The energy consumption and the greenhouse gas emission at increasing in the world day by day in a drastic assessment is a technique which quantifies the environmental impact by the process involved in an activity. The transportation sector which in- cludes the construction of pavement, maintenance and vehicular traffic consumes a considerable amount of the total energy and leaves the corresponding amount of emission during its operation. Various research papers dealt with the life cycle assessment of highways pavement and quantify the carbon footprint during the process of construction, maintenance and vehicular traffic. In this paper, the research articles in the life cycle assessment of Pavements are analyzed in detail and the outcomes of each paper KEYworDs. Life cycle assessment, Greenhouse gas, Carbon foot- print, Energy, Emission, Pavement 1. INTRODUCTION The total longth of the highway network in the world is 64 million km. The construction activity of this much of road length leaves a tremendous amount of carbon footprint. A sustainable pavement is one which pro- vides the durability of road, economy in construction and should be eco-friendly. This paper analyzes the emission caused in construction activities of flexible pavements in different geographical location and finds ‘out which process in life cycle assessment (LCA) of pavement gives more emission and to have a compari- son of all papers so as to ease the further research in this field, Life cycle assessment could be a technique developed ‘to grasp, assess and to quantify the impact due to the environment of a selected product. In recent years, LCA is increasingly applied to investigate the green- house gas (GHG) emission and different environmen- tally involved substances concemed in road pavements. ‘The growing range of literatures concerning the LCA of pavements shows the notice concerning the rising of sustainability of infrastructure system. The normal structure of LCA was framed by the International Stan- dards Organization. As shown in figure 1, there are 3 basic stages: goal and scope definition, inventory analy- sis and impact analysis. For any method, the primary step in LCA is that the definition of goal and scope. In abstracted and a discussion is ma any method for LCA thought, the goal is to spot all the environmental impacts of a material and provide an answer to cut back the harmful environmental effects. Inventory analysis is analyzing an inventory flow for a process or a product from the starting stage to the end stage. It includes inputs from water, energy and raw materials emission to air water and soil. LCA im- pact assessment constitutes of influence of the ac- tivities conducted by LCA. The assessment classes include global warming potential, eutrophication, pho- ‘tochemical smogginess, etc. The main objective in LCA study of a pavement is to develop a primary integral approach to the GHG emissions connected to the de- velopment of a versatile pavement of the road, 1.1 Greenhouse gases ‘These are the gases which absorb heat in the atmo- sphere and responsible for the increase in global tem- perature. In flexible pavement construction, the major gases causing the greenhouse effect are carbon diox- ide, methane, nitrous oxide and the gases which are fluorinated. The ability of a gas to absorb the heat over, a fixed period of years is called global warming poten- tial, In the life cycle assessment, 100 year time is being adopted as the base year for global warming potential. ‘To compare the emission from various gases based on, the GWP, the concept of CO, ¢ is used : CO, e = Weight of gas* GWP of gas where GWP is 1 for CO,, 25 for CH, and 298 for N,O. 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ‘Samnuthirakani developed a tool model named LCAPAVE. INDIAN J. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, VOL. 40, NO. 3, MARCH 2020 307 © 2020 - Kalpana CorporationGoal & Scope | ( ) Definition Figure 1. Life cyele assessment framework a per ISO 14040 in MS Excel, which gets the input regarding the items of flexible pavement construction and distance of trans- portation of construction materials [1]. The output of the tool provides the total energy consumption and the corresponding GHG emission in construction of 1 km of road. The energy and emission have been calculated for four stages, namely the production of materials stage, processing of materials stage, which includes, the mixing of base and sub-base materials, asphalt hot, mixing of materials and the third stage is the transpor- tation stage and the final stage is the construction of, pavement at the site. The authors derived data for energy and emission for each and every item of works. based on derivation from the standard data and the fuel consumption and the outturn of tools and machin- ery involved. Using the above tool, the authors compared the en- ergy and emission for construction of 1 km of flexible pavement for various values of subgrade strength of, the pavement. The result shows that the California bear- ing ratio value of subgrade has a high influence in de- ciding the quantity of energy and emission in the con- struction of flexible pavement. Also, it has been con- cluded that the stage which involves the mixing of ‘material including asphalt hot mix, the energy required and the corresponding emission are more compared to other activities in the construction of flexible pavement. The emission involved in the construction of flexible pavement of two lane width of 7 m total, with traffic, intensity of 250 commercial vehicles/day and for CBR, value 5, is calculated as 1.51 E+5 kg-CO,0. Ghazy made a comparison of life cycle assessment of flexible pavement construction having CBR values. ranging from 3-15% and the annual average daily traf- fic ranging from 10,000-150,000 [2]. Totally 9 sce- narios in the construction of flexible pavement in Egypt are investigated for environmental categories of pho- tochemical oxidation, eutrophication, acidification, depletion of abiotic resources, human toxicity and glo: bal warming potential. LCA software Umberto 5.5 was, used in this study. This study was aimed to evaluate and to compare the environmental impact associated with the construction of different layers of flexible pavement. The functional unit considered was 1 km ong road with 1 m width. It was concluded that the flexible pavement construction produces an adverse effect in the environment and the significant impact is caused by the transporting of material. The emission for 9 scenarios was listed in the form of chart and for annual average daily traffic 180,000 having CBR of, soil 3%, the emission was interpolated as 2.0 E+ 4. kg-CO,¢. Farina investigated the use of end-of life of tires in flex- ible pavement by recycling the waste tires [3]. There is two technology developed one is a wet process and other is a hot process. In the wet process, the crumb. rubber (CR) is mixed with the bitumen as admixture whereas, in the hot process, the crumb rubber is mixed with the aggregates. In the wet process, the percent- age of CR is about 20% of the total weight of binder whereas, in the hot process, the CR is added about 1% by the weight of the aggregates. In this paper, the asphalt crumb rubber mixture was analyzed in an envi ronmental point of view. The advantage and disadvan tages of using the CR in asphalt pavement were com- pared with a case study of on extra urban road. The case study considered in this paper is an Italian extra, urban road having two lane widths in each direction having a total pavement width of 21.9 m. The func- tional unit used in the analysis is of 1m of pavement. They concluded that during the wet process the emis- sion is 1080 kg/CO,9, while for the standard scenario, without crumb rubber, it was 1361 kg/CO,e and in the dry process the emission in the standard scenario, and using crumb rubber is 1364 kg/CO,e in both cases. Wang investigated the life cycle assessment of as- phaltic pavement during maintenance activity [4]. They analyzed three types of maintenance activities, hot mix asphalt overlay, slurry seal and chip seal. The process involved is raw material production, manufacturing of, hot mix, transportation and placing. The functional unit, adopted is of one mile length having one lane width. It was concluded that emission in the maintenance ac- tivity using hot mix overlay gives more emission which is 1.85 E3-CO,¢. Sreedhar have developed a toolkit, 308 INDIAN J. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, VOL. 40, NO. 3, MARCH 2020 © 2020 - Kalpana Corporationnamed carbon footprint calculator to quantify the emis- sion of different types of pavement system in highway construction [5]. While developing the toolkit, he con- sidered five modules in the highway construction, namely input and output interface module, material pro- duction module, material movernent module, construc- tion module and pavement design traffic module. The ‘emission in terms of CO, for each process has been taken from various sources. For the production of bi- tumen, steel, truck transport, roller, etc., the CO, equivalent factors were adopted from various litera- ture. For the production of aggregate, cement and for ve- hicular traffic, the emission equivalent factors were adopted from different literature. As a case study, the author considered a road of length 1 km, 3.5 m width having a design life of 10 years and designed for layer thickness conforming to the Indian standard codes and, guidelines based on Ministry of Road Transport and Highways specifications, The pavement components designed are bituminous concrete, semi-bituminous concrete, dense bituminous macadam, bituminous macadam and portland cement concrete, The total emission in construction of asphalt pavement arrived as 3,09 E+7 kg-CO,e and for cement concrete pave- ment it was 3.89 E +9 kg-CO,¢. For calculating the CO,¢, the stages considered are material production stage, material movement stage, construction stage and traffic stage. Deforestation for forming of pave- ment, lighting on the pavement was not considered in his study. He concluded that the construction of rigid pavement produced more CO,¢ than that of the flex- ible pavement because of the fact that the production of cement consumes more energy and emits more cO,e. Butt in his licentiate thesis studied life cycle assess- ment of asphaltic pavements including the feedstock energy and asphalt additives [6]. The potential energy contained by material but not used as a source of en: ergy is called feedstock energy. Bitumen has energy content 40.2 Muikg, Apart from all energy, the author included the feedstock energy in bitumen while calcu- lating the energy requirement of construction of as- phalt pavement. The functional unit considered is a flex- ible pavernent of 1 km length having a width of one lane having nominal design life as per Swedish norms. ‘The process considered are bitumen production, ag gregate production, asphalt production, paving, com- pacting and transporting and the carbon footprint for the functional unit considered was 6.20 E+4 kg- CO,¢. Yu developed a LCA model of pavement construction, Which consists of six modules, namely material pro- duction, distribution, construction, congestion, usage. and end of life modules [7]. Using that model they ex- plored three types of pavement overlay system, namely portland cement concrete overlay, hot mix asphalt over- lay, crack seat and overlay. The functional unit consid- ‘ered is of 1 km length, four lane width. It was found that the energy consumed for the construction of 1 km road is 61 E+3 GJ for plain coment road, 129 E+3 GJ for hot mix asphalt overlay and for the crack seat and overlay the energy consumption was 101 E +3 GJ, As the usage module is considered the energy require- ment is more than 50% as that of previous studies when it is omitted. As feedstock energy in bitumen is, ‘considered in hot mix asphalt, overall energy consump: tion is more. Regarding the greenhouse gas emission, the hot mix asphalt produced more emission and the CO,¢ of hot mix asphalt is about 6.786 E+6 GJ, fora pavement overlay over the existing pavement of 1 km length and four lane width in both direction. They con- cluded that the major source of energy consumption and air pollutants are materials, congestion and usage stages. Huang developed a LCA tool model for the calculation of energy requirement and the emission and applied that tool model to analyze for different types of as- phaltic mixes [8]. Foam mix asphalt and half warm as- phalts are two mixes considered by them for analysis and the outcome of the results were compared with the conventional hot mix asphalt. The developed too! model consists of five worksheets, namely process parameter, pavement parameter, unit inventory project inventory and results. The process parameter worksheets consist of data, like distance, fuel and en- ergy consumption for the unit process and the charac- terization result module consists of global warming, acidification, human toxicity, etc. The functional unit considered is a pavement of 30 msa traffic. While com- paring the inventory the emission due to the use of Foamix is more compared to the hot mix and half warm asphalt. The carbon footprint in Foamix, half warm and hot mix asphalts were 2.79 E+3 kg, 2.23 E+8 kg, 2.38 E+8 kg, respectively. The higher carbon foot- print for Foamix asphalt is due to the fact that Foamix contained 4% cement by weight, Stripple had made a pilot study for inventory analysis in life cycle assessment of road [9]. In this study, a complete analysis of all components involved in the construction of different types of roads was made. ‘The energy requirements and the emission for produc: tion of bitumen, aggregates, cement and all other rel- ‘evant materials have been investigated and the out INDIAN J. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, VOL. 40, NO. 3, MARCH 2020 309 © 2020 - Kalpana CorporationTable 1. Abstract of the terature review ‘Author Process considered Location [Funetional unit Design life year (CO, footprint, ka Samuthirakani| Materials, processing India [1 km length, two lane [18 for non bituminous [1.516 +05 fi transportation, construction of 7 m total width 5 for bituminous Ghazy (2) | Material, construction, uso, [Eeyet | 1 km length, 1 m width [Nominal design lite [4.008 +04 fend of tite Farina (31 | Material, wansportation, [italy [1m extra urban roaa | 18 1.0806 +03 construction, maintenance ‘wo lane width in beth direction wang (4) | Materia, transportation, [United | 1 mile length, one lane | Maintenance overlay placement States [width 1.5 inch thick [only overlay Sreedhar (6) | Material, vansportation, [india [1 km, 3.8 m width 10 3.098 +07 consteuction, vatfie Butt (6) Material, construction, | Sweden |1 km length, one lane | 18. p. 16 +08 transportation wiatn Yu 7) Material, taneportation, [Uniked [1 ken, 4 lane wisth in [40 6.79 +06 construction, end of life [States |rwo direction, over existing paverne Huang a) | Material, transportation, [UK 1 ken length, 7.5 40 onstruction wits Strppla (8) | Matorial, wansportation, | Swaden [1 km longth.13 m wiath [40 2.048 +0 operation ‘come of the same has been tabulated, A case study was conducted with different categories of road and, different emission type vehicles. Six different types of combinations, like asphalt road hot method with low ‘emission vehicle, asphalt road cold method with low ‘emission vehicle, concrete road with low emission ve- hicle, asphalt road hot method with normal emission vehicle, asphalt road cold method with normal emis- sion vehicle and concrete road with normal emission vehicle. The functional unit considered is a road of 1 km length and 13 m width. The emission for an asphalt road, hot method of construction having normal emis- ssion vehicle for the operation of construction, mainte- nance and operation of the road is 2.04 E6 kg-CO,¢. ‘The emission abstract of the above literature is tabu- lated in table 1. 3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION From the above literature, it is found that the life cycle assessment of flexible pavement had been analyzed for different geographical location. Each author con- sidered their own functional unit and each one differs from others. Hence direct comparison is not possible, among these papers. Also, the design life of the pave- ment is different for each author. In the above papers, ‘the deforestation due to formation of new pavement and lightings on pavernents were not considered. Some authors included the maintenance stage for calculat- ing the carbon footprint, while some authors consid- ered the emission due to the traffic over the pavement. As Sreedhar and Stipple considered the carbon foot- print due to traffic, the corresponding emission is more in their study, compared to others [5,9] 4. CONCLUSION The primary purpose of this paper is to show the re- search done by different authors in different geographi: cal locations in the life cycle assessment of flexible pavement. It is concluded that the life cycle assess- ment tool in flexible pavement construction plays @ ‘major role in the emission of greenhouse gases. The LCA process in flexible pavement generally includes ‘material production which includes bitumen and aggre- gates, material transportation phase, asphalt produc- tion phase and construction phase. From literature, it may be concluded that the transportation phase and vehicular traffic phase produce more emission com- paring to other activities. It is evident that emission in analyzing life cycle depends upon the process consid- ered and by including more process, like deforestation, afforestation, road marking, lighting, ete., accurate result in emission may be obtained. REFERENCES 1, Samuthirakani, V. and Ashutos Das. 2019. As- sessment of carbon footprint and energy vis-A-vis 310 INDIAN J. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, VOL. 40, NO. 3, MARCH 2020 © 2020 - Kalpana Corporationsub grade strength in flexible pavement construe- tion Int. J. Innovative Tech. and Exploring Eng., 8(9):173-181 Ghazy, M.R., ef al, 2016, Life cycle assessment of flexible pavement construction. British J. Appl. Sci. and Tech., 12(1):1-17. DOL:10.9734/BJAST/ 2016/20620. Farina, Angela, et al. 2014. Life cycle assessment of road pavements containing crumb rubber from end-of-life tires. International Symposium on Pave- ment LCA. Davis, California, USA. Proceedings, pp 119-131 Wang, H. and R.R. Gangaram, 2014, Life cycle as- sessment of asphalt pavement maintenance. Cen. tre for Advanced Infrastructure and Transporta- tion, The State University of New Jersey, Rutgers. pp 30-33, Sreedhar, S., Prahmesh Jichkar and Krishna Prapoorna Biligri. 2016. Investigation of carbon footprints of highway construction materials, In- dia, Transportation Res. Procedia. 17:21- 300.doi:10.1016)j:trpro.2016.11.098, Butt, Ali Azhar. 2012. Life cycle assessment of asphatic pavements including the feed stock en- ergy and asphalt additives. Licentiate Thesis. De- partment of Transport Sci., Royal Institute of Tech- nology, Sweden. ‘Yu, Bin and Ging Lu. 2012. Life cycle assessment of pavement : Methodology and case study. Transportation Research Part D : Transport and Environment. 17:380-388.10.1016j.trd.201 2.03. 004, Huang, Y., ef al. 2010. Life cycle assessment of asphalt pavements. 11th International Conference on Asphalt pavements from ISAP (International Society of Asphalt Pavements}, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan. Stripple, H. 2001. Life cycle assessment of road, a pilot study for inventory analysis. Gothenburg, ‘Sweden. INDIAN J. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION, VOL. 40, NO. 3, MARCH 2020 an © 2020 - Kalpana Corporation