  m g v g
m f  mt  m g  mt v ave  mt  m g v f  m g v g
dividing by m t
v ave  1  x v f  xv g and x  m g / mt
v ave  v f  xv fg m 3
/ kg 
or,
v ave  v f
x
v fg

P or critical point
T
sat.
sat. vapor
liquid states
states
sat. vapor
sat. liquid
Fig. 4: The relative amounts of liquid and vapor phases (quality x) are used to calculate the mixture
properties.
Similarly,
u ave  u f  xu fg
have  h f  xh fg
Or in general, it can be summarized as yave = yf +x.yfg. Note that:
0  x 1
y f  y ave  y g
Note: pressure and temperature are dependent in the saturated mixture region.

Fig. 5: Quality defined only for saturated liquid-vapor mixture.
Example 1: Saturated liquid-vapor mixture

A closed, rigid container of volume 0.5 m3 is placed on a hot plate. Initially the container holds a two-phase
mixture of saturated liquid water and saturated water vapor at P1= 1 bar with a quality of 0.5. After heating,
the pressure in the container is P2=1.5 bar. Indicate the initial and final states on a T-v diagram, and
determine:
a) the temperature, in °C, at each state.
b) the mass of vapor present at each state, in kg.
c) if heating continues, determine the pressure, in bar, when the container holds only saturated vapor.
Solution:
Assumptions:
1. Water in the container is a closed system.
2. States 1, 2, and 3 are equilibrium states.
3. The volume of container remains constant.
Two independent properties are required to fix state 1 and 2. At the initial state, the pressure and quality are
known. Thus state 1 is known, as mentioned in the problem. The specific volume at state 1 is found using
the given quality:
v1  v f 1  x1 v g1  v f 1 
From Table A - 5 at P  1 bar  100 kPa
v1  0.001043  0.5 (1.694  0.001043)  0.8475 m 3 / kg
At state 2, the pressure is known. Volume and mass remain constant during the heating process within the
container, so v2=v1. For P2= 0.15 MPa, Table A-5 gives vf2= 0.001053 and vg2=1.1593 m3/kg. Since
vf2 < v2 < vg2
State 2 must be in the two-phase region as well. Since state 1 and 2 are in the two-phase liquid-vapor
region, the temperatures correspond to the saturation temperatures for the given. Table A-5:
T1 = 99.63 °C and T2 = 111.4 °C
To find the mass of water vapor present, we first find the total mass, m.
V 0.5m 3
m   0.59kg
v 0.8475m 3 / kg
m g1  x1 m  0.50.59kg   0.295kg

3
P2 = 1.5 bar
2
P1 = 1 bar
1
The mass of vapor at state 2 is found similarly using quality x2. From Table A-5, for P2 = 1.5 bar, we have:
v vf2
x2 
vg 2  v f 2
0.8475  0.001053
x2   0.731
1.159  0.001053
mg 2  0.731 0.59kg   0.431 kg
If heating continued, state 3 would be on the saturated vapor line, as shown in on the T-v diagram above.
Thus, the pressure would be the corresponding saturation pressure. Interpolating in Table A-5 at vg =
0.8475 m3 /kg, we get P3 = 2.11 bar.
2- Superheated Vapor
Superheated region is a single phase region (vapor only), temperature and pressure are no longer dependent.
See Table A-6 for superheated vapor properties.
If T>> Tcritical or P<<Pcritical, then the vapor can be approximated as an “ideal gas”.
3- Compressed (or Sub-cooled) Liquid
The properties of a liquid are relatively independent of pressure (incompressible).
A general approximation is to treat compressed liquid as saturated liquid at the given saturation
temperature.

Determination the dryness fraction:
 Separating calorimeter:
The quality of wet steam is usually defined by its dryness fraction. When the dryness fraction, pressure and
temperature of the steam are known, then the state of wet steam is fully defined. In a steam plant it is at
times necessary to know the state of the steam. For wet steam, this entails finding the dryness fraction.
When the steam is very wet, we make use of a separating calorimeter.
Construction of separating calorimeter is as shown in figure:
The steam is collected out of the main steam supply and enters the separator from the top. The steam is
forced to make a sharp turn when it hits the perforated cup (or any other mechanism that produces the same
effect). This results in a vortex motion in the steam, and water separates out by the centrifugal action. The
droplets then remain inside the separator and are collected at the bottom, where the level can be recorded
from the water glass. The dry steam will pass out of the calorimeter into a small condenser for the collection
of the condensate. However, not all the water droplets remain in the collector tank. Some water droplets
pass through to the condenser, and hence this calorimeter only gives a close approximation of the dryness
fraction of the steam.
From the results obtained from the two collectors, the dryness fraction may then be found from
Dryness fraction =
This can be expressed as:

x=
Where,
M is the mass of dry steam and
m is the mass of suspended water separated in the calorimeter in the same time.
 Throttling calorimeter:
If we have steam that is nearly dry, we make use of a throttling calorimeter as shown in figure. This
calorimeter is operated by first opening the stop valve fully so that the steam is not partially throttled as it
passes through the apparatus for a while to allow the pressure and temperature to stabilize. If the pressure is
very close to atmospheric pressure, the saturation should be around 100°C, it may be assumed that the
steam is superheated.
When the conditions have become steady, the gauge pressure before throttling is read from the pressure
gauge. After throttling, the temperature and gauge pressure are read from the thermometer and manometer
respectively. The barometric pressure is also recorded.
From equation = ,
We have at p1 = at p2
And thus x =

List of Formulas:
1. Dryness fraction of steam sample entering Separating Calorimeter = x =
Where,M is the mass of dry steam and
m is the mass of suspended water separated in the calorimeter in the same time.
2. Dryness fraction of steam sample entering Throttling calorimeter
We have hW at p1 = hsup at p2
And thus x=
3. Dryness Fraction = x = Mass of dry steam / Mass of wet steam

4. Specific Enthalpy of wet steam at Pressure P = h = hf + x hfg KJ/Kg (Similarly specific entropy, specific
volume can be calculated)
5. Enthaply(h) = Internal energy(u) + (P.v)
6. Specific heat at constant volume = CV = du/dt
7. Specific heat at constant pressure = CP = dh/dt
8. Specific heat at constant pressure for dry steam = CPs = 2.1KJ/Kg.K
OUTCOME: Demonstrate understanding of key concepts including phase and pure substance, state
principle for simple compressible systems, p-v-T surface, saturation temperature and saturation pressure,
two-phase liquid-vapor mixture, quality, enthalpy, and specific heats.Apply the closed system energy
balance with property data.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:
1. With a neat sketch explain how Combined separating and throttling calorimeter can be used to
measure the dryness fraction of wet vapour
2. With a neat sketch explain throttling calorimeter can be used to measure the dryness fraction of wet
vapour
3. Draw phase equilibrium diagram of water on P-T Coordinates indicating triple and critical point
4. Steam initially at 1.5 MPa 300˚C expands reversibly and adiabatically in a steam turbine to 40˚C .
Determine the ideal work output of the turbine per kg of steam
FURTHER READING:
1. Basic Engineering Thermodynamics, A.Venkatesh, Universities Press, 2008
2. Basic and Applied Thermodynamics, P.K.Nag, 2nd Ed., Tata McGraw Hill Pub.
3. http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/112104113/4#

Problems








APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
Module 3 : Vapour power cycles.
Introduction:
• Vapour power cycles are external combustion systems in which the working fluid (Water/steam) is
alternatively vaporized and condensed.
• The vapour is generated in a steam boiler which then enters the steam turbine, a condenser and a feed
pump.
• The main objectives are to convert the energy present in the fuels into mechanical energy and then to
electrical energy.
• The fuel is burnt, hot flue gases are used to produce steam in the steam generator. This steam so
produced is expanded in a steam turbine to do work.
Carnot vapor power cycle

Process 4-1 : Reversible isothermal heat addition in the boiler
Process 1-2 : Reversible adiabatic expansion in steam turbine
Process 2-3 : Reversible isothermal heat rejection in the condenser
Process 3-4 : Reversible adiabatic pumping in feed water pump
• Heat is transferred to water in the boiler from an external source to produce steam.
• The high pressure, high temperature steam leaving the boiler expands in the turbine to produce shaft
work.
• The steam leaving the turbine condenses into water in the condenser, rejecting heat.
• Water is pumped back to the boiler.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 1

Where, T2 = Lowest temperature corresponding to the condenser pressure P3.
T1 = Highest temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure P1.
Drawbacks of the Carnot cycle as reference cycle:

1. In Process 4 to 1, it is difficult to operate the cycle with superheated steam as heat should be added to
the steam at constant temperature, instead of constant pressure.
2. In isentropic expansion process 1 to 2 in the turbine, the quality of the steam decreases. Thus the
turbine has to handle steam with low quality (steam with high moisture content). The impingement
of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causes erosion and is a major source of wear.
3. Efficiency of the cycle is dependent on the maximum operating temperature T1. Since steam has a
critical temperature of 374oC, maximum operating temperature is limited if the cycle operates in wet
region.
4. In order to have the process 3 to 4 as isentropic compression, the condensation process 2 to 3 in the
condenser has to be terminated at the state 3. At this state the working fluid is still a mixture of
vapour and water. In practice it is impossible to attain such a condensation process.
5. It is difficult to compress binary mixture of water and vapour from the state 3 to the initial state 4
where the fluid is entirely in liquid state.
Limitations of Carnot Vapour Cycle

Theoretically the Carnot vapour cycle is most efficient; the following difficulties are associated with
it during its operation.
1. Steam condensation is not allowed to proceed to completion. The condensation process has to be
stopped at state point 3.
2. The working fluid at 3 is in both liquid and vapour state, it is difficult to compress two phase mixture
isentropically.
3. The vapour has larger specific volume; hence to accommodate greater volumes, the size of the
compressor becomes quite big.
4. For running a large sized compressor, more power is required; this results in poor plant efficiency.
5. The steam at exhaust from the turbine is of low quality i.e. high moisture content. The liquid water
droplets cause pitting and erosion of the turbine blades.

Rankine Vapour Cycle
In Rankine Vapour cycle, impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated
by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser.
• Process 4-1: Constant-pressure heat addition in the boiler.

• Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine.
• Process 2-3: Constant-pressure heat rejection in the condenser.
• Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic pumping in the feed pump.
For 1kg of fluid, the SFEE for the boiler gives, h4 + QA = h1 i.e., QA = h1 – h4
SFEE to turbine, h 1 = W T + h2 i.e., WT = h1 – h2
SFEE to condenser, h2 = QR + h3 i.e., QR = h2 – h3
SFEE to pump, h3 + WP = h4 i.e., WP = h4 – h3
= 𝑉𝑓(𝑃4 − 𝑃3)
Efficiency of the Rankine cycle

𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊𝑇 −𝑊𝑃 (ℎ1−ℎ2)−(ℎ4−ℎ3)
η= 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
= 𝑄𝐴
= (ℎ1−ℎ4)
Generally the pump work is smaller than the turbine work and hence pump work can be neglected.
(ℎ1−ℎ2)
η= (ℎ1−ℎ4)
Work ratio:
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 (ℎ1−ℎ2)−(ℎ4−ℎ3) (ℎ4−ℎ3)
WR = 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
= 𝑊𝑇
= (ℎ1−ℎ2)
WR = 1- (ℎ1−ℎ2)
Steam flow rate:

It is defined as the rate of steam flow in kg/hr required to produce unit shaft power output (1kW).
It is a measure of the capacity of a steam power plant.

Heat flow rate:
It is the rate of heat input QH in kJ/hr required to produce unit power output of 1kW.
Heat rate is an alternative to efficiency.
Comparison between Rankine and Carnot cycle:
1. For the same maximum and minimum temperatures Rankine cycle has lower efficiency than that of
the Carnot cycle.
2. For the same maximum and minimum temperatures Rankine cycle has the higher specific output
than that of the Carnot cycle.
3. Compression of wet vapor is difficult and involves large pump work in case of Carnot cycle when
compared to the pumping work of feed water to the boiler in case of a Rankine cycle.
Effects of pressure and temperature on Rankine cycle performance:

1) Lowering the condenser pressure increases the thermal efficiency of the cycle:
Maintaining the same turbine inlet state, the condenser pressure is
lowered from P2 to P2’ . Hence net work output can be increased.
The heat input requirements also increase (under curve 4-4’), but this
increase is very small.
Thus the overall effect of lowering the condenser pressure is an
increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
However the lowest pressure of condenser under ideal conditions is
limited to the saturation temperature of the cooling water or air
(cooling medium).

2) Superheating the Steam to High temperatures increases thermal efficiency of the cycle:
The total area under the curve 1-1’ represents the increase in the heat
input.
Thus the net work and heat input increase as a result of superheating the
steam to a higher temperature.
The overall effect is increase in thermal efficiency.
Superheating the steam to higher temperatures decreases the moisture
content of the steam at the turbine exit.
The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited by
metallurgical considerations.
3) Increasing the boiler pressure and temperature increases the efficiency of the cycle:
The increase in the operating pressure of the boiler automatically raises
the temperature at which the boiling takes place. This in turn, raises the
average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam and raises
the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
But for a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and
the moisture content of steam at the turbine exit increases. High
moisture content results in erosion of blade surfaces, affecting their life.
This undesirable side effect can be corrected by reheating the steam.
Efficiency increases with boiler pressure and reaches maximum value
when the pressure is about 160bar.
Further increase in boiler pressure results in a fall in efficiency.
Actual vapor power cycle:
As a result of irreversibility in various components, the
actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine
cycle.
• Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are
the two common sources of the irreversibilities.
• Fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler,
condenser and piping between various components.
• The pressure at the turbine inlet is lower than that
in the boiler exit due to the pressure drop in the connecting
pipes.
• To compensate for the pressure drops, the water
must be pumped to a sufficiently higher pressure than the ideal cycle.
• This requires a larger pump and larger work input to the pump.
• More heat needs be transferred to the steam in the boiler to compensate for the undesirable heat
losses.

Where states 4a and 2a are the actual exit states of the pump and the turbine, respectively, and 4 and 2 are
the corresponding states for the isentropic process.
The Ideal reheat Rankine cycle:

Sketch the flow diagram and corresponding T-S diagram of a reheat vapour cycle and derive an
expression for reheat cycle efficiency. (8 marks)
In the ideal reheat Rankine cycle the expansion process takes place in two or more stages. In the first stage
(HP turbine), steam is expanded isentropically to an intermediate pressure and sent back to the boiler where
it is reheated at constant pressure usually to the inlet temperature of the first turbine. Steam then expands
isentropically in the second stage (LP turbine) to the condenser pressure.
Reheating increases heat supplied and work output. The efficiency does not improve.
The quality of steam at turbine exit improves, reducing the turbine blade corrosion.

Ideal Regenerative cycle:
With the help of a schematic diagram and T-S diagram, explain the working of a regenerative vapour
power cycle and derive an expression for its overall efficiency.(10 marks)
Regenerative cycle is a modified form of Rankine cycle in which it is devised to increase mean temperature
of heat addition so that cycle gets close to Carnot cycle in which all heat addition occurs at highest possible
temperature.
In ideal regenerative cycle, the feed water is heated up so as to reduce the heat addition in boiler and heat
addition occur at hotter feed water temperature.
In ideal regenerative cycle, the condensate after leaving the pump, circulates around the turbine casing,
counter flow to the direction of vapour flow in the turbine. Thus it is possible to transfer heat from the
vapour as it flows through the turbine, to the liquid flowing around the turbine.
Therefore all the heat added from an external source (QH), is at constant temperature T1, and all the heat
rejected (QL) is at constant temperature T2, both being reversible.
Then,
QH = h1 – h4’ = T1(S1 – S4’)
QL = h2 – h3 = T2(S2 – S3)
Efficiency is given by,
𝑄𝐻−𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿 𝑇2(𝑆2 – 𝑆3)
𝞰= 𝑄𝐻
=1 − 𝑄𝐻
= 1- 𝑇1(𝑆1 – 𝑆4')
But S4’ - S3 = S1 – S2
Or S1 – S4’ = S2 – S3
𝑇2
𝞰 = 1- 𝑇1
The efficiency of ideal regenerative cycle is equal to Carnot cycle efficiency.

Impracticability of Ideal Regenerative cycle:
1. The reversible heat transfer cannot be possible in finite time.
2. Heat exchanger in the turbine is mechanically impracticable.
3. The moisture content of the steam in the turbine will be high.

Practical Regenerative cycle:
In the practical regenerative cycle, the feed water is heated by steam extracted from intermediate
stages of the turbine.

Feed water heater:
The device where the feed water is heated by regeneration is called regenerator or a feed water heater
(FWH). A feed water heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from steam to the feed
water either by mixing the two fluid streams (open feed water heaters) or without mixing them (closed feed
water heaters).
1. Open cycle feed water heater:
An open (or direct-contact) feed water heater is a mixing chamber, where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feed water exiting the pump I.
In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at the boiler pressure (state 1) and expands
isentropic ally to an intermediate pressure (state 2). Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the
feed water heater, while the remaining steam continues to expand isentropic ally to the condenser pressure
(state 3).
This steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the condenser pressure (state 4). The condensed
water which is also called the feed water then enters the pump I, where it is compressed to the feed water
heater pressure (state 5) and is routed to the feed water heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from
the turbine. The fraction of the steam extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid
at the heater pressure (state 6). A second pump II raises the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state
7). The cycle is completed by heating the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet (state 1).

2. Closed cycle feed water heater
In this heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feed water without any mixing. The two streams
can be at ‘different pressures', since they do not mix.
Characteristics of an Ideal working fluid in Vapour power cycles.

Working fluid being used in vapour power cycles must have following desirable properties. Generally
water is used as working fluid in vapour power cycles as it is easily available in abundance and satisfies
most of requirements. Other working fluids may be mercury, sulphur dioxide and hydrocarbons etc.
i)Working fluid should be cheap and easily available.

(ii) Working fluid should be non-toxic, non-corrosive and chemically stable.
(iii) Fluid must have higher saturation temperature at moderate pressures as it shall yield high efficiency
because most of heat will be added at high temperature. Thus, mean temperature of heat addition shall be
high even at moderate pressure.
(iv) Working fluid should have smaller specific heat so that sensible heat supplied is negligible and Rankine
cycle approaches to Carnot cycle.
(v) Saturated vapour line should be steep enough so that state after expansion has high dryness fraction.
(vi) Working fluid density should be high so that the size of plant becomes smaller.
(vii) Working fluid should have its' critical temperature within metallurgical limits.
(viii) It should show significant decrease in volume upon condensation.
(ix) Working fluid should have its' freezing point much below atmospheric pressure so that there
is no chance of freezing in condenser.
Binary Vapour cycles

Two vapour cycles operating on two different working fluids are put together and the arrangement is
called binary vapour cycle. Mercury has comparatively small saturation pressures at high temperature values
but due to excessively low pressure values and large specific volume values at low temperatures it cannot be
used alone as working fluid. Mercury also does not wet the surface in contact so there is inefficient heat
transfer although 0.002% of solution of magnesium and potassium is added to give it wetting property of
steel. Steam is used with mercury for overcoming some limitations of mercury. Thus in combination of
mercury-steam, the mercury is used for high pressures while steam is used for low pressure region.

Layout for mercury-steam binary vapour cycle is shown on Fig. along with its depiction on
T-S diagram. Here, mercury vapour are generated in mercury boiler and sent for expansion in mercury
turbine and expanded fluid leaves turbine and enters into condenser. From condenser the mercury
condensate is pumped back into the mercury boiler. In mercury condenser the water is used for extracting
heat from mercury so as to condense it. The amount of heat liberated during condensation of mercury is too
large to evaporate the water entering mercury condenser. Thus, mercury condenser also acts as steam boiler.
For superheating of steam an auxilliary boiler may be employed or superheating may be realized in the
mercury boiler itself.

Thermodynamics – 21ME34 Mr. Yuvaraj K. B.
Module-4
Pure Substances
Vapour Power Cycles
Pure Substances
1. Find the saturation temperature, the changes in specific volume and entropy during
evoparation and the latent heat of vaporization of steam at 1 MPa.
2. Find the enthalpy and entropy of steam when the pressure is 2 MPa and the specific
volume is 0.09 m3/kg.
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, MITE Moodabidri Page 1

3. Find the enthalpy, entropy and volume of steam at 1.4 MPa, 380°C.
4. A vessel of volume 0.04 m3 contains a mixture of saturated water and saturated steam at a
temperature of 250°C. The mass of the liquid present is 9 kg. Find the pressure, the mass, the
specific volume, the enthalpy, the entropy, and the internal energy.

5. Steam initially at 0.3 MPa, 250°C is cooled at constant volume. (a) At what temperature
will the steam become saturated vapour? (b) What is the quality at 80°C? What is the heat
transferred per kg of steam in cooling from 250°C to 80°C?

6. Steam initially at 1.5 MPa. 300°C expands reversibly and adiabatically in a steam turbine
to 40°C. Determine the ideal work output of the turbine per kg of steam.

7. Steam at 0.8 MPa, 250°C and flowing at the rate of 1 kg/s passes into a pipe carrying wet
steam at 0.8 MPa, 0.95 dry. After adiabatic mixing the flow rate is 2.3 kg/s. Determine the
condition of steam after mixing.
The mixture is now expanded in a frictionless nozzle isentropically to a pressure of 0.4 MPa.
Determine the velocity of the steam leaving the nozzle. Neglect the velocity of steam in the
pipeline.


8. The following data were obtained with a separating and throttling calorimeter:

9. A steam boiler initially contains 5 m3 of steam and 5 m3 of water at 1 MPa. Steam is taken
out at constant pressure until 4 m3 of water is left. What is the heat transferred during the
process?

10. A quantity of steam at 10 bar and 0.85 dryness occupies 0.15 m3. Determine the heat
supplied to raise the temperature of the steam to 300°C at constant pressure and percentage of
this heat which appears as external work.
Take specific heat of superheated steam as 2.2 kJ/kg K.

11. Find the specific volume, enthalpy and internal energy of wet steam at 18 bar, dryness
fraction 0.85.
12. Two boilers one with superheater and other without superheater are delivering equal
quantities of steam into a common main. The pressure in the boilers and main is 20 bar. The
temperature of steam from a boiler with a superheater is 350°C and temperature of the steam
in the main is 250°C.
Determine the quality of steam supplied by the other boiler. Take Cps = 2.25 kJ/kg.

Vapour Power Cycles
1. Steam at 20 bar, 360° C is expanded in a steam turbine to a pressure of 0.08 bar. If then
enters a condenser, where it is condensed to saturated liquid water. Assuming the turbine and
feed pump efficiencies as 60% and 90% respectively, determine per kg of steam, the network,
the heat transferred to the working fluid and the Rankine efficiency of the cycle. (08 Marks)

2. A cyclic steam power plant is to be designed for a steam temperature at turbine inlet of
360°C and an exhaust pressure of 0.08 bar. After isentropic expansion of steam in the turbine,
the moisture content at the turbine exhaust is not to exceed 15%. Determine the greatest
allowable steam pressure at the turbine inlet, and calculate the Rankine cycle efficiency for
these steam conditions. Estimate also the mean temperature of heat addition.
Solution: As state 2s (Fig. Ex. 12.3 ), the quality and pressure are

3. In a single heater regenerative cycle the steam enters the turbine at 30 bar, 400°C and the
exhaust pressure is 0.10 bar. The feedwater heater is a direct contact type which operates at 5
bar. Find (i) The efficiency (ii) steam rate of the cycle. Neglect pump work done. (12 Marks)


4. A steam power station uses the following cycle:

Steam at boiler outlet 150 bar, 550°C
Reheat at 40 bar to 550°C
Condenser at 0.1 bar
Using the Mollier chart and assuming ideal processes, find the (a) quality at turbine exhaust,
(b) cycle efficiency, and (c) steam rate.
Solution: The property values at different states (Fig. Ex. 12.4) are read from the Mollier
chart.

5. A certain chemical plant requires heat from process steam at 120°C at the rate of 5.83 MJ/s
and power at the rate of 1000 kW from the generator terminals. Both the heat and power
requirements are met by a back pressure turbine of 80% brake and 85% internal efficiency,
which exhaust steam at 120°C dry saturated. All the latent heat released during condensation
is utilized in the process heater. Find the pressure and temperature of steam at the inlet to the
turbine. Assume 90% efficiency for the generator.
Solution: At 120°C, hfg= 2202.6 kJ/kg = h2 – h3 (Fig. Ex. 12. 9)

6. In a steam power cycle, the steam supply is at 15 bar and dry and saturated. The condenser
pressure is 0.4 bar. Calculate the Carnot and Rankine efficiencies of the cycle. Neglect
pump work.

7. A simple Rankine cycle works between pressures 28 bar and 0.06 bar, the initial condition
of steam being dry saturated. Calculate the cycle efficiency, work ratio and specific steam
consumption.

8. Steam is supplied to a turbine at a pressure of 30 bar and a temperature of 400°C and is

expanded adiabatically to a pressure of 0.04 bar. At a stage of turbine where the pressure is 3
bar a connection is made to a surface heater in which the feed water is heated by bled steam
to a temperature of 130°C. The condensed steam from the feed heater is cooled in a drain
cooler to 27°C. The feed water passes through the drain cooler before entering the feed
heater. The cooled drain water combines with the condensate in the well of the condenser.
Assuming no heat losses in the steam, calculate the following:
(i) Mass of steam used for feed heating per kg of steam entering the turbine;
(ii) Thermal efficiency of the cycle.

9. A steam power plant operates on a theoretical reheat cycle. Steam at boiler at 150 bar,
550°C expands through the high pressure turbine. It is reheated at a constant pressure of 40
bar to 550°C and expands through the low pressure turbine to a condenser at 0.1 bar. Draw T-
s and h-s diagrams. Find:
(i) Quality of steam at turbine exhaust ; (ii) Cycle efficiency ; (iii) Steam rate in kg/kWh.

Question paper problems:

1. A steam power plant operates on a Rankine cycle between the pressure limits of 17500 kPa
10 kPa. The peak temperature is 500°C. If the adiabatic efficiency of the turbine is 80% and
the adiabatic pump efficiency is 85%. Determine the thermal efficiency and the specific
steam consumption. (10 Marks)
2. Consider a steam power plant operating on an ideal Reheat Rankine cycle. Steam enters
the high pressure turbine at 15 MPa and 600°C and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 10 kPa. If the moisture content of the steam at the exit of low pressure turbine is
not to exceed 10.4%, determine (i) Pressure at which the steam should be reheated (ii)
Thermal efficiency of the cycle. Assume the steam is reheated to the inlet temperature of the
high pressure turbine:(10 Marks)
3. Steam at 20 bar, 360° C is expanded in a steam turbine to a pressure of 0.08 bar. If then
enters a condenser, where it is condensed to saturated liquid water. Assuming the turbine and
feed pump efficiencies as 60% and 90% respectively, determine per kg of steam, the network,
the heat transferred to the working fluid and the Rankine efficiency of the cycle. (08 Marks)
4. In a reheat cycle, steam at 150 bar, 500°C expands in HP turbine till it is saturated vapour.
It is then reheated at constant pressure to 400°C and then expanded in LP turbine to 40°C. It
the maximum moisture content at the turbine exhaust is limited to 15%, find (i) The Reheat
pressure (ii) The pressure of steam at the inlet to HP turbine (iii) The cycle efficiency(08
Marks)
5. In a single heater regenerative cycle the steam enters the turbine at 30 bar, 400°C and the
exhaust pressure is 0.10 bar. The feedwater heater is a direct contact type which operates at 5
bar. Find (i) The efficiency (ii) steam rate of the cycle. Neglect pump work done. (12 Marks)
6. A turbine is supplied with steam at a pressure of 32 bar and temperature of 410°C. The
steam then expands isentropically to a pressure of 0.08 bar. Find the dryness fraction at the
end of expansion and thermal efficiency of the cycle.
If the steam is reheated at 5.5 bar to a temperature of 400°C and then expanded isentropically
to a pressure of 0.08 bar, what will be the dryness fraction and thermal efficiency of the
cycle. (10 Marks)
7. A 40 MW steam power plant working on Rankine cycle operates between boiler pressure
of 4 MPa and condenser pressure of 10 KPa. The steam leaves the boiler and enters the steam
turbine at 400°C. The isentropic efficiency of the steam turbine is 85%. Determine (i) The

cycle efficiency (ii) The quality of exhaust steam from the turbine and (iii) the steam flow
rate in kg per hour. Consider pump work. (10 Marks)
8. A 40 MW steam power plant working on Rankine cycle operator between boiler pressure
of 40 bar and condenser pressure of 0.1 bar. Steam leaves the boiler and enters the turbine at
400°C. The isentropic efficiency of steam turbine is 84%. Determine: i) Efficiency ii) Quality
of exhaust iii) Steam flow rate in kg/hr. (10 Marks)
9. A steam power plant operates on a theoretical reheat cycle. Steam at boiler outlet 150 bar,
550°C expands through the high pressure turbine. It is reheated at a constant pressure of 40
bar to 550°C and expands through the low pressure turbine to a condenser at 0.1 bar. Draw T-
S and h-s diagrams. Find: Quality of steam at turbine exhaust (ii) Cycle efficiency (iii) Steam
rate in kg/kWh. (10 Marks)

Module 4 - Pure Substances and Vapour Power Cycles

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BASIC THERMODYNAMICS 2018

THE PURE SUBSTANCE

Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 82

Phases of a Pure Substance

Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 83

5.Superheated vapor (a vapor that is not about to condense).

Fig. 1: T-v diagram for the heating process of a pure substance.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 84

Critical Point Triple Point

P (atm) T (K /°C) P (atm) T (K /°C)

H2O 218 647.30/(374.14) 0.006 273.17 (0.01)

O2 50.136 154.80/(−118.36) 0.0015 54.16/(−219)

P-v diagram of a pure substance.

The P-T or Phase Change Diagram

Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 85

phase diagram of pure substances.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 86

1- Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixture

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 88

Fig. 5: Quality defined only for saturated liquid-vapor mixture.

Example 1: Saturated liquid-vapor mixture

Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 89

Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 90

Determination the dryness fraction:

This can be expressed as:

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3. Dryness Fraction = x = Mass of dry steam / Mass of wet steam

Department of Mechanical Engineering, ATMECE Mysuru Page 93

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Carnot vapor power cycle

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 1

Drawbacks of the Carnot cycle as reference cycle:

Limitations of Carnot Vapour Cycle

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 2

• Process 4-1: Constant-pressure heat addition in the boiler.

Efficiency of the Rankine cycle

Steam flow rate:

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 3

Comparison between Rankine and Carnot cycle:

Effects of pressure and temperature on Rankine cycle performance:

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 4

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 5

The Ideal reheat Rankine cycle:

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 6

The efficiency of ideal regenerative cycle is equal to Carnot cycle efficiency.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 7

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 8

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 9

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 10

Characteristics of an Ideal working fluid in Vapour power cycles.

i)Working fluid should be cheap and easily available.

Binary Vapour cycles

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 11

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 18ME42 VAPOUR POWER CYCLES MODULE 3 12