Example 7.1 The radiative and nonradiative recombination lifetimes of the minority carriers in the active region of a double-heterojunction LED are 60 ns and 100 ns respectively. Determine the total carrier recombination lifetime and the power internally gener- ated within the device when the peak emission wavelength is 0.87 (1m at a drive cur- rent of 40 mA. Solution: The total carrier recombination lifetime is given by Eq. (7.13) as: _ TT, _ 60x 100 ns T+T, 60+100 = 37.5 ns To calculate the power internally generated it is necessary to obtain the internal quantum efficiency of the device. Hence using Eq. (7.14): 375 _ 60> 0.625 ae Nn = = Thus from Eq. (7.11): _ hei _ 0.625 x 6.626 x 10° x 2.998 x 10840 x 10° cre 1,602 x 10 x 0.87 x 10° =35.6 mW P. The LED which has an internal quantum efficiency of 62.5% generates 35.6 mW of optical power, internally. It should be noted, however, that this power level will not be readily emitted from the device.Example 7.2 A planar LED is fabricated from gallium arsenide which has a refractive index of 3.6. (a) Calculate the optical power emitted into air as a percentage of the internal optical power for the device when the transmission factor at the crystal—air interface is 0.68. (b) When the optical power generated internally is 50% of the electric power supplied, determine the external power efficiency. Solution: (a) The optical power emitted is given by Eq. (7.16), in which the refractive index n for air is 1: LED power and efficiency 403 Pubiit _ Py(.68X 1 42 4G = 0.013P, Hence the power emitted is only 1.3% of the optical power generated internally. (b) The external power efficiency is given by Eq. (7.15), where: P. Po hy = FX 100 = 0.013 =F x 100 Also, the optical power generated internally P,,, = 0.5P. Hence: int Mop = 0.013 Pos 100 = 0.65%Example 7.3 The light output from the GaAs LED of Example 7.2 is coupled into a step index fiber with a numerical aperture of 0.2, a core refractive index of 1.4 and a diameter larger than the diameter of the device. Estimate: (a) The coupling efficiency into the fiber when the LED is in close proximity to the fiber core. (b) The optical loss in decibels, relative to the power emitted from the LED, ‘when coupling the light output into the fiber. (©) The toss relative to the internally generated optical power in the device when coupling the light output into the fiber when there is a small air gap between the LED and the fiber core. Solution: (a) From Eq, (7.21), the coupling efficiency is given by (NAY = (0.2)? = 0.04 ‘Thus about 4% of the extemally emitted optical power is coupled into the fiber. (b) Let the optical power coupled into the fiber be P.. Then the optical loss in decibels relative to P, when coupling the light output into the fiber LED power and efficiency 405 (c) When the LED is emitting into air, from Example 7.2: P.=0.013P.q Assuming a very small air gap (i.e. cylindrical symmetry unaffected), then from (a) the power coupled into the fiber i P.=0.04P, 5.2 10 Pe, .04 x 0.0132, Hence in this case only about 0.05% of the internal optical power is coupled into the fiber. The loss in decibels relative to Ph is: 10 logo Fe Loss =10 logy 5.2 x 104 = 32.8 dBExample 7.4 A DH surface emitter which has an emission area diameter of 50 jm is butt jointed to an 80 1m core step index fiber with a numerical aperture of 0.15. The device has a radiance of 30 W sr! cm” at a constant operating drive current. Estimate the optical power coupled into the fiber if it is assumed that the Fresnel reflection coefficient at the index matched fiber surface is 0.01. Solution: Using Eq. (7.22), the optical power coupled into the fiber P. is given by: P,= (1 - )\AR,(NAYP In this case A represents the emission area of the source. Hence: A=2(25 x 10) = 1.96 x 10% cm? Thus: P,= m1 —0.01)1.96 x 10°* x 30 x (0.15)? =41.1 nw In this example around 41 .W of optical power is coupled into the step index fiber.Example 7.5 A lens-coupled surface-emitting LED launches 190 1.W of optical power into a multi- mode step index fiber when a forward current of 25 mA is flowing through the device. Determine the overall power conversion efficiency when the corresponding forward voltage across the diode is 1.5 V. Solution: The overall power conversion efficiency may be obtained from Eq. (7.23) where: P._ 190 10° jo fe OW 51x 102 The="p 95x 10°x15 * Hence the overall power conversion efficiency is 0.5%.Example 7.6 Compare the electrical and optical bandwidths for an optical fiber communication system and develop a relationship between them, Solution: In order to obtain a simple relationship between the two bandwidths itis necessary to compare the electric current through the system. Current rather than voltage (which is generally used in electrical systems) is compared as both the opti- cal source and optical detector (see Section 8.6) may be considered to have a linear 4X telationship between light and current. elechieol sia print os ophiok sal pant LED characteristics 429 (He) a5 Electrical bandwidth: The ratio of the electric output power to the electric input power in decibels REyy is given by: Ré-g = 10 logy Lettie power out (at the detector) electric power in (at the source) The electical 3 dB points occur when the ratio of electri powers shown above is. Hence it follows that this must occur when: ‘Thus in the electrical regime the bandwidth may be defined by the frequency when ‘the output current has dropped to 1/'V2 or 0.707 of the input current to the system Optical bandwidth: The ratio of the optical output power to the optical input power in decibels RO,g is given by: ROm 10 logy, Sica Bower out (received at detector) ‘optical power in (transmitted at source) I & 10 log, “= ALT, (due to the linear light/current relationships of the source and detector). Hence the optical 3 dB points occur when the ratio of the currents is equal to, and Jo ty 2 Therefore in the optical regime the bandwidth is defined by the frequencies at which the output current has dropped to+ or 0.5 of the input current to the system. This corresponds to an electric power attenuation of 6 dB.Stimulated emission rate _ Bypy_ 1 Gal) Spontaneous emission rate 4, exp(hf/KT) — 1 . Example 6.1 Calculate the ratio of the stimulated emission rate to the spontaneous emission rate for an incandescent lamp operating at a temperature of 1000 K. It may be assumed that the average operating wavelength is 0.5 um. Solution: The average operating frequency is given by: c _ 2.998 x 108 Te SKF ~ 00% 10" Hz f= Using Eq. (6.11) the ratio is: Stimulated emission rate Spontaneous emission rate er x10 x 6 x 10" ex] 1.381 x 107 x 1000 = exp(-28.8) = deoExample 6.2 A ruby laser contains a crystal of length 4m with a refractive index of 1.78. The peak emission wavelength from the device is 0.55 tm. Determine the number of longitudinal modes and their frequency separation. Solution: The number of longitudinal modes supported within the structure may be obtained from Eq. (6.12) where: Using Eq. (6.14) the frequency separation of the modes is: 5299810 “2x 1.78 0,04”! OH? Although the result of Example 6.2 indicates that a large number of modes may be gen- erated within the laser cavity, the spectral output from the device is defined by the gain curve. Hence the laser emission will only include the longitudinal modes contained within the spectral width of the gain curve. This situation is illustrated in Figure 6.6 where several modes are shown to be present in the laser output. Such a device is said to be multimode. Intensity 4 bel te ‘2nL! | | > (a) Frequency Intensity 4 : ( Gain curve i 74 J / / / 2 iS . FrequencyExample 6.3 An injection laser has an active cavity with losses of 30 cm" and the reflectivity of the each cleaved laser facet is 30%. Determine the laser gain coefficient for the cavity when it has a length of 600 um. Solution: The threshold gain per unit length where r, = r, = r is given by Eq. (6.20) as: =a+tint Su ps, 1 1 =30+ 5g tings =50cm™ The threshold gain per unit length is equivalent to the laser gain coefficient for the active cavity, which is 50 cm”.Example 6.7 Thveshold Conditions Compare the ratio of the threshold current densities at 20°C and 80°C for an AlGaAs injection laser with 7, = 160 K and the similar ratio for an InGaAsP device with 7, = 55 K. Solution: From Eq. (6.43) the threshold current density: For the AlGaAs device: J (20 °C) & exp oe = 6.24 Jy, (80 °C) e exp 3 = 9.08 Hence the ratio of the current densities: Ju (B0°O) 9.08 1 46 Jy (20°C) 6.24 For the InGaAsP device: Jp, (20 °C) e exp 2 = 205.88 Jp, (80 °C) e exp 2. 612.89 Hence the ratio of the current densities: Jy (80 °C) _ 612.89 Jy, (20°C) 205.88 = 2.98(E, N= (Gx 100% (6.42) Vv Ehanhan Effeivey The total efficiency of an injection laser with a GaAs active region is 18%. The volt- age applied to the device is 2.5 V and the bandgap energy for GaAs is 1.43 eV. Calculate the external power efficiency of the device. Solution: Using Eq. (6.42), the external power efficiency is given by: 1.43 y= 0.18 (353) x 100 = 10% This result indicates the possibility of achieving high overall power efficiencies from semivonductor lasers which are much larger than for other laser types.Example 8.1 ecbous When 3 x 10" photons each with a wavelength of 0.85 jum are incident on a photo- diode, on average 1.2 x 10" electrons are collected at the terminals of the device. Deter- mine the quantum efficiency and the responsivity of the photodiode at 0.85 um. Solution: From Eq, (8.2): number of electrons collected uantum efficiency = Q Y= "humber of incident photons _ 12x10" ~ 3x10! =04 The quantum efficiency of the photodiode at 0.85 jum is 40%. From Eq. (8.11): nea he _ 0.4 x 1.602 x 10" x 0.85 x 1 6.626 x 10 x 2.998 x 10 Responsivity R = =0.274 A W" The responsivity of the photodiode at 0.85 jum is 0.27 A W"!. Example 8.2 ‘A photodiode has a quantum efficiency of 65% when photons of energy 1.5 x 107? J are incident upon it (a) At what wavelength is the photodiode operating? (b) Calculate the incident optical power required to obtain a photocurrent of 2.5 1A when the photodiode is operating as described above. Solution: (a) From Eq, (6.1), the photon energy E = hf = hc/A. Therefore: _ 6.626 x 10 x 2.998 x 10% 15x10" =132 um The photodiode is operating at a wavelength of 1.32 um.(b) From Eg. (8.9): ne _ 0.65 x 1.602 x 10°” Responsivity R = ‘SIO = 0.694 A WT Also from Eq. (8.4): £ = R P, Therefore: e p= 25108 6o uw 0.694 The incident optical power required is 3.60 HW.Example 8.3 GaAs has a bandgap energy of 1.43 eV at 300 K. Determine the wavelength above which an intrinsic photodetector fabricated from this material will cease to operate. Solution: From Eq. (8.14), the long wavelength cutoff: he _ 6.626 x 10 x 2.998 x 108 E, 1.431.602 x 10°” = 0.867 am I= The GaAs photodetector will cease to operate above 0.87 jm.Example 8.5 deteckou Responie hime The carrier velocity in a silicon p-i-n photodiode with a 25 um depletion layer width is 3 x 10° ms". Determine the maximum response time for the device. Solution: The maximum 3 dB bandwidth for the photodiode may be obtained from Eq. (8.18) where: 3 My 3x11 91 x 10 Hz ™ "Daw 2mx 25x 10° The maximum response time for the device is therefore: 1 Max. response time = —= 5.2 ns Tt must be noted, however, that the above response time takes no account of the dif- fusion of carriers in the photodiode or the capacitance associated with the device junction and the external connections.Example 6.6 As shown in Fig. 6.4, for the ‘wavelength range 1300 nm < A < 1600 nm, the quantum efficiency for InGaAs is around 90 percent. Thus in this ‘wavelength range the responsivity is ga MIG ___(090)1.6x10 C)A_ fy We (6,625 x 107 Js(3 x 10° mvs) = 725% 10°. For example, at 1300 nm we have R= [7.25 x 105 (A/W/m] (1.30 x 10° m), =0.92 AW At wavelengths higher than 1600nm, the photon eneray isnot sufficient to excite an electron from the valence band to the conduction band. For example, In, 5,Ga, 47s has an energy gap E, = 0.73 e¥, so that from Eq. (6.2) the cutoff wavelength is 1.24 ees Oe 1.24 = 17am At wavelengths less than 1100 nm, the photons are absorbed very close to the photodetector surface, where the recombination rate of the generated electron-hole pairs is very short. The responsivity thus decreases rapidly for smaller wavelengths, since many of the generated carriers do not contribute to the photocurrent.Example 6.7 Agivensilicon avalanche photodiode _From Eq. (6.7), the multiplication is has a quantum efficiency of 65 percent at a wavelength ‘of 900 nm. Suppose 0.5 uW of optical power produces mala OMA _ ‘a multiplied photocurrent of 10 A. What is the multi- f, 0.2354A plication M? —_—— di Thus the primary photocurrent is multiplied by a factor Solution: From Eq. (6.6), the primary photocurrent of 43, 0.65) PCXOK 10M) 59-7 Ww APD poblen © (6.625 x10 J -s(3x 10" m/s) 0.235 UAExample 6.1 if the absorption coefficient of Ing s;Gag.47As is 0.8 pm”! at 1550 nm, what is the penetration depth at which P(xy/P, = V/e= 0.368? Solution: From Eq. (6.1). fe. = exp(-4x) = expl(-0.8)2] = 0.368 Therefore 0.8 X= In 0,368 =-0.9997 which yields x pin 25 gum. Pa ot Example 6.2 A high-speed Ing Gay As pin photodetector is made with a depletion layer thickness of 0.15 um. What percent ent photons are absorbed in this photodetectorat 13 10 nm ifthe absorption coefficient is 1.5 int at this wavelength? Solution: From Eq, (6.1), the optical power level at ai 0.15 uum relative to the incident power level is ae 15) = exp(-4X) = exp[(-1.50.1 9 = 0.80 Therefore only 20 percent of the incident photons are absorbed.