d Ap Uta see deg tI Globe Short Notes RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION B. Ed (1.5 YEAR) course code: -AlOU-8604 Prepared By: Hamid Sehar fio ae Vie Bw A hoa \ wlan cet PreePrepared by: Hamid Sehard : ig RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION Chapters # (01,02,03,04,06,07) B.Ed (1 PNT ete RESEARCH Source Of Knowledge (1). Sense percept Sense perception is the process of acquiring knowledge through the senses. It is the most ba source of knowledge and provides us with information about the world around us 2). Tradi Tradition is another source of knowledge, It is the body of customs, beliefS, and practices that are passed down from one generation to the next Tradition can be a valuable source of knowledge, but it is important to be critical of it and to be aware of its potential biases. (3). Authority: Authority is the belief that a person or group 6f people has the right to give orders Ot make decisions. We often rely on authority’ figures) for knowledge, such as parents, teaches, and experts However, it is important to remember that authority figures are not always right/ and it is important to question their claims. (4). Expert opinion: Expert opinion is the knowledge and advice of people who are considered to be experts in their field. Expert opinion can be a valuable source of knowledge, but itis important to be eritical of it and to consider the expertise of the person giving the opinion (5). Rationality Rationality is the use of reason to gain knowledge. It is the process of drawing logical conclusions from premises. Rationality is a powerful tool for gaining knowledge, but it is important to be aware of its potential biases. (©. Magic: Magic is the belief that certain rituals or actions can produce desired results. Magic is not a reliable source of knowledge, but it can be a source of comfort and control for some people. (7). Scientific method: The scientific method is a systematic process for acquiring knowledge. Created by Hamid Sehar (Di) -tesresssors ° It involves the following steps: (1). Observe the world around you (2). Form a hypothesis to explain what you observe, (3). Test the hypothesis by conducting an experiment, (4). Analyze the results of the experiment. (5). Draw conclusions about the hypothesis. (6). Repeat steps 3-5 until you are confident in your conclusions. ‘The scientific method is the most reliable source of knowledge, but it is important to note that it is not perfect. Scientific knowledge is constantly evolving as newdata is collected and analyzed. | ‘Concept of Research in Education Researe and the scientific method are often uused™interchangeably, but research is a more formal, systematic, and intensive process of using the scientific method. The scientific method is a proc about the world by making observations, forming, hypotheses, testing those hypotheses, and drawing conclusion: of leaming ‘The seven elements of the scientific method are: ‘+ Purposeful observation: This means making observations that are focused on a specific question or problem. « Analysis and synthesis: This means breaking down observations into their ‘component parts and then putting them back g together to form a new understanding. 8 «Selective recall: This means remembering 7 only the information that is relevant to the 3 research question. cy * Hypothesis: This is a tentative explanation g for a phenomenon. © Verification by inference and experimentation: This means testing the hypothesis to see if it is supported by the evidence. ‘+ Reasoning: This means using logic to draw conclusions from the evidence. © Judgment: This means using your own critical thinking skills to evaluate the evidence and draw conclusions. = harnidseharo@gmnail.covnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard (Geese re ° * * mportant Points > the field of Improve teaching and leaning practices. Develop new educational programs and materials Assess the effectiveness of educational reforms. Inform educational policy. Create a culture of inquiry and reflection. Research is a systematic and refined technique of thinking, using specialized tools, instruments, and procedures to solve a problem. Research is a method for the discovery of truth, involving defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting, organizing, and evaluating data, drawing conclusions, and testing Educational research is the systematic Main Characteristics of Scientific Research Educational research shares many of the main characteristics of scientific research, which can be summarized as follows: (1). Purposive: Educational research is conducted to solve specific problems or to answer specific questions. (2). Objective: Educational research is conducted in an objective manner, without any personal biases or prejudices, (3). Quantitative: Educational research often involves the collection and analysis of quantitative ‘data, such as test scores, eran records, and_aceurate: Educational is conducted in a systematic and & urate manner, following a well-defined ¢ lan. Hypothetical: Educational research often © +2216 as60735, (4). hypotheses. conclusions. ns ) involves the development and testing of scholarly application of the seienti method to the solution of eon problems. Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry, or a frame o} It is an attempt to elicit facts a them once they have been assem! Research is als6va kind of human Behavior, an activity in which people engage to collect information in an orderly and systematic fashion. Educational research ~~ is_ normally considered as scientific research, Research is a careful inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles. Research is the manipulation of things, concepts, or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct, or verify knowledge. Educational research is the activity directed towards the development of a science of behavior in educational situations. Research is a process of developing procedures for use in the field of education. Crested By hasmid sehen, Created by Hamid Sehar @. —Fact-finding: Educational research is ‘concerned with the collection and analysis of facts. (1). Generalizable: Educational research aims to generate findings that can be generalized to other educational settings and populations. (8). Impartial: Educational research findings are reported in an impartial manner, without any favouritism or bias towards any particular group or individual. ‘An older description of research may be explained with the five characterizations spelling out the word MOVIE. M- stands for Mathematical Precision and Accuracy. O- stands for Objectivity. V- stands for Verifial L__ stands for Impartiality. E-__ stands for Expertness. Har id Sehar © +92316 8560735 = harnidseharo@gmnail.covnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard Specific Cha Educat Research & 560735 (). Educational research is interdisciplinary. (2). Educational research uses a variety of methods. (3). Educational research should be practical. (4). Educational research is not as exact as research in physical science. (5). Educational research should be relevant to school problems. (©. Educational research can be done by anyone. (7). Educational research needs imaginative and visionary people (8). Educational research is relatively inexpensive. (9). Educational research is based én subjective and intangible social phenomena, (10), Educational research is complex and . multifaceted. P ‘Need of Research SS seanssseorss (D. Rapid Expansion and Dem of Education . ‘The rapid expansion of education has)created a need for research to improve Gucational policies and practices. Cr | (2). Technological. Ciiunges Rapid technological changes have brought new educational problems, and research is needed to find solutions. (3). New Demands on Education Educational research can help to develop new curricula, teaching methods, and materials to meet the new demands placed on education systems. (4). Interdisciplinary Approach to Education Education is a growing science, and educational research is essential for its development, Knowledge Explosion and the Need Educational Research for The explosion of knowledge has created a need for research to study the changes in various disciplines and to make necessary adjustments in education. (5). Education and Productivity Education and productivity are _ positively correlated, and research is needed to plan educ: according to manpower needs. ‘ion (Geese re ©. 8 Scarce Resources _and__Optimum Development Research can help us to make the best use of scarce resources to achieve the best results, Research is Needed to Keep out of Fixed track, ™. Research can help us to avoid becoming complacent and to keep our minds active and engaged. Educational Planning Research and — Educational ducational research is the study of teaching, leatning, and education policy. It uses data to develop new knowledge and _mimprove educational practice. +, Educational _planning is the process of developing and implementing strategies 10 achieve educational goals. It takes into account research, political, economic, and social factors. Educational research leads to the following advantages: ‘* Educational research economises efforts and increases efficiency. ‘© It brings confidence in the teacher. ‘© It also brings dignity to the work of the teacher. It leads to the adoption of new methods. It keeps up alert. It brings a sense of awareness. It develops a better understanding of the teaching learning process. ‘* Itenables us to have a better understanding of the social life. ‘© Itpromotes educational reform. © ve2316 8580735 Priority at the Field of Educational Research in Pakistan (1). Universalization of Education * Achieve free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14. Extend educational programs to girls and the weaker sections of the community. Hard Sehar & +92316 8560735 Created by Hamid Sehar = hamidseharo@gmaail.com2). @). 4). (6). Prepared by: Hamid Sehard Drop-out Rate and Non-formal Education, * Reduce the drop-out rate in school education, ‘© Develop alternative strategies of education and new techniques for non-formal education. Alternative Strategies of Education * Considering the rate of population growth, consider whether education should be coextensive with schooling. * What are the alternative strategies of education? What are the new techniques? Education for Low-income Groups © Provide educational opportunities for children from the low-income and. economically deprived sections of the society. * Counteract the effects of deprivation in the early life of infants by social educational intervention, Education and Socio-economic Needs ¢ Make education more relevant to the, socio~ economic needs of the country. * Find out how to alter, enhance/and.mod t the existing educational structure and content to bring about faster economie growth and social change. Ov Identifying and Developing Talent © Identify talentat all levels of education. © Find ways and means to develop the talented children, Examine the concept of talent in the context of developing societies Scope of Research in Education (© +92316 800735 Educational research is important for national development. It helps to. make edueation more effective, dynamic, and purposeful. It also helps to introduce social and economic changes. Six_Major Possibilities of the Utilization of Research towards N: nal Development (1). Background data for planners Educational research can provide planners with valuable data about the current situation, including, the magnitude, complexity, and ramifications of the problems they face. Q). Critical areas of policy Careful analysis of educational research can identify critical areas of policy and the overt and covert dimensions of specific problems. and (Geese re This information can help planners to develop effective and efficient solutions. (3). Validity of assumptions Planners must make assumptions when setting their goals, Educational research can help to test the validity of these assumptions. (4). Consequences _and_cost_of different choices Educational research can help planners to estimate the possible consequences and cost of different choices in terms of achieving their goals. (5). Suggests_where_and_why_ particular projects are failing. Educational fesearch can identify where and why particular"projects are failing, as well as their unattended consequences. "Public awareness ‘Thedissemination of educational research findings ‘Can increase public awareness of educational issues aid policies. This ean enhance the credibility of particular policies and prepare the people for them. It can also help to build up public pressure for reformulation of particular policies or for weeding them out altogether. 8 SCIENCE APPROACH AND THE — SCIENTIFIC Science is the systematic study of the natural world through observation and experimentation. It is a way of learning about how the world works by asking questions, testing hypotheses, and drawing conclusions. The scientific approach is based on the following principl The scientific method is a process that scientists use to test their hypotheses. It involves the following steps: (1). Make_an observation. This could be something that you notice in the world around you, or it could be something that you see in a previous experiment, Ask a question. What is it about your observation that you don't understand? What are some possible explanations for what you saw? Do some researeh. Find out what other scientists have already written about your topic. This will help you to develop a more informed hypothesis. © o2as esc0705 Created by Hamid Sehar =p hamidseharo@graail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard (4). proposed explanation for your observation. It should be specific and testable. Design and conduct an experiment. Your ‘experiment should be designed to test your hypothesis. It should have a control group and an experimental group, and you should measure the results carefully. Analyse the results. Compare the results of the control group to the results of the experimental group. Do the results support your hypothesis? Draw a conclusion. If the results of your experiment support your hypothesis, then you can conclude that your hypothesis is correct. However, if the results do not support your hypothesis, then you need to cither revise your hypothesis or reject it altogether. Science and Common Sense Similarities Between Science and Common Sei Science Is Not Concerned with O° Explanations imil ies, ‘Science and common sense are understanding the wor * Both science an sense involve ferences x © Scientists use conceptual schemes and theoretical structures in a systematic and controlled way, * Scientists systematically and empirically test their theories and hypotheses. * Scientists control their research against their own preconceptions and predilections and against selective support of their hypotheses. ©). ©. . h ways of © Scien seek out and “control” delinquency incidence in different kinds of neighborhoods. Scientists consciously and_ systematically pursue relations among phenomena. © Scientists do not concem themselves with metaphysical explanation: Science is a more systematic, controlled, and objective way of understanding the world than common sense. Scientists are constantly testing their theories and hypotheses, and they are careful to avoid personal biases in their research, Created by Hamid Sehar (Geese re 8 Science is not concemed with metaphysical explanations, which are propositions that cannot be tested. Four Methods of Knowing © +s2216ese0738 > Four ways of knowing according to Charles Peirce (1). Method of tenacity People hold on to their beliefs because they have always known them to be true, This method is not very reliable, as people can be wrong and may not be willing to change their minds even when presented with evidence to the contrary. (2). Method of authori People oe because they are told to by someor 1, such as a religious leader, teach ys ee This method can be more nthe method of tenacity, but it is to. make. sure that the person you are ing is knowledgeable and trustworthy. 3). Method of a priori People believe things because they seem to be logically true, even if they cannot be proven or disproven. This method can be useful for certain types of knowledge, such as mathematics, but it is important to be aware that not all logical truths are true in the real world. (4). Scientific method People believe things because they are supported by evidence. This is the most reliable method of knowing, but it can be time-consuming and difficult to implement, What is Research? © +2316 6860735 © seaaie 850705 Research isa systematic and objective process of gathering and recording controlled observation that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or theories resulting in prediction and possibility ultimate control of events. Characteristics of Research (1). Research is directed toward the solution of a problem. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be helpful in predicting future ‘occurrences. Research is based upon observable ‘experience or empirical evidence. Research demands accurate observation and description, Q). @). 4). = harnidseharo@gmnail.covn(S). ©. . (8). Prepared by: Hamid Sehard Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources or using existing data for a new purpose. Although research activity may at times be somewhat random and unsystematic, it is more often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis. Research requires expertise. Research is carefully recorded and reported How is Research Related to Scientific Method? The scientific method is a process for conducting research, It involves the following steps: «@. (2). @). ). (5). ©. Identify a problem or question. Formulate a hypothesis Design an experiment to test the hypothesis. Collect data Analyse the data. Draw conclusions. Research in Education: Significance, Need and Characteristics | Educational research is a systeimatie inquiry into the teaching-learning process and other aspects of education, It is a systematic and scientific study of educational problems, issues, and practices Educational research isyeonducted to improve the quality of education and to make it more effective. Significance of Educational Research Educational research is significant for a number of, reasons. It helps to: a. Q). @). ). (5). Improve teaching and learning practices. Develop new educational programs and materials. Identify and address educational problems. Inform educational policy and decision- making. Promote professional development among educators, Need for Educational Research (). Q. @). Identifying Effective and Learning Strategies Supporting Evidence-Based Decision- Making in Education Evaluating the Impact of Educational Interventions, Programs, and Policies on Student Outcomes Created by Hamid Sehar ‘Teaching (Geese re (8). 2%). (10). a. Addressing Educational Inequities Informing Professional Development Programs for Teachers and Educators Developing More Relevant and Engaging Curricula Designing Fair and Valid Assessment Tools and Accountability Systems Exploring the Integration of Technology and Innovative Teaching Methods Engaging Parents and Communities in the Identifying Cost-Effective Practices Addressing Issues Related to Teacher and Studeat Well-Being Charaéteristies of Educational Research Equeational research is characterized by the following (a), Systematic: Educational research is conducted using a systematic and rigorous process. This process includes defining the research problem, developing a research design, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. Empirical: Educational research is based on evidence collected through observation and measurement. This evidence is used to support or refute hypotheses and theories. Generalizable: Educational research findings should be generalizable to a larger population beyond the sample used in the study. This means that the findings should be relevant to other educational settings. (4). Objective: Educational researchers should strive to be objective and unbiased in their work. This means avoiding personal biases and prejudices and focusing on the evidence. sonia PEt ‘This Chapter has two parts. (i). Classi Of Educational Research by Purpose (i+: Classification Of Educational Researeh | by Purpose We are going to study Only Part-01 cro By = harmidseharo@gmnail.covnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard Clas ion Of Educational Research by Purpose Educational research is divided into three main categories: (1). Basic Research, (2). Applied Research, And (3). Action Research. Basic research is conducted to expand knowledge, while applied research is conducted to solve immediate practical problems. Action research is a type of applied research that is typically conducted by teachers and administrators to address speci problems or gather information for decision- making at the local level. Basic research Basic research, also known as pure research or fundamental research, aims to establish broad educational theories and prineiples applicable to a wide population. It involves rigorous, methodologies, expert training, and complex educational practice. Key characteristics of basic researc! en 9. (1). Focuses on developing, educational theories and princip 2). Demands expertise” and” specialized training. (3). Employs a wide range of research methods. (4). Formulates highily specific hypotheses. (5). Emphasizes careful data collection and error minimization. (6). Involves intricate data analysis. (7). Findings often remain confined to academic publication Applied Research ‘Applied research, also known as functional research, focuses on solving practical problems faced by educators and educational planners. It Jess rigorous than basic research and has a more immediate practical orientation. Key character :s of applied research: (1). Aims to solve specific practical problems in education. (2). Emphasizes practical value and applicability. (3). Involves collaboration between classroom teachers and research speciali fi 5) analysis to yield generalizations that wt) ¢ @ saat e807 Employs a variety of research methods tailored to the problem at hand. 8 (5). May not involve rigorous hypothesis testing ‘or complex data analysis (6). Findings are directly applicable to ‘educational practice. Relationshi between basic and. ied research: ‘© Basic research provides a foundation for applied research by generating new concepts, theories, and methodologies. Applied research informs basic research by identifying new areas of inquiry and ex practical applications of neepts. ys of research are essential for 1g educational knowledge and f Gz educational practice. in_what_ways action research is _helpful_to lassroom? teacher? Describe process of action research with suitable example. Action research The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions is called action research, ‘Action research is a valuable tool for classroom teachers, enabling them to _ systematically investigate their own teaching practices and identify strategies for improvement. It empowers teachers to take an active role in their professional development, fostering a culture of inquiry and continuous learning, within the classroom. Benefits of Action Research for Classroom ‘Teachers: |). Improves Teaching Practice: Action research allows teachers to identify areas for § improvement in their teaching methods, 8 classroom — management, and _—_ student & engagement. It provides a framework for $ testing new strategies, evaluating their gy eMleetiveness, and refining approaches based on evidence. \2). Enhances Student Learning: By focusing on improving teaching practices, action research ultimately aims to enhance student learning Created by Hamid Sehar outcomes. = harnidseharo@gmnail.covn@). (4). Process of Action Researc! (D. Q). 4). ©). Prepared by: Hamid Sehard Teachers gain insights into student needs and learning styles, enabling them to tailor instruction to better meet individual student requirements, Promotes Professional Growth: Action research encourages teachers to become reflective practitioners, critically examining their own teaching and making informed decisions based on data. This process fosters a growth mindset and a commitment to continuous professional development. Empowers Teachers: Action research. ‘empowers teachers to take ownership of their professional development. They are not merely implementing external mandates but actively seeking solutions to improve their teaching and student learning, Identify a Problem or Area _for Improvement: Begin by identifying a specific problem or area for improvement in your teaching practice. This could bew related to student engagements, classtoom management, specific teaching methods, or any aspect of your teaching thaf'You believe could be enhanced. yo Research and Develop a:Plan: Conduct research on the identified problem or area for improveinént.. Review _ relevant literature, consult with colleagues, and seek guidance from mentors or experts. Develop a plan of action that outlines the specific strategies you will implement to address the problem or area for improvement. Implement the Plan: Put your plan into action, carefully observing and documenting your teaching and student responses. Collect data through various methods, such as student surveys, classroom observations, and pre- and post- tests. Analyze and Interpret Data: Analyze the collected data to assess the effectiveness of your implemented strategies. Identify patterns, trends, and insights that emerge from the data. Reflect and Ds clusions: Reflect on the findings of your analysis and draw conclusions about the effectiveness of your implemented strategies. Created by Hamid Sehar (Geese re ° Identify what worked well, what could be improved, and what further questions or areas of inquiry have emerged. (©). Disseminate Findings and_Share_with Colleagues: Share your findings with colleagues, school administrators, or relevant educational communities. Discuss the implications of your research and how it can inform broader improvements in teaching and leaning, Examples of Action Research in the Classroom: eC (1). Improving Student Engagement in Science Labs @.._Enhariéing, Writing Skills in English Laniguaze Learners: (3). PReducing Classroom Disruptions and Promoting Positive Behavior gre ‘Implementing Cooperative Learning Strategies to Enhance Social Skills » 6. Utilizing Technology to Differentiate Instruction and Personalize Learning Sources of Problems for Action Research: (ii). Staff_Meetings: _Discu (W. Classroom Observations: Teachers can identify problems by observing student performance, engagement, and learning ‘outcomes. ing teaching challenges and student needs with colleagues can reveal potential research topics. Department _Chairs or __ Regional Directors: These individuals can provide guidance on relevant research areas and suggest problems to address. ). Institution Librarie: Educational resources and literature can identify potential research problems. Ministry of Education _or_ National Agencies: Educational bodies may introduce new problems —_for experimentation or research. Drawbacks of Action Research: ‘Quality Concerns: Action research may be less rigorous than traditional research due to time constraints and limited resources. Limitations: Findings may not be directly applicable to other sehools or contexts due to unique factors. = hanidseharo@gmnail.covna. Q). @). ). Prepared by: Hamid Sehard ‘Time Constraints: Teachers may face time limitations due to their regular teaching responsibilities. Historical research Definition Historical research in education is the use of historical sources .aiid fechniques to investigate educational issues” and /pfoblems. It aims to understand the/past to inform the present and improve future educational practices. haract Reliance_on_non-repeatable_obseryations: Historical research relies on data from the past, which cannot be directly replicated, Potential for subjectivity: Historical research may be influenced by the researcher's own biases and interpretations, < Verbalized analysis: Historical _resear¢hy involves analyzing and interpreting verbal data_ ) sources, Retrodiction vs. redictior research seeks to understand science aims to predict the future. Steps 5 * Data collection: Gather information from primary and sécondary sources. * Data evaluation: Critically analyze the collected data for authenticity and reliability. * Presentation: Organize, interpret, and present the findings in a clear and meaningful manner. Sourees > Primary sources: Original materials, such as documents, artifacts, and personal accounts, > Secondary sources: Interpretations or analyses of primary sources, such as textbooks and articles. Guidelines (1). Prioritize primary sources Utilize primary sources whenever possible for a more direct understanding of the past. @ saat e807 ° @). 4). 6). (6). Minimize personal bias: — Maintain objectivity and avoid letting personal beliefs influence the research process. Consider social context: Recognize the influence of social, cultural, and political factors on educational practices. Distinguish significant facts: Identify and focus on the most relevant and meaningful information. Synthesize findings: Integrate individual facts into broader generalizations. Interpret language __ appropriately: Consider the historical context and usage of language when analyzing sources. Historical research encompasses various areas of educational inquiry, includin; Cd. Gi. Gi). ww). (i). Biographies: Exploring the lives and contributions of influential educators. Institutional histories: Tracing the development and evolution of educational institutions. Ideological development: Examining the changing landscape of educational ideas and philosophies, Sources and influences: Identifying the factors that shaped educational practices over time. Legal foundations: Investigating the legal and regulatory frameworks governing education. Bibliographical_studies: Compiling and analyzing educational literature from different periods. Descriptive Research Descriptive r understand the present state of a phenomenon or population, It gathers data to describe conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, relationships, or trends without making causal inferences. 2 Characteristics 2316 8560735 (). Q. arch aims to describe and Population-focused: Descriptive research focuses on the characteristics of a group or population rather than individual cases. Larger sample size: Descriptive research typically involves collecting data from a relatively large number of subjects to ensure generalizability. Created by Hamid Sehar 2% hamidseharo@graail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard (3). Practical__applications Descriptive research provides information useful for solving local problems and_ informing decision-making. (4). Broad scope: Descriptive research can be applied to a wide range of research questions and topics. (5). Qualitative or quantitative: Descriptive research can employ qualitative methods (eg, interviews, observations) or quantitative methods (@.g., surveys, questionnaires) to collect data. Applications fae Descriptive research serves various purposes, including: (). Problem _ identi Descriptive research helps identify existing problems or areas for improvement. (2). Historical perspective: Descriptive _» research provides a snapshot of conditions at a particular point in time. (3). Predictive insights: Descriptive researc can suggest pattems and trends thaf may inform future developments», (4). Tool_development: Descriptive research contributes to the™§develépment of measurement tools | and assessment instruments. | ) (5). Knowledge advaneement: Descriptive research adds to our understanding of various phenomena and populations. (©). Background information: Descriptive Steps in Conducting Descriptive Research (. . GB). (4). ©). research provides a foundation for further research and deeper analysis, fae Define objectives: Clearly articulate the specific goals of the research. Sample selection: Determine the appropriate sample size and sampling method to represent the target population. Data__collectio1 Collect data using appropriate methods, such as surveys, interviews, or observations. Data analysis: Organize, analyze, and interpret the collected data Report findings: Present the research findings in a clear, concise, and well- structured report. Created by Hamid Sehar (Geese re Applications in Distance Education Descriptive research is particularly useful in 8 distance education for: rogram aims and outcomes: the effectiveness of Evaluating instructional programs. ing procedural issues and areas for improvement. Institutional appraisal: Condu ‘comprehensive evaluations of education institutions, Finangial_analysis: Examining financial resources ahd resource allocation, Building’surveys: Assessing the adequacy and stlitability of learning spaces. ‘Staff development and teacher training needs assessment: Identifying gaps and prioritizing profes development opportunities. 1g distance Experimental research Experimental research aims to establish 8 cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an 3 independent variable and observing the changes in $ a dependent variable under controlled conditions. It $ is considered the most rigorous method of gy Cducational research, Characteristics (1). Control: Experimental research involves controlling extraneous variables to isolate the impact of the independent variable. 2). Randomization: Random assignment of participants to experimental and control groups reduces bias and ensures comparability. (3). Replication: Repeating the experiment with different samples enhances the generalizability of findings. Steps (H. Planning: Formulate research questions, identify variables, design the experiment, and select participants. (ii). Conducting: Manipulate the independent variable, control extraneous factors, and measure the dependent variable. Q 2200705 = hanidseharo@gmnail.covnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard Reporting: Analyze and interpret data, draw conclusions, and communicate findings in a clear and concise manner, ‘Types of Experimental Designs (i). Single Group Design: Measures a single group before and after the introduction of the treatment. Parallel_or Equivalent Group Design: Compares an experimental group to a control group under different conditions. Rotation Group __Design: —_ Rotates participants through different experimental conditions 0 control for individual differences, Applications in Education Experimental research can be used to investigate various educational issues, such as: (1). Effectiveness of _ teaching _ methods: Evaluating different instructional) approaches and their impact on,student learning. Curriculum development;:Asséssing the effectiveness of different cufficula and interventions Classroom __management strategies: Investigating the, impact of various classroom miifagement techniques on student Behavior. Technology integration: Evaluating the effectiveness of using technology in the classroom. (2). @). (4). Unit-3 FUSER OS CORU ARSENE WHAT IS HISTORY? Seas History is a meaningful record of man's achievements, it is not merely a list of chronological events, but truthful integrated account of the relation this between persons, events, times and places According to Travers, history is not just a tuction of the past. It must reflect the spirit of critical inquiry that aims to achieve a faithful representation of past events. Arguments against history being a science: © Past events are unique and cannot be repeated, recot Created by Hamid Sehar (Geese re Historians rely on the observations of others, which are not as reliable as self- observation. © Historians must infer what happened and why. © Historians cannot control the conditions and variables they study. Arguments in Favor of history being a s * Historians use the scientific method to collect and analyze evidence, * Historians can collect and analyze multiple sources to get a more accurate picture of what happenedy © Historians/use the same scientific method as scientistsito'feach conclusions. * Although it is not possible to control all the cOnditions and variables in history, this is also ‘ue of other social sciences Conclusi Whether or not history is a science is a matter of debate, There are strong arguments on both sides. However, it is clear that historians use scientific methods to collect and analyze their evidence, and that history is a systematic and rigorous discipline. FORMULATION OF PROBLEM FOR HISTORICAL RESEARCH Introduction The first step in historical research is to select and develop a problem to study. Beginners often choose a topic that is too broad, while experienced historians know that it is better to focus on a specific and limited problem in order to conduct a penetrating analy: © se2a10 8580706 (1). Identifying a Problem Historical inquiry begins when a historian questions an event, development, or experience of the past. This can be triggered by the discovery of new source material, the interpretation of existing data, or simply a desire to fill a gap in knowledg 2). Focusing the Problem Once a historian has identified a general problem, they need to narrow it down to a specific and manageable question, This can be done by identifying the crucial points that gave rise to the initial doubts or concerns. fie = harnidseharo@gmnail.covmnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard (3). Checking the Feasibility of the Problem Before proceeding further, the historian needs to check whether the problem is answerable by available methods of inquiry and sources of data. Historians can vestigate a wide range of topics, including individuals, institutions, organizations, curricula, administrative structures and proc Ses, textbooks, teacher preparation, equipment, facilities, important concepts and ideas, and other educational phenomena. They can focus on a specific period of time, culture, or subculture. What are the different types of historical research questions? Historians can ask many different types of questions about the past, such as: © What happened? © Why did it happen’ © Who was involved? © What were the consequences? What can we learn from it? How to formulate = goodghistafiggh Nich question A good historical research aes stion should be: * Specific and focused, | * Answerable usingavailable sources and methods. ¢ © Original and significant Examples Of Good Historical Research Questions: * What role did women play in the American Civil War? * How did the Black Death affect European society? © What were the causes of the French Revolution? * How did the Cold War impact global polities? HISTORICAL SOURCES _& 922108800735, ication 1 (1). Physical_remains: Historic sites, roads, pyramids, fortifications, —_buil furnitun ngs, (2). Human remains: Clothing, food, utensils, pottery, implements, weapons, mach ery, industrial processes, fine arts and museum pieces of many kinds. Created by Hamid Sehar @ saat e807 ° }). Orally transmitted material: Folklore, legends, ballads, tales, anecdotes, traditions, customs, manners, burials, ceremonials, social institutions and languages. (4). More elementary and durable kinds of representative or artistic materials not written in the ordinary sense such as inscriptions baked upon clay, stones, monuments, stamped coins, vases, portrait sculptures, historic paintings, and portraits. (5). Handwritten material (sometimes in print) including papyri, vellum or parchment manuscripts and such more recent doétiments as biographies and diaries. (©). Printed books, papers, and literature. A picture film, microfilm and recordings, © including radio and television. “@). ~ Personal observation by the writer or by the people he interviewed. Classification 2 (1). Documents: Records kept and written by actual participants in or witnesses of an event. These sources are produced for the purpose of transmitting information to be used in future. Q). Remains _or Physical objects produced without the conscious intention of imparting connected information. © +e2a188500706 Examples of Documents and Remains > Documents: ‘© Legislative acts such as constitutions, laws, charters. * Court decisions. « Executive and other official records: > Newspapers and periodicals ° Articles. © News notices © Advertisements. > Personal materi: © Autobiographies, memoirs and biographies. ¢ Histories written by actors in the events narrated. © Letters Harid Sehar © Lecturenotes. 3 #92316 8560735, = hamnidseharo@gmnail.covnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard Remai * School buildings and their furnishings. * Photographs of buildings or furnishings or of children, teachers, parents engaged in educational activities + Forms of diplomas, attendance, and certificates ‘* Various physical devices of the school for teaching, punishment, exercise or health, * Textbooks, manuscripts, _exercise- books made by pupils and pupils maps and drawings. ication No. 3: Primary and Secondary Sources (1). Primary sources Primary sources are firsthand accounts of events or phenomena, They are created by people who, "| directly experienced or witnessed what they ate) writing about. Examples of primary sources” include: * Diaries Letters Speeches Interviews Crd > Government docuitients Photographs Artifacts (2). Secondary sources Secondary sources are accounts of events or phenomena that are written by people who did not directly experience or witness them. They are often based on primary sources, but they may also include the author's own interpretation or analysis. Examples of secondary sources include: ‘Textbooks Articles Books fio Websites Documentaries Examples to _Distinguish/Primary Secondary Sources Example 1: Primary: Secretary's minutes of a meetin; Secondary: Newspaper editor's comments on © snaaisescorss and (Geese re 8 ‘The secretary's minutes are a primary source because they are a firsthand account of the meeting. ‘The newspaper editor's comments are a secondary source because they are a second-hand interpretation of the meeting. Example 2: Primary: Official registration cards for students in a school Secondary: Newspaper_report_based_on_the analysis of the registration cards The registration cards are a primary source because they are a firsthand account of the students! demographic information, The newspaper report is & secondary Source because it is a second-hand interpretation of, data on the registration cards. 2 Gefieral tips for distinguishing primary and £001 ndary sources: ‘* Primary sources are usually created by someone who was directly involved in the event or topic being studied. Secondary sources are usually created by someone who has analyzed and interpreted primary sources. Primary sources are usually first-hand accounts, while secondary sources are usually interpretations of primary sources. Primary sources are usually more specific and detailed, while secondary sources are usually more general and analytical. Primary Sources of Data +823168560735 the meeting (1). Documents: Reports and writings by participants or witnesses of an event Exampl constitutions, laws, court decisions, minutes, autobiographies, letters, diaries, contracts, deeds, wills, permits, licenses, affidavits, depositions, declarations, proclamations, certificates, lists, handbills, bills, receipts, newspaper and magazine accounts, advertisements, maps, diagrams, books, pamphlets, catalogues, films, pictures, paintings, inscriptions, recordings, transcriptions, and research reports (2). Remains or Relies: Objects associated with a person, group, or period. Examples: tools, weapons, food utensils, clothing, buildings, furniture, pictures, paintings, coins, and art objects Created by Hamid Sehar = hamidseharo@gmaail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard These sources may provide evidence about the past, even if they were not intended to be used as records. (3). Oral Te © Spoken accounts of witnesses or icipants in an event Obtained through personal interviews or transcribed recordings. Primary Sources of Educational Data for jorical Research > Documents * Records of government and educational institutions © Surveys, charters, deeds, school/college newspapers Annual bulletins, catalogs, courses of study Curriculum guides, athletic game records, certificates Textbooks, examinations, report cards, pictuf€®) Drawings, maps, _ letters, ae autobiographies xO. Teachers’ and pupils’ personal eae students, > Oral Testimony Interviews with sain relatives, school men student work, recordings ss in education > Relics Buildings, fumituee Te materials, equipment, memorials, decorative pictures, textbooks, examinations, and samples of student work Examples of prima education in Pakistan: Report of the Commission on National Education, 1959 Curriculum Committee Report, 1960 Report of the Commission of Students Problems and Welfare Proposals for the New Education Policy, 1969 by Nur Khan Education Policy 1972-80 National Education Policy - 1978 Curriculum outlines for classes I to X, PTC, CT, B. Ed. in various subjects by different curriculum committees Five Year Plans sources for the study of Created by Hamid Sehar 8 (Geese re Interviews with administrators, teachers, students, and other experts in education Buildings such as the houses of Quaid-e- Azam Muhammad All Jinnah and Allama Iqbal Secondary Sources of Data Secondary sources of data refer to information that has been collected, processed, and analyzed by someone other than the researcher for a purpose different from their current research or analysis. ‘Types of sealer Sources: (@. Published sources (books, academic ii newspapers, magazines, reports) iM “onl ine databases (digital libraries, archives, ine resources) er Government and official reports dee). Encyclopedias andgference works D (x). Surveys and studies Purpose And Use of Secondary Data: Secondary data can be used to: Gain a broad understanding of a topic. Identify trends and patterns. Generate new hypotheses for research, Support or refute claims made in primary research, © Provide context for primary research findings. * Make comparisons between different studies. HISTORICAL CRITICISM —& 823168860735 Historical criticism is a method of studying and analysing texts, particularly in the fields of literature, biblical studies, and history, with a focus, on understanding their historical context, origins, and development. ‘Types of criticism This criticism is of two types, i.c., external and internal. (1). External Criticism (authenticity) External criticism deals with the genuineness of the document ie. whether the document is what i seems to be & reads true to the original (Good: 136) External criticism is the process of determining the authenticity of a historical source. = harnidseharo@gmnail.covnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard> (2) 492.316 8560 735 ° It is concerned with the question of whether a How do Historians Perform Internal Criticism? document is what it purports to be, and whether it Historians use a variety of methods to perform is a genuine product of the time and place from internal criticism. Some of the most common which it claims to originate. methods include: (i). Considering the author's qualifications. ‘ternal criticism is important because it allows Was the author knowledgeable about the historians to distinguish between genuine sources subject matter? Was the author in a position and forgeries. Without external criticism, it would to observe the events they are describing? be impossible to know whether a particular source (ii). Analysing the author's bias. Did the is reliable or not. This would make it difficult to author have any reason to distort the truth? reconstruct the past accurately. Were they trying to promote a particular How do Historians Perform External Criticism? point of view? Historians use a variety of methods to perform (iii). Examining the content of the source, Is external criticism, Some of the most common the sOuree, consistent with other known methods include: solifées? “Are there any anachronisms © Examining the physical characteristics of Mdhings that are out of place the source. This includes looking at the type chronologically)? of paper, the ink, the handwriting, and the | » (ty), Looking for evidence of corroboration. binding. | ©) Can the author's claims be supported by other evidence, such as archaeological ‘© Analysing the content of the source. This #| includes looking for anachronisms (things findings or eyewitness accounts? that are out of place chronologically), Examples of Internal Criticism in Action inconsistencies, and plagiarism.e. |") > Inthe 19th century, historians used internal * Comparing the source tovother known criticism to evaluate the credibility of the sources. This includes looking for works of Herodotus, an ancient Greek similarities and differences in style, content, historian, Herodotus was known for his and vocabulary. 6% | entertaining stories and his _ vivid 2). Internal Criticism(Credibility) descriptions of exotic places. However, Internal criticism deals with the meaning and internal criticism revealed that Herodotus trustworthiness of statements remaining within the was also prone to exaggeration and document in other words it weighs the testimony of embellishment.\ document in relation to the truth. (Good: 137) > Inthe 20th century, historians used internal criticism to evaluate the credibility of the of evaluating the diaries of Hitler's private secretary, Martin Bormann. Bormann's diaries were discovered after World War II and they were initially thought to be a valuable Internal criticism is the proc credibility of a historical source. It is concemed with the question of whether a source is accurate and truthful, and whether it is a reliable representation of the past. 3 source of information about Hitler's inner yg circle. However, internal criticism revealed Why is Internal Criticism Important? that Bormann's diaries were actually full of Internal criticism is important because it allows lies and propaganda. historians to distinguish between reliable and unreliable sources. Without internal criticism, it Principles of Internal Criticism would be difficult to know which sources to trust (@. Don't read modem ideas into old and which sources to avoid. This would make it : difficult to reconstruct the past accurately. Q. ame an author is ignorant of something jus it because they don't mention Hamid Sehar 92 36.9560 735 Created by Hamid Sehar = hamidseharo@gmaail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard (3). Don't overestimate or underestimate a source (4). One source can prove the existence of an idea, but multiple sources are needed to prove the reality of events or facts. (). Identical errors in multiple sources show that they are dependent on each other. (6). If two sources contradict each other, one or both may be wrong. (7). Independent witnesses who report the same central fact can be trusted, even if they disagree on minor details. (8). Official testimony should be compared with unofficial testimony, whenever possible. (9). A document can be reliable for some information, but not for other information. Examples of Historical Criticism (2). ‘The Cardiff Giant In 1869, a giant figure was found buried in tl ground of a farm near Cardiff, New York. “ae experts believed that it was a fossilized, humai while others thought it was an an ue, ent However, a newspaper reporter tra of the giant to a bam in Cis it was revealed to be a hoax =< cutter. 2). The Bake Art Pi A painting was brougiitto the United States labeled as a self-portrait by a famous Duteh artist. The painting was admitted to the country duty-free, but, some experts were unwilling to accept it as an (Geese re 8 ‘THE HISTORICAL HYPOTHESIS Historians, like scientists, use hypotheses to explain and understand historical events, However, the nature of historical research means that hypotheses in history are often more complex and. difficult to test than those in science. This is because historians deal with a much wider range of factors, and they are often unable to recreate past events under laboratory conditions. Examples of Historical Hypotheses Some well-known historical hypotheses include (i. Carlyle's thesis that great men are the major celts inimpogant events (ii). 'swhypothesis that the fall of the mpire was eaused by the refusal of the Roman soldiers to wear armor, the isintegration of the Roman army through staffing with barbarian officers, and moral corruption. {iii).. Toynbee's hypothesis that creative response to challenges or difficulties is the cause of the flourishing of civilizations. ‘Hypothesis in Research in Educational Histo Hypotheses can also be used in research in educational history, Some examples of hypotheses that could be tested in historical investigations into the Pakistan education system include: * The British deliberately prevented the spread of education in areas from where lange numbers of soldiers were recruited, original work. B « Theland-owning gentry in Pakistan created 3 obstacles in the spread of education in their 3). coln's Letter 2 ae A letter attributed to Abraham Lincoln was found sete Christian missions were given financial to be a forgery because it contained geographical | cy support by the British and American terms and expressions that were not in use at the ‘governments for weakening the will of the time that Lincoln would have written it, Muslims to resist inroads by Christianity: 7 : * The emergence of a national system of (4). The Diary of James Gallatin education has been resisted by the A diary that was supposedly written by James bineacay Gallatin, the secretary to Albert Gallatin, was © The system of grants-in-aid was introduced published in 1914, However, the authenticity of the to stifle the madresah system of education diary was questioned because it contained inaccuracies and discrepancies. It was later revealed that the diary was a hoax created by a man Ha;i OSehar who signed his name as "Count Gallatin." & 492316 8560735 Created by Hamid Sehar 2%) hamidseharo@gmail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard Hypotheses © Christian missio for historical investigations into education system: * The British intentionally hindered education in areas where many soldiers were recruited. * Land-owning gentry in Pakistan obstructed education in their regions. received support from the British and American governments to. weaken Muslim resistance to Christianity. © Bureaucracy resisted the development of a national education system, + Grants-in-aid were introduced to suppress the madrasah system of education. ‘THE HISTORICAL REPORT. Historical research is a systematie process of gathering and evaluating evidence to learn abut the past. The findings of historical research are typically reported will research report, using simple n a research reports This'€ssay describe the format and contentof a ‘historical inglish)for better understanding. Format ‘The format of a historicabresearch report is similar to that of other types of fésearch reports. It typically includes the following sections: a. (2). (3). 4). Introduction: This section introduces the topic of the report, states the research question or hypothesis, and provides a brief overview of the findin; Literature review: This section reviews the existing literature on the topic of the report. It identifies and discusses the major scholarly works on the topic, as well as any ‘gaps in the literature. Methodology: This section describes the methods used to gather and analyze the data for the study. It may include a discussion of the sources of data, the research design, and the data analysis methods. Results: This section presents the findings of the study. It may include tables, charts, and other figures to illustrate the findings. Created by Hamid Sehar (Geese re 6). ©. ‘Gist neassoras (a). Q). Content The content of a historical research report will vary depending on the specific topic of the study. However, all historical research reports should include the following: Discussion: This section interprets and discusses the findings of the study in relation to the existing literature and the research question or hypothesis. Conelusion: This section summarizes the main findings of the study and discusses their implications. fie A’clear statement of the research question ‘or hypothes A thorough review of the existing literature ‘on the topic. A description of the methods used to gather and analyse the data. A presentation of the findings of the study. An interpretation and discussion of the findings. A conclusion that summarizes the main findings of the study and discusses their implications. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Explain_technique_of controlling extraneous iab Techniques of Controlling Extraneous Variables Extraneous variables are variables that are not of interest to the study but can affect the results. There are a number of techniques that can be used to control for extraneous variables. Removing the variable: This is the most effective way to control for an extraneous variable, but it is not always possible. For example, if sex is an extraneous variable, the study may be limited to one sex only. Randomization: This is the process of randomly assigning subjects tothe experimental and control groups. This helps. to ensure that the groups are equal in terms of ll extraneous variable Matching cases: This is the process of assigning subjects to the experimental and control groups so that they are similar in terms of a specific variable = harnidseharo@gmnail.covnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard For example, if age is an extrancous variable, subjects could be matched on age. @. 6). Experiment Balancing cases: This is the process of assigning subjects to the experimental and control groups so that the groups have similar means and variances. This is not as strong as matching, but it can be usefil if matching is not possible. Analysis of covariance: This is a statistical technique that can be used to control for extraneous variables after the data has been collected. This can be useful if it is not possible to control for extraneous variables before the study begins. fie LV ity In most research, there are variables that can affect the results, making it difficult to determine the true effect of the independent variable. These variables are called extraneous variables. There are two types of validity: (. (2). Internal_validity: This is the extent to which the results of the experiment aF@\due to the independent variable and not torother factors. External validity: This is the extent to which the results,of the experiment can be generalized to other populations and settings It is important to strive for both internal and external validity in research. However, it is often difficult to achieve both at the same time. For example, tightening controls to improve internal validity can make the experiment less realistic and therefore less generalizable. ‘Tips For Improving Experimental Valid Identify and control for | extraneous variables. Use a randomized design. Replicate the experiment. Use a variety of re methods. Be aware of the limitations of your study. yeh designs and Haric Sehar 4) +92216 8560735 (Geese re What valid cond: t are the internal and external threats to ity when experimental research is jucted to study the effects of audio-visual aids in teaching science? Internal Threats History: Events during the study that affect results. : Changes in participants over Testing: Pre-testing and_ post-testi affect performance. entation: Changes in measurement can affectresults, Selection:/How participants are selected can affect results. g can External Threats Population: Results may not generalize to other populations. Ecological: Results may not generalize to other settings. Experimental Manipulation: Results may not generalize if implemented inconsistently. Mitigating Threats Randomization: Control for selection bias. Standardization: Increase reliability and generalizability. Pilot_Testing: Identify and address potential problems. Replication: Increase confidence in findings. ‘Triangulation: Provide amore ‘comprehensive understanding, Other Part of Ch-04 (You Can Skip) ray TOOLS AND TECHNIQUE! INTRODUCTII This research in educational planning and management: @. Q). @). 4). OF RESEARCH (Q +92216 9560735 unit discusses the four most common tools of Questionnaires, Interviews, Observation, And ‘Tests And Appraisal Instruments. Created by Hamid Sehar = hamidseharo@gmaail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard Questionnaire © verse 8860 A questionnaire is a set of questions used to collect information from respondents. It can be used in a variety of research contexts, such as educational planning and management. ‘Types of questionnaires There are four main types of questionnaires: closed-form, open-form, pictorial, and scale items (). Closed form, Closed-form questionnaires provide respondents with a fixed set of answer choices. This type of questionnaire is easy to administer and score, but it may limit the depth of responses. Example: Question: What is your favourite colour? Answer choices: fae Hamid Sehar © Orange ae + Yellow 492 516 8560735 (i). Open form te Open-form questionnaires allow _aespe to questionnaire can provi information, but it administer and score. moré in-depth re difficult 10 Example: ¢ > Why did you choose to become an educator? > Why did you choose to do your M.A. in EPM in this university? Answer: The respondent can write their answer in their own words. (ii). Pictorial form: Pictorial questionnaires use pictures or drawings instead of words to ask questions, This type of questionnaire can be useful for collecting data from children or adults with limited literacy skills. (iv). Seale item A scale item is a question to which the respondent expresses his agreement or disagreement of various levels. Scale item questionnaires ask respondents to rate their agreement or disagreement with a statement ‘ona scale. This type of questionnaire is often used to measure attitudes or opinions. Created by Hamid Sehar (Geese re ° Example: Question: I enjoy teaching. Scale: Hamid Sehar Strongly disagree Saeed Gi). Disagree Gi). Neither agree nor disagree (iv). Agree (vy). Strongly agree. Construction of a Questionnaire (1). Framing of questions: * Make sure questions are clear, concise, and focused, . Provide @thaustive answer choi _ Etame questions to elicit specific answers. Q).* , Sess w of questions: y= questions in a logical sequence. tart with easy questions and gradually progress to more difficult ones. Designing the directions and format: Give clear and complete directions. * Use a format that is easy to read and understand (4). Eliciting honest replies: © Avoid asking questions that may be ‘embarrassing or threatening to respondents. * Guarantee anonymity or confidentiality. * Avoid asking questions that are leading or biased, * Ask specifie questions to check the truthfulness of answers. + Ask parallel questions to check consistency of answers. Criteria of Question-Writing ( +823168560735 (1). Relevance to research problem and objectives (2). Appropriateness for type of sought, ). Clarity and unambiguousness (4). (5). Suitability for respondent's knowledge and willingness to answer. (©). Avoidance of personal or delicate topies (7). Lack of social desirability bias Har id Sehar © +92318 8560735 = hamnidseharo@gmnail.covnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard (Geese re Administration of the Questionnaire | | [Opinionnaire And Attitude Scale Admi > > (D. * Disadvantages: * Disadvantages: istration of the Questionnaire Pretest the questionnaire to ensure it is valid and reliable. Administer the questionnaire through direct contact or mail irect conta © Adyantages: Can explain the purpose and significance of the study, clarify points answer questions, motivate respondents, and obtain new partial responses and refusals, Difficult and costly to bring a group together or meet members individually. Mailed questionnaires: Advantages: Quick and easy to reach many people in widely scattered areas at a relatively low cost Low return rates_mayy introduce bias, and cannot obtain | representative sample. from a gi that includes some non-readerst © 492316 8560735 Steps for Better Response through, Questionnaire (1). Choose respond refullly. Q). Include a courteous gover letter explaining the purpose of the study and offering an inducement for compliance. (3). Consider providing for _ anonymous responses if the desired information is delicate or intimate in nature. (4). Follow up with slow responders, Uses of Questionnaire (1. Assessing student learning (2). Evaluating teaching effectiveness (3). Gathering data for educational research Limitations of Questionnaire . Sil ‘Truthfulness_and_accuracy: Respondents may not give truthful or accurate answers, either intentionally or unintentionally. Low response rates: Mailed questionnaires often have low response rates, especially in Pakistan, juational_bias: Respondents may answer questionnaires at different times and in different circumstances, which can bias their responses. Created by Hamid Sehar ~ (use) Opinionnaires and attitude scales are used in a wide 4)°) variety of research contexts, including: @. Opinionnaire Opinionnaire is a research instrument that is used to collect data about the opinions, beliefs, and attitudes of a particular population. It typically consists of a series of questions or statements that respondents are asked to rate or respond to in some way. Attitude scale ‘Altitude scale is a type of opinionnaire that is specifically designed to measure the attitudes of individuals or groups towards a particular object or issue. Attitudeyscales typically use a Likert scale format, wheres their level Of,agreement or disagreement with a series of statements. yondents are asked to indicate : Ae Market research: To collect data about consumer preferences and opinions about products, services, and brands. Public opinion research: To collect data about public opinion on a variety of social, political, and economic issues. ch: To collect data about the attitudes and beliefs of, individuals and groups on a variety of topies, such as race, gender, religion, and polities. ). Social science res (iv). Educational research: To collect data about student attitudes towards school, learning, and teachers. (v). Organizational research: To collect data about employee attitudes towards their jobs, their managers, and the organization asa whole. Interviews © sez assorss and data collection where a interviewer engages in a face-to-face, verbal, or written conversation with one or more individuals to gather information, insights, or opinions on a Interviews are a method of qualitative research researcher or i topic or subject of interest. Har id Sehar 4 #92916 8560735 = hammidseharo@gmail.comnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard ‘Types of Interviews (). Q. @). . ©. Inter Interviewer must be trained, Individual interviews are conducted with ‘one person at a time. Group interviews are conducted with two ‘or more people at a time. Structured interviews use a predetermined set of questions. Unstructured interviews do not use a predetermined set of questions. Interviews that do not use a predetermined set of questions, allowing for more flexibility, but can make it more difficult to compare responses across interviewees. Non-direetive interviews allow the interviewee to talk freely about a particular topic. Focused interviews focus on a specific experience that the interviewee has had. views can be used to: Identify variables and relationships. Suggest hypothe Guide other phases of research. Measure variables © Supplement other research pretested and revised t ambiguity and inadequate wording. Steps In Conducting of An Interview @. @). Record the interview on tape to avoid Preparation: Have a clear idea of what information you want to obtain. Outline the sequence of questions, Think about the style of interview that will best elicit the desired responses. Establishing rapport: Be friendly and talk about a topic of interes to the interviewee. Assure the interviewee that their responses will be confidential. Recording the intervie istractions and to capture the interviewee's tone of voice and emotional impact. Interview as a Data-gathering Tool ‘An interview is a data-gathering tool that involves a face-to-face conversation between two people, where the interviewer asks questions, and the interviewee answers them. | (Geese re ° Interviews are used to collect data for a variety of purposes, including research, journalism, and job hiring. Interviews are a valuable data-gathering tool because they can be used to collect a wide range of data, including: (1). Personal opinions: Interviews can be used to collect information about people's opinions on a variety of topics, such as their political views, their satisfaction with a product or service, or their experiences with a particular program or event. (2). Experiences: Interviews can be used to colle mation about people's past Kay ;, such as their childhood, their nal background, or their work history. ttitudes: Interviews can be used to collect 6 information about people's _ attitudes ry) towards a variety of things, such as their race, gender, or religion, (4). Motivations: Interviews can be used to collect information about people's motivations, such as why they make certain choices or why they behave in certain ways. Observation © *s2a16ese0735 Observation is a data-gathering tool that involves watching and recording human Behavior, events, or phenomena in their natural setting. It is one of the oldest and most widely used research methods in the social s Observation as a Data-Gathering Tool * Human Behavior: Observe people's interactions, body language, and facial expressions. Events: Observe the number of people who attend, the activities that take place, and the interactions between people. Phenomena: Observe the occurrence, factors that influence, and consequences of the phenomenon, Observation can be either structured or nces. © #92316 8560735 unstructured. Structured observation involves using a predetermined set of categories to record the Behavior or event. Unstructured observation involves recording the Behavior or event without using any predetermined categories. Created by Hamid Sehar = hamidseharo@graail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard Observation can also be either overt or covert. Overt observation involves the observer being known to the people being observed. Covert observation involves the observer being hidden from the people being observed. How Obser n_Is Used as A Data-Gath ig Tool Observation is used in a variety of settings, including: (i). Research: Researchers use observation to collect data for a variety of research projects, such as studies of child development, studies of — classroom dynamics, and studies of organizational behavior. Education: Teachers use observation to assess student learning and to identify students who need additional support. Business: Businesses use observation tog | collect data on customer behavior, to study, | the effectiveness of marketing campaigns, ) and to identify areas where improvément is needed. AW (iv). Law enforcement: Lay forcement officers use observation to investigate crimes and to preven activity. Aa Methods of Recording Observations (D. Checklist. ~~ A list of items to be observed, with checkboxes to indicate presence or absence. Example: + Is a copy of the approval of P.CA available? YES /NO Has a time schedule been prepared to start various major activities? YES/ NO Has detailed drawing of the building been prepared? YES /NO 8 (Geese re (3). Score card A table that assigns point values to different aspects of something, with a total score that can be used to evaluate the whole (4). Scaled specimen A series of graded samples that can be used to evaluate something by comparison. Tests And Appraisal Instruments Various research-based appraisal instruments, such, as tests, inventories, and stales, have been developed for use in behavioural research. These instruments are, designed to describe and measure different as human Behavior. They come ingudegrees of validity, reliability, and appli¢abilitygand you can find a comprehensive list in th€ Mental Measurement Yearbook. Lata sification of Tests Appraisal instruments ean be broadly categorized into two group: (1). Achievement tests: ‘These tests measure what an individual has learned or their current level of performance in a specific area, such as typing, spelling, or reading. They can be used to diagnose strengths and weaknesses, evaluate the impact of teaching methods, and more. (2). Aptitude tests: Aptitude tests aim to predict an individual's potential for improved performance with additional training, whether in academic or vocational fields. They can provide a comprehensive profile of an individual's abilities to guide career choices. 2 (3). Personality tes These tests assess non-intellectual aspects of human behavior, including characteristics and attitudes. They can be divided into two categories: Personality questionnaires: These self- report instruments measure various aspects ‘+ Has the building plan been approved? YES/NO | epctchmeige:-cnditerc tonca aed itor : 8 personality assessment. Examples include (2). Rating seale 3 the | MMPI(Minnesota — Multi-phasic Ascale used to rate the quality of something, with | @ Inventory) and the CPI different levels of performance indicated by | g Projective techniques: These methods, g- iques: different numbers or words - like the Rorschach test and Thematic Example: 9 Apperception test, involve _ presenting In describing the quality of construction of a Vague or undefined situations to el building; the following categories may be used: responses ‘that reveal an individual's trae Bscollent Good 9 verase-t + elow Avense tour characteristics and interpretations. Created by Hamid Sehar =p hamidseharo@graail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard °@ While projective instruments are less likely to be influenced by social conventions, they may lack (1). Convenience Sampling standardized administration and scoring, relying (2). Purposive Sampling heavily on the examiner's skill and clinical (3). Snowball Sampling crests ay experience. The choice of tests depends on the (4). Quota Sampling . research's purpose and requirements. Need of and Advantages of Samplin; How to Choose a Test for Use? (2 +82316 8560735 Need for samy Qualities of a good test: «It is often not feasible or affordable to (1). Standardization: The test should be collect data from the entire population. administered and scored in a consistent © Sampling allows us to make inferences manner for all subjects. about the population based on a smaller (2). Reliability: The test should produce sample, consistent results when administered to the | Advantages ‘of sampling: same subjects on multiple occasions, (1). Reduced.eost: Sampling is less expensive (3). Validity: The test should measure what it is than collecting data from the entire intended to measure. population. To choose a test, the researcher should consider the (2)e. Greater speed: Data can be collected and following: analyzed more quickly with a sample than What is the purpose of the test? with a complete count ‘* What population is the test designed for? (3)... Greater_scope: Sampling allows us to * What is the test's standardization, collect more detailed information than we reliability, and validity coefficients? could with a complete count. Steps Involved in Choosing a Test? (4). Greater accuracy: Well-irained personnel (1). Identify the purpose of the test. can collect more accurate data from a (2). Identify the population for which the test is sample than from the entire population. designed. (3). Review the test manual to assess the test's | | Population And Sample © eeaasassons standardization) reliability, and validity. A population is the entire set of individuals or (4). Select the test that best meets your needs. ‘objects that a researcher wants to study. The population may consist of all the individuals of a particular type or a more restricted part of that . _ group. Examples Of Populations: The purpose of research is to discover universal principles, but researchers often use small samples due to practical constraints. Sampling allows us to draw valid inferences about the population based on a small sample. The quality of our inferences depends on the adequacy of the sample. ory SAMPLING TECHNIQUES © The population of all humans on Earth The population of all blue whales in the ocean * The population of all cars in a city © The population of all students in a school * The population of all voters in an election © +02016 a880725 ‘Type of Samples Probability Samples: (J). Simple Random Sampling The sampled population is the subset of the target population that is actually selected for a study. This : ; subset should be representative of the entire target i seiinel sane ee population in order to ensure that the results of the . : te By ty cue eae sah study can be generalized to the entire population. Created by Hamid Sehar = hamidseharo@gmaail.comPrepared by: Hamid Sehard ‘Target popul: The target population is the entire group of individuals or objects that a researcher is interested in studying. This population may be very large or very small, and it may be geographically dispersed. Example: > Target population: All students in a school. > — Sampled population: A random sample of 100 students from the school ‘Types of population (i). Homogeneous population: A population where all members are alike with respect to a number of characteristics. Heterogeneous population: A population where members differ from one another in a number of ways. Example: A student population where all members are from (i. the same country and have the same level of | education is a homogeneous population. A student population where members are fiom differente countries and have different levels of education, isa heterogeneous population. yw Av, ¥y ? A sample isa sub-set of @bjectsthings/units taken from the population complete set) for observation’ and study. A sample is a subset of a larger population that is selected for the purpose of conducting research or collecting data, Sample Selection Methods (1). Sample without replacement Each member of the population has an equal chanee of being included in the sample. ‘Once a member is included, they are not eligible to be selected again. This method is used when it is important for each member to have an equal chance of being included in the sample, (2). Sample with replacement Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, regardless of whether they have been selected before. This method is used when it is not important for each member to have an equal chance of being included in the sample. Sample Created by Hamid Sehar [eres ° (3). Sampling frame A list of the members of the population divided into parts from which the sample is to be drawn is called the sampling frame. A sampling frame is a list of population members divided into distinct parts used for drawing samples. These units should cover the entire population without overlapping, ensuring that each ‘element belongs to just one unit. [SAMPLING DESIGNS © +#22168860735 ‘A sample issimply a subset or subgroup of population® “ . P babili ‘Sampling/ Random Samplinj entative Samplin; CR ae of sampling in which | each individual in the population has a probability js» Or'chance of being chosen for the sample, © Simple Random sampling Inrandom sampling each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as subject + Systematic Random Sampling In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or the subject from the population. Then he selects each nth subject from the list. © Stratified random sampling. Stratified random sampling is a probability sampling method where the population is divided into subgroups or strata based on a specific characteristic, such as age or income level. Then, a random sample is taken from each stratum, proportional to its size in the population. © Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method in which you divide a population into clusters, (such as districts or schools) and then randomly select some of these clusters as your sample. (B). Non-Probability Sampling _or_Judgmental Sampling A type of sampling technique used in research where the selection of individuals for the sample is not based on probability theory. Instead, the researcher uses their own judgment and expertise to select individuals who they believe will provide useful information for the study. There are four kinds of non-probability sampling techniques. = hamnidseharo@gmail.comnPrepared by: Hamid Sehard * Convenience sampling Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method where units are selected for inclusion in the sample because they are the easiest for the researcher to acct * Purposive or Judgmental Sampling In this technique a sample is selected on the bases of the knowledge of population and the purpose of the study. * Snowball Sample This type of sampling is appropriate when the members of the population are difficult to locate, such as homeless industry workers, undocumented immigrants ete, a snowball sample is one in which the researcher collects data on a few members of the target population he or she can locate. © Quota sampling Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling method that relies on the non-random selection of. a predetermined number or proportion of units. For example, if the population is 60% female and 40% male, the researcher may set a quota of 60% female’ and 40% male in the sample Estimating Sample Size When planning a research study, it is crucial to determine an appropriate sample size. A sample size that is too large can lead to wasted resources, while a sample size that is too small ean produce results that are not reliable, Sampling theory provides a framework for making informed decisions about sample size Factors Influencing Sample Size Before calculating the sample size, two key decisions need to be made: * Degree of Precision: The researcher must determine the desired level of accuracy in the research findings. This involves specifying how close the sample estimates should be to the actual population parameters. The required precision level varies depending on the research question. Created by Hamid Sehar * Acceptable Probability of Exceeding Error: ‘The researcher must define the probability that the specified error limit will not be exceeded. It is important to note that there is always a possibility of obtaining an atypical sample, leading to an error greater than the specified limit. Therefore, an acceptable probability of exceeding this error must be established. Detert Appropriate Sample Once these two decisions have been made, the researcher can use statistical) techniques from sampling theory to determine the appropriate sample size. Created By amid Sehar Give Your Valuable Feedback on @ +92 316 8560735 © hamidseharOagmail.com 4S 929168500735 Any attempt to edit, modify, or make changes to this document without prior ‘writen consent is strictly. prohibited and may result in leg = harnidseharo@gmnail.covn