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 THE

POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

EDITED

WITH CRITICAL NOTES AND A TRANSLATION

BY

». HE BUTCHER, MP:
HON. D.LITT. OXFORD; HON. LITT,D. DUBLIN, MANCHESTER
HON. LL.D. ST. ANDREWS, GLASGOW, EDINBURGH

FOURTH EDITION

Londow
MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1907

All rights reserved

PN 1040. “AS Ge

First Edition 1895

Second Edition 1898
Third Edition 1902
Fourth Edition 1907

Printedby R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, Edinburgh,

THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

Tue following Text and Translation of the Poetics

form part of the volume entitled Avistotle’s Theory
of Poetry and Fine Art, second edition (Macmillan
and Co., 1898). In this edition the Critical Notes
are enlarged, and the Translation has been care-
fully revised. The improvements in the Translation
are largely due to the invaluable aid I have received
from my friend and colleague, Professor W. R.
Hardie. To him | would express my warmest
thanks, and also to another friend, Professor
Tyrrell, who has most kindly read through the
proof-sheets, and talked over and elucidated
various questions of interpretation and criticism.
In making use of the mass of critical material
which has appeared in recent years, especially in
Germany, I have found it necessary to observe a
strict principle of selection, my aim still being
to keep the notes within limited compass. They
are not intended to form a complete Apparatus
Criticus, still less to do duty for a commentary.
I trust, however, that no variant or conjectural
Vv
vi THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

emendation of much importance has been over-

looked.
In the first edition I admitted into the text
conjectural emendations of my own in the following
passages :—iil. 3: xix. 3: xxii 1: xxiv. 10:
xxv. 4: xxv. 14: xxv. 16. Of these, one or two
appear to have carried general conviction (in
particular, xxii. 1): two are now withdrawn, —
iii. 3 and xxv. 14, the latter in favour of <olovody>
(Tucker).
In the first edition, moreover, I bracketed, in
a certain number of passages, words which I
regarded as glosses that had crept into the text,
Vigo lie vi 8 eeXVil LXV eeeV
I now give Gomperz’s correction tév Aeyouéver, for
the bracketed words trav pév dAoyov of the MSS.,
and in xvii. 5 Bywater’s conjecture 67. avros for
[tuvas adres|.
There remains a conjecture which I previously
relegated to the notes, but which I now
take into the text with some confidence. It
has had the good fortune to win the approval of
many scholars, including the distinguished names
of Professor Susemihl and Professor Tyrrell. I
refer to od (ott MSS.) 7a ruydvta dvowata in
ix. 5. 1451 b 18, where the Arabic has ‘names
not given at random.’ For the copyist’s error
ef, ix. 2. 1451 a 36, where A®° has ofrw, though
ov 70 rightly appears in the ‘apographa’: and for
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Vil

a similar omission of od in A° cf. vi. 12. 1450 a 29,

ov Toijoer 0 HY THs Tpaywdias épyov, the indispensable
negative being added in ‘apographa’ and found
in the Arabic. The emendation not only gives a
natural instead of a strained sense to the words
Ta TuxydvTa dvopara, but also fits in better with
the general context, as I have argued in Avistotle’s
Theory of Poetry, ete. (ed. 3 pp. 375-8).
Another conjecture of my own I have ventured
to admit into the text. In the much disputed
passage, vi. 8. 1450 a 12,1 read <advtes> as edsrety
for ov« édXrLyou aitav ws eimeiv of the MSS., follow-
ing the guidance of Diels and of the Arabic. I
regard ov« ddtyou avtdy as a gloss which displaced
part of the original phrase (see Critical Notes). As
a parallel case I have adduced /thet. 1. 1. 1354 a
12, where ovdév ws eimeiv, the reading in the
margin of A°, ought, I think, to be substituted in
the text for the accepted reading édréyov. The
word éréyov is a natural gloss on ovdey os eimety,
but not so ovédéev as efzreiv ON OdLyov.
In two other difficult passages the Rhetoric
may again be summoned to our aid. In xvii 1.
1455 a 27 I have (as in the first edition) bracketed
Tov Geary, the object to be supplied with érdvOavey
being, as I take it, the poet, not the audience.
This I have now illustrated by another gloss of
a precisely similar kind in het. 1. 2. 1358 a 8,
where AavOdvouvciv te |Tovs axpoatas| has long been
vill THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

recognised as the true reading, the suppressed

object being not the audience but the rhetoricians.
Once more, in xxiv. 9. 1460 a 23, where A°
gives the meaningless @Aov 6é, I read (as in the
first edition) dar’ 0v8é, following the reviser of A*.
This reading, which was accepted long ago by
Vettori, has been strangely set aside by the chief
modern editors, who either adopt a variant ado
88 or resort to conjecture, with the result that
mpocbeivar at the end of the sentence is forced into
impossible meanings. A passage in the Rhetoric,
i. 2. 1357 a 17 ff., appears to me to determine the
question conclusively in favour of add ovde . . .
dvayen .. . mpocbevar.
The passage runs thus:
cay yap h TL TOUTWY yvepywov, OVE Sel AéyeLW> avTOS
yap tovTo mpooTiOnow 6 aKxpoaTys, otov Gre Awpueds
atedavitny ayava vevixnxev, ixavov ettrety 6Tt “Odbprria
yap veviencev, TO 8 OTL otepavitns Ta OdvprLa, ovdE
Sef mpocbeivar: yuyy@oxoves yap waves. The general
idea is closely parallel to our passage of the Poetics,
and the expression of it is similar, even the word
ovdé (where the bare od might have been expected)
in the duplicated phrase ovdé Set réyew, odd Set
mpoobeiva. One difficulty still remains. The sub-
ject to eivas 4 yevéoOar is omitted. To supply it
in thought is not, perhaps, impossible, but it is
exceedingly harsh, and I have accordingly in this
edition accepted Professor Tucker’s conjecture,
avayKkn <Kakelvo> eivat 1) yevéoOat.
’ / ta) V3 XN
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 1x

The two conjectures of my own above mentioned

are based on or corroborated by the Arabic. I
ought to add, that in the Text and Critical Notes
generally I have made a freer use than before of
the Arabic version (concerning which see p. 4).
But it must be remembered that only detached
passages, literally rendered into Latin in Professor
Margoliouth’s Analecta Orientalia (D. Nutt, 1887),
are as yet accessible to those like myself who are
not Arabic scholars; and that even if the whole
were before us in a literal translation, it could not
safely be used by any one unfamiliar with Syriac
and Arabic save with the utmost caution and
subject to the advice of experts. Of the precise
value of this version for the criticism of the
text, no final estimate can yet be made. But it
seems clear that in several passages it carries us
back to a Greek original earlier than any of our
existing MSS. Two striking instances may here
be noted :—
(1) i. 6-7. 1447 a 29 ff, where the Arabic
confirms Ueberweg’s excision of éroroua and the
insertion of avavupos before tuyxdvovca, accord-
ing to the brilliant conjecture of Bernays (see
Margoliouth, Analecta Orientalia, p. 47).
(2) xxi. 1. 1457 a 36, where for peyatiorov of
the MSS. Diels has, by the aid of the Arabic,
restored the word Maccadoroy, and added a most
ingenious and convincing explanation of “Eppoxai-
x THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

xo£avOos (see Critical Notes). This emendation

ig introduced for the first time into the present
edition. Professor Margoliouth tells me that
Diels’ restoration of émevEdevos in this passage is
confirmed by the fact that the same word is
employed in the Arabic of Aristotle’s Rhetoric
to render evyecOar.
Another result of great importance has been
established. In some fifty instances where the
Arabic points to a Greek original diverging from
the text of A‘, it confirms the reading found in
one or other of the ‘apographa,’ or conjectures
made either at the time of the Renaissance or in
a more recent period. It would be too long to
enumerate the passages here; they will be found
noted as they occur. In most of these examples
the reading attested by the Arabic commands our
undoubting assent. It is, therefore, no longer
possible to concede to A° the unique authority
claimed for it by Vahlen.
I have consulted by the side of Professor
Margoliouth’s book various criticisms of it, e.g. by
Susemihl in Berl. Phil. Wochenschr. 1891, p. 1546,
and by Diels in Srtzungsber. der Berl. Akad.
1888, p. 49. But I have also enjoyed the special
benefit of private communication with Professor
Margoliouth himself upon a number of difficulties
not dealt with in his Analecta Orientalia. He has
most generously put his learning at my disposal,
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION x1

and furnished me, where it was possible to do so,

with a literal translation. In some instances the
Arabic is itself obscure and throws no light on
the difficulty ; frequently, however, I have been
enabled to indicate in the notes whether the exist-
ing text is supported by the Arabic or not.
In the following passages I have in this edition
adopted emendations which are suggested or con-
firmed by the Arabic, but which did not find a
place in the first edition :—
li. 3. 1448 a 15, dozep of rors4
vi. 7. 1450 a 17, <6 dé Bios>, omitting kal evdarpovias
kal 7) evdaipovia of the MSS.
xi. 6. 1452 b 10, [rovrwv 8 . . . elpnras]
Xvill. 6. 1456 a 24, <kal> eikds?
xx. 5. 1456 b 35, <otx> dvev?
xxi. 1. 1457 a 34, [kat dovjpov|. The literal trans-
lation of the Arabic is ‘and of this some is
compounded of significant and _ insignificant,
only not in so far as it is significant in the
noun’
xxi. 1. 1457 a 36, Macoadwrév (see above, p. ix.)
xxv. 17. 1461 b 12, <kat icws addivarov>

I hesitate to add to this list of corroborated

conjectures that of Dacier, now admitted into the
text of xxi. a 21, xab pi opolas icropias
1. 1459
ras cuvOéces, for Kal pr potas iotopias Tas cvvybes
€ \ /

1 Ined. 3 I simply give the MSS. reading in the text, oorep

Tyast.
2 In ed. 3 the words here added are omitted in the text.
xil THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

of the MSS. The Arabic, as I learn from Professor

Margoliouth, is literally ‘and in so far as he does
not introduce (or, there do not enter) into these
compositions stories which resemble.’ This version
appears to deviate both from our text and from
Dacier’s conjecture. There is nothing here to
correspond to cvr7Ges of the MSS. ; on the other
hand, though cvvéécexs may in some form have
appeared in the Greek original, it is not easy to
reconstruct the text which the translation implies.
Another conjecture, communicated privately to
me by Mr. T. M‘Vey, well deserves mention. It
involves the simpler change of opotas to ofas. The
sense then is, ‘and must not be like the ordinary
histories’; the demonstr. rovodrovs being sunk in
otas, 80 that ofas (atoptar ai auvybes becomes by
attraction, ofas (cropias tas cur bes.
I subjoin a few other notes derived from corre-
spondence with Professor Margoliouth :—
(a) Passages where the Arabic confirms the
reading of the MSS. as against proposed emenda-
tion :—
iv. 14.1449 a 27, exBaivovres ris NeKTUKAS appovias:
Arabic, ‘when we depart from. dialectic com-
position.’ (The meaning, however, is obviously
misunderstood.)
vi. 18. 1450 b 13, rév pev Adywv: Arabic, ‘of the
speech.’ The pév is not represented, but, owing
to the Syriac form of that particle being identical
with the Syriac for the preposition ‘of,’ it was
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION Xi

likely to be omitted here by the translator or

copyist.
xvil. 1. 1455 b 25. The Arabic agrees with the
MSS. as to the position of rodAdkis, ‘as for
things which are from without and certain things
from within sometimes.’
xvii. 5. 1456 a 19, xat ev rots drXols mpadypacr: Arabic,
‘and in the simple matters.’
xix, 2. 1456 a 38, 7a 7d6y rapackevdfe: Arabic,
‘to prepare the sufferings.’
More doubtful is xvii. 2. 1455 a 30, ard tis adris
gicews : Arabic, ‘in one and the same nature.’
The Arabic mode of translation is not decisive as
between the MSS. reading and the conjecture aq’
avThs ths pvcews, but rather favours the former.
(b) Passages where the conjectural omission of
words is apparently supported by the Arabic :—
ix. 9. 1451 b 31, ofa dy etkds yever Oat Kal dvvara yeve-
afar: Arabic, ‘there is nothing to prevent the
condition of some things being therein like those
which are supposed to be.’ But we can hardly
say with certainty which of the two phrases the
Arabic represents.
xvi. 4. 1454 b 31, ofov "Opéorns év ty “Iduyeveia
aveyvipwev Ste ‘Opeotns: Arabic, ‘as in that
which is called Iphigenia, and that is whereby
Iphigenia argued that it was Orestes.’ This
seems to point to the omission of the first
’Opéarns.?

1 Vahlen (Hermeneutische Bemerkungen 2u Aristoteles’ Poetik ii.

1898, pp. 3-4) maintains that the inference drawn from the Arabic
is doubtful, and he adds strong objections on other grounds to Diels’
excision of the first Opéorys.
b
xiv THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

In neither of these passages, however, have I

altered the MSS. reading.
(c) Passages on which the Arabic throws no
light :—
i. 9. 1447 b 22. The only point of interest that
emerges is that in the Arabic rendering (‘of all
the metres we ought to call him poet’) there is
no trace of xai, which is found alike in A° and
the ‘apographa.’
x. 3. 1452 a 20. The words yiyverO@au TavTa are
simply omitted in the Arabic.
xxv. 18. 1461 b 18, décre cat airdsv MSS. ‘The line
containing these words is not represented in the
Arabic.
xxv. 19. 1461 b 19, dray pi) dvdyxns obons pndev .
The words in the Arabic are partly obliterated,
partly corrupt.

In conclusion, I desire to acknowledge my

obligations to friends, such as Mr. B.. Bosanquet
(whose History of Aesthetic ought to be in the hands
of all students of the subject), Dr. A. W. Verrall,
Mr. W. J. Courthope, Mr. A. O. Prickard, and Rev.
Dr. Lock, who have written me notes on particular
points, and to many reviewers by whose criticism [
have profited. In a special sense I am indebted to
Professor Susemihl for his review of my first edition
in the Berl. Phil. Wochenschr., 28th September
1895, as well as for the instruction derived from his
numerous articles on the Poetics, extending over
many years in Bursian’s Jahresbericht and else-
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION XV

where. Among other reviewers to whom I feel

grateful, [ would mention Mr. Herbert Richards
in the Classical Review, May 1895; Mr. R. P.
Hardie in Mind, vol. iv. No. 15; and the authors
of the unsigned articles in the Saturday Review,
2nd March 1895, and the Oxford Magazine, 12th
June 1895.
To Messrs. R. & R. Clark’s Reader I would once
again express no merely formal thanks.

EDINBURGH, November 1897.

 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

In the revision of the Text and the Critical Notes

I have had the advantage of consulting two new
editions, based on very different principles, those of
Professor Bywater and Professor Tucker, from both
of which I have derived assistance. In Professor
Bywater’s edition I have noted the following passages
in which manuscript authority (Parisinus 2038) is
cited for readings which hitherto have been given
as conjectural :—i. 4. 1447 a 21; xi. 5. 1452 b3
pide is Vl lt o4eae lo xvi. 1 1455" b 18k
meee 6) be 2O- and 29 xxivies, 1460 aal3:
ex veee 4600) belo xxv. L6..1461, b 3 ands
HAG iepelo -xxyl oal469 ape xxvien6, 1462.0 6,
I am also indebted to Professor Bywater’s text
for several improvements in punctuation. Most
of his important emendations had appeared before
the publication of my earlier editions, and had
already found a place in the text or in the
notes.
I now append the chief passages in which the
XVil
XVili THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

text of this edition differs from that of the

last'——
vil. 6. 1451 a 9. Here I keep the reading of the
MSS., dorep wort Kat dAdote fac. Schmidt's
correction «ié@aow for daciv seemed at first
sight to be confirmed by the Arabic, but, as
Vahlen argues (Hermeneutische Bemerkungen 2
Aristoteles Poetik, 1897), this is doubtful, and
a more fundamental objection—the question
arises whether the correction can, after all, con-
vey the sense intended. Can the words as
emended refer to a known practice in present
time, ‘as is the custom on certain other occasions
also,’ i.e. in certain other contests, the aydaves of
the law-courts being thus suggested? As to
this I have always had misgivings. Further
observation has convinced me that roré kat aAAore
can only mean ‘at some other time also,’
in an indefinite past or future. With ¢aciv
(sc. adywvicac a) the reference must be to the
past. This lands us in a serious difficulty, for
the use of the xAe¥vidpa in regulating dramatic
representations is otherwise unheard of. Still
it is conceivable that a report of some such
old local custom had reached the ears of Aristotle,
and that he introduces it in a parenthesis with
the ¢aciv of mere hearsay.
1x, 7. 1451 b 21. I accept Welcker’s “Ave? for
dvOe.. Professor Bywater is, I think, the first
editor who has admitted this conjecture into
the text.
xvii. 5. 1455 b 22. I restore the MSS. reading
dvayvopicas twds, Which has been given up by
almost all editors, even the most conservative.
Hitherto a parallel was wanting for the required
 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION naib

meaning, ‘having made certain persons acquainted

with him,’ ‘having caused them to recognise
him.’ But Vahlen (Herm. Bemerk. 1898) has,
if I am not mistaken, established beyond question
this rare and idiomatic use of the verb by a
reference to Diodorus Siculus iv. 59. 6, and by
the corresponding use of yvwpifw in Plut. Vit.
Thes. ch. xii.
xix. 3. 1456 b 8. For 2déa of the MSS. I now read
9) Sudvoiz. (Previously I had accepted Tyrwhitt’s
correction 757 a@ dei.) This conjecture was first
made by Spengel, and strong arguments in its
favour have recently been urged by V. Wrobel
in a pamphlet in which this passage is discussed
(Leopoli, 1900).
xxv. 6. 1458 b 12. For pérpov I now read perpuov
with Spengel. (So also Bywater.) Is it possible
that in xxvi. 6. 1462 b 7 we should similarly
read ro Tod perplov (uérpov codd.) pojxer, ‘a fair
standard of length’?

In xiv. 8-9. 1454 a 2-4 a much vexed question

is, | am disposed to think, cleared up by a simple
alteration proposed by Neidhardt, who in a 2 reads
xpatictov for Sevrepov, and in a 4 Sdevtepov for
xpatictov. ‘This change, however, I have not intro-
duced into the text.
The Arabic version once more throws interesting
light on a disputed reading. In xvil. 2 éxotatixot
instead of é£eractixoé is a conjecture supported by
one manuscript. In confirmation of this reading,
which has always seemed to me correct, I extract
the following note by Professor Margoliouth (Class.
XX THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

Rev. 1901, vol. xv. 54) :—‘ Professor Butcher. . .

informed me that a continental scholar had asserted
that the Arabic read éxotarixol for é&eraoctixoé in
this passage. I had been unable to satisfy myself
about the Arabic word intended by the writer of
the Paris MS., and therefore could not confirm
this; but I must regret my want of perspicacity,
for I have now no doubt that the word intended is
‘agabiyyina, which is vulgar Arabic for ‘‘ buffoons,”
literally “‘men of wonder.” The Syriac translated
by this word will almost certainly have been
mathh’rdné, a literal translation of éxoratixot,
which the Syriac translator probably thought
meant ‘‘men who produce ecstasies.” The verb
éeEicracOa is not unfrequently rendered by the
Syriac verb whence this word is derived.’
In a few other passages the Critical Notes or
Translation contain new matter; e.g. ix. 8. 1451
b 23 avis 7) 1455730 (4 xxiv LOeIaG0e bee
KxviNGs 1460b 7.
I cannot in concluding omit a word of cordial
thanks to Messrs. R. & R. Clark’s accomplished
Reader.

EDINBURGH, October 1902.

 PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION

Tus edition differs but little from the last, the

only two changes of any importance being in the
interpretation of fsov (ch. vil. 4-5, xxiil. 1), see
Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, ed. 4,
p- 188, and of zepuréreva, ib. pp. 329-331. On
particular points, including bibliographical matter,
I have received kind assistance from Dr. J. E.
Sandys. I desire also to express once more my
obligations to Messrs. R. & R. Clark’s Reader.

Lonpbon, January 1907.

 > ta mega’
aed poke eit.
| ogee) Sa
i att aie i. “SS ae
 CONTENTS
EDITIONS, TRANSLATIONS, ETC.
ANALYSIS OF ARISTOTLE’S Poetics
List oF ABBREVIATIONS

TEXT anp TRANSLATION oF rue Poetics 6

XXxili
 EDITIONS, TRANSLATIONS, ETC.
Tue following is a list of the chief editions and translations of the Poetics,
and of other writings relating to this treatise, arranged in chronological
order :—
Valla (G.), Latin translation. Venice, 1498.
Aldine text, in Rhetores Gracci. Venice, Aldus, 1508.
Latin translation, with the summary of Averroes (ob. 1198). Venice,
Arrivabene, 1515.
Pazzi (A.) [Paccius], Aristotelis Poetica, per Alexandrum Paceium, patri-
tium Florentinum, in Latinwm conversa. Venice, Aldus, 1536.
Trincaveli, Greek text. Venice, 1536.
Robortelli (Fr.), Jn librum Aristotelis de Arte Poctica explicationes.
Florence, 1548.
Segni (B.), Rettorica e Poetica d’ Aristotele tradotte di Greco in lingua
vulgare. Florence, 1549.
Maggi (V.) [Madius], Jn Aristotelis librwm de Poetica explanationes.
Venice, 1550.
Vettori (P.) [Victorius], Commentationes in primum librum Aristotelis de
Arte Poetarum. Florence, 1560.
Castelvetro (L.), Poetica d’ Aristotele vulgarizzata. Vienna, 1570; Basle,
1576.
Piccolomini (A.), Annotationi nel libro della Poetica d’ Aristotele, con la
traduttione del medesimo libro in lingua volgare. Venice, 1575.
Casaubon (I.), edition of Aristotle. Leyden, 1590.
Heinsius (D.) recensuit. Leyden, 1610.
Goulston (T.), Latin translation. London, 1623, and Cambridge, 1696.
Dacier, La Poétique traduwite en Francais, avec des remarques critiques.
Paris, 1692.
Batteux, Les quatres Poétiques d Aristote, d’ Horace, de Vida, de Des-
préwux, avee les traductions et des remarques par 1Abbé Batteux.
Paris, 1771.
XXV
XXV1 THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

Winstanley (T.), commentary on Poetics. Oxford, 1780.

Reiz, De Poctica Liber. Leipzig, 1786.
Metastasio (P.), Estratto dell’ Arte Poetica d’ Aristotele e consideraxiont su
Za medesima. Paris, 1782.
Twining (T.), Aristotle's Treatise on Poetry, Translated: with notes on the
Translation, and on the original ; and two Dissertations on Poetical
and Musical Imitation. Wondon, 1789.
Pye (H. J.), A Commentary illustrating the Poetic of Aristotle by examples
taken chiefly from the modern pocts. To which is prefined anew and
corrected edition of the translation of the Poetic. London, 1792.
Tyrwhitt (T.), De Poetica Liber, Textwm recensuit, versionem refinxit, et
animadversionibus illustravit Thomas Tyrwhitt. (Posthumously
published.) Oxford, 1794.
Buhle (J. T.), De Poetica Liber. Gottingen, 1794.
Hermann (Godfrey), Ars Poetica cum commentariis. Leipzig, 1802.
Grafenham (E. A. W.), De Arte Poetica librwm denuo recensuit, convnen-
tariis ilustravit, ete. Leipzig, 1821.
Raumer (Fr. v.), Ueber die Poetik des Aristotles wad sein Verhdltniss zu
den neuern Dramatikern Berlin, 1829.
Spengel (L.), Ueber Aristoteles Pcetik in Abhandlungen der Miinchener
Akad. philos.-philol. Cl. II. Munich, 1837.
Ritter (Fr.), Ad codices antiquos recognitam, latine conversan, come-
mentario illustratam cedidit Franciscus Ritter. Cologne, 1839.
Weil (H.), Ueber die Wirkung der Tragoedie nach Aristoteles, Verhand-
lungen deutscher Philologen x. p. 181. Basel, 1848,
Egger (M. E.), ssat sur Vhistoire de la Critique chez les Grees, swivi de
la Poétique adAristote et dextraits de ses Problémes, avec traduction
Srancaise et commentaire. Paris, 1849.
Bernays (Jacob), Grundziige der verlorenen Abhandlung des Aristoteles
iiber Wirkung der Tragidie. Breslau, 1857.
Saint-Hilaire (J. B.), Poétique traduite en francais et accompagnée de notes
perpétuelles. Paris, 1858.
Stahr (Adolf), Avistoteles und die Wirkung der Tragédie. Berlin, 1859.
Stahr (Adolf), German translation, with Introduction and notes. Stutt-
gart, 1860.
Liepert (J.), Aristoteles tiber den Zweck der Kunst. Passau, 1862.
Susemihl (F.), Avristoteles Ueber die Dichtkunst, Griechisch und Deutsch
und mit sacherklarenden Anmerkungen. Leipzig, 1865 and 1874.
Vahlen (J.), Beitrdge zw Aristoteles’ Poetik. Vienna, 1865,
Spengel (L.), Avristotelische Studien IV. Munich, 1866.
Vahlen (J.), Avistotelis de Arte Poctica Liber: recenswit. Berlin, 1867.
 EDITIONS, TRANSLATIONS, ETC. XXVli

Teichmiiller (G.), Aristotelische Forschungen. 1. Beitrdge zur Erklirung

der Poetik des Aristoteles. 11. Aristoteles’ Philosophie der Kunst.
Halle, 1869,
Ueberweg (F.), German translation and notes. Berlin, 1869.
Reinkens (J. H.), <Aristoteles tiber Kunst, besonders tber Tragidie.
Vienna, 1870.
Doring (A.), Die Kunstlehre des Aristoteles. Jena, 1870.
Ueberweg (F.), Aristotelis Ars Poetica ad fidem potissimum codicis anti-
quissimi A (Parisiensis 1741). Berlin, 1870.
Bywater (I.), Aristotelia in Journal of Philology, v. 117 ff. and xiv. 40 ff.
London and Cambridge, 1873 and 1885.
Vahlen (J.), Aristotelis de Arte Poetica Liber: iterum recenswit et adnota-
tione critica auxit. Berlin, 1874.
Moore (E.), Vahlen’s text with notes. Oxford, 1875.
Christ (W.) recensuit. Leipzig, 1878 and 1893.
Bernays (Jacob), Zwei Abhandlungen iiber die Aristotelische Theorie des
Drama. Berlin, 1880.
Brandscheid (F.), Text, German translation, critical notes and com-
mentary. Wiesbaden, 1882.
Wharton (E. R.), Vahlen’s text with English translation. Oxford, 1883.
Vahlen (J.), Aristotelis de Arte Poetica Liber: tertiis cwris recognovit et
adnotatione critica auxit. Leipzig, 1885.
Margoliouth (D.), Analecta Orientalia ad Poeticam Aristoteleam. Lon-
don, 1887.
Benard (C.), L’ Lsthétique d’ Aristote. Paris, 1887.
Gomperz (T.), Zw Aristoteles’ Poetik, I. (c. i-vi.). Vienna, 1888.
Heidenhain (F.), Averrois Paraphrasis in librum Poeticae Aristotelis Jacob
Mantino interprete. Leipzig, 1889.
Prickard (A. O.), Aristotle on the Art of Poetry. A Lecture with two
Appendices. London, 1891.
La Poétique d Aristote, Manuscrit 1741 Fonds Grec de la Bibliotheque
Nationale. Préface de M. Henri Omont. Photolithographie de
MM. Lumiére. Paris, 1891.
Carroll (M.), Aristotle's Poetics c. xxv. ta the Light of the Homeric
Scholia. Baltimore, 1895.
Gomperz (T.), Aristoteles’ Poetik. Uebersetzt und eingeleitet. Leipzig
1895.
Gomperz (T.), Zw Aristoteles’ Poetik, I1., III. Vienna, 1896.
Bywater (1.), Aristotelis de Arte Poetica Liber. Oxford, 1897.
Vahlen (J.), Hermeneutische Bemerkungen zu Aristoteles’ Poetik : Sitzungs-
berichte der K. preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften cw
Berlin, 1897 xxix, 1898 xxi.
XXVill THE POETICS OF ARISTOTLE

Spingarn (J. E.), 4 History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance.

New York, 1899.
Tucker (T. G.), Aristotelis Poetica. London, 1899.
Saintsbury (G.), 4 History of Criticism, Vol. I. Edinburgh and London,
1900.
Finsler (G.), Platon und die Aristotelische Poetik. Leipzig, 1900.
Courthope (W. J.), Life in Poetry: Law in Taste. London, 1901.
Bywater (I.), On certain technical terms in Aristotle's Poetics, Festschrift
Theodor Gomperz dargebracht zum siebzigsten Gebwrtstage. Wien,
1902, pp. 164 ff.
Tkaé (J.), Ueber den arabischer Kommentar des Averroes zwr Poetik des
Ayistoteles, Wiener Studien, xxiv. p. 70, 1902.
Carroll (Mitchell), Avristotle’s Aesthetics of Painting and Sculpture. Geo.
Washington University, 1905.
Knoke (F.), Begriff der Tragédie nach Aristoteles. Berlin, 1906.

ae
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS

“Imitation ’ (u/unois) the common principle of the Arts of Poetry

Music, Dancing, Painting, and Sculpture. These Arts dis-
tinguished according to the Medium or material Vehicle, the
Objects, and the Manner of Imitation. The Medium of
Imitation is Rhythm, Language, and ‘Harmony’ (or Melody),
taken singly or combined.
i The Objects of Imitation.
Higher or lower types are represented in all the Imitative
Arts. In Poetry this is the basis of the distinction between
Tragedy and Comedy.
UE The Manner of Imitation.
Poetry may be in form either dramatic narrative, pure
narrative (including lyric poetry), or pure drama. A
digression follows on the name and original home of the
Drama.
Vee The Origin and Development of Poetry.
Psychologically, Poetry may be traced to two causes, the
instinct of Imitation, and the instinct of ‘Harmony’ and
Rhythm.
Historically viewed, Poetry diverged early in two directions:
traces of this twofold tendency are found in the Homeric poems:
Tragedy and Comedy exhibit the distinction in a developed
form.
The successive steps in the history of Tragedy are enumer-
ated.
We Definition of the Ludicrous (7d yeXovov), and a brief sketch of the
rise of Comedy. Points of comparison between Epic Poetry
and Tragedy. (The chapter is fragmentary. )
i B
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS

Wak Definition of Tragedy. Six elements in Tragedy : three external,

—namely, Spectacular Presentment (6 77s dpews kdopos or Sys),
Lyrical Song (uedoroula), Diction (Aéés); three internal,—
namely, Plot (u000s), Character (400s), and Thought (dudvoum).
Plot, or the representation of the action, is of primary import-
ance ; Character and Thought come next in order.
Wate The Plot must be a Whole, complete in itself, and of adequate
magnitude.
VIII. The Plot must be a Unity. Unity of Plot consists not in Unity
of Hero, but in Unity of Action.
The parts must be organically connected.
IX. (Plot continued.) Dramatic Unity can be attained only by the
observance of Poetic as distinct from Historie Truth ; for
Poetry is an expression of the Universal, History of the Par-
ticular. The rule of probable or necessary sequence as applied
to the incidents. Certain plots condemned for want of Unity.
The best Tragic effects depend on the combination of the
Inevitable and the Unexpected.
. (Plot continued.) Definitions of Simple (amo?) and Complex
(memdeypevor) Plots.
. (Plot continued.) Reversal of the Situation (wepiréreva), Recog-
nition (d4vayvwpiors), and Tragic or disastrous Incident (ad6os)
defined and explained.
XII. The ‘quantitative parts’ (uépn kara 7d mocdv) of Tragedy de-
fined :—Prologue, Episode, ete. (Probably an interpolation.)
XIll. (Plot continued.) What constitutes Tragic Action. The
change of fortune and the character of the hero as requisite
to an ideal Tragedy. The unhappy ending more truly tragic
than the ‘poetic justice’ which is in fayour with a popular
audience, and belongs rather to Comedy.
XIV. (Plot continued.) The tragic emotions of pity and fear should
spring out of the Plot itself. To produce them by Scenery or
Spectacular effect is entirely against the spirit of Tragedy.
Examples of Tragic Incidents designed to heighten the
emotional effect.
. The element of Character (as the manifestation of moral purpose)
in Tragedy. Requisites of ethical portraiture. The rule of
necessity or probability applicable to Character as to Plot.
The ‘Deus ex Machina’ (a passage out of place here). How
Character is idealised.
XVI. (Plot continued.) Recognition : its various kinds, with examples.
XVII. Practical rules for the Tragic Poet:
(1) To place the scene before his eyes, and to act the
 ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS 3

parts himself in order to enter into vivid sympathy with the

dramatis personae.
(2) To sketch the bare outline of the action before proceed-
ing to fill in the episodes.
The Episodes of Tragedy are here incidentally contrasted
with those of Epic Poetry.
XVIII. Further rules for the Tragic Poet :
(1) To be careful about the Complication (déo1s) and Dé-
nouement (dvows) of the Plot, especially the Dénowement.
(2) To unite, if possible, varied forms of poetic excellence.
(3) Not to overcharge a Tragedy with details appropriate
to Epic Poetry.
(4) To make the Choral Odes—like the Dialogue—an organic
part of the whole.
XIX. Thought (didvoa), or the Intellectual element, and Diction in
Tragedy.
Thought is revealed in the dramatic speeches composed
according to the rules of Rhetoric.
Diction falls largely within the domain of the Art of
Delivery, rather than of Poetry.
. Diction, or Language in general. An analysis of the parts of
speech, and other grammatical details. (Probably interpolated.)
. Poetic Diction. The words and modes of speech admissible
in Poetry: including Metaphor, in particular.
A passage—probably interpolated—on the Gender of Nouns.
XXII. (Poetic Diction continued.) How Poetry combines elevation of
language with perspicuity.
XXIII. Epic Poetry. It agrees with Tragedy in Unity of Action: herein
contrasted with History.
XXIV. (Epic Poetry continued.) Further points of agreement with
Tragedy. The points of difference are enumerated and illus-
trated,—namely, (1) the length of the poem; (2) the metre;
(3) the art of imparting a plausible air to incredible fiction.
XXY. Critical Objections brought against Poetry, and the principles on
which they are to be answered. In particular, an elucidation
of the meaning of Poetic Truth, and its difference from common
reality.
XXVI. A general estimate of the comparative worth of Epic Poetry and
Tragedy. The alleged defects of Tragedy are not essential to it.
Its positive merits entitle it to the higher rank
of the two.
 ABBREVIATIONS IN THE CRITICAL NOTES
Aé the Parisian manuscript (1741) of the 11th
century: generally, but perhaps too con-
fidently, supposed to be the archetype from
which all other extant MSS. directly or in-
directly are derived.
apogr. one or more of the MSS. other than A‘.
Arabs the Arabic version of the Poetics (Paris 882 A),
of the middle of the 10th century, a version
independent of our extant MSS. It is nob
directly taken from the Greek, but is a trans-
lation of a Syriac version of the Poetics by an
unknown author, now lost. (The quotations
in the critical notes are from the literal Latin
translation of the Arabic, as given in Mar-
goliouth’s Analecta Orientalia.)
M the Greek manuscript, far older than A° and no
longer extant, which was used by the Syriac
translator. (This symbol already employed
by Susemihl I have taken for the sake of
brevity.) It must be remembered, therefore,
that the readings ascribed to = are those which
we infer to have existed in the Greek exemplar,
from which the Syriac translation was made.
Ald. the Aldine edition of Rhetores Graeci, published
in 1508.
Vahlen Vahlen’s text of the Poetics Ed. 3.
Vahlen coni. a conjecture of Vahlen, not admitted by him into
the text.

[eel words with manuscript authority (including A°),

which should be deleted from the text.
a conjectural supplement to the text.
a lacuna in the text.
—s words which are corrupt and have not been satis-
factorily restored.
4
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 APISTOTEAOYS IEPI MNOIMTIKH2

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“> ~~

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2
2

moinat éTe 6€ Kopmdia Kat

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SilvpapBortrointiKH Kal TIS
\ / \ ¢€ \ 4 a

15 aUANTLKAS 9) TAELOTH Kal KiOapLoTLKhs TaCaL TUyYavovoLY

ovoat pinnoanTdo
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\ /

Kal oYnMact TONKA pLpovyTAaL TivEs aTrecKaCoVTES (Ot peEV

\ / \ an la ? ra e \

20 Sua Téyvns of Sé dia cuvnOeias), Erepor Sé dia THs hovijs,

e
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OUT® KQaV TALS ELPN[LEVALS TEVVAals* aTacat (EV TOLOVYTAL”

THY puipmow ev pvdu@ Kal Oyo Kal appovia, TovToW 8

\ / > c fal a I \ ¢ / fi >

4 xwpis 7) pepiypévows> oloy dpwovia pev Kat pvdue ypo-

e id

12. Aéywuev apogr.: Aéyowev AC: (habuit iam = var. lect., ‘et dicamus et
dicimus’ Arabs) 17. év Forchhammer (‘imitatur rebus diversis’
Arabs): yéver A& 20. rijs pwvis codd. (‘per sonos’ Arabs): Tis gicews
Maggi: airijs ris gicews Spengel 21. xdy Parisinus 2038, Ald.:
kat év apogr. alia: kal Ac
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS

if I propose to treat of Poetry in itself and of its various

7, jands, noting the essential quality of each; to inquire into
the structure of the plot as requisite to a good poem;
into the number and nature of the parts of which a
poem is composed ; and similarly into whatever else falls
within the same inquiry. Following, then, the order of
nature, let us begin with the principles which come
first.
Epic poetry and Tragedy, Comedy also and Dithyrambic 2
poetry, and the music of the flute and of the lyre in
most of their forms, are all in their general conception
modes of imitation. They differ, however, from one 3
another in three respects——the medium, the objects, the
manner or mode of imitation, being in each case
distinct.
For as there are persons who, by conscious art or4
mere habit, imitate and represent various objects through
the medium of colour and form, or again by the voice ;
~ go in the arts above mentioned, taken as a whole, the
imitation is produced by rhythm, language, or ‘harmony,’
either singly or combined.
7
 8 I. 4—9. 1447 a 24—1447 b 22

pevar povov % Te avAnTLKI Kal 7) KLOapLaTLKH KaY EL TES

f A BY

ovcat ToLavTaL THY OUVapLV, olov 7 TAY

oe a \ / e ¢ Lavk

25 érepat Tuyxavovaw
y A a a a \ ¢ a
cupiyyov' ad’to Sé TO pvOu@ [pspodvTac] ywpis appovias 5
) TOV
n
opXnoTav,
a
Kat yap ovToL
@ x
dla TOY
an /
OV
oynpaTLCopEev
pvOpav puipoovTar
a —
cal On
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Kat \ mdOn
/
Kat\ mpages;
f e
7£ desy 6
/ a y aks 4 / \ /
[érro7rovia| povoy Tois Noyous Widois y Tols eTpoLs Kal TOV-
a Ip / / s
1447 b Tous elTe puyvooa peT GAA HAOY lO Evi TIVE YyevEL YPwLEVN
TOV péTpaV, <avOVvUpos> TUYXaVEL OdTA péxpL TOD Vov: ovder 7
a 5 if a ree 2O\

3 \ \ / trom! if
Io yap av eyoupev ovouaaaL KOLVOY TOUS Loppovos Kal evapyou
/ f \ /
pijwovs Kal Tovs LoxpatcKovs Roryous, ovdE El TUS dua TpLpe-
lal ” a lal / tal \
/
TPOV 7)x EEYELWY 7)x TOV ANNOY TLY@Y TOV TOLOVTWY TrOLOLTO THY
iE a / \
pipnow* wAnY ob avépwrrot YE TUVATTOVTES TH METP@ TO
a_\' / sY Ne. \ b / > e
Tovely éeyeLoTrovovs, TVS S€ ETroTrOLOUS OVvomLafovaLY, OVY WS
tegen \ n Sew 02
15 KATA THY LLLNoW TOLNTaS ANNA KOWH KATA TO LETPOV TpoG-
us \ N Dy > \ x / 8 \ a
ayopevoyTes. Kal yap ay tatpiKov 4 pvatKov TL Ola THY 8
Métpwov éexpépwouy, oUT@ Karely ei@Pacw: ovdev dé KoLvor
tal 2 s /

éotw ‘Ounpe Kal “Kwredoxre? thiyy To péTpov: 610 Tov pev

aq \ / \ \ \

fay / a A
Toiuntny dikavov Kadelv, TOV Oé pucvoroyov PaXXOV 7 ToLN-
/ ¢ / \ x 5 iA \ / /
20 THY. Oopmolws d€ Kav él TiS AaTaVTA Ta péTPA pLyvUoY 9
a \ / ie xX / >? / Ké
TOLOLTO THY pLNnoLy Kabarep aALpNLa@V ETTOLnoEe WevTav-
\ € ip > is / lal / \ la)
pov mixtny parrodiay é€ atayT@v THY péTpwV, Kal TOUTOY

25. tvyxdvovow apogr.: Ttuyxdvwouw AS roatra. add. apogr. (‘aliae

artes similes vi’ Arabs): om. A°¢ 26. r@~ atr@ dé = male (Margoliouth)
pumodvrat del. Spengel (confirm. Arabs) 27. 7 apogr. (‘ars instrumenti
saltationis’ Arabs): of Ae: of <xapiéorepox> Gomperz: of <xapievtes>
Zeller épxnotpav = male (Margoliouth) 29. émromola secl. Ueber-
wee: om. = yrrots 4) rots] i) Tots yudols sive % Yudols Tots coni. Vahlen
1447 b 9. dvwvuuos add. Bernays (confirmante Arabe ‘quae sine nomine
est adhuc’) tuyxdver otoa Suckow: tvyxdvouvca A® 15. xara
Thy Guelferbytanus: tiv kara Ac kouwn Ae 16. gvoixdv Heinsius
(‘re physica’ Arabs: confirm. Averroes): sovocxdy codd. 22. muxrhy
om. 2 puxthy pawwdlay del. Tyrwhitt kal rodrov apogr.: Kat
Ac (om. 2): xalro. Rassow: otk 45n kal Ald. verba 20-22 duolws dé
. TY wéeTpwy post 12 Troodrwy transtulit Susemihl, commate post Tovovrwy
posito, deletis 12 movtro ri ulunow et 22 wal sory: sic efficitur ut
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS I. 4—9 9
Thus in the music
of the flute and of the lyre,
‘harmony’ and rhythm alone are employed; also in
other arts, such as that of the shepherd’s pipe, which
are essentially similar to these. In dancing, rhythm 5
alone is used without ‘harmony’; for even dancing
imitates character, emotion, and action, by rhythmical
movement.
There is another art which imitates by means of 6
language alone, and that either in prose or verse—which
1447 Verse, again, may either combine different metres or con-
sist of but one kind—but this has hitherto been without
aname. For there is no common term we could apply to 7
the mimes of Sophron and Xenarchus and the Socratic
dialogues on the one hand; and, on the other, to
poetic imitations in iambic, elegiac, or any similar
metre. People do, indeed, add the word ‘maker’ or
‘poet’ to the name of the metre, and speak of elegiac
poets, or epic (that is, hexameter) poets, as if it were not
the imitation that makes the poet, but the verse that
entitles them all indiscriminately to the name. Even 8
when a treatise on medicine or natural science is brought
out in verse, the name of poet is by custom given to the
author; and yet Homer and Empedocles have nothing in
common but the metre, so that it would be right to
call the one poet, the other physicist rather than poet.
On the same principle, even if a writer in his poetic9
imitation were to combine all metres, as Chaeremon did
in his Centaur, which is a medley composed of metres
 10 I. 9—II. 4. 1447 b 23—1448 a 15

Tepl pev ovY TOUTWY Siwpio Ow

KE \ \ 9 / 7
TounTHny TpocayopevTéov.
A an a >
al TAL YpavTat Tots ELpN- 10
, > , A
TovTOV Tov TpoTroy* etal Sé TWES
A

25 pévous, NEyw Sé oloy pvdu@ Kal

aA \
péder KaL peETPH, WOTEP
1h \ iL oe

4h Te TOV SLOvpaUBLKaY Toinots Kal 7 TOY Vo“wY Kat 1)

Ca fal an / x e lal / \ oe

Te Tpayodia Kal » Kopmdia: dvadépovor dé OTL at pev le / \ fig e \

dua wacw ai S& Kata pépos. Tavtas pev ovy eyo Tas
al 7 \ 5 / \

Suahopas Tay texvav, év ols TovobyTaL THY pinoL.

lal e fa) \ 7

II Exrel d€ piprodvtac of pupovpevor TpaTTovTas, avayKn O€

> \ \ lal € t / ? tf Sy

1448a
tovTous 7} arovdaious 1) pavrous elvar (Ta yap On oxedov x vA 2 K \ BA iN

del TovToLs axodovbet povolis, KaKkia yap Kal apeTH Ta HON

a / / » Leo 3: ial be 4

Siadépovor mavres), HTor Bertiovas 7 Kal’ nuas 7) yElpovas

/ x tM AeA x /

5%) Kat TovovTous, waTep of ypadeis: Lodvyvertos pev yap a lal in a \ \

KpelTTOUS, Ilavowv &é xelpous, Atovictos 8é opoious

6 elxaler*
Ono dé ére Kal Tov Ube EXATTN [LbpLNoEwV eer 2
lravras TAS diaopas Kab é€oTat évépal T@ éTEpa pupetr Oar
A \ / \ > la \ ay \
TOUTOVY TOV TpoTroV. Kal yap év OpxXngel Kab avdnoet Kal 3

10 KLOapioes eats yevécbar TavTas Tas avowooTntas* Kai [ro]

/ 4 t / \ 2 / < \ \

Mept Tovs Aoyous S€ Kal THY poroperpiay, oiov TOS

pv Berrlovs, Knreopav 6é opotous, “Ayjpwov 6€ 0 Odcuos 6
TAS Tap@oias Troijcas TpaTos Kal Nexoxdpns 6o thy Aede-
dda xeipovs: épotws dé kal Tepl Tovs SvlupauBous Kal rept
15 TOUS vomous, Bamep tyast Kuikrwras Tipobeos cat Bido-

verbis guatoddyov paddov 7) monThy mpocaryopeuréov concludatur locus

24, at Ald. 1536: ai Riccardianus 16: of Ac 26. diOvpduBwy apogr.
28. maoa apogr. ody apogr.: ob Ac 29. ofs Vettori: als codd.
1448 a3. xakig. . . dperg apogr. D: kaxla ... dpery Ac 7. 6) Morel
8. 7@ apogr.: 7d AC 10. 7d om. Ald.: secl. Susemihl: 7@ Bywater
12. 6 ante rds add. apogr. 13. rpaywdias ut videtur = (‘qui primus
faciebat tragoediam’ Arabs) Aedidda A® pr. m. (recte, ut in Iliadis
parodia, Tyrrell: cf. Castelvetro) : An\:dda apogr. A® corr. (7 supr. e m. rec.)
15. dwomep yas codd.: &omep <’Apyas> Castelvetro: os Ilépcas <xal>
F. Medici: &omep yap coni. Vahlen: dozep ottrws fort. = (‘sicut imitatur
quis, sic Cyclopas ete.’ Arabs): aomep of rods coni. Margoliouth
Kvkdwras] kuk\wrds Ac
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS I. 9—II. 4 11

of all kinds, we should bring him too under the general

term poet. So much then for these distinctions.
There are, again, some arts which employ all the 10
means above mentioned,—namely, rhythm, tune, and
metre. Such are Dithyrambic and Nomic poetry, and
also Tragedy and Comedy; but between them the
difference is, that in the first two cases these means
are all employed in combination, in the latter, now one
means is employed, now another.
Such, then, are the differences of the arts with respect
to the medium of imitation.
II Since the objects of imitation are men in action, and °P\e'9 © C
1484 these men must be either of a higher or a lower type eats
(for moral character mainly answers to these divisions,
goodness and badness being the distinguishing marks
of moral differences), it follows that we must represent
men either as better than in real life, or as worse, or
as they are. It is the same in painting. Polygnotus
depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as less
noble, Dionysius drew them true to life.
Now it is evident that each of the modes of imitation 2
above mentioned will exhibit these differences, and be-
come a distinct kind in imitating objects that are thus
distinct. Such diversities may be found even in dancing, 3
flute-playing, and lyre-playing. So again in language,
whether prose or verse unaccompanied by music. Homer,
for example, makes men better than they are; Cleophon
as they are; Hegemon the Thasian, the inventor of
parodies, and Nicochares, the author of the Deiliad, worse
than they are. The same thing holds good of Dithyrambs 4
and Nomes; here too one may portray different types, as
 12 II. 4—II1. 3. 1448 a 16—37
A a a €
Eevos [uipnoarto av tis]: ev TH avTn bé Suahopa Kal 7
\ \ SY /
Tpaywdlta mpos THY Kopmolay SiéoTnKEV? 7) meV Yap xEl-
pous 9 b€ BeArrious pypetcOar BotreTar TOV viv. -
III "Ere 6€ ToUT@Y TpiTn Stahopa TO MS EKATTA TOUTOY pLpLH-
/ /

\ n [eal \ \ rah
20 GALTO av TL. Kab yap év TOLS AVTOLS KAL Ta QvUTa be-

petcOar gor bre pev arrayyédrovra (7) Erepdv Te yuyvo-

pevov, worrep “Opnpos Trove, ) @S TOY avToV Kal pi) peTa-
“Sa
BarXovta), } TavtTas ws mMpaTTovTas Kal évepyourTas [TovS
pipovpévous]. év Tprol On TabTars dvadopais 4 pwipnals éoruy, 2
25 OS rooney kat apyas, aeols Te Kal & Kai BS. Wate TH
bev 0 avTos av eln pupentays ‘Ountow “Sookdijs, MLwooVTaL
yap dude orrovdatous, TH 5é “Apictopaver, mpattovTas yap
pypotvTar Kat Spavtas dupo. 6Oev Kal Spduata Kanrei-
cOai twes adtad hacw, bTt ppodytas SpavTas. 640 Kat
30 avrurowbvrat! THs Te Tpaywdias Kal THs Kwpodlas of Aw-
pects (THS pev yap Kwuwmdias ot Meyapels of te évtadOa
os él Tis tap adtois Snuoxpatias yevomévns, Kal of éx
Luxedias, éxelOev yap Hv "Exriyappos 0 Tountis TOG
mpotepos wv Xewvidov cal Mdyvntos: Kal THs Tpayodias
35 évior Tov év IleXormrovynaw) Trovovpevor Ta Svdpara onpuetov
avTol pev yap Kopmas Tas TrEpLoLKioas ene ‘gacw, *A On-
vatous S€ SrHpwous, a Kwp@dods odK ard TOD Kpatew =
Ne-

16. [uuujoato dy rs] secludendum coni. Vahlen Tm abrn 6é€ Vettori

(‘in eadem discrepantia’ Arabs): ravry 6¢ 79 M. Casaubon: arp dé rp codd.
18. ray viv om. ut videtur = 21. oré pev . . . yeyvduevov] <> ore
Mev GmayyédovTa <odré 5’ > Erepby Te yyvduevov Zeller, recte, ut opinor:
eodem fere pervenit Arabem secutus Margoliouth te secl. Zeller, Spengel
22. rov secl. Bywater 23. mdvras] mdvta I. Casaubon TOUS [LMou-
Hévous seclusi (olim secl. Vahlen): tuetur 2: [rods] puimovuevoy Friedrichs,
Schmidt 25. kal & cat &s] dvayKaiws ut videtur 5 kat & om. Ac:
add. apogr. (confirm. Arabs) 32. OSyuokparelas Ac 34, Xiwyidov
Robortello (confirm, Arabs): ywvldou Ac 35. fort. <0 > Swe Bywater
36. av’rol Spengel: ofra codd. "AOnvaious edit. Oxon. 1760 et Spengel:
aOnvato. codd. (cf. 1460 b 35), tuetur Wilamowitz
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS II. 4—III. 3 13

Timotheus and Philoxenus differed in representing their

Cyclopes. The same distinction marks off Tragedy from
Comedy; for Comedy aims at representing men as worse
Tragedy as better thaniin actual life.
Mockes of
Ii There is still a third difference—the manner in which
yAiteho
each of these objects may be imitated. For the medium
being the same, and the objects the same, the poet may
imitate by narration—in which case he can either take
another personality as Homer does, or speak in his own
person, unchanged—or he may present all his characters ,
as living and moving before us.
These, then, as we said at the beginning, are the2
three differences which distinguish artistic imitation ——
the medium, the objects, and the manner. So that from
one point of view, Sophocles is an imitator of the same
kind as Homer—for both imitate higher types of
character ; from another point of view, of the same kind
as Aristophanes—for both imitate persons acting and
doing. Hence, some say, the name of ‘drama’ is given 3
to such poems, as representing action. For the same ,
reason the Dorians claim the invention both of Tragedy
and Comedy. The claim to Comedy is put forward by
the Megarians,—not only by those of Greece proper, who
allege that it originated under their democracy, but also by
the Megarians of Sicily, for the poet Epicharmus, who is
much earlier than Chionides and Magnes, belonged to that
country. Tragedy too is claimed by certain Dorians of
the Peloponnese. In each case they appeal to the
evidence of language. Villages, they say, are by them
called xdpat, by the Athenians dfuor: and they assume
that Comedians were so named not from cwpdfeuv, ‘to
 14 III. 3—IV. 6. 1448 a 38—1448 b 23

é
yOévTas WANA THTH KATAXL KOpas
adda KO Navn aTipwalopevous
Thavy atipalopévous ék TOU
; na > \ a ? / X
148b doTews. Kal TO TOLELY aUTOL peV Spay, AOnvaious oé
Tpattew Tpocayopeverv. Tepi pev ov THY dvapopay4
A \ A 5 n nr

& a wtf aan? n

Kal Toca Kal tives THs pupnoews eipnoOw TadTa.
IV ’Eoikace S€ yervioas pev OXws THY TOLnTLKHY aiTiat Svo
a at \ eae /

e / t x ta) /
5 Twes Kal avTar dvotkal. TO Te yap pipEetoPar cUpdpuTOY2
a = / ) / L
tois avOpwos éx taidwy éoti, Kal TovTw diahépovat
Tov ddrov Chav Ore pupntiKndtatoy éote Kal Tas paby-
an / \ IN /

ra / AEE a s \ \ /
ceis Toleirar Sia puypnoews TAS TPwTaS, Kal TO yYaipey
TOISa pLpnuace TavTas. onpelovta)
SénV TovTOV4
TOSi oUpLPaivor cal
8
eareene sem

10 él TOV Epywv' & yap avTaA AUTNPaS Opwpev, TOUTWY TAS

a > a Lee toy} / \

t , a e
elkovas TAS padmioTa HKpLBapévas yalipopev OewpodyTes, oiov
nplwv Te moppas TOY aTy“oTaTwY Kal veKpaY.
ra] if st a >
aiTLoy Oé 4 y, fal oy, be 4

Kal Tovtov, Ste wavOdvery ov povoy Tois pirocopols HdvoTov

/ a / /

a € , > ce A
GAA Kal TOIs AALS OMolwWS, GAN (eri Bpayd Kowwvod-
a a ig pil ie en Rene?
Is cw avtod. dia yap TovTO yaipovat Tas eiKOVAaS OpayTES, OTL 5S
cupBaiver Oewpodvtas pavOdvew Kal cvr2royifecOar Ti Exa-
ok a / are

e @ A \aEDN s \ 7. j
oTOoV, olov OTL OUTOS ExElvOS* ETTEl EaY p41) TUYN TPOEWPAKes,
ovx 7 hipnua Toijnoes THY HOovnV GANA Sia THY arTrep-
ae / \ \ \ b)

ela
yaciav 7) THY xpoav %) Sia ToLavTHY TLWa GdAnV aiTiar.
x . / A Vin ee?

ee,
20 Kata pvow 57NG)dvTos Huiy
eon
Toda pypetoOar
a
Kal \ THsAlu 2
adppovias 6
Kal TOU pvOuod (Ta yap péTpa STL popia TOY pYOuaV éoTe
\ la) € lal A \ / 4 / lal c a >

gdavepov) €& apyns mwepuxotes Kxal aitad padiota Kata

/ 5 ? a / \ DIE N f %

puKpov mpodyovtes éyévynoay tiv Toincw éx TaV avToaye-

ye: / A

1448 b 1. kal 7d woety . . . mpooaryopevew om. Arabs 4. d\ws om,

Arabs 5. atrac Ald.: atral Ac 13. xat rovrov apogr. (confirm.
Arabs): kai rodro A®: [kai rovrov] Zeller: cat [rovrov] Spengel: kat <débyos>
rovrov Bonitz 18. ov7x § Hermann, et >, ut videtur: ovx? codd.
Thy jnoovyny om. Arabs 20. 6) coni, Vahlen: 6é codd. 22. Kai abra]
mpos avra Ald.: <els> atra cat Gomperz: cai adra post uddora traiciendum
esse coni. Susemihl
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS III. 3—IV. 6 15

revel, but because they wandered from village to village |

(kata xmas), being excluded contemptuously from the |
1448 city. They add also that the Dorian word for ‘doing’ |
is Spay, and the Athenian, mparrev.
This may suffice as to the number and nature of the 4
various modes of imitation.
LY Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two
causes, each of them-lyimg-deep in our nature. First, the 2
instinct of imitation is implanted in man from childhood,
one difference between him and other animals being that
he is the most imitative of living creatures; and through
imitation he learns his earliest lessons; and no less
universal is the pleasure felt in things imitated. Wes3
have evidence of this in the facts of experience.
Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we
delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute
fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals
and of dead bodies. The cause of this again is, that to 4
learn gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers
but to men in general; whose capacity, however, of
learning is more limited. Thus the reason why men5
enjoy seeing a likeness is, that in contemplating it they
find themselves learning or inferring, and saying perhaps,
‘Ah, that is he” For if you happen not to have seen
the original, the pleasure will be due not to the imitation
as such, but to the execution, the colouring, or some such
other cause.
Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, 6
there is the instinct for ‘harmony’ and rhythm, metres
being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore,
starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their
 16 IV. 6—11. 1448 b 24—1449 a7

7
p>) } / fa] be \ \ > a Aa € / .
MeO ONS leoTTacOn O€ KATA TA OlKELA NUN TrOLNHOLS
center teniennrenaian tttsnbiniaidl
2500 pev yap TEemvOTEpoL Tas Karas euipodvTo mpdkeus Kal
TAS TOV TOLOUTMD, ot dé EVTEAETTEPOL TAS TOV patho,

ot thahe 7 P@TOV aoryous TTOLOUYTES, Oomrep aTEpot Upevous Kat eyKepuud.

TOV ev ovV ™po ‘Opnpou OU Te)€VvOS EY OMEV elTrewy TOLOUTOV

moinua, etxos b€ elvat TrodAovs, amo 5é “Ounpov apEapévoss

oo ® bai ¢ M / \ \ n 2 e ‘
30 E€OTLY, OLOV EKELVOU O APYylTNS KA’ TA TOLAUTA. €V OlS Kab

TO dipporrop [<apBetov] Oe pérpov, do Kat tapPetov Ka-

Aelia vOV, OTL ev TO HETPD TOUT@ iduBitov' addijovs. Kal
éyévovTo
5) bf
THY TaaLav ol pev NpwiKav ot Sé tduBov Tovn-
na na € x e an e ey pbs

Tal.
id
@omep O€ Kal TA OTOVOaia padLcTAa TrownTHS
ef \ st \ a“ if \ d
“Opnpos
35 Hv (wovos yap ody OTL ED aArXN<a> [OTL] Kal Hyunoers Spapa-
TuKas émoincev), oUTWS Kal Ta THS KoOWwdias oYIpaTA
na ¢ / > / ys) x \ tal
mpatos uméderEev, ov wpoyov GAda TO yedrolov SpapaTo-
/ ¢ x M / > / 4 oe > \
Touoas' o yap apytTns avdroyov eye, worep Tdtas
49a Kal 9 "Odvocea mpos Tas Tpaywdias, OUTw Kal ovTOS pds
\ € > / AN \ vA ef % e \

TAS Kwou@dias. Tapahavetons 5é THS Tpaywdtas Kal Ko-

\ / 7 Ny a / \
10

p@dias ot ef / as 24?
Exatépay
€ /
thy \
Tolnow /
oppavTes
bg a
KaTa \
THY \

oiketay pvow ot péev avTl TaY iduBov Kwp@doTroLoL éeyé-

3. , 4 (o x 2 \ lal as “5! > /

svovTo, of O€ avtl Tov émav Tpay@dobidacKaror, Sia TO

peiCova Kal évTiymoTepa Ta oynpata eivar TadTa éxeivwv. |
/ \ / \ / C2 a

\ \ 5 > a Dig 9 y” ” ¢ / fal

TO PEV OVY ETTLOKOTTELY EL ap EXE’ 70N » Tpaywdia TOLS 11

27. drepo Spengel: erepo codd. 30. kat (post ofs) Ald.: kara, A¢
31. lapBlov (bis) Ac lauBetov ante 7AGe secl. Stahr 35. ddd Bonitz
(confirm, Arabs): aAN ére codd.: dA’ ére Tucker Opamarixas AC et ZT:
SpawarickOs apogr. 88. 6 apogr.: 7d A& 1449 a 6. weifova apogr, :
pecfov Ac 7. ef dpa exer apogr.: mapéxer A®: dp’ éxe Vahlen
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 6—11 17

special aptitudes, till their.rude improvisations gave birth

to Pootry.
Poetry now diverged in two directions, according to 7
the individual character of the writers. The graver
Spirits imitated noble actions, and the actions of
good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions
of meaner persons, at first composing satires, as
the former did hymns to the gods and the praises of
famous men. A poem of the satirical kind cannot 8
indeed be put down to any author earlier than Homer ;
though many such writers probably there were. But
from Homer onward, instances can be cited,—his own
Margites, for example, and other similar compositions.
The appropriate metre was also here introduced ; hence
the measure is still called the iambic or lampooning
measure, being that in which people lampooned one
another. Thus the older poets were distinguished as 9
writers of heroic or of lampooning verse.
As, in the serious style, Homer is pre-eminent among
poets, for he alone combined dramatic form with
excellence of imitation, so he too first laid down the
main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the Iudicrous |
instead of writing personal satire. His Margites bears
1449a the same relation to Comedy that the Iliadand ‘Odyssey
do to Tragedy. But when Tragedy and Comedy came 10
to ‘light, the two classes of poets still followed their
natural bent: the lampooners became writers of Comedy,
and the Epic poets_ were “succeeded by Tragedians,
since the drama was _a_ larger and higher form of
art.
Whether Tragedy has as yet perfected its proper 11
C
 18 IV. r1—15. 1449 a 8—28

elSeow ixavas 4 0d, até Te Kal ato TKpiverar 7 vait

kal mpos Ta Oéatpa,ddros Aoyos. yevopwévn <6'> ody am apx7s 12
10 avrooxebiacTiKH, Kal avTH Kab 1 Kop@dla, Kal 1) wey arro
tov éEapyovtav tov Si0vpauBov, » S& amd Tav Ta hanr-
Aud & art ab vov év woddals Tov modcov Stapéver vo-
- b putopeva,| KaTa pouKpov nvéjOn mpoayoytav Baov éyiyveTo
© dhavepov avtis, Kal ToAdas petaBoras petaBarotca 1
15 Tpaywola émavoato, eet eye THY auThs puow. Kal TO 13
Te Tov vToKpiToOV TAHOos €E Evos eis Sv0 patos Atoys-
Ros iyyaye Kal Ta ToD. yopod HrAaTT@Ce Kal TOY ROyor
TpeTayavicTiy\ TaperKevacev,
/
TpEets
ca
O€\ Kal \ oKnvoypadiay
/

» |y Sopoxryjs. ere d€ TO péyeOos éx Hope pvOwv Kal Vé- 14

- |}20 ews yedotas Sua TO €x caTupiKod peTtaBarety oe arre-
ceuvbvn. TO TE MeTpoV ex TETpapyéTpoU lapBeElov éyéveTo-
TO ev yap TpPOTov TeTpauéTpH expoVTO Sia TO TaTUPLKNY
Kab CxO eReraEm elvat THv Toinoww, NeEews Se yevoméevns
avTn » pious 70...olKelov eT pov ebpe’ pddiota yap a OF
25 KOV TOV peTPOV Wierescverar? €oTwy* onpeloy O€ TovToU:
“Whelora yap tapBeia Rréyopev ev TH Siardéxt@ TH Tpds
GXAHrovs, EEdweTpa SE oduydKis Kal exBaivovTes THs re-
KTUKHS appmovias. ett b€ émevcodiwy mANOn Kal Ta GAN is OL

A
8. xplverat 7) val- kal AC: vat secl. Bursian: xplverac elvar kal apogr.: Kpivac
kat Forchhammer: fort. xplverar elvac i) xal: airé re kar’ adrd evar
KpettTov 7) mpos Odrepa Z ut videtur (Margoliouth) 9. yevouévn 8 ody
Bekker: -yevouévn ofv apogr.: yevoudvns ody Ac 10. avrocxediacrixh
apogr.: avrooxediactixfs AS 11. gaddxa apogr.: PaiiAtuxd AC: PavdrAcka
vel datda & 12. diapéver apogr.: duapévery A& 15. atris Bekker :
éavTjs apogr.: avrfjs Ac 19. déEews] AéEers Z (‘orationes’ Arabs): <
hé&is €x> NéEews Christ. Omissum vocabulum collato Arabe id esse Mar-
goliouth suspicatur cuius vice Graeculi dWyyopla usurpant 20. carupiakod
Ac 21 et 25. iauBloy Ac 27. éfduerpa] retpduerpa Winstanley
eis AexTixhy dppyovlay Wecklein (cf. Rhet. iii, 8. 1408 b 32): codicum
lect. tutatur Arabs verba 25 onuetov—28 apuovlas suadente Usener
secl. Susemihl 28. post m)dj0y punctum del. Gomperz ada ws
apogr.: &\Aws A®: Adda ols Hermann

fs ' ALhdh
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 11—15 19
types or not; and whether it is to be judged in itself, or
in relation also to the audience,—this raises another
question. Be that as it may, Tragedy—as also Comedy 12
—was at first mere improvisation. The one originated
with the leaders of the Dithyramb, the other.with those
of the phallic songs, which are still in use in many of
our cities. Tragedy advanced by slow degrees; each
new element that showed itself was in tum developed.
Having passed through many changes, it found its natural
form, and there it stopped.
Aeschylus first introduced a second actor; he dimin- 13
ished the importance of the Chorus, and assigned the
leading part to the dialogue. Sophocles raised the number
of actors to three, and added scene-painting. _ Moreover, 14
it was not till late that the short plot was discarded for
one of greater compass, and the grotesque diction of the’
earlier satyric form for the stately manner of Tragedy.
The iambic measure then replaced the trochaic tetrameter,
which was originally employed when the poetry was of
the satyric order, and had greater affinities with dancing.
Once dialogue had come in, Nature herself discovered the
appropriate measure. For the iambic is, ofall measures,
the most colloquial: we see it in the fact that con-
versational speech runs into iambic lines more frequently
than into any other kind of verse; rarely into hexa-
meters, and only when we drop the colloquial in-
tonation. The additions to the number of ‘ episodes’ or 15
acts, and the other improvements of which tradition
 20 IV. 15—V. 4. 1449 a 29—1449 b 11

@s éxaocta
KoopnOjvat eyeTaL ETTH Helv EelpNnwEva* TO-
ol f 54 Chur > ,

30 Av yap av icws Epyov eln SueErévar na’ Exaotov.

4 bd “4
\
€ \ 7 > \ ef + / \
V H 6€ kap@dia éotiv Worep elTropev pipnols pavroTEpwv
la) / > \ a > na
bev, ov pévToL KaTa Taoay KaKliav, GAA TOU aloxpod
an / \ \ al > € /
€oTt TO yedXoloy popLiov. TO Yap YEdoloy eoTLY apapTn-
APS \ > / e >
ba Tl Kal aiayos Qv@ovvov’ Kat OU pOapriKor, OloVv €EU-

35 Ods TO yedotov Tpocwrov aicypoy TL Kal SveoTpappévor¢

rn i /

a / / \
dvev ddvvns. ai pev ovv THs Tpaywdias peTaBacers Kal
b0 av éyévovto od AeANOacw, % Sé Kopwdia Oia TO pH
\ / \ \ \

149b grrovdater Oar €E apyfs édabev’ Kai yap yopov. Kopuwdav

dyé mote 0Canoe.dpxov edwxev,
bs / ”
Gd
> ead
HedovTai Ssjoav. Hon
os
oe\
oXNnMATA TWA aUTHS exovons ob eyouevor avTHS ToinTat
fol / a

punpwoyevovtat. Tis d€ Tpocwra anédwxev % Tpodoyous 7) Ww

5 7AnOn wroKpiTav Kal doa ToladTa, HYyvonTal.
/ ad ©: lal
TO Se pw- \ ef a 9, / \ /

Bouvs troveiv [Ecriyappos cal Dopyis] To pev && apyis

éx Luxedias HAO, THY d€ “AOnvnow Kpartns mpatos tpEev
ahéuevos Ths lauBiKhs idéas (Kaforov jrovety Noyous Kal
pvOous. 1) ev odv éroTroLia TH Tpaywdia méeypl mev TOD weTa
10 weéTpou [peydrou] piuyors eivar oTrovdaiwv nKodovOnceV* TO
/ / / 3 / ? VA a

\ \ te (s n + “S 2 / c /
dé TO pétpov adody eye Kal aTrayyedlay elval, TaVTH

29. wepl wey oty tovrwy rocatra add. Ald. ante éorw 32. advAN n Tod
alcxpod Friedreich: d\Ad <Kara Td yedotov, > Tod <> alcypod Christ: ‘sed
tantum res ridicula est de genere foedi quae est portio et ridicula Arabs, i.e.
aXAG pdvor TO yedotdv Eat TO alcxpod 6 udpidv éoTe Kal TO yedoloy Y, quod ex
duabus lectionibus conflatum esse censet Susemihl (1) dda pdprov pdvov 7rd
yedotsy éore Tod aicxpod, (2) adda Tod aicxpod pdprdy éote Kai Td yeNotov
33. yéAovoy (bis) A& 1449 b 3. of Neyduevor] dALyou pev ot Castelvetro:
értyou pev [ol] Usener 4. mpoNdyous A®: mpédoyov Christ : \éyous Her-
mann 6. ’Emlxapyos cal Pépus secl. Susemihl : <éxeiOev yap Fornv>
"Emixappos kal Bopuis post #AGe Bywater, collato Themistio, Or. xxvii. p. 337 A,
recte, ut opinor 8. eldéas AS 9-10. wéxpe wer Tod werd wérpov Thurot
(cf. Arab.) : méxpe pdvou uérpou peyddov codd. : wéxpr mer Tod uérpw <év prjcer>
peyady coni. Susemihl: péxpe pev Tod pérpw Tyrwhitt: wéype udvou <Tod dia
Aéyou €u>uérpov pweyddou Ueberweg 10. weyddouv codd.: secl. Bursian:
pera Adyou Ald. et, ut videtur, > T@e Ald.: 7rd A& ll. ratrn Ac
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IV. 15—V. 4 21

tells, must be taken as already described; for to discuss

them in detail would, doubtless, be a large under-
taking.

My Comedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters

of a lower type,—not, however, in the full sense of the
word bad, the Ludicrous being merely a subdivision of
the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which
is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious
example, the comic mask is ‘ugly and distorted, but does
not imply pain.
| | The successive changes through which Tragedy passed, 2
and the authors of these changes, are well known, whereas
Comedy has had no history, because it was not at first
1449/p treated seriously. It was late before the Archon granted
a comic chorus to a poet; the performers were till then
voluntary. Comedy had already taken definite shape
when comic poets, distinctively so called, are heard of.
|Who introduced masks, or prologues, or increased the 3
|number of actors,—these and other similar details re-
main unknown. As for the plot, it came originally from
Sicily ;but of Athenian writers Crates was the first who,
abandoning the ‘iambic’ or lampooning form, generalised
his themes and plots. _
Epic poetry agrees with Tragedy in so far as it is an 4
imitation in verse of characters of a higher type. They
differ, in that Epic poetry admits but one kind of
metre, and is narrative in form. They differ, again,
 22 V. 4—VI. 4. 1449 b 12—34

Siadépovow: ere b€ TH pes, <érel> 9 Mev OTL padioTa

Treiparat Ud wav Treplodoy HrLov eivat 7) pLKpov eEadhharrevy,
4 8é érroTrosia dopa Tos TO Ypovm, Kal ToUT@ Suadéper* KaiTor
15 TO TpO@ToV opolws ev Tais Tpary@diass TobTo érrolovy Kat év
trois éreow. pépn & éotl Ta pev TavTa, Ta O€ lola THS 5
dip het duotrep Gots mepl Tparyw dias olde o7rovdaias
L davrAms, olde Kal Tepl éerav: & pev yap émoToua
éyer, UTapyer TH Tpaywdia, & Sé avTH, ov TavTa €v TH
20erroTrotia.
VI Ilept pev ody ths ev éEapéerpors pipenTiKhs Kal Trepl Ko-
p@odias Votepov épodmev, Trept dé Tpaywdias éywpev ava
AaBdvtTes avis ex TaY elpnuévwv TOV ywopevoy bpov' THs
ovcias. éoTw ovv Tpaywdia pipnow mpakews oTrovealas2
25 kal Térelas péyeOos exovons, Hdvoepévm oyo yYwpis éExa-
oT TaV edav ev Tots poptos, SpwvtTwy Kal od bv amay-
yerlas, Ov édéov Kal hoBou mepaivovra THY TOY TOLOUT@Y
Tadnuatov Kabapow. Réyo &e ove pévov fev Oyov Tor3
éyovTa puv0uov Kal dppoviay Kat pédos, TO S€ ywpls Tois
eldeot TO bid pétpwv Evia povov TrepaiverOat Kal mad ETEpa
dud pédous. émrel dé T PaTTOVTES ToLouvTaL THY pinoy, 4
mpatov ev €& avdykns dv elm te popiov tpary@dias 6
THS OWrews KOT MOS, EiTA pehorrovia Kal rékis*! ev TOUTOLS, yap
Sonia pc
TOLOUVTAL THY pLLuUNo. réyo. d€ A€Ew pev adtny tHv Tov

12. dvapéper Hermann (confirm, Arabs) <érel> 4 wev Gomperz: <7>

% wev coni. Vahlen: <el> 7 wév Tucker: # uev yap apogr. 14. rotrw
(2? rodro pr. m.) A& dtapépovow Christ 16. reo et dace var. lect.
= (Diels), ‘in omnibus epesi’ Arabs TavTa apogr.: Tatra Ac OF
aire A®: airh apogr.: atrn Reiz: év avrp Richards 21. wev add. apogr. :
om. Ac 22. dvadaBdvres Bernays: dmo\aBbytes codd. 25. éxdorw
Tyrwhitt: ékdorov codd. 28. ma0yudrwy corr. apogr., 2: wabyudrwy
Ac 29. kal pédos] kat uérpov Vettori: secl. Tyrwhitt 30. pdvov]
Hopia & (‘partes’ Arabs) 34, airhvy] rabrny Bywater
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS V. 4—VI. 4 23

in their length: for Tragedy endeavours, as far as

possible, to confine itself to a single revolution of the
sun, or but slightly to exceed this limit; whereas the
Epie action has no limits of time. This, then, is a
second point of difference; though at first the same
freedom was admitted in Tragedy as in Epic poetry.
Of their constituent parts some are common to both, 5
some peculiar to Tragedy. Whoever, therefore, knows
what is good or bad Tragedy, knows also about Epic
[poetry : for all the elements of an Epic poem are found
lin Tragedy, but the elements of a Tragedy are not all
‘found in the Epic poem.
VI Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and
of Comedy, we will speak hereafter. Let us now discuss
Tragedy, resuming its formal definition, as resulting from
what has been already said.
Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is 2
ral , ye

serious, complete, ‘and of a certain magnitude ; inlanguage ¢ 4 vf fh.

embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the
several kinds bbeing found inseparate parts of ‘the play ;
in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and
fear effecting the proper purgation ofthese emotions. By 3
‘language embellished, I mean language into which
rhythm, ‘harmony, and song enter. By ‘the several kinds
in separate parts, I mean, that some parts are rendered
through the medium of verse alone, others again with
the aid of song. }
Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it neces- 4 ,
sarily follows, in the first place, that Spectacular _equip- o
ment will be a part of Tragedy. Next, Song and Diction,
for these are the medium of imitation. By ‘Diction’
 24 VI. 49. 1449 b 35—14504a 15

\ 35 wétpov avvOeow, pedorroviav bé 0 THv Svvapww pavepay

a \ / \

rel S¢ mpakeds éore piunows, mpatretas € 5

n Me / \
ever maow.
ITO TWOV TPATTOVTY, ods aVaYKN ToLoVs TWAS ElVaL KATA
lal / / 7 a /

te To HO0s Kal tiv Sidvotay (bua yap TovTwy Kat Tas

\ sh / \ X

160.a Tpdkeus elval papev Trovas Twas, Twépuxev S€ aitia Ovo THY
/ \ y uy la)

mpakeov eivat, dudvoravy Kat 700s, Kal KaTa TavTas Kal

A 9 \ a / \

Tuyydvovet Kal amrotuyyavoue. mayTes), Eat On THS pev6

/ lj \ rn \

mpatews!o pdos\ pina: rEyo yap puUGov TovTOY, THY

/ ae fo) c / Je \ D8. an \

~
ctvOeow TaV Tpaypatav, Ta\ 5é On,Y
Kal’ > A0 Trovovs/ TLvaS
~—e
elval papev Tovs TpatrovtTas, didvotay Sé, ev Gaots AEyov- UA, / > oe /

Tes amoveKvvacty TL
>
Kal aTropaivovTas yvounv.
/ /
avayKn7 x K > / / D; /

ovv Taons Tpaywdias pépn etvar €E, Kal a Trova Tis éoTiV
5 / / if, us 4 7 A 4 > i.

n Tpayw~dia: tadta 8 éatl p0O0s Kal On Kal réEvs Kal

emt \ , cR Oe eS oe na
10 dudvowa Kal ois Kal peROTIOLLA. (ols BEV yap PlysLovYTal,

vo pépn
8 7 ee
éoTiv,)
easy J ™
wsJe $2dé plpovvTal,
a
ev,
4
&a 8 S€\ pwLmovYTaL,
la)
Tpla,
/

ere
Kal Tapa. TavTa ovdév. ToOVTOLS MEV OY <TraVYTES> [OUK OALYOL 8
\ AN A > / / \ LJ 8 b] > /

avT@v|a@s
Sn) e
eitrety
> tal
KéeyxpnvTar
,
Tolsa EldEeowW*
y
Kai\ yapdrrets
Wee’
EYEL
4
TAYa
Kal 700s Kat pdOov Kat réEw Kal péros Kal didvotav @cav-
lal f € /

15 TS. . wéylaTov S€ TOUTwY éoTlY ) TOY TpayLaTaY TVaTAGIS: 9

lal 4

35. mérpwv] dvoudtwy Hermann, collato 1450 b 15 36. macw Maggi:

macav codd. 88. dua dé Zeller Oud yap Tovrwy . .. mavres in
parenthesi Thurot 1450 al. wépuxev O€ apogr.: mépuxey A& atria
codd.: airias Christ 8. 6y Eucken: 6é codd. 4. totrov] rotro
Maggi: secl. Christ (cf. Arab.) 5. «ad Ac: cad’ & apogr. 8.
kal’ & mow apogr.: Kkaborola A° 12. ovk dNlyo attéy ws eiweiy codd.:
Odyou abray <draytes> ws elmely coni. Bywater: ovx é6dlyo atrav <a)dda
mavres> ws elrety Bursian: ovx 6dlyou avrGy om. D, sed mavrws (?= martes)
add. (vid. Margoliouth), Secluso igitur tanquam glossemate ov« éXiyor
avray, scripsi <mdvtes> ws eiretv: cf. Rhet. i. 1. 1854 a 12, 6dlyor codd.:
ovdév ws elmetv AC marg., ubi édlyov glossema esse suspicor, veram lect. ovdév
ws elmetv: Dem. or. xxxviii. 6 mdvrwy Trév mrelotwy ds eimetv, ubi rav
mrelorwy secluserim. Viam monstravit Diels, qui tamen mdvres quoque
omisso, Tovros wey ody ws elmety scripsit: ovk dAlyo. a’r@y <a\N é&v waar
mavres> Gomperz: ovk 6Alyo atrOy <a\X\A mavres mao.> Zeller: <mdyres
ev maow atrqs> Susemibl 13. dWes vel Ww apogr.: dys AS way
inure suspexeris’
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 4—9 25

I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words:

as for ‘Song,’ it is a term whose sense every one under-
stands.
~
Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an 5
action implies personal agents, who necessarily possess
certain distinctive qualities both of character and thought;
1450a for it is by these that we qualify Behons themselves,
and these—thought and character—are the two natural
causes from which actions spring, and on actions again
all success or failure depends. Hence, the Plot is the 6
imitation of the action:—for by plot I here mean the
a

arrangement of the incidents. By Character Tmean

that in virtue of which we ascribe certain qualities to
the agents. Thought “is required wherever a statement
ig proved, or, it “may be, a general truth enunciated.
Every Tragedy, therefore, must have six parts, which 7
parts determine its quality—namely, Plot, Character,
Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Song. Two of the parts con-
stitute the medium of imitation, one the manner, and three
the objects of imitation. And these complete the list.
These elements have been employed, we may say, by the 8
poets to a man; in fact, every play contains Spectacular
elements as well as Character, Plot, Diction, Song, and

Thought.
But most important of all is the structure of theg
 26 VI. 9—14. 1450 a 16—37

Hhyap tpaywdia pipnois éotw ovK avOpwTav adda Tpa-

/ > \ Me

Fews kal Biov: <o 5é Bios> év mpakes éotly Kal tO TédoS

\ \ /

a / \ \ \ \ Noor /
mpakis Tus éotiv, ov movorns' eiciv b€ KaTa pwev TA HON TroLOL 10
Twes, Kata bێ Tas mpakers evSaipwoves 7) TOUVaVTLOV.
\ \ >» / >
ovKOUY
V4 x > , ”

ey Straws TH On piyuno@vTar TpaTTovew, adrAa TA HON oUp-

> \ \ BA

maparauBdvovat dia Tas makes: WoTE TA TPaypaTa Kai \ / eo i is \

6 wd00s TéXos THs Tpaywdias, TO 6€ TEOS MEYLTTOV aTraVTwY.

an fol d /

éve avev pev mpatews ovK adv yévoro Tpaywoia, avev de 11

” ” \ j / > xn t OL ” bec

nOaY yévorT av. al yap TOV véwv TaY TrEloTMOY anOeLs

bia Bal VA Se 3. e \ a / [al / > 50

© a bees 5 AN
25 Tpaywoiat eicly Kal OdXws TroiNnTal TrONAOL ToOLOUTOL, Oloy Kal
A a 4 / /
tov ypapéwy Led&us mpos’ Wodvyvwrov rérovbev: 0peswév yap \

Ilorvyvartos ayabds AOoypados, 7 5é Lev&idos ypady oddev if N: +O\

éyet 400s. ers eav tis epeENs Of phoes AOvKas Kal éEeu 12
i) a a ? \ \ /

<a,
kal \ Svavoia “i
eb5 TeToimpévas, VA
ov> Trouncer
/
0aA Hv4
THSn
Tpayo-
30 dias Epyov, GANA TOAD paAdov 7) KaTAadeEcTépoise TOUTOLS
a , /

KeXpnevn Tpaywodia, éyovca Sé pwvOov Kal aioTacww Tpa-

fal /

yuatov. mpos Sé TovToWs Ta péyloTa ols puyayoryel 7 13

Tpaypola, ToD pudov pépy eotiv, ai re mepiTrérevat Kal ava-
a aa eS Be r
yvwpioes. éTt onuetoy OTs Kal oi eyxeLpodYTES Trovety Tpd- 14
, A L \ a o” >, a Fy \
35 tepov Sivavtar TH réEEL Kal Tots HOecw axpiBodv 7) Ta
_

mpaypata suvictacOat, oiov Kal oi Tp@Tor Towtal oyedov

, a

eo b \ \ 9 \ e \ € a ol
aATTaVTES. apxXn Mev OUVY KaL oLOV spuyn oO pdOos TNS Tpa-

16. ddrd\a mpdéews Kal Blov Kal evdamovlas kal Kaxodamovia év mpdtec codd.,
sed alio spectat Arabs (‘sed in operibus et vita. Et <vita> est in opere’) ;
unde Margoliouth ada mpdtews Kal Blov, <6 dé Blos> év mpdter, quod pro-
bant Diels, Zeller, Susemihl. Codicum lectionem ita supplet Vahlen, kal
eVdaruwovias <Kal kaxodaimovias, n 6€ eddamovia> Kal 7 Kaxodaimovla
20. mpatrovow] mpdrrovtas movodcw coni. Vahlen oupTapahauBdvover
Guelferbytanus pr. m., Spengel: cuumepiAauBdvouvcw Ae 26 et 27.
Tlodkv-yryworov et Todvyvworos A& 28. A€fer Kal dvavofa Vahlen (confirm.
Arabs): Néfers kat diavolas codd. 29. oJ add. apogr. (‘nequaquam ’
Arabs): om. A®: fort. o¥daues Margoliouth 20. 7 apogr.: 7 Ac 36.
ouvicracba codd.: curicrdvar Thurot
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 9—14 27

incidents.:
Lene
For Tragedyi
is an imitation, notsof men, but
pertaet
rnaty

of an action and of life, and life‘consists. inaction, and

its endis a mode of action, not a quality. Now}1o
character determines men’s qualities, but it is by their
actions that they are happy or the reverse. Dramatic
action, therefore, is not with a view to the representation
of character: character _comes_in_as.subsidiary to the
s.. Hence the incidents and the plot are the end of
a Se ied and the end is the chief thing of all. Again, 11
without action there cannot be a tragedy; there may be |
without character. The tragedies of most of our modern
poets fail in the rendering of character; and of poets in
general this is often true. It is the same in painting;
and here lies the difference between Zeuxis and Polygnotus.
Polygnotus delineates character well: the style of Zeuxis
is devoid of ethical quality. Again, if you string 12
together a set of speeches expressive of character, and
well finished in point of diction and thought, you will
not produce the essential tragic effect nearly so well as ,
with a play which, however deficient in these respects,
yet has a plot and artistically constructed incidents,
Besides which, the most powerful elements of emotional 13
interest in Tragedy—Peripeteia or Reversal of the
Situation, and Zecognition scones—are parts oftheplot.
A further proof is, that novices in the art attain to finish 14
of diction and precision of portraiture before they can
construct the plot. It is the same with almost all
the early poets.
The Plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were,
 28 VI. 15—19. 1450 a 38—1450 b 19

yodlas, Sevtepov Sé Ta On: Tapardynowov yap eoTw Kal 15

A i b's ,
14500 emt THs ypaduKhs: ef yap Tus évarelrpere Tois KaddoTOLS
|i hapudKous
PE x yvdnv, ) otk av cbpuolws edppdvevey Kal evKo-
' \ 7
y
ypapnoas él, ova: éoTw Te pipenous mpaews Kal dia TavTHy
| paddiota TOY TpaTTOYT@Y. TpiTov de 7 dLdvoLa* TOTO €
7 / lal 4 / be ¢€ Py a s an PY

5t éoTW TO réyewv SVvVacbat Ta Say évovTa Kal \ TaRo appoTToVTa,MC ,

¢ na t a aes F
| Omep emt TOY OYoV THs TodTLKHS Kal VerepNTOpLKASle Epryov oy

€otivs of péev yap apyator TroduTLKaS EeTroLovY AéyovTAS, Ot

a lal / td €

iff A x 5 \ rn aN AEN:
‘| 6€ viv pyntopixds. eortiv dé 700s pev TO ToLodTOY 0 Snot THY
{ *

Tpoaipeow omotad tis [mpolatpetrar i) pevryer: SioTep ovK

, € lal n XK / / >

a ET 5 mn /
10 €yovow 005 TaY Royov €v> ols® ovK> Eat + Se
SHAY Hx eV9
oise pwnd bras
ty
éotw 6 te [mpolatpetrar ta)
7)DY hevyer
/
0€ A€éyov"
/

dtdvoua 8é, év ois atroderkytovct TL ws EoTW 7) @S OVK ETL

of oe / > ne ’ / Id € 7 Xx ¢ >’ +

) Kaborov Te atohatvoyta. Tétaptoy bé TdY Aeyomevar 1)

fe \ lal / €

NéEis: Aéyw 54, Homep TpoTepoy elpnrar, AéEw elvar THV if. f * \

15 Oud\ Tisa dvomacias

> /
épunvetav,
€ 7
5 Kai Ny eri
cay aN
TOY
an
EupéTpov
> ,
Kal \
emt TOV Oywv exer THY avTHY SiVamW. TeV o€ oLTrOYV
See an / 4 \ (Hee / rn x n

[wévre] 1) perotroia péyrotoy TaV_HdvopAaTaV, 7 Sé dis

fe € , / lal ¢€ / id \ ”

puyayoylKoy pév, aTeyvotaton S€ Kal Kora olKEloV THs TroLN-

/ a an

TUS’ <lo>ws yap THs Tpaywdias Stvamis Kal avev ayavos

38. mapamdjovov . . . elxdva supra post mpayudtwy v. 81 collocavit Castel-

vetro. 1450 b 1. éva AelWere AS 38. te codd.: yap Hermann 6.
émt rGv Noywv secl. M. Schmidt 9-11. Gmotd Tis. . . hetyer 6 Aéywv
Gomperz, alios secutus: dmotd tis (6 mota rls) év ols otk éarr SHdov #
mpoarpetrar t pevyer* Sidmrep ovK exovow HOos Tdv byw év ots und Bws 2orw
8 rus (8 Te apogr.) mpoarpetrar 7) pevryer 6 Néywr AC: mola tis Sidrep ovK
éxovow . . . petryer 6 Néywv (verbis év ols otx tore SHov # mpoacpetrar 7}
pevyer omissis cum Arabe) Margoliouth. Suspicatur Susemihl éy ols ovx
ort . « « i) pevryer et ev ols nd’ Sdws €or . . . 4 hevrye duplicem lectionem
fuisse 11. 7 apogr.: tus A& 13. Neyoudvwv Gomperz: péev Noywv
codd.: év \éyw Bywater 17. mévre A®: secl. Spengel (confirm. Arabs) :
méumTov apogr. 18. dmexviraroy Ac 19, ticws Meiser: ws A®: 7
apogr.: é\ws Gomperz
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. 14—19 29

the soul of a tragedy: Character holds the second place.

1450b A similar fact is seen in painting. The most beautiful 15
colours, laid on confusedly, will not give as much pleasure
as the chalk outline of a portrait. Thus Tragedy is the
imitation of an action, and of the agents mainly with a
view to the action.
Third in order is Thought,—that is, the faculty of 16
saying what is possible and pertinent in given circum-
stances. In the case of oratory, this is the function of
the political art and of the art of rhetoric: and so indeed
the older poets make their characters speak the language
of civic life; the poets of our time, the language of the
rhetoricians. Character is that which reveals moral 17
purpose, showing what kind of things a man chooses or
avoids. Speeches, therefore, which do not make this
manifest, or in which the speaker does not choose or
avoid anything whatever, are not expressive of character.
Thought, on the other hand, is found where something is
proved to be or not to be, or a general maxim is
enunciated.
Fourth among the elements enumerated comes 18
Diction ; by which I mean, as has been already said, the
expression of the meaning in words; and its essence is
the same both in verse and prose.
Of the remaining elements Song holds the chief place 19
among the embellishments.
The Spectacle has, indeed, an emotional attraction of
its own, but, of all the parts, it is the least artistic, and
connected least with the art of poetry. For the power
of Tragedy, we may be sure, is felt even apart from
representation and actors. Besides, the production of
 30 VI. 19—VII. 5. 1450 b 20—1451 a 4

20 Kal brroKpiTav éotw, Ett O€ KUPLWTEpA TEPL THY aTEpyac

lav
fal te \ \ > /

TOV Opewy 7 TOD TKEVOTTOLOD TEXVN THS TOV TOLNTOV ETL.

a lal la) / 5 [al lal >

VII Atwpicpévov b€ ToiTav, Néyopev peTa TavTa Trovay A ix a /

Twa deia THY cVoTacLY civaL TOY a

TpaypaT@V, /
émeLd7
b] \
TOUTO
a

Kal TpOToV Kal péyLoTov THS Tpaywdias éotiv. Keita dn

an fol / / lal \

25 }piv THY Tpay@diay Tedelas Kal OAns TpdEews Eivar

Cher. \ / / \ ef / 4
pl-Ie
pnow €yovons
> vA
TL wéyeOos*
/
Ext
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yap\
Odov
ef:
Kal \ pnoEeV
be
EXoV
”

péyebos. Srov Sé éotiy TO yoy apyny Kal pécoV Kal Te-

¢ \ t \

evTHY. apy é éoTw 0 avTO péev py eE avayKns peT

a \ N \ > / >

adro éoriv, pet exetvo & Erepov mépuxev civat 1) yiverOau-

> lal i Xx /

30 TeNcvTH O€ TovvayTioy a6 avTO eT > GAAAO >)

TéhuKEY
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EivaL
be
7)DD
e& avayens % os éml TO ToAU, peTa dé TOUTO GAO OVdEV> 3 AS nr la /

pécov bé 0 Kal avTo pet GAO Kal pet €xeivo Erepor.

te NGEEAN \ Ou eeN b) YA \ > J a oe

1 8 ee tie \ a 5 / sn» ¢ Ww) ”

| €l apa Tovs cuveoTt@tas ed pvOovs pif omobev Eetuxev
U bd a AY a a
apyecOar pnd Smov ervye TedevTav, AAG Kexphabar Tais
35 elpnueévars idéars.
>
Ett S émel TO Kadov Kal Goov Kal array
/ dé By 8 > \ \ XN \ Lal Ane?

Tpaywa 0 cuveoTHnKEY eK TOV ov MovoY TAadDTa TETaypéva

a a lal f fa /

el €yew GNA Kal péyeHos Umdpyew pn TO TUXOY* TO

5 fo Le > x \ / ig / \ X Va x.

\ \ 5) / \ / > 4 \ oo ,
yap Kanrov év peyéber kat Ta&eu éotiv, dv0 ote TappeKpov
t yévoito Karov Sdov (cuyxeitar yap 7) Oewpia éeyyds
ay T tg XO oa ( lal X sl fa} / > \

40 TOU avatoOnTev ypovou yivouévn), oVTE Tappéeyebes (ov yap

a / ii

sladua 1 Oewpia yivetas adr olyetat Tols Oewpodat TO _év

“d > ra fe

Kal TO OAoV €k THS Oewpias), obovy ef pupiwy atadiov Ein

\ \ e- a 7

S@ov' wate
ia}
Oet Kabarep emi THY copdTaV Kal eri TeV
‘i A 8 lal 04 EN a / \ bee a

a ” \ L a \ of os s ef
Sov EN ELV MeV péyeBos, TOUTO dé E€VOVVOTTTOY ELVAL, OUTW

24. 5) Bywater: 6’ Ac 28. uh €& avdyxns codd.: é& davdyxns wh Pazzi

35, idéars apogr.: eidéars Ac 38. mduucxpoy Riccardianus 16: wav puxpov
A: mavu wixpdy Laurentianus lx. 16 40. xpévov secl. Bonitz: tutatur
Arabs mwapmeyedes Riccardianus 16: way péyebos A®: mavu péya Lauren-
tianus lx. 16 1451 a 3. cwpdrwr] cveTnudrwv Bywater
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VI. r9g—VII. 5 31
spectacular effects depends more on the art of the stage
machinist than on that of the poet.
Walt These principles being established, let us now discuss
the proper structure of the Plot, since this is the first
and most important part of Tragedy.
Now, according to our definition, Tragedy is an2
imitation of an action that is complete, and whole, and
of a certain magnitude; for there may be a whole that
is wanting in magnitude. A whole is that which has 3
a beginning, a middle, and an end. A beginning iis that
_ which does not itself follow anything by causal necessity,
but after which something naturally is or comes to_be.
Anend, on the contrary, is that which itself naturally
follows some other thing, either by necessity, or.as.a_rule,
but has nothing following it. A middle is that which
follows something as some other thing follows it. A well
constructed plot, therefore, must neither begin nor end
at haphazard, but conform to these principles.
Again, a beautiful object, whether it be a living 4
organism or any whole composed of parts, must not
only have an orderly arrangement of parts, but must
also be of a certain magnitude; for beauty depends on
magnitude and order. Hence a very small animal
organism cannot be beautiful; for the view of it is con-
fused, the object being seen in an almost imperceptible
moment of time. Nor, again, can one of vast size be
1451a beautiful; for as the eye cannot take it all in at once,
the unity and sense of the whole is lost for the spectator;
as for instance if there were one a thousand miles
long. As, therefore, in the case of animate bodies and 5
organisms a certain magnitude is necessary, and a magni-
 32 VII. 5—VIII. 3. 1451 a 5—26

5 Kal él trav piOwr exe pev pijKos, ToUTO de evpynpover-

\ SEN a uA 4 \ a la) Ni > /

TOV €ival. TOD [KOVS Opos <o> MeV TPOS TOUS ayavas Kat
la} / a e \ \ \ b) a \

Tv aloOnow ov THS Téeyvns éoTiv: el Yap EdEL EKaTOY

\ ” > a / > / > \ és e \

, / BY ? /
Tpaywodias aywviterOat, mpos Kreyvdpas av nywvifovTo,
@omep ToTe Kal GXoTE hacw. Oo Se KaT avTHY THY prow
/ / € iN > \ \ 7

Io TOU fal
mpaypwatos /
Spos, aet pev
iia PLAS \
Oo peilwv péypl
ic. / /
TOU Le)
cup- /

Sndos) elvas KaddAiwv éotl Kata TO péyeBos: ws Sé a-

\ \ / i \ ¢

TAOS SvoptoavTas elmrety, ev dow peyéVer KATA

an } Ng > la) > o la \
TO ELKOS 1)
> Ppt \ x

TO avayKaioy éepeEhs yuyvouevwy ovpPaiver eis evTUXLay

\ > a b] fo) / / >? > /

14 éx dvatuxylas 7 €& evtvyias eis Svotvyiay pmetaBddrew,

ie » / id s

VIII ixavos 6pos é€atw Tod peyéOovs. MidOos 8 éotiv eis

€ \ 4 ? \ fal / la) . > \ e

> 4 N ” 2\ \ (4 (2 \ \
ovxX WoTTEP TIVES OlOVTAaL €av Tept eva n° TOAMAG Yap
eal

Kal \ amepa
”
TOA Evi
eX
cvuPaiva,
/
€&
>
ov
ie
[éviov]
Plays
ovdéy
IQZ
éotu
>

&y ovtws 6€ Kal mpaktes Eévds Toddat eiow, é@& ov

K / \ /

pia ovdeuia yivetas pais.

/ > je / lal
S10 TavTes
N vd
€oixacww
OY:
dpap- e

tavew Ooo Tov TromTav ‘“Hpaxrnida Ononida Kal ra

gj lal 7 lal id
20

TOLAVTA a
TOLNMAaTA /
TETOLNKATW* /
olovTaL yap, émel els Hv oe

o ‘“Hpaknijs,éva/xat tov poor eivar tpoonKkev. o 6 “O-

€ a \ \ a 5 >

Pnpos BoTrEep Kai Ta adda Stadhéper Kal TodT EotKey Ka-

iA \ AN yf lal

Ads tOety Hroe Sua Téexvynv H Sia hiow: ‘Odtocerav yap

a INA f \ ie 3 >

TOLBY OUK eTOLnoEY aTraVvTa boa avT@ ovVéBn, olov TAN-

fal > ’ / ivA a 2 a / e
25
yivar wev év T@ Lapvace, wavivar 6€ mpootonocacbar év
ips \ 2: a A a

6. 6 add. Bursian Mev mpds A®: mpds uey apogr. 8. KrePidpar

apogr. 9. adddore pacty codd.: dddo7’ eidPacw M. Schmidt ; quod olim
recepi, sed moré xai Gore vix aliud significare potest quam ‘olim
aliquando,’ Quae in Arabe leguntur (‘sicut solemus dicere etiam aliquo
tempore et aliquando’), alterutri lectioni subsidio esse possunt fe
évt Guelferbytanus: yéve. A® (cf. 1447 a 17): r@ y’ évt Vettori éviwy
secl. Spengel 18. ai ante modal add. apogr,
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VII. 5—VIII. 3 33

tude which may be easily embraced in one view; so in

the plot, a certain length is necessary, and a length
which can be “easily. embraced by the memory. The 6
limit-of length in relation to dramatic competition and
sensuous presentment, is no part of artistic theory. For
had it been the rule for a hundred tragedies to compete
together, the performance would have been regulated by
the water-clock,—as indeed we are told was formerly
done. But the limit as fixed by the nature of the7
drama itself is this:—the greater the length, the
more beautiful will the piece be by reason of its
size, provided that the whole be perspicuous. And
to define the matter roughly, we may say that the
proper magnitude is comprised within such limits, that
the sequence of events, according to the law of probability
or necessity, will admit. of a change from bad fortune to
good, or from good fortune to bad.
VIII ~- Unity of plot does not, as some persons think, consist
in the unity of the hero. For infinitely various are the
incidents in one man’s life which cannot be reduced to
unity ; and so, too, there are many actions of one man
out of which we cannot make one action. Hence the 2
error, as it appears, of all poets who have composed a
Heracleid, a Theseid, or other poems of the kind. They
imagine that as Heracles was one man, the story of
Heracles must also be a unity. But Homer, as in all 3
else he is of surpassing merit, here too—whether from
art or natural genius—seems to have happily discerned
the truth. In composing the Odyssey he did not include
all the adventures of Odysseus—such as his wound on
Parnassus, or his feigned madness at the mustering of
D
 34 VIII. 3—IX. 5. 1451 a 27—1451 b 12

17d ayepu@, av ovdev Oatépov yevouevov avaryKaioy mY

A > a e OX / / > lal 93

3 7 s \ \ / 5 Y
eixos Oatepov yevécOar, adda Tepl play wpakw olay
> / l Cuniay, Siar \
Néyouev tHv Oddcceavy cvvértncev, opoiws Se Kal THY
5 \ lal Us o i
30 Idcdda. pr obv Kabarep Kai év Tais dhrAGLS MLNTLKAIS 1)Lia 4
pipnos évos eT OUT@ Kal TOP wdOor, emer Tpakews plunols
/ LA é by ef XN NA la) > as / HA he

€oTl, pds Te Elva Kal TavTNS OANS Kal TA pépN TUVETTA-

lal \ re vA NS \ / /

vat TOV TpayLaToV OUTS WaTE pEeTaTIOE“EVOU TLVOS pépous

n ¢ “2 / \ /

rR
) abatpovpévou dvapéperOat Kat KivetcPar TO ddov: 0a yap
n \ e- \

35 Tpocoy 7) fn) TpoTov pnNodey TroLel ETFLONAOV, OVdEV opLoV TOU

\ Dy \ X \ mn 3) iS Oe / o

x4 b i
ONOU ECT,
yas Pavepov 5é €x THY eElpnuévov Kal OTL Ov TO TA
lal / e \ \

q / , a na » > 4 > > e x

\ yevomeva Aéyeww, TODTO ToLNTOU Epyov éaTiv, GAN oia av
yévotTo
f
Kal \ TaIN OvvaTa\ KATA \ TO\ ELKOS
SEX
7)A TOa)avayKatoy.
A
Oo€ yap
\
2
1451b COTOPLKOS Kal O TOLNTHS OU TO 1) EupeTpa Eeyewy 7) ApeTpa
¢ \ Nyt a \ > Bi os: / A>

4
. Svadépovow (ein yap adv ta “Hpodotov eis pétpa teOHvar,
/ y AN BN Ana 6 i > / a

kat ovdev HTToy ay ein LaTOpia TiS META METPOV 7) AVEV [LETPOV)*
= Xx e / NS / Xx -

adda TovT@ Scapéper, TH TOV pev TA yEevomEeva éyeELY,

2 \ / ih A \ AY x / /

.i5 Tov dé ola adv yévorto.

ns
510 Kal girocopetepov Kai38 /

| omrovdaloTepov Troinous tatopias éotiv: 1 wey yap Troinows

4 if / / \ f-

4 4 A t e ,
‘ | padXrov Ta Kaborov, 4 8 totopia ta Kal” Exactov Réyet.
éotw d€ Ka0drov pév, TO Tol@ Ta Tola aTTa cupPBaiver4
4 \ / fe A lal

Eyelv 7) TPATTELY KATA TO ELKOS 7) TO avayKaiov, ove aTO-

rE x / \ \ \ x \ > a

10 yaleTar 1 Toinois ovowata émiTiepévn? TO 5é Kal Exa-

/ e , » /S Gy / \ \ > oe

atov, Tt AdrKiBiadns Erpakev 7) Ti érrabev. earl pev ody THs 5

i ie Y4 xX , a

/ Ba a a / / \ Ni
Kopodias dn TodTO SHAov yéeyover* cVoTHTAaVTES yap Tov

28. 7 add. apogr. 29. Néyouwev apogr.: Aéyouwey AS: dy Néyouuey Vahlen
32. Kal ravryns] ra’rns cal Susemihl 34. diadéperOar] Svapbelpecbac
Twining (‘corrumpatur et confundatur’ Arabs): habuit fort. utramque
lect. 2 (Margoliouth): fort. SuapopetorOa (cf. de Div. 2. 464 b 13) 35,
move, emldndov ws apogr. 37. od ro apogr. (confirm. Arabs): otrw A®
38. yevoueva Riccardianus 16: yivdueva cett. 39. kal 7a Suvara secl.
Maggi 1451 b 4. ro’rw . . . T@ apogr.: TodTo. . TS A®: rodro... 7d
Spengel 10. 7d apogr.: tov AS
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS VIII. 3—IX. 5 35

the host—incidents between which there was no hecessary

or probable connexion: but he made the Odyssey, and \(
likewise the Iliad, to centre round an action that in our
sense of the word is one. As therefore, in the other4
imitative arts, the imitation is one when the object imitated
is one, so the plot, being an imitation of an action, must
imitate one action and that a whole, the structural union
of the parts being such that, if any one of them is
displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and
disturbed. For a thing whose presence or absence makes
no visible difference, is not an organic part of the
whole.
i It is, moreover, evident from what has been said,
that it is not the function of the poet to relate what i
has happened, but what may happen,—what_ ispossible
according to the law of probability or necessity. The 2
1451 bpoet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or
in prose. The work of Herodotus might be put into
verse, and it would still be a species of history, with
metre no less than without it. The true difference is
that one relates what has happened, the other what may
happen. Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and 3
a higher thing than history :“for poetry tends to éxpress _
the universal, history the particular. By the universal a} ‘
I mean how a person of a certain type will on occasion
speak or act, according to the law of probability or
necessity ; and it is this universality at which poetry
aims in the names she attaches to the personages. The
particular is—for example—what Alcibiades did or
suffered. In Comedy this is already apparent: for here 5
the poet first constructs the plot on the lines of prob-
 36 IX 5—10. 1451 b 13—33

n \ an DST, ’ \ / pimay, e
pod0ov Sia TaY elKOT@Y OV TA TUXOVTA OVOMaTa VTrOTL-
y
Oéacw, Katiran)
ovy aorreEp oi CMStapBorrolol
teu ye ie tes
TeptCpeTov KAO Q ExacToV
é

B rp ON A / n L 5) / }
15 movovow. él d€ THs Tpaywdias|
TOV yevouev@vy ovomaTar6
avréxovtat.
> / '
aitiov
7
o oT mubavoy/ éott
OF 4 2
TO\ 8
OvvaTOV.
/
Ta\ meV\
ovv 1) Yevomeva ovTM TiaTEvOmEY Eivat dUVATA, TA OE YE-
fo) \ ” 7 3 8 iy \ 6e

voueva pavepov OTL SuvaTd, ov yap av éyéveETO, Et VY adv-

/ \ of if > N DY Diy 2s > /

vata. ah py
ov jepi a adha|
awh WaaKal évie cae $ Tpay@dlass
dias éviais S pb pev v7
7 Ovo TOY yvopiwav
x f- lal if
éotiv dvouaTav, Ta 5é aA
> sf > / x \ »”
TeETOLN-
péva, év éviass d€ od8’ €v, otov €v TH Ayabwvos AvOet- opmoiws
/ if \ na? ? al (< /

yap éy TOUTM Ta TE TPAYUaATA Kal Ta OVOMATA TETTOLNTAL, Kal

\ > rh / i \ > td / / \

ovdey ATTov evppaiver. WaT ov TaVvTwS eivat EnTNHTEov TaV 8

’ sf & > / (v4 > b f i Vd an

p pévov
Tapaceoope pvOwy,
10 meplL ods
ods al at Tpaywdiar
bb eioiv,
iciv, avT-
a
25 éxetOar.
/
Kal yap yerotov TovdtTo Entely, érei Kal Ta yvo-/
\ Ni a an tal > \ \ \

pla oNrlyoLs yvMpl“a €oTLV GX Opws evppaiver TayTas.

> if / / > > > ef > / /

A 5 > , ? \ \ A A ,
OfAov ovv €K TOVTM@Y STL TOY ToLNTHY WaAXOY TaV pvOwDV9
etvar Set TromnTHY 7) TOV METPwV, GOW TroLNTHS KATA TY pL-
5 8 lal aN Xx fal / 4 \ \ \ /

pnoy éotw, ppeitas O€ Tas Tpdkées. Kav dpa cupBH yevo-

/ 5) la) \ b \ , x + fal /

eva, Trovety, ovlév ATTov TowmTHs ote: TOV yap yevouévav

a \ e a

évia
oe
ovdev
Oe
KwAVEL
/
TOLADTA
la
Elvat
3
ola
-
dv
x
eiKos
SEEN
yevéoOat
/
Kal\
dvvata yevéoOar, Kab 0 éxetvos avTa@yv.roinTns éaTuv.
\ yA 7 aA bd a 9: a / >

Tav O€ ad\AXav pi0wv Kal mpdkewv ai émeroodi@dets 10

13. od scripsi (‘nequaquam’ Arabs): ottw codd. (cf. 1451 a 37 €mrl-
Tiéacr apogr. 14, rov A®: r&y apogr. 16. weBavdv A& 19. &
ante éviais add. apogr. (ceterum cf. Dem. or, iii. 11, xviii. 12) 21. od &
otf? &v AC: obOév apogr. olov ... ’AvGe?] ‘quemadmodum si quis unum esse
bonum statuit’ Arabs; male Syrus legisse videtur éy 7d dyabdv ds dy OF
(Margoliouth) "AvOe? Welcker: dv@ex codd. 23. wor’ od] do Tod
Ac ov mdvTws elvar, si sana sunt, arte cohaerent (cf. odx éxdy elva,
kara ddvapuy elvar, Kara Toro elvat, similia): elvac secl. Spengel 24, ai
<evdoximotoar> Tpaywdlac coni. Vahlen 31. kal dara yevécOac secl.
Vorlinder: om. Arabs 33, Tay 0 d\Nwv Tyrwhitt: réyv dé ardGy codd. :
ams dé ray Castelvetro
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IX. 5—10 37

ability, and then inserts characteristic names ;—unlike

the lampooners who write about particular individuals.
But tragedians still keep to real names, the reason being 6
that what is possible is credible: what has not happened
we do not at once feel sure to be possible: but what has
happened is manifestly possible: otherwise it would not
have happened. Still there are some tragedies in which 7
there are only one or two well known names, the rest
being fictitious. In others, none are well known,—as
in Agathon’s Antheus, where incidents and names alike
are fictitious, and yet they give none the less pleasure.
We must not, therefore, at all costs keep to the received g
legends, which are the usual subjects of Tragedy. Indeed,
it would be absurd to attempt it; for even subjects that
are known are known only to a few, and yet give pleasure
to all. It clearly follows that the poet or ‘maker’ 9
should be the maker of plots rather than of verses ;
since he is a poet because he imitates, and what he
imitates are actions. And even if he chances to take
an historical subject, he is none the less a poet; for
there is no reason why some events that have actually
happened should not conform to the law of the probable
and possible, and in virtue of that quality in them he is
their poet or maker.
Of all plots and actions the epeisodic are the worst. 10
 38 IX. 1o—X. 3. 1451 b 34—1452 a 19

elolv xelpiotass Aéyw 5 errevaodi@dy pbOov ev @ Ta EéTrELT-

J a ? La \ 2

35 Odta pet GAANAG OUT EiKdS OUT avayKN EivaL. ToLavTaL

> 95 lal

dé rovodyTat UO pev TAY Pavr@V TroLNTHY OL aUTOUS, UTTO

\ fal ¢€ \ \ A / a 8 ? 6) / ¢e N

Sé tay ayabav Sia Tors UmToKpiTads' ayovicpata yap

an rn / > / x

Wize
movobvTes Kal Tapa Tiv SivapL et Takara poOov TroA-
usa rd«is Siactpépew avayxalovra. To épe&hs. émel S€ ov 11
) > \ \ A
povoy Terelas éott mpakews 1) wipnow adda Kal poBepov
Kal edcewav, tadTta Oé yiverat [kal] padiota OTay yEevnTat
lal n : i /

mapa Thy do€av, Kal wadXov <dTav> bu aAAnrAa* TO yap Oav- 12

an ty > + . x \

an \ nr /
5 macTov oUTMs é&es paAdoV_ Ef ATO TOD avTOMaTOV Kai
THs TUYNS, eel Kal THY amd TKYNS Ta’Ta PavpacLwraTa
||
is
doxet doa dotep emitndes paivetar yeyovevat,
no J f
olov
oe
ws€ oOLg
| > \
| avépias 0¢ Toba Mitvos
/
évSis “Apyet améxtetvey
gles
Tov\ y
aiTov Tova
Gavatov To Mitut, Oewpodvts guTrecav* Eouxe yap TA ToLadTAa
10 OUK ely} yevéoOat' woTe avayKn Tovs ToLOUTOUS Elva KaN-
rlous pvOous.
x
Eiot € trav pvOwv of peév amdot of dé TweTAeypEevot,
a e la /

Kat yap at mpages\@v pounoes ot wvOot elow vTapxov-_

\ \ ce / oe / is fa) J > e /

aw ev0ds ovoas, ToLaDTaL. eyo S€ amdhy pev mpadEw is2

FY iis yevouevns BoTEP OplaTa” TvVE ors ‘at pods avev TepiTe-
| elas 7) avayvwopicpod 4 peTaBacis yivetat, TeTrEYMEVN
& éotly is peta avayvwpicpod 7 tTepitreteias 7) aphoiv 7
petaBacis éotw. tadra bé del yiverOar é& adtis Ths av- 3
id fe a a a A

te fa) / oe la) /
oTdcEews TOU puOov, WOTE EK TOV TPOYEeyeyNnMeVOY GUUPaivel

37. vmroxpiras A° (cf. Rhet. iii. 11.1403 b 33): xpiras apogr. 388. maparel-
vovTes apogr.: maparelvavres AC 1452 a 2. 7 secl. Gomperz 3.
kal secl. Susemihl 4, kal «@addov post kal uddiora codd.: post ddtay
Reiz (cf. Rhet. iii. 9. 1410 a 21): cal céddXov Tucker: cal wa@ddov sive kat
uadiora secl. Spengel: «al waddov ante cal uddiora Richards érav
add. Reiz 9. pyri AS 17. & éorly fs Susemihl: 6é Aégts AC:
hs Riccardianus 16: d¢ mrpaés apogr.: dé éorw é& fs (h. e. dé “A* e&ys) Vahlen
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS IX. 1o—X. 3 39

I call a plot ‘ epeisodic’ in which the episodes or acts suc-

ceed one another without probable or necessary sequence.
Bad poets compose such pieces by their own fault, good
poets, to please the players; for, as they write show
pieces for competition, they stretch the plot beyond its
1452acapacity, and are often forced to break the natural con-
tinuity.
But again, Tragedy is an imitation not only of a11
complete action, but of events terrible and pitiful. Such
an effect is best produced when the events come on us
by surprise; and the effect is heightened when, at the
same time, they follow as cause and effect. The tragic 12
wonder will then be greater than if they happened of
themselves or by accident ; for even coincidences are most
striking when they have an air of design. We may
instance the statue of Mitys at Argos, which fell upon his
murderer while he was a spectator at a festival, and killed
him. Such events seem not to be due to mere chance.
Plots, therefore, constructed on these principles are
necessarily the best.
x Plots are either Simple or Complex, for the actions
in real life, of which the plots are an imitation, obviously
show a similar distinction. An action which is one and 2
continuous in the sense above defined, I call Simple, when
the change of fortune takes place without Reversal of
the Situation and without Recognition.
‘A Complex action is one in which the change is
accompanied by such Reversal, or by Recognition, or
by both. These last should arise from the internal 3
structure of the plot, so that what follows should be the
 40 X. 3—XI. 4. 1452 a 20—1452 b 2

, 20% e& avayKns 7) KaTa TO Eidos yiyverOaL TadTa> a 2 Aan / a

Siadéepet /

| yap odd TO vyiyverOa, Tade Sia\ _Tadse

/
7)\ peTa\ Tae.
XI "Eote O€ trepiréteva pev 1) eis TO evayTioy THY TpaTTo-
/ A

pévov petaBoryn, [kabarep elpntas,| Kal \ Todro

a
S€\ damep
f

Neyomev KATA TO ElKOS 7) aVayKaloy: waTrEep ev TO Olditrod.

lal 1h fal IO7

25 €Mov ws evppavav Tov Oidimovy Kal amaddd€wv Tod Tpos

lal le \

tiv pntépa poBov, Snrdcas ds Hv, Tovvaytiov érolnoev:

A i / /

kat ee)év tofal Avyxe?lAre0 péev

\
aryopevos
bleep
was
¢
atroPavovpevos,
2 fa) /
0€ be
Oé
Aavacos axorov0dv es atoKTevay, TOV pev cuVvéBn eK TOV
a a / a

TmeTpaypevav
VA
amolavety,
? fal
Tov\ S€\ cwOhvat.
na 5)
avayvapLiors
,
2
30 6é, Womep Kal Totvowa onuaive, éE& ayvoias eis yvoow
f ef \ BA , ? > , > a

peTaBon 1)
3
eis pidiav 7%Dy eis EyOpav Tov
fal
Tpos evTvXlay 7a
8
voTvXiay 7
wpLiopévwov:
€ /
KaddoTH / Oe
dé avayvepicls, Tav Epa
> / A e

TepiTréTeva yivwvTat, olov exer 4 €v TO Oldizrod..

/ / e + e”3. fal O/
eioly per 3
SySeN \

ody Kal addat avayvepices:

lo \ yA > 7
Kal yap Tpos dryuya Kal Ta
\ \ \ ” \ X

35 TUyoVTa
ft
éoTW
M4
wse <b>TeEp
4
elpntat
” a
cupPaiver,
,
Kal\ eto Tré-f
/ aN \ , y” —_ / > > ¢ s
mpayé Tus i) pn wémpayev Eat avayvwpica. Grr 1 wd-
Mota ToD miOov Kai pddioTa THs Tpakews 1 elpnuéevyn
a
éotiv’ 1) yap TovavTn avayvepiots Kal TrepiTréTeca i) Ede 4
b) if UA BJ é ,

1452 E£eu 1) poBov, olwy mpakewy 7 Tpayodia pipnots UroKeTat:

ae x dé ~s Ny ¢€ Me / f

oY \ \ N 2: a \ NY > tal > lal /

€TL dé Kal TO ATUNVELV Kat TO EUTUYV ELV €7b TMV TOLOUT@V

20, tadra] ravayria Bonitz: 7a torepa Gomperz 23. xa@dzrep elpnrar secl.
Zeller: <)> kad’ & mporpyra (deleto commate post weraBod}) Essen
31. Post éx@pay add. # &ddo 7. Gomperz 82. dua mepirerela Gomperz
33. ylvovrar AS olay Bywater 35. ws drep Spengel: domep Ac:
80’ <é>7ep Gomperz oupBalver A®: cuuBalvew apogr. 36. 4
apogr.: ef A 38. Kal mepiréreca secl. Susemihl kal <pdduor’ édy
Kal> qmepuréreva % €deov coni. Vahlen 1452 b 1. olwy» apogr.: ofoy Ac
2, ére dé] émevdh Susemih] (commate post vrdxerrac posito)
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS X. 3—XI. 4 4]

necessary or probable result of the preceding action. It

makes all the difference whether any given event is a
case of propter hoc or post hoc.
XI Reversal
of the Situation is a change by which
the action veers round to its opposite, subject always
to our rule of probability or necessity. Thus in the
Oedipus, the messenger comes to cheer Oedipus and
free him from his alarms about his mother, but by
revealing who he is, he produces the opposite effect.
Again in the Lynceus, Lynceus is being led away to
his death, and Danaus goes with him, meaning to slay
him; but the outcome of the action is, that Danaus is
killed and Lynceus saved.
Recognition, as the name indicates, is a change from 2
ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate between
the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune.
The best form of recognition is.coincident with a Reversal
of the Situation, as in the Oedipus. There are indeed other 3
forms. 5 Even inanimate things of the most trivial kind
may sometimes be objects of recognition. Again, we may
recognise or discover whether a person has done a thing
or not. But the recognition which is most intimately
connected with the plot and action is, as we have said,
the reeognition of persons. This recognition, combined 4
1452» with Reversal, will produce either pity or fear; and actions
producing these effects are those which, by our definition,
Tragedy represents. Moreover, it is upon such situations
that the issues of good or bad fortune will depend.
 42 XI. 5—XII. 3. 1452 b 3—25

oupBnceras. érrel 51) ) avayvepiots TWaV etl avayvepLels, 5

ai pev Oarépov mpos Tov Erepoy povov, Stay 7 SHros repos
5 Tis éotw, ore b& aporépovs Se? avayvwpica, olov 7
bev “Iduyévera TO "Opéctn aveyvwpicOn é« Tis Tépryews
Ths émiotodhs, éxeivov S& mpos tHv “Iduyéveray addns eber
AVAYVOPLT/ EWS. f

Avo pev odv Tov pvdou pépn Tepl TaUT €oTl, TEpLTréTela 6
9 a a be M4 ,

10 Kal dvayvepiots, Tplrov 6é mabos.

Ses , / be 10
[TovTwy dé TrepiTrEeTELa peEV
7 x be / \

Kal avayvepiots elpntat,] maQos b€ éote mpakis POaptiKn 7

lal Ce.

a A € f
oduynpa, olov of te ev TO havep@ Oavator Kai ai Tept-
| wbduviat Kal Tpeces Kal doa ToladTa.
XII [Mépy S€ tpaypdias ofs pev ws ecldege det xphoOa
15 TpoTepov elmrouev, KaTa O€ TO Trogdy Kal eis A SwatpEetTas
Keyopiopeva Tabe éotiv, mporoyos éemevadduoy
/
é£od0s
»
yo-
pltKov, Kal TOUTOU TO pev Tapocos TO S€ OTAoLMoV* KOWAa MeV\
lA \ / \ \ & x \ tg \

amavtov tadta, iova bé Ta aro THs oKnvAS Kal KOompoc.

e / lo) oy \ Ni 3 A fol an x, i

gativ b& mporoyos pév pépos 6dov Tpaywdias TO mpo Xopod 2

20 mapooou, érresoodsoy Sé pépos OXov Tpaywdias TO peTakd \

Sov yopixov perav, Eodos S€ pépos Grov Tpay@dias

peO Pee0 ovK> eat
”
Yopoda pédos:
I j
yopiKoda déx Tdpodos
/
pev\ 7¢
TpatTn AéEts ON Yopod, oTdopwov dé pédos Yopov TO dveEU
ie / ef- lal Vi \ UA fal Xo”

avatralctov Kal Tpoxatov, Koupos Sé Aphvos Kowwos yopod Kal

2 5 <TOY> aro cKnVAS.a . pépn 5é‘i Tpaywdtas ois mev\ @s€ eldece Sela 3
la) b) Ni if / Ls ”

3. émel Oy Parisinus 2038: émevd codd. cett. 4, &repov] ératpov Z, ut

videtur drepos Parisinus 2038, coni. Bernays: érepos codd. cett.
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ut videtur, = Tatr’|] radra Twining 10. rovrwy dé... elpnrac
secl. Susemihl: om, Arabs 12. of re apogr.: dre AS 14, totum
hoe cap. secl. Ritter, recte, ut opinor 17. xowa wev . . . Kdupo del.
Susemihl 19. mpoxwpod Ac 23. d\n Westphal: 6dov A& 25.
ray add. Christ praeeunte Ritter ws eldeor add. apogr.
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XI. 5—XII. 3 43

Recognition, then, being between persons, it may happen 5

that one person only is recognised by the other—when
the latter is already known—or it may be necessary that
the recognition should be on both sides. Thus Iphigenia
is revealed to Orestes by the sending of the letter; but
another act of recognition is required to make Orestes
known to Iphigenia.
Two parts, then, of the Plot—Reversal of the Situation 6
and Recognition—turn upon surprises. A third part is jar S
the Tragic Incident. The Tragic Incident is a destructive
or painful action, such as death on the stage, bodily agony,
wounds and the like.
XII [The parts of Tragedy which must be treated as
elements of the whole have been already mentioned.
We now come to the quantitative parts—the separate
parts into which Tragedy is divided—namely, Prologue,
Episode, Exodos, Choric song; this last being divided
into Parodos
ipend /Stasimon> These are common to all
plays: peculiar to some are the songs of actors from the
stage and the Commoi.
The Prologos is that entire part of a tragedy which 2
precedes the Parodos of the Chorus. The Episode is
that entire part of a tragedy which is between complete
choric songs. The Exodos is that entire part of a tragedy
which has no choric song after it, Of the Chorie part
the Parodos is the first undivided utterance of the
Chorus: the Stasimon is a Choric ode without anapaests
or trochaic tetrameters: the Commos is a joint lamenta- |
tion of Chorus and actors. The parts of Tragedy which 3
must be treated as elements of the whole have been
 44 XII. 3—XIII. 3. 1452 b 26—1453 a 10

xphoOar
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Hev . . . Tov Buorov secl. Ritter (non confirm. Arabs)
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XII. 3—XIII. 3 45

already mentioned. The quantitative parts—the separate

parts into which it is divided—are here enumerated.]

XIII As the sequel to what has already been said, we must

proceed to consider what the poet should aim at, and
what he should avoid, in constructing his plots; and by
what means the specific effect of Tragedy will be produced.
A perfect tragedy should, as we have seen, be arranged 2
not on the simple but.on the .complex-plan. It should,
moreover, imitate actions which excite pity and fear, this
being the distinctive mark of tragic imitation. It follows
plainly, in the first place, that the change of fortune
presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man
brought from prosperity to adversity: for this moves
neither pity nor fear; it merely shocks us. Nor, again,
that of a bad man passing “from adversity to prosperity:
for nothing can be more alien to the spirit of Tragedy;it
1453a possesses no single tragic quality; it neither satisfies
the moral sense nor calls forth pity or fear. Nor,
again, should the downfall of the utter villain be ex-
hibited. A plot of this kind would, doubtless, satisfy
the moral sense, but it would inspire neither pity nor
fear; for pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune, fear ))
by the misfortune of a man like ourselves. Such an
event, therefore, will be neither pitiful nor terrible.
There remains, then, the character between these two 3
extremes,—that_of a man who is not eminentlygood and
just, yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice
or depravity, but by some error or frailty. He must
be one who is highly renowned and prosperous,—a
 46 XIII. 3—8. 1453 a 11—35

olov Oidtaovs Kat Ovéotns Kal o eK TOY TOLOUTWY YyEVOV

\ e lal Ue lal

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11. Oldtrovs apogr.: dtiarous Ac 16. Bedrrloves Ac 19. Kadduorae

secl. Christ :om. Arabs 20. ’AAkuéwva Bywater (cf. Meisterhans Gramm.
Att. Inschr. p. 35): “AXkualwva codd, 24. rodr’ aird Thurot: 7d airs
codd. : avré Bywater: atrol Reiz: secl. Margoliouth collato Arabe 25.
<ai> moddal Knebel: fort. moddal <at> Tyrrell 31. cvoracrs secl.
Twining | 7) Ac 33. Bedtlwor AC 34, Oedrpwy Ac et &, ut
videtur (cf. 1449 a 9, Herod. vi. 21 és Sdxpua érece 7d bénTpov, Aristoph.
Eq. 2338 70 yap Oéarpoy deétév) : OearSv Riccardianus 16
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIII. 3—8 47

personage like Oedipus, Thyestes, or other illustrious

men of such families.
A well constructed plot should, therefore, be single 4
in its issue, rather than double as some maintain. The
change of fortune should be not from bad to good, but,
reversely, from good to bad. It should come about as
the result not of vice, but of some great error or frailty,
in a character either such as we haye described, or better
rather than worse. The practice of the stage bears out 5
our view. At first the poets recounted any legend that
came in their way. Now, the best tragedies are founded
on the story of a few houses,—on the fortunes of Alemaeon,
Oedipus, Orestes, Meleager, Thyestes, Telephus, and those
_ others who have done or suffered something terrible. A
tragedy, then, to be perfect according to the rules of art
should be of this construction. Hence they are in error 6
who censure Euripides just because he follows this
principle in his plays, many of which end unhappily.
It is, as we have said, the right ending. The best proof
is that on the stage and in dramatic competition, such
. plays, if well worked out, are the most tragic in effect;
‘| and Euripides, faulty though he may be in the general
management of his subject, yet is felt to be the most
tragic of the poets.
In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which 7
some piace first. Like the Odyssey, it has a double
thread of plot, and also an opposite catastrophe for the |
good and for the bad. It is accounted the best because
of the weakness of the spectators; for the poet is guided |
in what he writes by the wishes of his audience. The 8
pleasure, however, thence derived is not the true tragic |
 48 XIII. 8—XIV. 4. 1453 a 36—1453 b 19

<> amo Tpaywdtas NSov?) ANAG adv THs Koppdias olKeEta’

\ \ rn fol J > 7

exe yap of av éyOictot ow

a ¢ b) 5
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kal AiyicOos, piroe yevouevor ert TedeuThs &&€pyovTat

/ \ a 9e/

kal atroOvnoKes ovdels vm ovdevos.

, > /

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1453 b
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loll oktoewiay A Mf ss) fa) ef \ > 7 x

Tpaypara ywopmeva Kal ppittew Kai édeety ex TOY TUpBaLvov-

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36. <> coni, Vahlen 37. of dv Bonitz: ay of codd.: Kav of Spengel

1453 b 4. cuvecravar Ac 7. arexvorepov apogr. : drexvarepov AS 15.
6) Spengel: 6é codd. 17. éxOpdv <dmoxrelyy> Pazzi < poBepoy>
ovd éNeevoy Ueberweg
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIII. 8—XIV. 4 49

pleasure. It is proper rather to Comedy, where those

who, in the piece, are the deadliest enemies—like Orestes
and Aegisthus—quit the stage as friends at the close,
and no one slays or is slain.
XIV Fear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means ;
ee Dut they may also result from the inner structure of the
piece, which is the better way, and indicates a superior
poet. For the plot ought to be so constructed that, even
without the aid of the eye, he who hears the tale told
will thrill with horror and melt to pity at what takes
place. This is the impression we should receive from
hearing the story of the Oedipus. But to produce this 2
effect by the mere spectacle is a less artistic method,
and dependent on extraneous aids. Those who employ
spectacular means to create a sense not of the terrible
but only of the monstrous, are strangers to the purpose
of Tragedy ; for we must not demand of Tragedy any and
every kind of pleasure, but only that which is proper
to it. And since the pleasure which the poet should 3
afford is that which comes from pity and fear through
imitation, it is evident that this quality must be impressed
upon the incidents.
Let us then determine what are the circumstances
which strike us as terrible or pitiful.
Actions capable of this effect must happen between 4
| persons who are either friends or enemies or indifferent
to one another. If an enemy kills an enemy, there is
nothing to excite pity either in the act or the intention,
—except so far as the suffering in itself is pitiful. So
again with indifferent persons. But when the tragic
incident occurs between those who are near or dear to
E
 50 XIV. 4—8. 1453 b 20—1454 a 2

man, otov ei aderpos adedApov 7 vios TaTépa 7 pnTnpP

x Bo 3\ e\ / Xx td
20

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14544

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woman

20. ofov ef Sylburg: ofov 7 codd, 22. dpa apogr.: dpay A& 23.
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hardt, recte, ut opinor
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIV. 4—8 51

| one anotner—if, for example, a brother kills, or intends to

‘kill, a brother, a son his father, a mother her son, a son
'his mother, or any other deed of the kind is done—these
_are the situations to be looked for by the poet. He may not
indeed destroy the framework of the received legends—the b
fact, for instance, that Clytemnestra was slain by Orestes |
}
and Eriphyle by Alemaeon—but he ought to showinvention i
t
of his own,and skilfully handle the traditional material. Let
us explain more clearly what is meant by skilful handling.
» The action may be done consciously and with know- 6
ledge of the persons, in the manner of the older poets.
It is thus too that Euripides makes Medea slay her
children. Or, again, the deed of horror may be done,
but done in ignorance, and the tie of kinship or friend-
ship be discovered afterwards. The Oedipus of Sophocles
is an example. Here, indeed, the incident is outside
the drama proper; but cases occur where it falls within
the action of the play: one may cite the Alemaeon of
Astydamas,or Telegonus in the Wounded Odysseus. Again, ~
there is a third case,—<to be about to act with knowledge
of the persons and then not to act. The fourth case is>
when some one is about to do an irreparable deed through
ignorance, and makes the discovery before itis done. These
are the only possible ways. For the deed must either be
done or not done,—and that wittingly or unwittingly.
But of all these ways, to be about to act knowing the
persons, and then not to act, is the worst. It is shocking
without being tragic, for no disaster follows. It is, there-
1454 fore, never, or very rarely, found in poetry. One instance,
however, is in the Antigone, where Haemon threatens to
kill Greon. The next and better way is that the deed8
 52 XIV. 8—XV. 3. 1454 4 3—24
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| @aomep €hexOn mown pavepov o doyos %) 1) TpAELs Tpoatperw
\
Twa, xpnotov\ Sé\ éav,
aN /
xpnoTny,Lie, éoTiw
+
O€\ ev> EéEKxadoTw
PA

yével*
f
Kal ee yap
\
yuvn / éotw
2
ypnot) \ Kal \ 8
Sdoddos,
a
Kaitou
/

ye tows TovTwy TO pev xeElpov, TO Se 6rAwWS adrov

” 7 \ \ al X mi ef: lal f

€or. SevTepovy Oe TO dpporrovra éoTw yap avdpetoy

: fit CEE Sa
5 FX if \
Hév Te 005, GAN ovy apuorTov yuvatkl Td avdpelav 4)
Sewnv eivar. TpiTov d€ TO Gmotov. TovTO yap érepov Tov

4. kpdricrov] devrepov Neidhardt, recte, ut opinor 8. “ENAq] ’Avridaryn

Valckenaer 18. gavepay Ald., Bekker 19. rwa Parisinus 2038:
Twa q A°: Twa <H tis dv> 7H coni. Vahlen (? cf. Arab.): <#y>rwa <d>4
Bywater: twa 7) <guyqv> Diintzer: twa <éyovra, drola tus av> F
Gomperz: tiva, paddrov wév éay pathy 7 apogy. 22. 7d Vahlen (ed. 1):
Ta codd. 23. 7 #00s Hermann: 76 400s codd. TO apogr.: * * Tac
A¢: otrws Vahlen collato Pol. iii. 4. 1277 b 20. Desunt in Arabe verba
T@® dvdpelavy . . . elva, quorum vicem supplet haec clausula, ‘ne ut appareat
quidem in ea omnino’ (Margoliouth); unde Diels 7G dvdpelav . . . clvac
glossema esse arbitratus quod veram lectionem eiecerit. scribendum esse coni.
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIV. 8—XV. 3 53
should be perpetrated. Still better, that it should be
perpetrated in ignorance, and the discovery made after-
wards. There is then nothing to shock us, while the
discovery produces a startling effect. The last case is the 9
best, as when in the Cresphontes Merope is about to slay
her son, but, recognising who he is, spares his life. So
in the Iphigenia, the sister recognises the brother just in
time. Again in the Helle, the son recognises the mother
when on the point of giving her up. This, then, is why
a few families only, as has been already observed, furnish
the subjects of tragedy. It was not art, but happy
chance, that led poets to look for such situations and so
impress the tragic quality upon their plots. They are
compelled, therefore, to have recourse to those houses |
whose history contains moving incidents like these.
Enough has now been said concerning the structure
of the incidents, and the proper constitution of the plot.
XV In respect of Character there are four things to be
aimed at. First, and most important, it must be good.
Now any speech or action that manifests moral purpose
of any kind will be expressive of character: the character
will be good if the purpose is good. This rule is relative
to each class. Even a woman may be good, and-also a
slave; though the woman may be-said.to.be-an inferior
being, and the slave quite worthless..
DRONE
rts The second thing 2
to aim at is propriety. There is a type of manly valour;
but valour in a woman, or unscrupulous cleverness, is in-
appropriate. Thirdly, character must be true to life: for 3
 54 XV. 3—7. 14544 25—1454 b 5
Ee ypnotov Td 700s Kal apmoTTov Tovijcar woTrep elpNTat.
P / lal A yy

|| i / \
Kav yap aveparos Tis 7 0 THY4
i c

| étaptov S€ TO oparov.
pipnow Tapéxov Kal ToLodtoy 100s bmoribels, Suos opa-
| Ads dvaparov Sei civas. oT S€ Tapdderypa Tovnpias pev 5
| AOous pu avayealov. otov 0 Mevédaos 0 ev T@ Opéotn, Tod
| |30 6€ ampemodsKat pn dppwotrovros 6 te Ophvos ‘Odvacéas ev
(| on SKdrAry Kal } rhs Meraviamns phos, Tod 5é avopdadov
| h ev Adnide "Ipuyéveras oddev yap éouKev % ixeTevovta TH
ji totépa. xpn S& Kal év Tos HOcow doTep Kal ev TH TAY6
Tpayuatov svotace. del Entely 1) TO avaryKaiov 1 TO €tKOs,
lal la} / x / @ > a
35 W@OTE TOV TOLOUTOY TA TOLAUTA NEVELY 1) TPATTELW 7) AVAYKALOV
i cell
) eiKOs, Kal TOUTO peTAa TOUTO yivecMaL 4 avayKaiov 7) ELKOS.
x > / \ lal X lal if 4 , eed a x > /

‘ a / ay vA n a
pavepov obv bru Kal Tas AVcEs THY pOwY EE _avTod det TOD 7
1454 b pvdou
ie
cupBatvery,
i
Kal\ prSt @aotep
cf
ev> THa Mndeta, aro
Boe’
pn-
avns Kat év tH7 Idudde TA Tepl TOV_aTOTAOUY*
xXavn aA :
xXavy xpnotéov emi ta &w tod Spauatos, 7) daa Tpo Tov
a rn 3 \ lal

S
f
/ rN > er a ae A ef A
Yyeyovev a oun OLOV TE av@pwtrov ELOEVaAL, 7) OCA voTEpoyV, a
8 a i \ > y A ev xt > OL
5 OelTGl MpoayopevTews Kat ayyeNas* atTavTa yap amroot-
eal ee

ore nde patverbar xabddov: ‘The manly character is indeed sometimes

found even in a woman (éoriv yap dvdpetoy pey 7d 700s), but it is not
appropriate to her, so that it never appears as a general characteristic
of the sex.’ Sed hoc aliter dicendum fuisse suspicari licet ; itaque Susemih]
huiusmodi aliquid tentavit, dare unde palverOar ev airy ws éerlray, vel ds
émtray elretv : ‘There is indeed a character (7 #@0s) of manly courage, but it
is not appropriate to a woman, and as a rule is not found in her at all’
25. lacunam ante do7ep statuit Spengel omep elpnrae fort. secluden-
dum: dep elpyrac Hermann 29. dvayxalov Marcianus 215, Bywater:
dvayKatov A°: avayxatas Thurot otov secl. E. Miller 380. <o>
*Odvecéws Tucker: <rtod> ’Odvecéws Bywater 31. TKU\Ay TH Oadarria
=z, ut videtur post pjows exemplum ro dvouoiov intercidisse coni.
Vettori 35 et 36. 7 Hermann: # codd. 36. <as> kal Toidro
Bywater, fort. recte 37. Tv wwOwry] Tov 7OGv Z, ut videtur 1454
b 2. darérdovw Riccardianus 16: dvdrdovw Parisinus 2088, >, ut videtur:
aidotv A 8. émi ra apogr.: émrera AS 4, ofdy re apogr.:
otévrar A& post torepoy distinguit W. R. Hardie, qui dyyeAlas ad dca
apo Tov refert, rpoayopetcews ad doa torepov
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XV. 3—7 55

this is a distinct thing from goodness and propriety, as here

described. The fourth point is consistency : for though 4
the subject ot the imitation, who suggested the type,
be inconsistent, still he must be consistently inconsistent.
As an example of motiveless degradation of character, we 5
have Menelaus in the Orestes: of character indecorous
and inappropriate, the lament of Odysseus in the Scylla,
and the speech of Melanippe: of inconsistency, the
Iphigenia at Aulis—for Iphigenia the suppliant in no
way resembles her later self.
As in the structure of the plot, so too in the por- 6

traiture of character, the poet should always aim either

| at the necessary or the probable. Thus a person of a
| given character should speak or act in a given way, by
the rule either of necessity or of probability; just as
this event should follow that by necessary or probable
sequence. It is therefore evident that the unravelling 7
of the plot, no less than the complication, must arise out
1454 of the plot itself, it must not be brought about by the
Deus ex Machina—as in the Medea, or in the Return of r-
the Greeks in the Iliad. The Deus ex Machina should
be employed only for events external to the drama,—
for antecedent or subsequent events, which lie beyond
the range of human knowledge, and which require to be
 56 XV. 7—XVI. 3. 1454 b 6—27

Sopev trois Oeois opav. adoyov 5é yndev eivas év Tois mpa-

an a lal lal Vf

ypacw, e& S&é pH, éEw Ths tpaypdias, olov To &v TO

i a Ud Xx a

Oisirrods TH Sopoxréovs. émrel O€ pipenais eoTw 7 Tpayo- 8

dia Berriovev <i} Kal’> huas, Set pipetcOas Tods ayabods
10 elxovorypadous: Kai yap éxetvot atrobvdovtes THY idtav popdry
an / \ N7 N

—— a,
a a rl
opolo US TTOLOUYTES Kaddlous ypadovow * ovT@ Kal TOY TOLNTHY
puipLovpevov Kal spyidous Kab pabipous Kal TaNAG TA TOLAUTA
Don
éyovtas éml TaV HOdV, TovovTous dvTas émrLeLKEts Trovely
[wapddevyma oxAnporntos|, olov tov “Ayidréa ’Ayd0ov Kat
/

15”Opmpos. tadta 5) <dt> Scatnpety Kal mpos TovTas Tas 9

la) a a 4 4 AN

De 2 S49 f) 7 > f)/ A a,

grapa\ TaWoof€€ avayKns, akoovOoveas
{
aicOnoess TH ToUNnTLKY
Kal yap KaT auvTaS éoTW apapTavew TrOAAKLS* ElpNnTat
\ \ \ > PA eat ” € , F 7

d€ mepl avTa@v év Tots éxdedopuevolis Aoyos LKaVaS.

\ \ oh fel b] lal > 5 8 / / e lal

1A xO "Avayvepiois bé Ti wév éotuv, elpntas mpoTepov: E€ldn

S42 / id aS NC. pens? , \ 2 /
20 6€ avayvaplcews, TPwOTN MEV 7 ATEXVOTATH Kal TAELTTH
fal is ode 6) My € 8 Q a / / be sy M
Xpavrar ov amopiay, 7) Ova TOV onpElwV. TOUT@Y SE TA MEV 2
/ rs He I Pe Sareea; Ae09 Neo L
oupputa, oiov “royxnv Hv phopovar igi ae n aoTEpas
olouvs év T@ Ovéory7 Kapxtvos, ta 8é érixtnta, Kal TovT@V
ee

Ta pev év TO od partt, otov ovAat, Ta de exTOs, TA TE pt-hLeiAy

Ma
~*

25 dépata Kal oiov év tH Tupot bid 4THs oxadns. éoTw &é cal
TovTos ypyjoOar 7) BédtLov %) xeipov, olov “Odvaceds Sid3
THS OvAHS GAXwS aveyvwpicOn bd THs Tpopod Kal arrows

7. 7oA° (2? rw pr. Ac): 7d vel 7 apogr.: 7a Ald. 9. 7 xa’ add. Stahr
(confirm. Arabs) 14. mapddevywa oxAnpdrnros secl. Bywater: ofoy ante
mapadeyya ponit Tucker ayddwy apogr.: ayabGy AS 15. 5% de? Ald. :
6m A: det apogr. Tas mapa Ta Vel Ta Tapa Tas apogr.: Tas Tapa Tas
Ae 20. 7 mrelorn apogr. : mNelorn AC 21. napogr.: 7 Ac D2
aorépes Richards 24. mepidépaca apogr. pauca : mepidéppea A& 25. ofov
apogr. : of A& oxdgys] ondOns X, ut videtur, ‘ensis’ Arabs: (R. Ellis)
26. <6> ’Odvoce’s Bywater
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XV. 7—XVI. 3 57

reported or foretold ; for to the gods we ascribe the power

of seeing all things. Within the action there must be ,
nothing irrational. If the irrational cannot be excluded, Y
it should be outside the scope of the tragedy. Such is
the irrational element in the Oedipus of Sophocles.
Again, since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who 8
are above the common level, the example of good portrait-
painters should be followed. They, while reproducing
| the distinctive form of the original, make a likeness
| which is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too
the poet, in representing men who are irascible or
indolent, or have other defects of character, should
preserve the type and yet ennoble it. In this way
Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and Homer.
These then are rules the poet should observe. Nor 9
should he neglect those appeals to the senses, which,
though not among the essentials, are the concomitants of
poetry; for here too there is much room for error. But
of this enough has been said in the published treatises.
XVI What Recognition is has been already explained.
We will now enumerate its kinds.”
First, the least-artistic form, which, from poverty of
wit, is most commonly employed—recognition by signs.
Of these some are congenital,—such as ‘the spear which 2
the earth-born race bear on their bodies, or the stars
introduced by Carcinus in his Thyestes. Others are
acquired after birth; and of these some are bodily marks,
as scars; some external tokens, as necklaces, or the little
ark in the Tyro by which the discovery is effected. Even 3
these admit of more or less skilful treatment. Thus in
the recognition of Odysseus by his scar, the discovery is
 58 XVI. 3—6. 1454 b 28—1455 alt

|, bd
(2 \
tov cvBoTav:
n Aaa
eiol
Dery
yap
\
ai e pev\ TicTews
/
EveKxa
oe
aTeXVO-
> 0

| Tepat, Kal ai TovadTar Tacat, ai Sé ex mTeEpiTeETeias, wo-

x € fa) lal Lg \ > / i ef

| omep 7 év Tots Nimrpous, Bedrious. Sevrepas 5€ at merroun-

a / if \ € ‘

pévas vd TOU TrounTod, dio aTexvor. olov Opéatns ev TH

ig an a e ’ / 5] la)

Boneh
mi > l /
Iduyeveta dveyvapicevte Opértns: éxeivn pév\ yap
\
SiaNp Tihs
aes

ETLTTOANS, Exelvos Sé avTOS Aéyet & BovUAETAL O TroLNTIS GNX

a a x if ¢ \ > >

ovy 0 pdOo0s+ 810 éyyds Te THs eipnuevns dpaptias éeotiv, e&hv

> ¢c a Ne / fol > ve id va b] / Ie

35 yap au
évua Kat éveynely. Kal év TO Lodoxréous Type 7
ees
[ THS KepKidos povn. Tpitn Sia pnpns, TH aicbécbar Or

1455 aTL LOOVTA, WaTrEp 1) EV pata ae Tots Acxatoyévous: ida@v yap

utes
Ty ypadhy échavcev> Kal % év * Acad aTroNoy@* akovav
yap ToD KiOapicTod Kal lpnctee éddKxpucev, O0ev aveyva-
picOncayv. TeTdptn oé 1 ék cvANoYyLpOd, olov ev Xondopors,
5 Ott buoLds Tus eAnAVOEV, Spwotos Sé ovOEls GAN 7) 0 "Opéatns,
\ obtos dpa €AnduOev. Kal 1) TLodvidou Tod coductob Tepi THs
| "Iguyevelas: eixds yap Tov Opértnv cvrAdoyicacOat btt Hh 7
\ addon érvOn Kat abitd cupBaiver ObecOar. Kal ev re
@codéerov Tudei, bru edd” ds evupnowv vidv avTos aTrond-
10 AuvTaL. Kal\ ev ToIslal Diveidais. iOovoas
a
yap TOY TOTOV
/
cuV-
\ / \ e t } o 2 / Y 5) A a
| EAOYLOAVTO THV ELMAPMEVHNVY OTL EV TOUTW ELMAPTO ATTOUAVELY

31. ofov <o> Bywater ’Opéorns secl. Diels (confirmante fort. Arabe)
32. aveyrwpic?y Spengel 34, Oud éeyyts te Vahlen: 6c’ dz éyyis A:
616 Te eyys Bywater 35. alia = legisse videtur, ‘haec sunt in eo
quod dixit Sophocles se audiisse vocem radii contempti’ (Arabs); unde
W. R. Hardie coni. roa’rn & % &v 7H [Dopoxdéous 2] Typet “ris dvavéov,”
gyot, *S Kepxtdos pwvhy kiw” 36. 4 rpirn Spengel: #roe tye AS: tpitn 7
apogr. alcbecbal A& 1455 a 1. rots apogr.: ris AC 2. amodoyw
apogr.: dad Adywv A& 4, Xonddpos Vettori: xAonddpas A° 6.
IIoNvidou Tyrwhitt : odveldou apogr. : moAveldovs Ac 10. Biveldars Reiz:
pwidas codd.
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVI. 3—6 59
made in one way by the nurse, in another by the herds-
men. The use of tokens for the express purpose of proof
—and, indeed, any formal proof with or without tokens
—is a less artistic mode of recognition. A better kind
is that which comes about by a turn of incident, as in
the Bath Scene in the Odyssey.
Next come the recognitions invented at will by the rs

poet, and on that account wanting in art. For example,

Orestes in the Iphigenia reveals the fact that he is
Orestes. She, indeed, makes herself known by the letter;
but he, by speaking himself, and saying what the poet,
not what the plot requires. This, therefore, is nearly
allied to the fault above mentioned :—for Orestes might
as well have brought tokens with him. Another similar
instance is the ‘voice of the shuttle’ in the Tereus of
Sophocles.
The third kind depends on memory when the sight of 5
some object awakens a feeling: as in the Cyprians of
Dicaeogenes, where the hero breaks into tears on seeing
the picture; or again in the ‘Lay of Alcinous, where
Odysseus, hearing the minstrel play the lyre, recalls the
past and weeps; and hence the recognition.
The fourth kind is by process of reasoning. Thus in 6
the Choéphori:—‘Some one resembling me has come:
no one resembles me but Orestes: therefore Orestes has
come.’ Such too is the discovery made by Iphigenia
in the play of Polyidus the Sophist. It was a natural
reflexion for Orestes to make, ‘So I too must die at the
altar like my sister. So, again, in the Tydeus of
Theodectes, the father says, ‘I came to find my son, and
I lose my own life. So too in the Phineidae: the
women, on seeing the place, inferred their fate :—‘ Here
 60 XVI. 6—XVII. 2. 1455 a 12—30
> a \ \ > id > a ” / \ ya
avtais, kal yap é&eréOnoay evtavda. . Eat O€ Tis Kai GUP- 7 Me

Ger éx Taparoyiopod Tod Oatépov, otov ev Te ‘Odvacei TO

apevdayyéd@* 0 ev yap TO TOkoy epy * * * YyvoOoerOas 6
an / 4 / A

ovy éwpdxer, TO dé ws 57 exelvov, dvayvapLobyTos dia ToUTOU

> (- / \ be ¢ yy > / b lal 8 \ ip
15
TOTAL, Taparoyla
os. Tracey Oé BedATiaTH avayvepiats 1 €E 8
an if = lal \ / > / en >

a n ioe rts / L ? 4
avTov TOV TpaypaTov) Ths éxTAnEEws yuyvoméevys Ou’ EetKo-
®
reovs ofoy [o] €v r@a Yodoxréovs
t y
Oidimods Kal \ tHn> Ipuyeveta:/

eikos yap BotvreoOar éerribeivar ypdupata.

bP AN WY /
ai yap TovavraL > la) / e \ rn

20 ovat dvev TOV TreTonpévoy onuciwv Kal Sepaiwy.

/ lal
Sdev- / \ ie /

Tepat 5€ al €x ovdrdOoOyiopod.
m : tal
Aci bé Tods piOovs cumotavar Kat TH réEEL ,
CUVaT- fod cf

epyalecOar btt pddoTa TPO oppaTwv TLHémevov oUTM yap

Z he wf Ny / / ef \

3 CS ip stn 2 tg 5) n t a
ay évapyéotata [0] op@v wotrep Tap avTots yuryvopevos Tots
TpatTomévors evpioKol TO TpéTOV Kal HKioTa av aVOdvot
v4 e / \ / Naver x /

Ta vevaytia.
\ e
onpuetoy S€ TovToV O émeTipuadto. Kapkive:
ee
fe a \ vf aA >? a
-
7
c

o yap “Audidpaos é€& tepod avyer, 0 ju) opavtTa [Tov

e \ > 'd > € lel > f A \ e rn \

Geatiy] éddvOavev, ert S€ Ths oxnvns éEérecey dbucxepa-

vaytoy TovTo Tov OeaTay. Goa Sé dvvaToY Kal Tos ox7-
30 pacw cvvatrepyatouevov. miOaveTtator yap ax O THS aUTHS 2
13. Oarépou Buvsion, praeeunte Hermann: dedrpou codd. 14-16. 6 per
yap .. . mapadoyou6s] multo plura hic legisse videtur Arabs (Margoliouth) ;
post fy lacunam indicavi; vide quae supra in versione addidi, Arabem
quoad potui secutus 14. 6 wey apogr.: 7d wey AS 7o ante rééov
om. apogr. 15. 6% Tyrwhitt: dv codd. 16. rovjoa codd.: émolnce
Ald. mapaoyiouds Vahlen (confirm. Arabs): mapaXoycudy codd. lige
éxmdrjgews apogr.: mdntews AC THs ex@Antews . . . eixétwy om. Arabs
etxévrwy AS 18. 6 secl. Vahlen: 7d Bywater: 6 Tucker: 4%
apogr. pauca 19-20. ai yap rowiira . . . mepidepalwy secl. Gomperz
20. depatwy apogr. corr.: dépewy A®: mepidepatwy apogr. pauca onpelwy
kal depalwy secl. Tucker, fort. recte 24, évapyéorara apogr.: évepyéorata Ac
o om. Ald. 26. 76 ante rd add. A®: om. apogr. eT eTLMLaTO
marg. Riccardiani 16: émiriyud rau AS (cf. 1462 a 10) 27. avyjec Guelferby-
tanus: dy ein A opdvra codd. : opdvr’ av Vahlen 27-28. rov Oearhy
seclusi (simili errore Rhet. i. 2. 1358 a 8 rods dxpoards in textum irrepsit):
Toy monThy Dacier Mh opdvr’ avroy [Bearhv] Gomperz, emendationis
meae, credo, inscius 30. dd 77s avris codd. (confirmare videtur Arabs):
am airis ris Tyrwhitt
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVI. 6—XVII. 2 61

we are doomed to die, for here we were cast forth.’

Again, there is a composite kind of recognition involving 7
false inference on the part of one of the characters, as in
the Odysseus Disguised as a Messenger. A said <that
no one else was able to bend the bow; ... hence B
(the disguised Odysseus) imagined that A would>
recognise the bow which, in fact, he had not seen; and
to bring about a recognition by this means—the expecta-
tion that A would recognise the bow—is false inference.
But, of all recognitions, the best is that which arises 8
from the incidents themselves, where the startling dis-
| covery is made by natural means. Such is that in the
|Oedipus of Sophocles, and in the Iphigenia; for it was
\natural that Iphigenia should wish to dispatch a letter.
These recognitions alone dispense with the artificial aid
of tokens or amulets. Next come the recognitions by
process of reasoning. at
XVII “In constructing the plot and working it out with
the proper diction, the poet should place the scene,
as far as possible, before his eyes. In this way, seeing
everything with the utmost vividness, as_if he were a
spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping
with it, and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies.
The need of such a rule is shown by the fault found in
Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way from the temple.
This fact escaped the observation of one who did not see
the situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed,
the audience being offended at the oversight.
Again, the poet should work out his play, to the
best of his power, with appropriate gestures; for2
 62 XVII. 2—5. 1455 a 31—1455 b 16

| hicews ot év Tols Tabeciv Eiow Kal YELpaiver o XEeLtpmatopevos

f a \ / ¢ ft

Kav Yaderraiver o opyiSopevos GAnOwadtata. 40 evpuas 7

/ > / \ 2) lal €

TOUNTLKN ETTLY 7)
3
MAVLKOD*a TOUTMY
/
yap
\
ole MEV\ EVTAATTOL
yA
ot € OEi
exoTaTiKol elow, 7
TOUS TE OYOUS /
Kal TOUS TETOLNMEVOUS
\ \ /

——
1455|Se? Kal avrov rrovovvtTa éxTtlOecbat Kaborov, €i0 oTws éTrEetc-
4 n a / / 57) A >

AY
\odvodya Kat Trapateivew. éyw de\ ob Tws dv
3
Oewpetaa baien.
TO Kal-
, ——_

rou, oiov THs “Iduyeveias: TUOcions Twos Kopns Kal ada-

an / \ >

uobeions adyros Tois Ovdcacw, idpuvOeians dé ets aNAnY

a \ YA

5 X@pav, ev 7 vomos Hv Tors E€vovs Ovew TH Ves TavTHv éorxe

, 2 ® i 5 ‘ \ / ah # a 6 tal / Be x

THY tepoatynv? xpovp b€ VaTEpov TS AdEAPG ovveBy édOetv

/ nA lal / lal

THs bepelas (ro Sé Bre aveirev 6 Oeds Sid Teva aitiay, &w Tod
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lal n an \

dé Kal AnpOels OvecOat pwérXrAY aveyvepioev, el? ws Evpe-

>

10 TLOns e/0 ws loAviSos érroincev, KaTa TO EtKOS ElTT@OV OTL

ovK dpa povov THy adeApyv ara Kal avTov ede TYOAVAL,
Kat évtedoev 7) owTnpia.
wr peta tavta dé non brobevta Ta
ovomata érercoduovy: Strws O€ éoTaL oiKEla Ta érrELTOdLA,
Sve > lal ¢ \ yA > a \ > 4

otov é€v t@ ’Opéctn 1) pavia & As éerndOn Kal 7 co-

15 Tnpta Ova THS Kabdpoews.
/ N a /
ev pev odv Tois Spduacw
) AY io lal /
Ta \

Se
érretcodia ovvTopa, » & émomovia TovToLs pmKiveTaL. THS
/ / fal

33. duplicem lect. e’rhacro et &tacro. habuisse videtur = (Diels) 34,

éxorarixol O (confirm, Arabs, vid. Margoliouth, Olassical Review xv. 54):
eteragtixol codd. cett. Tous te vel rovrous Te Tovs apogr.: To’Tous Te
A*, sed ne Graece quidem dicitur mapeAnupevous coni. Vahlen
1455 b 2. éreioodtou A® maparelvew Vettori: mepiretvew codd. 7-8,
secludendum videtur aut €\@eiy éxe? (Bekker ed, 8) aut ew rod xaOddov
(Diintzer) 8. xa@ddov] fort. u%Gov Vahlen BbGov] fort. Kkaéddouv
Vahlen 9. aveyvwplco6n M. Schmidt 10. TWodvedos codd. (cf. 1455 a
6) 15. dpduacce (vel dopact) apogr.: dpuacw AC
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVII. 2—5 63

those who feel emotion are most convincing through

natural sympathy with the characters they represent;
and one who is agitated storms, one who is angry rages,
with the most life-like reality. Hence poetry implies
either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness. In
the one case a man can take the mould ofany ¢character;
in the other, he is lifted out of his proper self.
As for the story, whether the poet takes it ready 3
1455 bmade or constructs it for himself, he should first sketch
its general outline, and then fill in the episodes and
amplify in detail. The general plan may be illustrated by
the Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed ; she disappears
mysteriously from the eyes of those who sacrificed her ;
she is transported to another country, where the custom is
to offer up all strangers to the goddess. To this ministry
she is appointed. Some time later her own brother
chances to arrive. The fact that the oracle for some reason
ordered him to go there, is outside the general plan of
the play. The purpose, again, of his coming is outside the
action proper. However, he comes, he is seized, and, when
on the point of being sacrificed, reveals who he is. The
mode of recognition may be either that of Euripides or of
Polyidus, in whose play he exclaims very naturally :—
‘So it was not my sister only, but I too, who was doomed
to be sacrificed’; and by that remark he is saved.
After this, the names being once given, it remains 4
to fill in the episodes. We must see that they are
relevant to the action. In the case of Orestes, for
example, there is the madness which led to his capture, ay
and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite.
In the drama, the episodes are short, but it is these that 5
 64 XVII. 5—XVIII. 2. 1455 b 17—34

yap "Odvaceias <od>

\ > / >
paKxpos 0 Aoyos eoTiv:
\ € 4 2 fa
amodnmodyTos
ae 8 a if

/ ig \ n x
Twos &rn TOMA Kal TapadvraTTomévov 70 Tod Hocevdavos
Kal wovou OVTOS, ETL O€ TOV OLKOL OUVTWS EYOVTOV WATE TA Ypn-
\ / ” ” Ni lal ” es b] / A s\ sf

pata vTd pnoTipev avarioxecOar Kat Tov viov eémiBov-

¢ \ Ig ? / \ \ e\ >
20

Never Oa, avTos Sé adixveitar yemacbels Kal avayvapicas

\ Lal \ \ > v2

Twas avrTos émiBéuevos avdtos pev eo@On Tors 8 eyxOpors

\ \ > if \ ? > \

SuépOerpe. TO pev odv iSsov TovTO, TA 8 Ada Errercooua. is an ” /

"Eote 5¢ tacns tpaywdias TO pev Séors TO O€ AvoLS, TA

un ss / \ \ /
XVIII

4 25 pev &Ewbev cal ena Tov Zcwber! rorrdxis % Séous, TO

Sé Nowrrov % AVats.
Xijs péxpe ToUTOU TOD pEpovs
a , / fa)
DAéyw Sé Séow peV eivar THY aT ap-
/
0 éayaTovA éotw
AY bd
€E
2
oba pweTaPas-7
x 3 \ >

vew eis evTvylay 7) eis atuxylay <ovpBalver>, Wow Se THY

5 b) / x > “) / / he 6c \

amo THS apyns Ths petaBdoews pméyps Tédovs* wWoTeEp ev

bd \ lol > fal lol / id le A As

el
a A a a e dé 5é \ iy / v
To AvyKxel TO Oeodéxtov déous pev TA TE TpOTTETpayyEeva
Kel ToDan matdiou Apis a
Kal Tad fH adTav lal
On\ * *+
Avows 8 1) amo THS aitidcews_Tod Oavatov péxpt TOD
\ an la) A

tédous. * * Tpaywdlas be edn clot Técoape, [TocadTa yap 2

Vi / x x >Pe \ / a \

Kal Ta pépn édéyOn,] 1) pév meTAeypévy, Hs TO OXov éoTly

17. ov add. Vulcanius (confirm, Arabs) paxkpos A°: pxpds apogr. IR).
ére Riccardianus 16, 2: émel A® 21. dé codd.: 6% coni. Vahlen 22:
twas avros codd.: dr a’ros coni. Bywater: twas airds olim seclusi: airéds
secl. Spengel. Codicum lectionem stabilivit Vahlen (1898) citato Diodoro
Siculo iv. 59. 6 Tov Alyéa did Tov cupBdrwy dveyvepice: simili sensu, ut
videtur, Plutarch. Vit. Thes. ch. xii rods roNiras éyradipifev 25. modddKes
post éwHev collocavit Ueberweg: codd. lect. confirm. Arabs 28. eis
evruxlav % els druxlay OP: eis edruxlay codd. cett.: els edruylay <éx dvoruxlas
oupBalver 7 é& edruxlas els dvoruXlay> coni. Vahlen: <els dvcruylay cupBalver
H> els edrvxlay Gomperz 30. AvyKe? apogr.: AuKe? A& 31. 6% Ac:
6) <amaywy},> coni, Vahlen: 64<)wors,> Christ (‘et ea quae patefecit’
Arabs) 32. Avdows 6é 7 Parisinus 2038, coni. Vahlen: om. cett. (‘solutio
autem est quod fiebat’ Arabs) Tov Oavdrov: fort. rod Aavacd (Vahlen
et Spengel) tod réous] hue transferenda quae leguntur 1456 a
7-10 dtxavov—kparetcOa: (Susemihl) 88. rocatra yap—édéx6n secl. Susemihl
ed. 1 34. kal Ta wépn AS: Kara wépyn Heine: kal ra ptOwy Tyrwhitt:
kal Ta pov Susemihl H wey <amdH H 6€> Zeller (Vahlen post
dvayvepios 35 <7 6¢ drd\j#> cum definitione deesse suspicatur)

ae
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVII. 5—XVIII. 2 65

give extension to Epic poetry. Thus the story of the

Odyssey can be stated briefly. A certain man is absent
from home for many years; he is jealously watched by
Poseidon, and left desolate. Meanwhile his home is in
a wretched plight—-suitors are wasting his substance and
plotting against his son. At length, tempest-tost, he him-
self arrives; he makes certain persons acquainted with
him; he attacks the suitors with his own hand, and is
himself preserved while he destroys them. This is the
essence of the plot; the rest is episode.
XVIII Every tragedy falls into two parts——Complication
and aUnravelling or Dénouement. Incidents extraneous
to the action are frequently combined with a portion of
the action proper, to form the Complication; the rest is
the Unravelling. By the Complication I mean all that
extends from the beginning of the action and the part
which marks the turning-point to good or bad fortune.
‘The Unravelling is that which extends from the
beginning of the change to the end. Thus, in the
Lynceus of Theodectes, the Complication consists of the
incidents presupposed in the drama, the seizure of the
child, and then again « * <The Unravelling> extends
from the accusation of murder to the end.
There are four kinds of Tragedy, the Complex, depend- 2
ing entirely on Reversal of the Situation and Recognition ;

F
 66 XVIII. 2—5. 1455 b 35—1456 a 18

_ 35 meperréreva Kal dvayvepiats, 1) 6€ maOntixy, olov of te Alay-

lissares cad of "TEloves, 4 Se_ 4Oust, olovai POdriSes Kab 6
IInvevs, 7d 88 téraprov <) amdj> * * tons t ofov ai Te
Popxides cal Ilpounbeds Kat boa q Gov. padora bev ovY 3
17
dmavra Set Trepacbar éyew, et dé Mh, TH peyioTa KaL Tel-
Sata, a\dXws TE Kal WS VOY cvKopavT ovale ous TolnTas* ‘Ye-
i A r At f <
k
a 5

yovotwu
) 1 Kal’0 ExacTov
yap é, pépos ay
Loos aryaba@y TOLNTOY, EKATTOV TOU
NTOV, EXATTOU
\\\ é8lov ayabo0d akvodcu Tov eva dmepBadhew. dikavov O€ Kal
lol la F \
|

A}
pirecpeiae adv Kal THY avTHY Aéyew ovoev<lt> icws <@s>
HI , er

1 pvO@: TOoUTO 5€, OV 7 ary ' Tok Kal AvaLsS. ToAXO) dé

10 WAEEaTes €D AVovar KaKds: Set Se audw del KpareiaBat.

| ypy dé dmep elpntas TodrdKis peuvijoOas Kati pn Troveiy érro- 4
i 8 y

|)| rouwkov
ad
avoTnua tpaywdlav.
ey
émrotrowKoy bé Néyw TO TrOAU-
}\|
\ pvOor, olov et tus H Tov THs “Thedbos Grav movotes wiOov. eet
| pev yap Sia TO piKos AapBaver TA pépn TO Tpérrov péyeHos,
15 €v O€ Tols Spdpact TOAD Tapa Thv broAnbiw aroBaive. on-
petov O€, dcoe Tépoww Alou Any erroinaay Kal pn KATA MEpOS
a Ie. / ? / ef > / \ \ \ /

aaomep Eupuridns, <)> NedBnv cal pr dorep Aicydvaros,

) extimtovew 1) KaKOs aywvitovtat, émet kat “Ayadov é&-
XN 3 lal dy i \ /

1456 a 2. 7 awd add. Susemihl post 7 ar\f nonnulla intercidisse puto

70 6é réraprov éns AC: 7d dé réraprov dys (cf. ad 1458 a 6) Bywater, recte,
nisi fallor, quod ad éys attinet, sed rd eldy in hoc loco eadem utique esse
debent quae in xxiv. 1: 7d dé réraprov reparddes Schrader: 7d dé repar&des
<d)Nérpiov> Wecklein 5. dddws Te apogr.: adAN ws ye A& 6.
éxdorou Marcianus 215, Parisinus 2038: ékacrov A® 7-10. Slkacov—
KparetoOa Vv. ad 1455 b 83 8. ovdevi tows ws Bonitz: ovdevt os Tyrwhitt:
ovdev tows To codd. 9. rodro] rai7d Teichmiiller : tovrw Bursian 10.
KparetoOa. (cf. Polit. iv. (vii.) 13. 1331 b 38) Vahlen et = (‘prensarunt
utrumque’ Arabs): xporeta@a: codd. 12. dé ante rd add. A®: om. apogr.
17. 7) add. Vahlen NidByv] ‘ExadBnvy Valla, unde ‘ExdByv [kal...
Aioxvdos, |Reinach
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVIII. 2—5 67

1456a the Pathetic (where the motive is passion),—such as the

tragedies on Ajax and Ixion; the Ethical (where the
motives are ethical)—such as the Phthiotides and the
Peleus. The fourth kind is the Simple. <We here
exclude the purely spectacular element>, exemplified by
the Phorcides, the Prometheus, and scenes laid in Hades.
The poet should endeavour, if possible, to combine all3
poetic merits; or failing that, the greatest number and
those the most important; the more so, in face of the
cavilling criticism of the day. For whereas there have
hitherto been good poets, each in his own branch, the
critics now expect one man to surpass all others in their
several lines of excellence.
In speaking of a tragedy as the same or different, the ay
best test to take is the plot Identity exists where the
Complication and Unravelling are the same. Many poets
tie the knot well, but unravel it ill. Both arts, how-
ever, should always be mastered.
Again, the poet should remember what has been often i
said, and not make a Tragedy into an Epic structure.
By an Epic structure I mean one with a multiplicity of
plots: as if, for instance, you were to make a tragedy
out of the entire story of the Iliad. In the Epic poem,
owing to its length, each part assumes its proper
magnitude. In the drama the result is far from
answering to the poet’s expectation. The proof is that5
the poets who have dramatised the whole story of the
Fall of Troy, instead of selecting portions, like Euripides;
or who have taken the whole tale of Niobe, and not a
part of her story, like Aeschylus, either fail utterly or
meet with poor success on the stage. Even Agathon
 68 XVIII. 5—XIX. 2. 1456a 19—1456b1

érrecev ev TOUT move: év S€é Tals TepiTETELats [Kat ev TOtS

} / fal / WW al

| 20 ddois mpaypact] oroydlerar. dv Bovrovtat Oavpactas:

7 rn ; e /- lal

\ \ la) \ / a) ” be a oe
\ TpaytKov yap ToUTO Kal piiavEpwrrov. EeaTLY O€ TOUTO, OTAaV
6 codds [per] petdr movyptas éEaratnOy, domep Liov-
os, Kat 6 avSpeios pev adiKos bé HTTHOn. ory dé TodTO
eixos @aotep “AydOwov réyer, eiKds yap yiveoBar Toda
\1 25 Kal rapa_7o eiKos. Kal Tov yopoyv bé eva dei viToda-
| Bety tov box puro, Kal poploy elvat Tov bdov Kal cvVayw-
viterOar py daomep Kipiridn adXN worep Lodhorre?. Tois
| 8 Aourro’s Ta Adopeva <ovdev> paANoV TOU mUOoU 7) GAAS
; Tpaypodias éotiv: S10 éuBoryua ddovew mpdtov apEavtos
\ a \ BY ,
30 "Aya0wvos tod TovovTov.) Kaitow Ti Suadéper 1) euPoripa
t y x 2) ec > ” > Ba e / Ae /
aoewy H eb phow €€ adXov Els AAO appoTToL 7 é7reLoOOLoV
dXov ;
yu ‘a XIX Ilept pév ody Tév ddAX@V HSN ElpnTat, NovTov dé TrEpl
Qik
ra) Vp
NéEews Kal NK Siavoias
/ id
eirely.
b a
Ta\ ev\ ody
5
Tept \ THY
\
Stdvotay
iy
eV>
ae Nuare an , a \ y” n aay,
35 Tols_TeEept pyTOpLKNS KeLcO@, TOUTO yap Yocov MaXXov ExELVNS
lol / m ” My \ \ ih an vA c \
THs peBodov.” gate S€ KaTa THYLIASan
dtavotay TavTa, doa UTO
scooter etc, POMLMS f ROLES oe RETEST ELENLTRS
mnt STEMS ROIS
ny / n a L \ /, "4 >
TOU oryou dee TapacKevac Ova. KEP) dé TOUT@Y TO TE ATO-
, \ \ ie \ \ , , e
devkypvar Kat TO Avew Kat TO adn TapacKevatety, oloVv
} I : BN / NN 2 A age
1456b EXeoy 7) PoSov
. 7 opynyv
, Kal dca
if TovavTa, Kal ETL péyeOos

19-20. kal év . . . mpdyuaor secl. Susemihl: tuetur Arabs €v Tots ators |

é€v Tots Ourdots Twining : amd@s ev To’s Gomperz 20. ocroxagferac Heinsius :
oroxadfovrar codd. 21. rparyixdy—girAdvOpwrov infra post 77777 collocat
Susemih] 22. aut secludendum wey (Margoliouth cum Arabe). aut 6é
post mrovypias legendum (add. Riccardianus 16) 23. n7T7On AS 24,
xa ante elxos add. Susemihl (confirm. Arabs) 27. bomep rap’—borep Tapa
Ald., ceterum cf. Pol. 1339 b 8 28. Aovrots] moots Margoliouth cum
Arabe ddéueva Magei (‘quae canuntur’ Arabs): dvddueva Ac ov dev
add. Vahlen, et = (‘nihil ... aliud amplius’ Arabs): od add. Maggi
30. rovovrov] rounrod ZS, ut videtur 33. dn apogr.: 76’ A®: eldeay &,
ut videtur 34. xal Hermann: # codd. 38, md0n secl. Bernays,
tuetur Arabs
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XVIII. 5—XIX 2 69

vhas been known to fail from this one defect. In his

|Reversals of the Situation, however, he shows a marvellous
skill in the effort to hit the popular taste—to produce a
:
estragic effect that satisfies the moral sense. This effect is 6
~ produced when the clever rogue, like Sisyphus, is out-
witted, or the brave villain defeated. Such an event is
probable in Agathon’s sense of the word: ‘it is probable,’ I}
he says, ‘that many things should happen contrary to |
probability.’ '
The Chorus too should be regarded as one of the7
actors; it should be an integral part of the whole, and
share in the action, in the manner not of Euripides but
off Sophocles. As for the later poets, their choral songs
pertain as little to the subject of the piece as to that of
any other tragedy. They are, therefore, sung as mere \\
interludes,—a practice first begun by Agathon. Yet'
what difference is there between introducing such choral
interludes, and transferring a speech, or even a whole act,
from one play to another?
xX It remains to speak of Diction and Thought, the
other parts of Tragedy having been already discussed.
Concerning Thought, we may assume what is said in
the Rhetoric, to which inquiry the subject more strictly
belongs. Under Thought 1is included every effect which
has to be produced Py speech, the subdivisions being,— 2
proof and refutation ; the excitation of the feelings, such
wssbas pity, fear, anger, and the like; the suggestion of
 70 XIX. 3—XX. 2. 1456 b 2—21
;

Kar pixpotntas. Sfrov bé bru Kal [év] tots mpdypacw aro 3

\ | rev abrav isedv Se? yphoOa, dtav édreewa 7H Sewa 7
peydra i) etxota dén TapacKevatey: Trijy TocovTov b1a-
5 péper, OTe Ta pev Sel paiverOas dveu, dibacKkarias, Ta oe
eee

év TO doy UO TOD NyovTos TapacKevdlecOat Kal Tapa

n a / \ \

cere
/ / iN DN la) t ” >
Tov Noyov yiyverOat. Ti yap av ein TOU éeyorTOS Epyor, Ee
\ \ / lal \ \ \
patvorto 7 Sudvota Kal pr) Ova Tov doyov ; TeV dé mepl tH 4
eee f ¢ 5 ; / \ / A a
~/ ||
| (
rébw & pév eorw eidos fewpias
9
Taee
oynwataee
Ths reEcws,
A b / A
| od éorey eidévat THs UroKpitiKhsA Kal \ TODa THY
\ /
ToLa’THY ov
Exov-
TOS 1 eK TOVLENY “alee ti évtoAn
APXUTEKTOVLKNY, TOAN Kal tL evyr
ya) KalL 84)66n-
\\
% \ 9» \ thy Eo) ETA rs: / Ne sy, oy
\ynous Kal aTreLAN Kal EPWTNTLS Kal ATTOKPLOLS Kal EL TL AXXO
j <=
f a \ \ \ / n x OF 2O\
| ToLovTOY. Tapa yap THY TOVTMY YYaoW H ayvotay ovoev 5
j \ \ B iw ¢
| ets THY TounTiKny émitipnua 'hépetat 0 Te Kai a&vov oToV-
(15 Offs. Th yap ay tus imrordBor hpaprhicba & IIpwtayopas
i 5) a ¢ o 6 we 2 , 92 TN ‘
{ ETTLTLLLO, OTL EVUYET Qt OLOMEVOS ETTLTATTEL ELTTMV ‘wh aerde
ed,
fA) 4»
TO\ yap
\
KedEdoaL
fa)
pyolv\ Troveiy
tal
Te i)A wyNG éwitakis
Se oy. ,
éotw.
B)

| p
810 mapeicOw o) Kal ov THS
ws addANS fis TroLnTLKHS
mountixhs dvdv OEw
Oe@pnua.
TOK [THs dé NéEews amdons tad éotl Ta pépyn, oToL-
20xelov cvAAABH civderpos dvoma phua [apOpov] tracts
I a x Co 2 \ b i, > lal
Aoyos. TToLyelov ev ody éoTLW Pavn adiaipeTos, ov Taga 2
od

1456b 2. puxpdrnras A°: cuxpdrnTa apogr. év secl. Ueberweg: <tois>

ev Wrobel 3. ldeGv apogr.: eldedy Ac 4. dé apogr. pauca: & F
Ac 8. palvoiroscripsi: Pavotro codd. 7 dtdvora Margoliouth, Wrobel
(praeeunte Spengel) : 75a codd. (‘ voluptates’ Arabs): 759 Castelvetro: 7 déox
Vahlen (ed. 2): #59 & de? Tyrwhitt : 45n 79 Oéa Gomperz 20. dp@por secl.
Hartung (quem dubitantius secutus sum): post ovvdecuos transtulit Spengel
(confirm. Arabs); cvvderuos <7)> dpOpoyv Steinthal
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XIX. 3—XX. 2 71

importance or its opposite.

Now, it is evident that 3
the dramatic incidents must be treated from the same
points of view as the dramatic speeches, when the object
is to evoke the sense of pity, fear, importance, or prob-
ability. The only difference is, that the incidents
should speak for themselves without verbal exposition;
while the effects aimed at in speech should be pro-
duced by the speaker, and as a result of the speech.
For what were the business of a speaker, if the Thought
were revealed quite apart from what he says?
Next, as regards Diction. One branch of the inquiry 4
treats of the Modes of Expression. But this province
of knowledge belongs to the art of Delivery and to
the masters of that science. It includes, for instance,
—what is a command, a prayer, a narrative, a threat,
a question, an answer, and so forth. To know or not 5
to know these things involves no serious censure upon
the poet’s art. For who can admit the fault imputed
to Homer by Protagoras,—that in the words, ‘Sing,
goddess, of the wrath, he gives a command under the
idea that he utters a prayer? For to tell some one to
do a thing or not to do it is, he says, a command, We
may, therefore, pass this over as an inquiry that belongs
to another art, not to poetry.
XX [Language in general includes the following parts :—
Letter, Syllable, Connecting word, Noun, Verb, Inflexion
or Case, Sentence or Phrase,
A Letter is an indivisible sound, yet not every such 2
sound, but only one which can form part of a group of
 72 XX. 2—6. 1456 b 22—1457a 2

dé GAN €F Hs TépuKe ovvbeTh yiryvecOar avn: Kai yap TOV

& por A Hae — , \ \ fal

Onpioy eicly adiaiperot pwvat, av ovdemlav EYH oTOL-

e / /

n
xelov. ravrns
7s 58 pépyn 76 TE povijev
O€ pEpn n Kat TO Hulpwvoy Kal
apwvov. eat O€ paviev péev <TO> dveugpocBorys éxov8
> an pe f
25
povny axovoTyy, nuipavoy dé TO peta TpoaBodHns Exov
\ lol 4

hovny axovatny, olov To X Kal To P, dbwvov S€\ TO\ petahe

mpoaBorns Kal avTo pev ovdeuiav éyov hovyy, peta Se
a / \ \

TOV
lal
eyovT@Y
> /
TiWax PwVnY\ yLWopEVoY
he
aKovaTor,
b) UY
olov
e
TOx Tr
TP Kat\
To A. tadta 5é diadéper oxnjpacivy te Tod cTopatos Kal 4
a f an fe \
30
a f /
ToTros Kat dacUTnTL Kal YAoTHTL Kal pnKer Kal \ Bpax-Y
TyTL, éTt 5é oEUTATL
:
Kal BapvTnTL Kal TOa péo@ TeplNee:wv
ka? Exacrov [év] Tots petpixois mpoonKer Oewpetv. TvdAdaBN 5
6é éotu poviy donwos ouvbetn €& adwvov Kal paviy éyov-
35 Tos' Kat yap To I'P dvev tod A ovddaBy Kal peta Tod
A, olov ro TPA, adda Kal TovTwy Oewphcar Tas Stahopas\ n

THS meTpLKHs eat.

A na >
avySerpos 5é eoTLv HwVN Aonpos 1) Ov- 6
I game. x BA A +

1457 a TE KWAVEL OUTE TrOLEL hwvnY play oOnuayTLKnY eK TAELOVYOY

/ 7 nn \ / \ > 7

povov, wepuxvia [ovv|riPecOar Kai eri Tov axpwv Kal émt

22. suvdern apogr. (‘ compositae voci’ Arabs): ouver A& 25. 7d add.
Christ 33. & secl. Spengel 34. post gwviv éxovros coni. Christ
<i} medyon apwvav Kal pwrhy éxovtos> 35-36. Kal yap 76 TP dvev
Tod A cuANaBH kal werd tov A AC: ‘nam I’ et P sine A non faciunt syllabam,
quoniam tantum fiunt syllaba cum A’ Arabs, unde kcal yap 7d TP <otc>
dvev ro0 P ovddaBy, GAAG mera& Tod A Margoliouth (similia Susemihl ed. 1):
kal yap TO DA dvev rob P cvdAdAaBH Kal wera TOO P Tyrwhitt: cal yap 76 A dvev
tod I'P cv\\aBH Kal wera roo TP M. Schmidt 1457 a 1-8. 4 ote KwrAver
—*ro, dé, Hartung, Susemihl. Codicum fide ita vulgo legitur: # ovre
Kwdver ore move Pui lay onuavTicjy, éx mreidvev pwvGy mweduxviay cuvtt-
Gerba, Kal éml rev dxkpwy Kal émt rod méoou, jy wh apudrrer (Av wh apLoTryn
apogr.) €v dpxh riévar Kah’ abrév (airqy Tyrwhitt), ofov wé (me. Ac), Hroe
(nro. A°), 5é (Ge AC). 7 pavy daonuos 7) x wrerdvev bev pwovGv was onuaytikoy
(Robortelli: onwarrixdy A°) 6€ movety répuer lay onuavrixiy puviv. &pO pov
éort hwv donpos, 7 Nbyou apxhy 7) rédos # Stopicpdy Sydoi, olov 7d dul
(Hartung: ¢. 2.1. Ac: gnul Ald., Bekker) cat 7d mepl (7. @. p. t. A°) kal T& GdAa.
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XX. 2—6 73

sounds. For even brutes utter indivisible sounds, none

of which I call a letter. The sound I mean may be3
either a vowel, a semi-vowel, or a mute. A vowel is
that which without impact of tongue or lip has an
audible sound. A semi-vowel, that which with such
impact has an audible sound, as S and R. A mute,
that which with such impact has by itself no sound,
but joined to a vowel sound becomes audible, as G and
D. These are distinguished according to the form 4
assumed by the mouth and the place where they are
produced; according as they are aspirated or smooth,
long or short; as they are acute, grave, or of an inter-
mediate tone; which inquiry belongs in detail to a
treatise on metre.
A Syllable is a non-significant sound, composed of a5
mute and a vowel: for GR without A is a syllable, as
also with A.—GRA. But the investigation of these
differences belongs also to metrical science.
A Connecting word is a non-significant sound, which 6
1457a neither causes nor hinders the union of many sounds
into one significant sound; it may be placed at either

Sed nescio an Déring vero propius accesserit qui locum sic restituit :
atvdecmos 6€ €or puvh donuos H ex reldvwr yey Puvery, mids onuavTiKGy
dé roety wrépuxey lav onuavtichy dhwviv, fv ph apudrrer év apxn Adyou
ridévar Kal? abriv, olov 76 audl Kal rd mepl Kal Ta Ada. pOpov F éort
puvh donuos, ovre Kwrter ore Tove? Gwviv ulay onuavtikhy é€x merdvwy
govay [repuxviar] cvvrlbecba, <ddd’> 7) Noyou apxhy 7 TEos 7} Sropio mdr
Sydot, weucvia TlOecOat Kal emt Tay dkpwy Kal emt Tod pécov, olov mév, 7rot,
dé. Nullam tamen Arabis rationem Doring habuit, et Arabs quidem cum
nostris codicibus parum congruit. Ipse ut in re nondum satis explicata
éréyew me fateor 2, meduxvia TidecOar Winstanley ; mepukvtay ovv-
Tibec@a codd.
 74 XX. 6—11. 1457 a 3—26

Top
a
pécov: %) wri) donuos
f
1) ex
A >
mevovav /
pev \
pw-
vOv puwas, onwavTiK@DY Sé, TroLety TEPUKEY pLaVY oNpaVTLKNY
a a lal lal \ iy Ne

s \ Ne s ie A \
5 paviy, oloy TO audi Kal TO Tepi Kal Ta GAda* <i> Hovy 7
E / \ Naor peer | \ a a \
donwos 1) Noyou apynv i) Tédos 1%) Svoprspov Snrol, jv pr)
apmorres év apyn Aoyou Teva Kal” avTHy, olov péEv, 7TOL,
A ip ¢ yd e / YA

5é. [) hovr donuos 1) ovTE KwrAvEL OUTE Toles Hovny

dé a Ni

plav onwavtixny éx TrELoVaY hovav TepuKvia TiMecPar Kat

/ lal a / \

10 él Tov dxpwv Kal él ToD pécov.] dvoua Sé eats hwv7 8

fal la} / / 2) \

auvbeT \ onpavTixn Someadvev xpovov

id
As
e
pépos
/
ovdév
We
eats
>
Ka Q

avTo onwayTiKov:
ees /
év yap Tois
> \ a PS)
OuTAols ov ypwmea ws Kal a > , 6 c \

avTo Kal avTo onpaivov, oiov év To Oeoddpw to dSHpov

lal a Ve \ : lal

ov> onpaiver.
/
prhya
tn
5é\ dwvn\ cuvOeTn\ onpavTiKn \ METABS ypo-i 9
15 vou HS ovdey pépos onpaiver KAO avTO, MOTTEP Kal el TOY
a 2Q\ fi I id ez: OP ee CU aes A

ovowaT@v: TO pev yap avOpwiros 7) AEvKOV Ov onpalvEL TO

> / \ x \ BA KX f : > / \

mote, TO 6€ Badifes 7) BeBabsxev mpoconpmaiver TO pév TOV

, ‘i 3 /

Tapovra xpovoy To dé Tov TapednuGoTa, mTdTWs O éoriv 10

/ / / lal 3

OVOMATOS 1%) PHLATOS 7 meV TO Kata TO ToUTOU 4) TouT@ on-

ee ae
20 faivov Kal Oaa ToLavTa, 7 a KaTa TO EVL 7) mondo’, otov

avOpwrros 7) dvOpwros, 7)O€ KaTa Ta SrroxpuruKd, ¢olov Kat’

épornow, éritakw: To yap “éBdSucev ; i) Rasite TTOOLS
pnwatos Kata TadTa Ta eldn éotiv. Royos O€ Povi cvvbeT? 11
/ lal

onuavtTiKy \
As eva
@ ”
pépn Kal / >
avta e N
onuaiver te /
ov yap
25 aTras NOYyos Ex pnuaTav Kal ovo“aTwY ovyKELTAaL, Olov “oO
if ce

a) , id FES) > 2.9 / \ ” ¢ ,

TOU avOpetrov Opta Los * aAr evdéyeTat <KQl> QAVEVU PNKLAT@OV

7. row] 64 rot Bywater 8-10. 4). . . wécou seclus. Reiz 17. aoré
Spengel Badife apogr.: Badigev Ac tmpoconuaive. Parisinus 2088 :
mpoonuatve. A& 19. 7d xara& 7d Riccardianus 16: 76 xara A®: xara 7d
Reiz 22. é€Bddiev ; (nota interrogationis addita) Tyrwhitt: <dp’>
éBddioev ; Vahlen Badlfge Riccardianus 16: é¢Bdditev Ac 26. Kal
add. Gomperz, quem secutus sum etiam in loci interpunctione
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XX. 6—11 75

end or in the middle of a sentence. Or, a non-significant

sound, which out of several sounds, each of them signi-
ficant, is capable of forming one significant sound,—as
audi, mepi, and the like. Or, a non-significant sound,7
which marks the beginning, end, or division of a sentence;
such, however, that it cannot correctly stand by itself at
the beginning of a sentence,—as pév, Tou, Oé.
A Noun is a composite significant sound, not marking 8
time, of which no part is in itself significant: for in
double or compound words we do not employ the
separate parts as if each were in itself significant. Thus
in Theodorus, ‘ god-given, the d@poyv or ‘gift’ is not in
itself significant.
A Verb is a composite significant sound, marking9
time, in which, as in the noun, no part is in itself signi-
ficant. For ‘man,’ or ‘ white’ does not express the idea
of ‘when’; but ‘he walks, or ‘he has walked’ does
connote time, present or past.
Inflexion belongs both to the noun and verb, and 10
expresses either the relation ‘of, ‘to,’ or the like; or
that of number, whether one
or many, as ‘man’ or
‘men’; or the modes or tones in actual delivery, eg. a
question or a command. ‘Did he go?’ and ‘go’ are
verbal inflexions of this kind.
A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant 11
sound, some at least of whose parts are in themselves
significant ;for not every such group of words consists
of verbs and nouns—‘ the definition of man,’ for example
—pbut it may dispense even with the verb. Still it will
 76 XX, 11—-XX1.4. 245774 27-1457) 9

juepos pEéVTOL del TL OnMaivoy E€eL, olov “EV TY

5 / y f Svens: a 4 e 66D TO
elvae AOyov.
Baditew,” “Kréwv 6 Kréwvos.” eis 5€ €ore Novos SuyHs, 7 yap 12
’ loan / ee a ae

6 &y onpatvor, %) 6 éx TAEOveY TvVdéET Hy, olov 1) “Tuas pev

/ et , e fae \ \

40 guvdécpm els, 0 S€ TOU avOpwrou TH. eV onpaivew.|

lal , nr A js

’Ovdpuaros 88 efSn TO pev amdody, amTrodv dE AEYw 0

€ a a \ / &
XXI
pny €EK ONMAWoYT@V
) GUYKELTAL,
) OLTAOUY* TOV TOUTOV
i Yi,A, TOTO beO€ Sudovv*
OloV
Kat aonwov (TAnY OVK EV TO
> a

S€ TO pev €k onpaivovtos
> / \ > / vy >
\ \ \

[Kal aonpov]), TO 5é éx onpatvovT@V

\ \ > ,

dvopmaTe onuwaivoytos
a ” 3
ein 5 Gy Kal TpLTTAOUY Kal TETPATTAOVY OVOMA Kat
/ 7 > oN \ a \
35 ouyKeTar.
Ta TOAAG TOV MaccadaTov: Eppoxai-
a ¢ ry
modXaTAobY, olov I an

1457» KOEavOo0s <érrevEdpevos Avi watpi>. Grav &€ dvopa éotuy 2

A NS -3/ Sapa

)By KUpLOV
/
1)x YAWTTA
a
7)x peTahopa n 7)x KOTpMOS
/
7x TeETTOLNMEVOY
4g

H €TEKTETAMEVOY
» /
iW} idnpnuévov
x
é&nddraypeévov.
a fe
eyo 3 /

@ xpavtar éxacTor, yAoTTav Sé ©

\ / \ & fa lal \ fe
dé KUpLoy péev
5 repo: wate Pavepoy OTL Kal YAM@TTAVY Kal KUpLOY Eivat
\ 4 \ a \ / 3

duvarov TO avTo, py Tols adtois Sé TO yap cuyuVoV

/ \ a > a J \ \ /

Kurpiows peéev xtpiov, piv dé yAa@tta. petapopa dé4

€oTLV
3!
OvOMaTOS
> /
adAoTPLOV
> ,
ETTLpOPa
> \
7) ATTO
x b \
TOU
a
YEVOUS
/
ETL
> \

i) » > \ lal x EON \ a x > \ a x

€i00s » amo TOU eldous e7l TO YEVOS ) ATO TOU €l-

28. Badlfew A®: Badifer apogr. Kréwy 6 Kiéwvos M. Schmidt (KAéwvos

habuit =): K\éwv 6 Kvéwr codd. év 7@ ‘‘Badlifer Kréwv” 6 (7d
Bigg) Kyéwy edd. plerique 29. cvvdéoum Riccardianus 16: cvvdéopuwy
Ac 30. 7@ apogr.: 7d AS 33. év T@ dvduare Vahlen, et 2, ut
videtur: év r@ dvduaros codd.: évrds Tod é6véuaros Tucker 34. Kal dovpou
om. , ut videtur (‘non tamen indicans in nomine’ Arabs). Idem effecit
Ussing deleto kal doxmov in y. 33 et mutata interpunctione, éx onuatvoyros,
TAN ovK €v TO dvduate onualvovros, Kal donmou, KTX. 36. meyadiwrov
codd.: Maccadwwray Diels, qui collato Arabe (‘sicut multa de Massiliotis
Hermocaicoxanthus qui supplicabatur dominum caelorum’) totum versum
“Epox. —marpt tanquam epici carminis, comice scripti, ex coniectura
restituit: unde era <yédwros oloy Macoa>dwrdy coni. Rutherford. ‘Epox.
ad Phocaeam spectat, Massiliae unrpédrodw, urbem inter Hermum et Caicum
sitam. Ceteras emendationes licet iam missas facere, e.g. peyadelwy ws
Winstanley: weyadelwy olov Bekker ed. 3: peyadelwy Gv Vahlen 1457 b3.
adypnuevov Spengel (cf. 1458 a 1) 9. 7O om. apogr.
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XX. 11—XXI. 4 Te

always have some significant part, as ‘in walking) or

‘Cleon son of Cleon.’ A sentence or phrase may form =

a unity in two ways,—either as signifying one thing, or

as consisting of several parts linked together. Thus the
Iliad is one by the linking together of parts, the definition
of man by the unity of the thing signified.]
XXI Words are of two kinds, simple and double. By
simple I mean those composed of non-significant elements,
such as y7. By double or compound, those composed
either of a significant and non-significant element
(though within the whole word no element is significant),
or of elements that are both significant. A word may
likewise be triple, quadruple, or multiple in form, like
1457b so many Massilian expressions, e.g. ‘ Hermo-caico-xanthus
<who prayed to Father Zeus>.’
Every word is either current, or strange, or meta- 2
phorical, or ornamental, or ‘newly-coined, or “lengthened,
or contracted, or altered.
By a current or proper word I mean one which is 3
in general use among a people; by a strange word, one
which is in use in another country. Plainly, therefore,
the same word may be at once strange and current, but
not in relation to the same people. The word ciyuvor,
‘lance, is to the Cyprians a current term but to us a
strange one.
Metaphor is the AgaNeon ys of an alien name by 4
transference eitherfrom genus to Species, or from species
to genus, or from species to species, or“by preted that 1s,
 78 XXI. 4—8. 1457 b 1o—32

10 Sous éml etd05 7) KaTa TO Gvdroyov. Déyw 5é amd yévous pev 5

3 / od Ni / X

él €t0s ofov “vnds dé mor Hd ExTHnKEV* TO yap OppmeEty éoTLY

e A , TOI » O \ € a 5

éotdvat TL. am eldous b€ él yévos “ 67 pupt / > \ Felt t-}

“Odvaceds \

/ / ? e a 2 \
ec Ora gopryev*”” TO yap puploy TOAV <Ti> EOTLY, © VOY aYTL
TOD TOANOD KéypnTal. a eldous Sé rl eidos olov “yarKe
ny a 9 b) \ \ s e a

, ny 9 a
15 aro Wuyi apioas” Kat “Tapov areipés YadK@* EevTadOa
\ \ \ se, A \ 82 a eae ” .
yap TO pev aptcar Tapely, TO O€ Tapeiy apvaat cipnKev
dupo yap apereiv ti éotw. TO 5€ avddoyov éyw, STaV 6
a A / “s

opotws &yn TO OEvTEpOY TpOS TO TPA@TOV Kal TO TéTApTOV

e te ” \ / \ \ lal \ \ /

Mpos TO Tpitov: épel yap avTl Tov devTépov TO TéTApToY 4)

\ \ / +) lal \ > \ fa) } ee \ la BY

20 GVTL TOU TeTapTOV TO SevTEpOY, Kai EvioTe TpocTLMéacwy avO

> \ lal we \ / Ny SF be +) >

e culny , \
ob Aéyet Tpos 6 eat. Réyw S€ olov opoiws Eyer Huddy Tpos
Atovucoyv Kai doris pos” Apn: épel roivuy Thy diadnv acribda
a / \

Avovicov Kat thy aorida puddnv "Apews. 7 5 yhpas mpos

N Yi ra lol

Blov, Kai éorrépa mpos nuépav

/ oY KS Z x € /
épet Toivuy thy éotrépay yi-
Bb] lal / \ © / fot

25 Pas NMEepas
(2
Kal ie TOoh ynpas
a
éotrépay
¢ ,
Biov
/
},Sime?domep >
Eyrredoxrys,
n

ducpas Biov. éviow & ovK éortiv dvoua Kelwevov THY avd-7
N / SS > > y” ” ' a 3 /

5) \ Cree 2
Aoyov, GAN ovdev ATTov opoiws AexOnceTar: olov TO Tov
KapTov pev adievar oreipew, TO S€ THY HrAOya aTrd TOD
\ >f > / / \ \ \ / > \ an

, OG , A
nrlov avevupov: GAN omotws exer TOUTO Tpds Tov HrLoV Kal
30 TO\ OTrELpELY
t
TPOS\ TOV\ KapTrOV,
t
510\ elpnTaL
oo» “
“orreipwy
,
OeoKTicTaL
ee

proya. eats 6¢ TH TpOTH TOTS THs peTapopas

XO ” ”

yphaOar 8
be lel / tf an an rn

Kal eldaNdws, TpOTAayopevocavTa

7
TO
\
AAOTPLOY aropjca.
an
TaV
na

11. dpyiv Ac 12. €ordvac (@ ut videtur ex a) Ac % O} apogr.:

Hin Ac 138. puproy AS ré add. Twining 15. dptcas Kal
Tyrwhitt (dpvoas Leidensis, corr. Vaticanus 1400, xa’ Laurentianus lx. 21):
deptoacKke AC Ttauov Bekker (ed. 3): rewav AC arnper A& 25-26,
nuépas—duouas Riccardianus 16, Parisinus 20388: nuépas 7) &omep "Huredoxdfs
kal TO yhpas éomépav Biov 7) ducuds AC 28. amd] émt M. Schmidt 30.
<Tov agiévta> Tov kaprév Castelvetro
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXI. 4—8 75

proportion. Thus from genus to species, as: ‘There lies 5

my ship” ; for lying at anchor is a species of lying.
From species to genus, as: ‘ Verily ten thousand noble
deeds hath Odysseus wrought’; for ten thousand is a
species of large number, and is here used for a large
number generally. From species to species, as: ‘ With
blade of bronze drew away the life,” and ‘ Cleft the water
with the vessel of unyielding bronze. Here apvaat, ‘to
draw away, is used for rapetv, ‘to cleave, and rapetv
again for dpvcar.—each being a species of taking away.
Analogy or proportion is when the second term is to the 6
first as the fourth to the third. We may then use the
fourth for the second, or the second for the fourth.
Sometimes too we qualify the metaphor by adding the
term to which the proper word is relative. Thus the
cup is to Dionysus as the shield to Ares. The cup may,
therefore, be called ‘the shield of Dionysus, and the
shield ‘the cup of Ares.’ Or, again, as old age is to life,
so is evening to day. Evening may therefore be called
‘the old age of the day, and old age, ‘the evening of
life, or, in the phrase of Empedocles, ‘life’s setting sun.’
For some of the terms of the proportion there is at times 7
no word in existence; still the metaphor may be used.
For instance, to scatter seed is called sowing: but the
action of the sun in scattering his rays is nameless. Still
this process bears to the sun the same relation as sowing
to the seed. Hence the expression of the poet ‘sowing
the god-created light.’ There is another way in which 8
this kind of metaphor may be employed. We may apply
an alien term, and then deny of that term one of its
 80 XXI. 8—XXII. 1. 1457 b 33—1458 a 20

oiketwy TL, olov et THY aomlda eltroe piddnv yn ”“Apews add

@ A Nyy 2 >

4 tf \ i on 2 Nay er
dowov. <Koopos dé... >. mTemoimpéevov d éatly 0 das 9

35 fun) KANOVMEVOY VITO TLV@V avTOS TiHEeTaL Oo TroLNTHS, (SoKEl yap

\ / : € Nt lal S77 ON Me) ¢€ / 8 fal \

évia eivat ToLadTa) olov Ta Képata epyvyas Kal TOV lepéa

n > / \ \ ce if

1458 apynThpa.
a
émextetapévoy O€ eat ) adynpnuevoy TO pev éay
/ Ce / \ \ \
10
\ / , / 5 a Cae 2 x FA
; PovinevTe MaKkpoTép@~ KEXPNUeVOY 7) TOV OLKELOV 7) TVAAABH
dt €uBeBrAnmévy, TO S€é av
3
adnpnpévov Ti 7)> avTOd,a éreKTETAMEVOV
sf

pev olov TO ToAEwsS TOAHOS Kal TO IInreidov Irniddeo,

/ \ / if

e \ tal \ fal \ / / b y
5 adypnuévoy dé oloy TO Kpt Kal TO b@ Kat “ pia yiveTar Gp-
fotépav oy.” eEnddarypévov 8 éotiv tay Tod dvopalopévov
Cy er ones
TO fev KaTAaNEiTN TO O€ ToLN, Olov TO “ SeELTEpoV KaTA palov
avtl tov deEvov.
[avTay d€ THY dvo“aTay Ta wey appeva Ta O€ OnrEa TA 12
10 6€ pweTakd, dppeva pev doa TedeuTa eis TO N cal P cai &
Kal 0oa éx TovTov ovyKeTat (TadTa 8 éotiv dv0, V Kai B),
lal —

Onrea 5é doa €x THY hovnévTwY Els TETA Gel waKpa, olov eis H
kab si Q, Kal \ TOV a
érrexTELvomevwy
> t
eis> Av woTe
A
ica ocvpPaiver
” /

q —
TAHOn eis boa TA Appeva Kal Ta Ojdea TO yap V Kai TO &
15 <TO >> TavTa eoti. els Sé dpwvov ovdéev Gvopa TeNEVTA, OVSE
al > if %) > Noy >Q\ vy a >Q\

els pavnevy Bpaxy. ets b€70 I tpla povov, wéde Kops TréTrEpt.
> lol / > \ SS / / Ve / Ue

eis 66 TO T wévte. Ta Oe petakd eis Tadta Kai N xat &.]

XXIT Aéfews 5€ apety cap kal pon TaTewny eivar. oca-
geotatn ev ovy eoTW 1 EK THY KUpPLwY OVOMAaTw@V, AAA
Up Ni 9 > € > an 7 > P. b) x

20 TaTrewvy* mrapaderypa dé\ 7(s Knreodavtos troinow Kal 1

, yo 88. Gd’ dowov Vettori: &dda olvov (vel add’ olvov) codd. 34, <Kédopos
OCs lager 1458 a 2. Kexpnuévos Hermann 7] # Ae
ouNaBH éuBeBrdnuévn AS 3. adnpn mev dvte. 7 AS 4. méddeos A&
andeldov Parisinus 2038: mndéos A&: Indéos <I n\Fos cal rd Indeldou> M.
Schmidt 6. dw Vettori; dys A® (ie. OIE vel OWIS) 10. cai &
Riccardianus 16 (confirm. Arabs): om. A°& 14, mA%j0n A®: mAHOe apogr.
15. 7r@ BD add. anon. ap. Tyrwhitt 17. post wévre add. 7d wav 7d
varv 76 yovu 7d Sdpv 7o doru Riccardianus 16 Tatra <xal A> xal N
<kal P> xal = Morel
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXI. 8—XXII. 1 81

proper attributes; as if we were to call the shield, not

‘the cup of Ares,’ but ‘the wineless cup.’
<An ornamental word . . .=
A newly-coined word is one which has never been 9
even in local use, but is adopted by the poet himself.
Some such words there appear to be: as épviryes,
“sprouters, for xépara, ‘horns, and apnryp, ‘ supplicator,
for cepevs, ‘ priest.’
1453a =A word is lengthened when its own vowel is exchanged 10
for a longer one, or when a syllable is inserted. A
word is contracted when some part of it is removed.
Instances of lengthening are,—7roAnos for woXews, and
IImAncadew for Inreidou: of contraction,—x«p7, 60, and
dy, as in pla yivetar auportépwr dp.
An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary 11
form is left unchanged, and part is re-cast; as in de&-
Tepov Kata patov, deEvtepov is for defsov.
[Nouns in themselves are either masculine, feminine, 12
or neuter. Masculine are such as end in », p, s, or in
some letter compounded with s>,—these being two,
and & Feminine, such as end in vowels that are always
long, namely 7 and w, and—of vowels that admit of
lengthening—those in a. Thus the number of letters in
which nouns masculine and feminine end is the same;
for and € are equivalent to endings ins. No noun ends
in a mute ora vowel short by nature. Three only end in
t,— ert, Komp, Témrepe: five end in v. Neuter nouns
end in these two latter vowels; also in » and ¢.]
XXII The perfection of style is to be clear without being
mean. The clearest style is that which uses only current
or proper words; at the ‘same time it is mean :—witness
the poetry of Cleophon and“ of Sthenelus. That; diction,
G
 82 XXII. 1-5. 1458 a 21—1458b9

LOevérov. ceuyyn dé kai éEaddAaTTovea TO idiwTiKOY 7 Tots

Nw gd \ ¢ lod

Eevixots Keypnuévn: Eevixov b€ Néyo YAOTTaY Kal peTa-

a \ x / sz Lal \

opay Kal éréxtacw Kal Tay TO Tapa TO KUpLoV. Gr ay

SK Ae) / x la) \ \ \ 7 IAN. ” 2

Tis dua atavra TovavTa Troujon, 1) aivuypa éotat 7) BapBa-

¢ cA a / A oy + x B B

propos: dy pev ody éx petapopav, alvuypa, éav b€ éx

5 lal / 2\ \ sd
25
yrottav, BapBapicpos* aiviyparos Te yap idéa atitn éoti, A
i
;
TO NEYOVTA UTTAPYOVTA advvata ovvawyat. KaTa bev OvV THY
\ / Cg / > 4 / \ \ LA \ Ur

eee
eos a
nm ar a a
TOV <d\NoV> dvo“aTwv oiVOecLY ovy oloYv Te TODTO TrOLhTaL
kata dé Thy petapopay évdéyerat, olov “ avdp’ eidov mupl yanr-
i a SS

30
Kov é1 avépe KoANHCAaYTA, Kal TA TOLADTA. &€K TOV YOT-
” lal lal

Tov BapBapicpos. Sei dpa Kexpacbat ras tovTos: O38

A o Ya n / 4 \

\ \ NS \ / 8 fre, Se a We
HEV Yap [1 LOLwTLKOY TroLnoEL [NOE TaTrELVOY, Olov 7 yA@TTA
Kai 7 peTadopa Kai 0 Koopmos Kal Tada Ta ecipnueva
* € a MN ¢ / \ J X > /

eldn, TO S€ KUptov THY cadyverav. ovbK eddxyicToV dé pépos 4

N \ if

1458 b cupBdrrETat eis TO capes Ths AéEEws Kal pi iStwtiKdY \ a / \ x

ai émextaces Kat arroKxoTral Kal é€addayal Tov dvomd-

e b / pk > \ \ 2 \ a ? £:

Tov: dia pev yap TO GAdrws exe 7) WS TO KUpLOV, Tapa

| \ \ \ + yy A e 4 7 \

TOa elwOos
> \
yuyvomevoy,
4
TO pI) (OvwTLKOY Troinoes, Sud bé TO KOL-
si Ne) \ / x \ si

veveiy TOD elwOoTos TO cages Ertat.

Tad fa) b /
BaTE OVK dpOds réyou- 5
\ \ ” ee > > lal /

ow Ol ETLTMOVTES TO TOLOUT@ TpoTre.Thsa SvadéxTov Kal Sia-

3 a a /

A \ , e
KopmoodyTEs TOY TounTHY, olov >
EiKreldns, G >
6 apxatos, a G
ws
padiov rrovety, etyx Tus Sdoer
2 a ,
exteivery eb
> / »3?
brdcov BovreTat,
¢ ie /

tapPorrounoas év aith tH déEer “’Enuydpny eldov Mapa-

24. dua dravra Riccardianus 16, Parisinus 2038: av dravra AC: drayra al.
Toon apogr. : movfoar AC 28. d\dwy add. Margoliouth, collato Arabe
‘reliqua nomina’: xuplwy add. Heinsius otvbecw] cvv7beavy Tucker
ovxolovrar A& 29. fort. pwerapopSv Bywater Wov Ac mupt
xarxdv Vettori: mupixadkoyv codd, 30-31. ante vel post éx— Bap-
Bapicuds lacunam statuit Gomperz 31. Kexpdo@a Maggi e cod. Lam-
pridii (‘si miscentur haec’ Arabs): xexplcOa codd. cett, 1458 b 1.
oupPdderar AC: cuuBddrovrat apogr. 9, "Excxdpnv Bursian : Free xdpuw Ac:
éml xdpw =, ut videtur (‘appellatum cum favore’ Arabs) eidov apogr. :
Wov AC: ldo» Gomperz
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. 1—5 83

on the other hand, is lofty and raised above the common-

place which employs unusual words. By unusual, I
mean strange (or rare) words, metaphorical, lengthened,—
anything, in short, that differs from the normal idiom.
Yet a style wholly composed of such words is either a2
riddle or a Jargon ; a riddle, if it consists of metaphors;
a jargon, if it consists of strange (or rare) words. For the
essence ofa riddle is to express true facts under im-
possible combinations. Now this cannot be done by any
arrangement of ordinary words, but by the use of meta-
phor it can. Such is the riddle:—‘A man I saw who !
on another man had glued the bronze by aid of fire, and
others of the same kind. A diction that is made up of
strange (or rare) terms is a jargon. A certain infusion, 3
therefore, of these elements is necessary to style; for the
strange (or rare) word, the metaphorical, the ornamental,
and the other kinds above mentioned, will raise it above
the commonplace and mean, while the use of proper
words will make it perspicuous. But nothing contributes 4
1458b more to produce a clearness of diction that is remote
from commonness than the lengthening, contraction, and
alteration of words. For by deviating in exceptional
cases from the normal idiom, the language will gain
distinction; while, at the same time, the partial con-
formity with usage will give perspicuity. The critics, 5
therefore, are in error who censure these licenses of
speech, and hold the author up to ridicule. Thus
Eucleides, the elder, declared that it would be an easy
matter to be a poet if you might lengthen syllables at
will. He caricatured the practice in the very form of
his diction, as in the verse:
 84 XXII. 5—7. 1458 b 10—27

10 O@vdbde Badilovta,’ Kat “ovK av y épdpuevos Tov éxewou éd-

a \ /

To pev odv hatverOai Tas ypwpEevoy (igTOUTH TO 6

/ / / / al
NBopov.”
TpoT@ yedolov: TO bé MéTPLOV KOWOV aTaVT@V €oTl TOV pE-
lal \ 4 >? \ lal

pav: Kal yap petapopais Kal yA@TTals Kal Tois addois

a wii. / \ a ”

eldeot
”
ypmpevos
i
ampeT@s
> lal
Kai \ éritndes
a2 Sf, 5
eT
ge
Ta\ Yyedoia
Xr lal
TO\
| 13 avTo dy amepydcaito. TO bé dppottov ocov dvadéper eri 7
KY / Z ¢ Va bSow Na

|| tov érrdv Oewpeic

Om évTiWepévwv TOY <KUpi@y> ovo“aTar els
lal f > lal / > / n / >? / >

1
TO\ pétpov.
L ‘
Kalane éml
aa Sm
Tis ,
yAdTTs 58
Sé Kal ) eri
92% a
TOY a
petTapopav
A A / \ / Cfo
Kal érl TOV GdrXwv lOeov peTaTilels ay TUS TA KUPLA OVOMATA
KaTioot OTL ANNO Aéyomwev: olov TO avTO ToLncaVTOS lap-
fol \ / >

20 Belov Aioyvrov Kat Evpurisdov, év S€ wovov dvowa petabév-

lal / /

Tos, avtt [kupiou] etmOoros yA@TTaY, TO pev paivetar Kadov

/ fal \ / x

Dl]

To 8 edredés. Aioyvros pev yap év TO DidoxtyTy éToince

a Lal

L 9 > ¢ , ay, ,
hayédawva <d> pov cdpKas éabier todos,
0 6€ avtl Tob écOiet TO OowaTat peTeOnKev. Kat
is N > \ a > Is \ tal VA \

25 vov S€ w éwy odlyos Te Kal ovTLOaVdS Kal aeLKNs,

a / 2eN ~~ / \ > 8 \ \ > rae |

el TUS Néyou TA KUpLAa peTaTiels

| 9|
a , a aN f < Pe s. \ we eS yo
: VUV bé MB €@V MtKpos TE KAL ao beviKos Kat aEeLons 7

1 Odyss. ix. 515, viv dé w’ édw ddlyos Te kal odridavds Kal dxekus.

10. dv vy épduevos apogr.: ay yepduevos A®: ay yevodmevos Tyrwhitt: av

mpidevos Gomperz ll. w&s A®: daperOs Twining: mdvrws Hermann
12. pérpiov Spengel: mérpoyv codd. 14. éwi ra apogr.: émera
Ac éml Ta yehota secl. Gomperz 15. apudtroy apogr.: apuor-
tovros A° 16. érGv] émextdcewy Tyrwhitt <xupiwy> coni.
Vahlen 19. éduBiov A 20. AloxtAw Evpeuridov Essen : Evpimldou kai
Aloxvdov Richards perabévros Parisinus 2038, Ald.: meraribévros A®
21. aut «vplov aut efwAdros secludendum esse coni. Vahlen <kal> elwAéros
Heinsius 23. payédawa 5’ 4 Ritter: payédawva } apogr.: payddeva # AC:
payédavayv } Hermann: dayédav’ del Nauck 25. dé wedy Ac aeukns
Castelvetro (‘ut non conveniat’ Arabs): devdys codd.: dxcxus (cum var. lect.
dens) Od. ix. 515 27. 5€ wedy AC puxpods dé AC
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. 5—7 85

"Exuydpny eidov Mapabavdde Badifovra,

or,
ovK av ¥ épdpevos Tov éxcivou €ddéBopor.
To employ such license at all obtrusively is, no doubt,6
grotesque; but in any mode of poetic diction there
must be moderation. Even metaphors, strange (or rare)
words, or any similar forms of speech, would produce
the like effect if used without propriety and with the
express purpose of being ludicrous. How great a differ- 7
ence is made by the appropriate use of lengthening, may
be seen in Epic poetry by the insertion of ordinary forms
in the verse. So, again, if we take a strange (or rare)
word, a metaphor, or any similar mode of expression,
and replace it by the current or proper term, the truth
of our observation will be manifest. For example
Aeschylus and Euripides each composed the same iambic
line. But the alteration of a single word by Euripides,
who employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary
one, makes one verse appear beautiful and the other
trivial. Aeschylus in his Philoctetes says:
payédawa <8> % pov odpKxas éabiet rodds:
Euripides substitutes Qowdra: ‘feasts on’ for écfies
‘feeds on. Again, in the line,

vov 5€ pw éwy odlyos Te Kal porapase xa! GELKNS,

the difference will be felt if we substitute the common
words,
A / JN \ > 6 \ ni > on
VuV bé bB €e@V btK pos TE KAL AGUVEVLKOS KAL MELONS.
 86 XXII. 7—10. 1458 b 28—1459 a 16

Kab \ }
\ a of , 1
Sippov deikéduov Katabels odvynv Te Tpamelar,
Sippov poxOnpov Katabels puixpdv Te Tparrefay:
\ 4 /
30
v7, ” / y >? ,
Kal TO « Pbves*Bodwow, * nuoves Kpatovaw. ert d€ Apidpa- 8
Sns Tods Tpaywdods exapeder, OTL & ovSels Av El'rros EV TH Ova-
\ x y > na
¢

na \ yeas \ \
NéxT@ ToOvTOIS ypavTaL, olov TO dwpaTwV amo ahAa pH
aro Swpatov, Kal TO céOev Kat TO éywo O€ VW Kal TO
> x id SN y LQ \ \ b] \ é \ %

> Is \ ; »
1459 a "AyUAr@S Téps GAR g1) Tepl “AywrdrAEwS, Kal doa adda
tovavta. Sua yap TO pn elvas ev TOs KUpLoLs TroLEt TO 41)
a \ al , a \ N)

iSiwrixov év TH EEL ATrayTa Ta TOLaDTA* éKeivos de TOUTO

nyvoe.
2
eaTiv S€ Meya MeV TO EKATT@ TOV ELpNUevOY TPETTOV- 9
/ + \ t \ bes Mf la] > / f

Tos yphobat, Kat Simdois dvouace Kal yRwTrais, TOAD Oe

lol la) / \ \

peytoTov TO peTaopiKoy eivat, Lovov yap TOUTO oUTE Tap

/ a >

ddrov gots AaBelvy edvpvias te onusiov éotL- TO yap ev

an 4 al

petabépew TO 7d Guatov Oewpely eotw.

/
Tav d dvo~aTwY Ta 10
\ Ne. a J lal ee. / iN

pev Sura padcora apporrer Tots Sulupap Bors, ai 5é yAOTTAL

a / a fal

Tols jpwiKois, ai bé petadhopal tols tapPetow. Kal év

lal (2 n Cs \ \ an > / \ >
10

bev Tois HpwrKots dtravta ypnoya Ta eipnuéva, év Sé Tots

a a / val

iapBelors Sia TO StL partota réEw pipeicOar tadta ap-

poTTe.
/
TOY
a
ovoudTav
bd
bcos Kav
3
€v ROyous
/
TIS YxpH-
caito: éote 8 Ta TOLADTA TO KUpLOV Kal peTAopa Kal KOTMOS.
a A f

15 mept mev ody Tpaywdias Kal Tis €v TO Tparrev popn-

\ \ § tA \ n > “~ ’ /

cews éoTw Huly

a
ikava\ Ta eipnuéva,

1 Odyss. xx. 259, dlppov decxéNov xatafels dNlyny Te Tpdarefav.

2 Iliad xvii. 265.

29. decxédtov Parisinus 2038, coni. Susemihl: 7’ deckéd\vov AC: 7’ aixédov

Vahlen 31. 7d twves Bodow 7) twves AS 32. elmo apogr.: elane
Ac 1459 a 4. 7d apogr.: rae A& 10 et 12. lauBlos Ac 13. Kav
Harles: kat codd. doors post év add. A®: om. apogr.: rots Gomperz :
6dots Z, ut videtur (Ellis) Tus apogr.: Th AS

—-
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXII. 7—10 87

Or, if for the line,

didpov Beneenian Katadels odcynv te TpaTrefar,

we read,

Sippov woxOnpov Karabels puxpdv te tpdretav.

Or, for judves Bodwow, hudves xpafovow.
Again, Ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using g
phrases which no one would employ in ordinary speech:
for example, dwuatwyv ao instead of dro Swpator,
59a TeOev, eyo O€ vw, “AxiAréws mépe instead of crepi
“Ax irEos, and the like. It is precisely because such
phrases are not part of the current idiom that they
give distinction to the style. This, however, he failed
to see.
It is a great matter to observe propriety in these 9
several modes of expression—compound words, strange
(or rare) words, and so forth. But the greatest thing by
far is to have a command of metaphor. This alone
cannot be imparted by another; it is the mark of genius,
for to make good metaphors implies an eye for re-
semblances.
Of the various kinds of words, the compound are 10
best adapted to dithyrambs, rare words to heroic poetry,
metaphors to iambic. In heroic poetry, indeed, all
these varieties are serviceable. But in iambic verse,
which reproduces, as far as may be, familiar speech, the
most appropriate words are those which are found even
in prose. These are,—the current or proper, the meta-
phorical, the ornamental.
Concerning Tragedy and imitation by means of
action this may suffice.
 88 XXIII. r—3. 1459 a 17—1459 br
|

, XXII Ilept d¢ rs. Sunynuatixns Kay év<l> METP@ pLpNTLKAS,

i a a \ / a

; |
bre def Tovs wvOouvs Kabamep ev Tais Tpaywdlals cUYLCTAvAL
e al \ v4 z 3 lal 8b /

Spapatixovs Kal Trept play mpa=w OdAnv Kal TeELay, Eyoucay

\ N \ i¢ A ef: \ / ”

20 apynv Kal wéoa Kal Tédos, iy > wdaotrep Coov

a Qenees
Ev OdNoV - TOLHeesTHY
olxelav ndovny, OnrOV, Kal
> if ¢ / ~ n\
pn OpMolas LoTOpials
AN ec 4 € "2
Tas
\
ouP-
Bécers eivar, év ais avdyxn ovyt pias mpdkews rovetcbar
Sydwow GAN Evos Kpovov, doa ev TOVTM aUVEBH TepL Eva
/ cd NX / vf - / \ iva

7)BN TELOUS,
/ a
WY td
ExacToOV fe
ws éTUYEV \oy
ExEL TPOSNee GANA.
of oe
WoTTEP 2
| \
25 Yap KATA\ TOvS\ avTOVS
Pah ic /
ypovous Haa T ile (3
ev >> a
Yadapive a7
éeyéveTo
vaupayia if
nal \
4
e€
év
>
LxKeria /,
Kapyndovioy /
payn Zz
ovdey
> \

Tpos\ TO\ avTO

Se N
cuVTEivovaaL
iy
TéAOS,
}
OUTW
cf
Kal X73ev Tolsa EepeENs
> iol

U4 Sy, i ,
xXpovos éviote yiverar Oatepov peta\ ,
Odtepov, 2
€E e
wv A
ev
ovdev yiveta TéXos. oeddv 6€ of TrOAADL TOY TroLNT@Y TODTO
30 Spaat. 810, woTrep elzromev On, Kal TavTH OeotrécLos ay3
fal / ee ” ” \N ee / x

gavein “Opnpos
/
Tapa tovs addovs, TOA pydé Tov\ TOEpOV
/

Kaimep
/
éxovta
Bg
apynv
> \
Kal \ Tédos
}
eriyelphoar
> VY A
Trovetya Gdov-
ef

|{ ,
bav AN
yap l
dy péyas Kal ye ovKtn) evovvoTrTos
Ld ”
euedrev ¥
Ecco Oa,
XN A / / t , a ,
HTH peyéler petpidlovta KatareTeypévoy_TH ToiKiria.
a =
35 voV évay pépos
jae eos: ns Ba
amrodkaBav 5) ooh
érrevcodiows L
Kéypntar 2 on
avTa@v
Tools, olov vedav KaTaroyw Kal adrois émevcodio.s, ois
A A / e

cvarapBaver thy Toinow. of 8 addou Tepl eva Towodce

rf \ ny a

1459 Kal qepl eva ypovoy \ \ /

Kal pilav maki ToAupeph, a a
olov o
nae

17. kav évt wérpw scripsi (cf. 1449 b 11, 1459 b 32): Kal év pérpw codd.: Kal
ev é€auéerpy Heinsius 18. cuvicravar A° (cf. 1453 b 4, 1457 b 12): cur-
estavat coni. Vahlen 20. move? A& 21. duolas taropias Tas cuvOéces
Dacier (confirmat aliquatenus Arabs): 6uolas isroplas ras cuviPes codd.:
olas ioroplas ras cuvybers M‘Vey 25. Zaraulyyn AC 26. vavuaxla apogr. :
vatpaxos A& 28. wera Odrepoy Parisinus 2088, coni. Castelvetro: mera
Oarépov A& 31. 7@ Riccardianus 16: 7d A® 33-34. wéya (rec. corr.
Héyas) —evotvvorros —perpidgovTa A®: péya—evto’vorroy —perplafoy Bursian
35. atréy secl. Christ : avrod Heinsius 36. ofs Riccardianus 16; dls pr. A&
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIII. 1—3 89

XXIII As to that poetic imitation which is narrative in

form and employs a single metre, the plot manifestly
ought, as in a tragedy, to be constructed on dramatic
iprinciples.
es It should have for its subject a single
action, whole and complete, with a beginning, a middle,
and an end. It will thus resemble a single and
coherent orgauism, and produce the pleasure proper to
it. It will differ in structure from historical composi-
tions, which of necessity present not a single action,
but a single period, and all that happened within
that period to one person or to many, little connected
_ together as the events may be. For as the sea-fight at 2
~ Salamis and the battle with the Carthaginians in Sicily
took place at the same time, but did not tend to any one
result, so in the sequence of events, one thing sometimes
follows another, and yet no single result is thereby
produced. Such is the practice, we may say, of
most poets. Here again, then, as has been already3
observed, the transcendent excellence of Homer is
manifest. He never attempts to make the whole war of
Trey the subject of his poem, though that war had a
beginning and an end. It would have been too vast a
theme, and not easily embraced in a single view. If,
again, he had kept it within moderate limits, it must
have been over-complicated by the variety of the in-
eidents. As it is, he detaches a single portion, and
admits as episodes many events from the general story
of the war—suach as the Catalogue of the ships and
others—thus diversifying the poem. All other poets
1459» take a single hero, a single period, or an action single
indeed, but with a multiplicity of parts. Thus did the
 90 XXIII. 4—XXIV. 4. 1459 b 2—24

ta Kvspia trouncas Kat thy puxpav “Idudba. Tovyapody x

pev “Tid8os Kal ’Odvacelas pia tpaywdia troveiras éxa-
tépas 7) Svo povat, ex Se Kumpiay modAal Kal Ths p-
5 Kpas “Idddos [réov] ord, olov brrAwy Kptors, PidoKTH-
ts, Neororepos, Edpizunos, mraxela, Adkatvat, “Triov
mépous Kat amorous [kal Yiwwv Kat Tpwddes].
XXIV "Ere O€ ta idn TavTa Set éyew THY eTroTroLiay TH Tpaye-
Sia, 7) yap driv 2 TweTdeypévny 1) HOiKny 7 maOntiKHy:
\
10 Kal Ta pwépn Em pedotrovias Kal Oews Tav’Ta’ Kai yap
mepiTreTeL@v Set Kal avayveploewy Kal mraOnpudrov" ere
tas Swavotas Kal tiv réEw eyew KadrOs. ois aracw
7
Ounpos Kéypnta: Kal mpatTos Kal ikavas.
/ \ lal \ € aul
Kal \
yap
\
Kal \

lal / 4 / ¢ \ > \ € lal

TOV TolMMaTwY EKaTEpoy cuvecTnKeY 7 pev ‘IXtas atrAovY
id

15 Kal trabytixov, 7 Sé ‘Odvccea merreypévov (avayvopicts

I

yap Siorov) Kai nOiKH* mpos yap TovTas AéEer Kal Savoia
lé

a a
mavra vrepBéBrnKev, Siadéper d€ KaTa TE THS TvTTATEWS 3

TO LAKOS 1) errOTrOLia Kal TO ETpoD. TOU ev OvY pnKOUS bposS

ixavos 0 etpnuévos* Sivacbat yap Set cyvopacbar tiv apynv
20 Kal TO Tédos. ein 8 av TOTO, Et TOV eV apyaiwy édar-
Tovs ai ovoTacess ciev, Mpos dé TO TAHOOS Tpaywdiav Tav
e / - \ \ X ol fal al

eis play aKxpoacw "TUB ewéveov mapnKoiev. &yer dé mpos TO

>
i

|
Ree su

émrexteiverOat TO Revebae ToAU TL 1 é€rrotrouia idioy 81a

i] TO év pev TH Tpaywdia pr evdéyecOar dua mpatropeva
\
aaa
1459 b 2. Kumpia Reiz : xumpixa AC 4. wovas pr. Ac 5et 7. méov
et cal Dlvwv kal Tpwddes secl. Hermann 7. mpwiddes pr. A® (7 sup. ser.
m. rec.) 8. ére dé bis AS det apogr.: 6) Ac 9. 7OcKhy om.
= 11. kal 76Gy post dvayvwpicewy add. Susemihl 13. ixav@s apogr. :
ixavds A& 14. rovnudrwyv A& 15. dvayvwploes Christ 16. 7Ocxdv
corr. rec. m. A¢ yap A®: dé apogr. 17. mdvras apogr. 21. mpos
dé apogr.: mpdc0e Ac 7o ante rpaywdidv add. Tucker 22. fort.
kaOteuévwy Richards
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS, XXIII. 4—XXIV. 4 91

author of the Cypria and of the Little Iliad. For this 4

reason the Iliad and the Odyssey each furnish the
subject of one tragedy, or, at most, of two; while the
Cypria supplies materials for many, and the Little Iliad
for eight—the Award of the Arms, the Philoctetes, the
Neoptolemus, the Eurypylus, the Mendicant Odysseus,
the Laconian Women, the Fall of Ilium, the Departure
of the Fleet.
XXIV Again, Epic poetry must have as many kinds as
Tragedy: it must be simple, or complex, or ‘ethical,’|
or ‘pathetic. The parts also, with the exception of |
song and spectacle, are the same; for it requires
Reversals of the Situation, Recognitions, and Tragic
Incidents. Moreover, the thoughts and the diction must 2
be artistic. In all these respects Homer is our earliest
and sufficient model. Indeed each of his poems has a
twofold character. The Iliad is at once simple and
‘pathetic, and the Odyssey complex (for Recognition
scenes run through it), and at the same time ‘ethical.’
Moreover, in diction and thought he is supreme.
Epic poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on3
which it is constructed, and in its metre. As regards
scale or length, we have already laid down an adequate
| limit :—the beginning and the end must be capable of
| being brought within a single view. This condition
will be satisfied by poems on a smaller scale than the
old epics, and answering in length to the group of
tragedies presented at a single sitting.
Epic poetry has, however, a great—-a special—4
capacity for enlarging its dimensions, and we can see the
reason. In Tragedy we cannot imitate several lines of
 92 XXIV. 4—7. 1459 b 25—1460a 8

25 TOAAa méepn pipetoOar ara TO eTTl THS TKNVYAS Kal TOV

an \ an rn AN an

A a , / ’ ae AS y & ts 5 /
UmoxpiT@v pépos povov' év O€ TH erroTTOLiG OLa TO Ounynow
| >
|i clvae
i Eats
é Troha
Aa pépn
péon ap
dma Troveiy pawopeva,
Tepatvoueva, bdvd ov
{ f eee o ” ¢ A , ” of a?
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\ coek :
éyer TO ayaboy eis peyahorpéreray Kal TO weTaBddXew TOV x \ / \

bel 4
30 akovovTAa
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€ n > / >

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vpyap ipNpwrkoy cTacywTaTov
aowusratoy Kal
35 OYKWOETTATOY TOY MéTPwWY eaTiV (geo Kal YAWOTTAS Kal mEeTA-
i b) / a / > / \ \ vd \

i
popas\ déyetat
Be ,
waddiota* TEpiTTH ASIEN
yap Kal \ <Tav’Tn>
,
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: \ , A ” a \ aes A \ fa
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, \ Ste oS) \ N \ \ / ” \
1460 aMETPOV KLVNTLKA, TO peV OPYXNTTLKOV TO Sé TpaKkTLKOV. ETL dé 6
ere — ;

ATOTMTEPOV, EL plyVvvOL TiS avTd, WoTrep Xaipjuwv. 10

Pd / > te > / ee y \

“ss
ny \
ovdels LaKpay\ avoTactY
, ¥ 5) #y>,
év ,
AAdw TeTOinKEY 7}X THaA Nw,
ef ,
aXAG
| @oTrep cimropev avTn, dios SuddoKer TO apyortoyv [avTH]
f ao ” SN € / / \ € / 3 A

\5 [OvJatpetoOar. “Opnpos &é ddrXa Te TOAAA AELOs érrawetc

Oat 7
4 e a r

kai 6% Kal OTe wovos TOY TroLnTa@Y ovK ayvoet O Sei trovety
x \ Nee. fe a n b > aA a n

avtov. avTov yap Sei Tov TroinTHy éXaxLoTA AéyeLv* Ov yap

/ lal

EOTL KATA TAUTA [LYLNTNS.* OF “Ev OD AAXoL aUTOL pe Sv SXOV

\ a Pe )

29. fort. [7d] aya0dv Bywater 33. dumynuarikhy apogr.: Sdeyynruchy Ac

36. post kal add. ratty Twining: ryé Tucker 37. plunots apogr.:
klynous Ac lauBloy Ac 1460 a 1. xwnrikd Ald. : xwnyrixkai Ac:
kuytixa Kal Vahlen: xuwyrexd, ef Gomperz 2. peyvior Ald.: puyrver
apogr. : unyvin A® (fuit wh, et » extremum in litura): «i yvoln DS (cf. Arab.
“si quis nesciret’) 3. 7@] 7d AC 4. airy apogr.: atti Ac: secl
Gomperz 5. aipeto@a Bonitz (confirmare videtur Arabs): diatpetOar AC:
del aipetoOar Tucker
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 4—7 93

actions carried on at one and the same time ; we must

. confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part
taken by the players. But in Epic poetry, owing to the
narrative form, many events simultaneously transacted
can be presented; and these, if relevant to the subject,
add mass and dignity to the poem. The Epic has here
an advantage, and one that conduces to grandeur of
effect, to diverting the mind of the hearer, and relieving
the story with varying episodes. For sameness of
incident soon produces satiety, and makes tragedies fail
on the stage.
As for the metre, the heroic measure has proved its 5
fitness by the test of experience. If a narrative poem
in any other metre or in many metres were now com-
posed, it would be found incongruous. For of all
measures the heroic is the stateliest and the most
massive; and hence it most readily admits rare words
and metaphors, which is another point in which the
narrative form of imitation stands alone. On the other
1460a hand, the iambic and the trochaic tetrameter are stirring
measures, the latter being akin to dancing, the former
expressive of action. Still more absurd would it be to 6
mix together different metres, as was done by Chaeremon.
Hence no one has ever composed a poem on a great scale
in any other than heroic verse. Nature herself, as we
have said, teaches the choice of the proper measure. ,
Homer, admirable in all respects, has the special merit 7
of being the only poet who rightly appreciates the part
he should take himself. The poet should speak as little
as possible in his own person, for it is not this that makes
him an imitator. Other poets appear themselves upon
 94 XXIV, 7—10. 1460 a 9—28

ayovitovrat, pipodvTar oé ate Kal onuyaKes” o 8€ oAbya

10 ppormuacdpevos evOds eiodyer avdpa i) yvvaixa %) addo Te
[400s] cal ovdér’ anOn arr éxovta On. Set pev ody év Tais 8
1 a \ eae A = 2 SZ 5)
Tpaywolas oviy TO Oavpactov, waddov évdeyeTat ev
Th éromoua TO ddoyov, 6: 6 cupBaiver paduoTta TO Oav-
a \

pactov, Sia TO mn Opay eis TOY MpaTToyTa* é7El TA TeEpl

/ \ x \ Ate > \ / > \ Ss \

tiv “Exropos Stwkw érl oxnvis dvta yedoia av havein, ot

n 5) a / e

fev éotates
\ e lal
Kal ov Su@KovTes, 0
\ > I, ig
5é€ avavetav,
be > UA
év
> de
dé Tos lal

émeaw AavOaver, To 5€ Oavpactov 50+ onpetov be: TAVTES

yap mpooribevres amayyé\Xovew os xapifopevot. " bediSayev 9
dé padiota “Opnpos Kal Tovs AANOUS vrevdy. Aéyew_@s O€?.
20 got. S€ TODTO Taparoyiopos. olovTar yap avOpwrrot, Tay’
Tovdl 6vTOS TOOL H 7 ywvopevou yivynTat, Ei TO VaTEpoy éoTLY,
Xx

Kal TO TpoTepoy eivar 7 yiverOau* TodTO Sé éore Weddos. 810

én, av TO mpc@rov areddos, GAN’ ovdé, TOUTOV bvTOS, avayKN
<Kakelvo> eivat 4 yevéa Oar [7] mpoobetvar dua yap TO TObTO
eldévar adnGes dv, Taparoyilerat Hudy 7uy Kal TO TP@ToV
as dv. Tmapddevypa bé rovTov éx Tay Nimtpav. mpoatpetcbai 10
Te bef adivaraeixora HAXXov4) duvara amiava: tovs Te Aoyous
>

oe
bn ocvvictacba éx pepav ardyan, GANG padoTa eV LN-
Y

11. 400s codd., =: secl. Reiz: efSos Bursian ovdév’ a6 Vettori: ovdeva7On.
Urbinas 47: ovdéva #On Ac On] fort. 400s Christ kav Tats
Gomperz 13. ddoyov Vettori: dvddoyoy codd., = 6¢ 6 Parisinus
2038, coni. Vettori: 6d codd. cett. 14. érel apogr.: érera A’, =
21. rod dudvros pr, AS Todt 7 4) apogr.: 7d dv Fw pr. A (7d dt 4 corr.
rec. m.) 22. yevéoOar coni. Christ 23. 69] de? Bonitz &\Xou
dé A° (aAN’ 0852 corr. rec. m.): dANo 5é codd. Robortelli: dAdo 8’ 8 Vahlen:
dddo, 5 Christ 23-24. cum verbis a4\N ovdé—dvd-yxn—mpocbetvar con-
tulerim Rhet. i. 2. 13, 1357 a 17, eddy yap F mu rovrwv yrdpmov, obbe det
Aéyew* ards yap Toiro mpocrlOnow 6 dxpoaris, et 18, 7d 8’ Bre crepavirns Ta
OAYmria, o8de Se? mpocGeivat 24. xdxetvo add. Tucker } secl.
Bonitz: 7 Vahlen: #» Tucker 26. rovrov codex Robortelli: rodro Ac:
Tovrwy apogr.: roiro <7d> Spengel virrpw Ac
|
%
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 7—10 95

the scene throughout, and imitate but little and rarely.

Homer, after a few prefatory words, at once brings in
a@ man, or woman, or other personage; none of them
wanting in characteristic qualities, but each with a
character of his own.
The element of the wonderful is admitted in Tragedy. (0)
The irrational, on which the wonderful depends for its
chief effects, has wider scope inEpic poetry, because there
the person acting. is..not..seen. Thus, the pursuit of
Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage—the
Greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit, and
Achilles waving them back. But in the Epic poem the
absurdity passes unnoticed. Now the wonderful is
pleasing: as may be inferred from the fact that, in
telling a story, every one adds something startling of his
own, knowing that his hearers like it. It is Homer who9 4
has chiefly taught other poets the art of telling lies
skilfully. The secret of it lies in a fallacy. For,
assuming that if one thing is or becomes, a second is
or becomes, men imagine that, if the second is, the first
likewise is or becomes. But this is a false inference.
Hence, where the first thing is untrue, it is quite un-
necessary, provided the second be true, to add that the
first is or has become, For the mind, knowing the
second to be true, falsely infers the truth of the first.
a
There is an example of this in the Bath Scene of the
Odyssey.
Accordingly, the _poet should preferRa UANT
probable im- 10
possibilities to improbable ‘possibilities. The tragic plot
must not be composed of irrational parts. Everything
 96 XXIV. 10o—XXV. 2. 1460 a 29—1460 b 12

dev éyew aroyov, ef S€ py, EEw Tov pvOevparos, waTEp

/ 4 fy 4 A

OiSirovs TO pr) eidévar TAS 0 Adtos aréPavev, ANA pur) ev

A ¢ v4 VEZ > \ \
30
A 7 ¢ b) a. i e SN 7 2 t
T® Spdmate, wotrep ev “Hr€xtpa ot ta IvOca amaryyédrov-
a <\ fe > \ y a
res, 7) €v Muaois 0 dfwvos ex Teyéas ets tv Muciav tov:
| ware
j
TO. déyeww OTe avnpnTa avo
¢ i x ¢
puvOos yedotov: €E apyijs
aA a >? 2) lol

\
yap ov Sef acuvictacbar TovotTovs. A
av dé On Kal paivnrar
x 3 \ t

> ii > / Ay oy ” oe \ \ Nee:

35 EVAOYWTEPWS, evdéxe Bau Kal aToTrov <dv>* €7rel Kal Ta év
"Odvecela ddoya Ta Tmept THY eKDEcwW ws OK av HY aveKTA
$A x 9 x

no
aa PS A 82
> 2 He a Soe / d
1460 b
oF
Hrov av
x
yévo.to,
ft
cL avTa PavAs ToiNnTHS Toincere’ VvUV O€
Tois ddAXoLs ayabots 6 moumTns apaviter ndvYwY TO ATOTOY.
a n ¢ / € / \ Ul

TH O¢ reer Set Svarrovety év Tols_apyois méepecww KaL pHTE 11

lal a a Lal al } / AY S

nO.cots pnte Stavontixois’ amoxpiTTe. yap Tadw

b) lal i an > 7 \ if
1 lav
¢€ /

2 :
5 Nappa réEis Ta TE HOn Kal Tas Seavotas.
>

OO Ilepi dé T poBAnuareoy Kat AVoewV,

- Yj 2
eK TOTwY TE Kal
/ \

Toiwy eioav eat, Wd av Oewpovow yevort av havepor.

/ rd lal 3 ss ay x lel Wh >’ x /

érrel
? \
yap
13
€oTt
>
pints\ o€ TonTns\ w@aTeEpavel
€ \
Cwypados
/
7)4 Tus
BY, > / SEL, ta) La) BY \ b)
GdXos ElKOVvoTTOLOS, avayKn pLpetoOar TPLaY OvTwY TOV apt-
pov év Te del, 7) yap ola Hy 4) eoTw, 7) old pacw Kai Soxéi,
6 \ of SG x nN i 5 x » x ia \ 8 A
10

) ota eivau det. Taita 0 éEayyédreTas rEEEL <7) Kuplows 2

Deel 3 A =
ovopaciww> Kal yAOTTALs Kal weTahopats: Kal TOAAa TaOn|
5
Wort

30. <6> Oédlrovs Bywater: Oiéirov Tucker Adios Riccardianus 16 :

védaos A®: iédaos cett. 33. dvjpero A& 35. dmodéxecOac apogr.
drorov <dv>-scripsi: 76 drorov Par, 2038: d&romov codd. cett. &romor
quidem pro déroréy ve nonnunquam usurpari solet, e.g. droroy roeiv (Dem.
F.L. § 71, 337), drowoy déyew (Plat. Symp. 175.4); sed in hoe loco vix
defendi potest ea locutio 1460 b1. wojoece Heinsius: rrowjoe codd.:
érolncev Spengel 5. td Te] Ta dé AC 7. motwy apogr.: molwy dy Ac
9. rov apiOudy (vel TG apiOu@) apogr.: T&v dpiOuav AC 11. 7 ofa apogr. :
ota A <7) Kuplos dvduacw> coni. Vahlen: <# xvpig> Gomperz
12. kal 80’ &\X\a dO coni. Vahlen
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXIV. 1o—XXV. 2 97

irrational should, if possible, be excluded; or, at all

events, it should lie outside the action of the play (as,
in the Oedipus, the hero’s ignorance as to the manner
of Laius’ death); not within the drama,—as in the
Electra, the messenger’s account of the Pythian games;
or, as in the Mysians, the man who has come from Tegea
to Mysia and is still speechless. The plea that otherwise
the plot would have been ruined, is ridiculous; such a
plot should not in the first instance be constructed.
But once the irrational has been introduced and an air
of likelihood imparted to it, we must accept it in spite of
the absurdity. Take even the irrational incidents in the
Odyssey, where Odysseus is left upon the shore of Ithaca.
How intolerable even these might have been would be
apparent if an inferior poet were to treat the subject.
1460 As it is, the absurdity is veiled by the poetic charm
with which the poet invests it.
The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of 11
the action, where there is no expression of character
or thought. For, conversely, character and thought are
merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant.
XXV With respect to critical difficulties and their solu-
tions, the number and nature of the sources from which
they may be drawn may be thus exhibited.
The poet being an imitator, like a painter or any
other artist, must of necessity imitate one of three
objects,—things as they were or are, things as they are
said_or thought. to be, or,things as.“they ‘ought to be.
The vehicle of expression is language, —either" current 2
terms or, it may be, rare words or metaphors. There
are also many modifications of language, which we
H
 98 XXV. 3-6. 1460 b 13—34

THs AéEews eorl, didopev yap Ta’Ta Tots TolnTais. mpos bE 3

a an al \ \

rovTos ody 1 auTi.opboTns eotly THs ModiTLKAS Kal THs

TomTiKhns ovde GANS TéxVNS Kal ToLNTLKhS. aUTHS d€ THs
mountiKns OuTT) apaptia, 7 pev yap Kal avTny, 1) Oe Kata
oupPeBnkos. ‘el pev yap <TL> TpoeideTo pipnoacbal, <p 4
opOas8 éulunoato Ov > advvapiay, auras cSchara el O€
TO Tpoeréa bau Hn OpOds, ara TOV troy <a > dudw Ta
20 Se&ta mpoBeBrAnxoTa, 7) TO Kal? Exdotny Téyvny audpTnwa
olov TO KAT iar pur ) adrAnv Téxvnv [) addvara meTroinTas |
oTrotavovy, ov Kal? éauTny. wate Sel Ta éTITLLNpaTaev TOLS
TpoBAnpwacw €K TOUTWY ETLTKOTOUVTA NUE. TPATOV Mev TA 5
Tpos avTny THY TEYVHV' EL AdvVATA TeETOinTal, HuapTNTAaL*
25 aX’ 6pOds Exel, Eb TUYYdvEL TOU TéXoUS TOU a’THs (TO yap
TES ELpNTAL), EL OUTMS EKXTANKTLKOTEPOV 7) AUTO 7) AAXO TroLEl
Mépos. mrapaderypa n Tov” Exropos diwks. ef wévToe TO TéXOS
) waiddov 1) <p> HrTov évedéyeto UTdpyew Kal KaTa THY
wept TOUT@Y TEXYNY, [ijpapticbar] ox opOas: det yap et év-
Séyerar brws pndapy ipopeae ae étt motépwy éotl Td
apapTnua, TOV KaTa THY TEXYNY ) Kat ado cvpBeBn- -
Kos; €daTTOV yap e& py Hoe Orts ehahos Onreva Képara
OvK eye 1) Eb AaMLNTos eypanvev. mpos O€ TovToIs édy6
pesera

ETLTLMATAL OTL “OUR a0? aXr’ icws <@s> Sei—oiov Kat

17. 7 addidi Hn 6pOGs—é’ addidi: <ép@ds, Huapre 8 ev TO pupr-

cacba 6’> coni, Vahlen 18, ef apogr.: 7 A 19. 7@ corr. Parisinus
2038 (Bywater): 7d A&: <dd> rd Ueberweg dé add. Vahlen
21. 7} ddivara mwerolyra secl. Diintzer: ddvvara remolyta (deleto 4) post
orovavovy traiecit Christ 22. omolay div A°: droavody vulg.: dz0t’ av ody
Bywater: orocaodv Winstanley 23. ra (ei sup. ser. m. rec.) A¢ 24, ei add.
Parisinus 2038 : om, cett. 25. abrijs apogr.: avrijs Ac 26. elpnrac] etipnrac
Heinsius: rypetrae M. Schmidt 28. 3) <ph> Frrov Ueberweg: Frrov
A®: i) #rrov corr. A apogr. 29. iyuapricOa (uapricda pr. A°) secl.
Bywater, Ussing: qudprnra Ald.: <u> quaprioOa, Tucker, interpunctione
mutata 32. eldec (7 sup. scr. m. rec.) A® 33. 9] 7 pr. Ac el
amimjros] n duemnros (corr. Kdueurjrws) AC 34, <ws> coni, Vahlen
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 3—6 99

concede to the poets. Add to this, that the standard of 3 |

correctness is not the same in poetry and politics, any
more than in poetry and any other art. Within the art
of poetry itself there are two kinds of faults,—those
which touch its essence, and those which are accidental.
If a poet has chosen to imitate something, <but has 4
imitated it incorrectly> through want of capacity, the
error is inherent in the poetry. But if the failure is
due to a wrong choice—if he has represented a horse
as throwing out both his off legs at once, or introduced
technical inaccuracies in medicine, for example, or in
any other art—the error is not essential to the poetry.
These are the points of view from which we should
consider and answer the objections raised by the
critics.
First as to matters which concern the poet’s own 5
art. If he describes the impossible, he is guilty of
an error; but the error may be justified, if the end
of the art be thereby attained (the end being that
already mentioned),—if, that is, the effect of this or
any other part of the poem is thus rendered more
striking. A case in point is the pursuit of Hector.
If, however, the end might have been as well, or better,
attained without violating the special rules of the poetic
art, the error is not justified: for every kind of error
should, if possible, be avoided.
Again, does the error touch the essentials of the
poetic art, or some accident of it? For example,—not
to know that a hind has no horns is a less serious matter
than to paint it inartistically.
Further, if it be objected that the description is not 6
 100 XXV. 6—10. 1460 b 35—1461 a 16
i

| 35 Sohoxrajs &bn adros perv olovs de? rroveiv, Kiperridny b€ ior

i| Py
t|
bh 4 = f / / > \ / oe ef if e
ELOLY——TQUTY) AUTEOV. EL dé pendeTépas, OTL OUTW DAGLY* OLOV
a L o D Begs 2 a
Ta Tept Oedv: icws yap ove BEXTLOV OUTH Evel, OVT adnOh,
—1a GAN’ <el> éruxev dome Fevopdver: adn’ ody pace.
mad
Ta O€
icws od Bédtiov pév, GAN ovTws elyer, oloy Ta Tepl TOV
ee
dmrrav, “ éyyea 5€ ou OpP ert cavporhpos*”? olTw yap TOT
—
évoptov, domep xa vov ’Iddvpwot. rept Sé Tod Kaas % pr
eae
5 Kaas 7) elpntal Twe i TémpaKTaL, ov povoy oKETTEOV Eis
avTO TO TET paryLEVvov i) elpnuévoy Brérovta ei orrovdatoy7)
padrov, adda Kal els TOV mparrovrTa i) Néyovta, pos ov 7)
dre 3) OTw 1 Ov EvEeKev, olov 1) * wel Covos eno eeig Oh
VHTAL, n petCovos KQKOU, iva ATrOyevnTat. Ta
a be TT pos Thy ©

10 NéEw opavtTa Set dvadvevv, oboy yAwTTH“ puptae MeV TpP@-

tov'”* faws yap od Tovs mpsovous A€éyer GAAA Tors dU-
¢ /

Aaxas, kai Tov Addava ce “és fp 7 Tot Eidos pev Env Kakos,” ®
/ ¢/ > fe \ if / Yes

> \ rn > , > \ \ , > , \

ov TO Gua acuEpEeTpOY AAA TO TPOTwWTTOY aLaypOY, TO
\ ’ x ¢ n > / a ey ,
yap everdes of Kpnres €UT poo wmroy Kadovot Kat TO “ Cwpo-
15 Tepov be Képase "4 od TO akpaTov ws oivophugw aAAa TO
Oatrov. ta dé cata petahopay eipnrat, otov “ mavtes pév ce

1 Ttiad x. 152. 27 Ossi DO:

BY Hy 3% BGS, J his nbs PUBS,

35. Evpirlénv Heinsius: evpirldns codd. (tuetur Gomperz, cf. 1448 a 36

adOnvato. codd.) 37. otrw Riccardianus 16, corr. Vaticunus 1400: oie
A¢®: om. Parisinus 2038 1461 a1. <ei> coni. Vahlen Eevodarver vel
Eevopavys apogr.: Eevopdvn A®: mapa EZevoddver Ritter: <oi repl> Hevopdvy
Tucker ovv Tyrwhitt: o¥ A: otrw Spengel gact. ra dé Spengel :
pact rdde. AC 6. « apogr.: 7 A° 7. distinxi post déyorra
<i> mpds dv Carroll 8. ofov 7} A®: ofov ei apogy. 9. # add.
corr. A® apogr. 12. és p’ % ro Vahlen: ws pAroe (corr. m. rec. p’) Ac:
bs pa ror apogr. émv apogr.: ef fv Ac 15. xépac €ov 7d pr. Ac
16. 7a Spengel: 7d Ac mavres Grifenhan: &do. A® et Homerus
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 6—9 101

true to fact, the poet may perhaps reply,—‘ But the

objects are as they ought to be’: just as Sophocles said
that he drew men as they ought to be; Euripides, as
they are. In this way the objection may be met. If, ai
however, the representation be of neither kind, the poet
may answer,— This is how men say the thing is.” This
applies to tales about the gods. It may well be that
these stories are not higher than fact nor yet true to
1461.2 fact: they are, very possibly, what Xenophanes says of
them. But anyhow, ‘this is what is said.’ Again, a
description may be no better than the fact: ‘still, it was
the fact’; as in the passage about the arms: ‘ Upright
upon their butt-ends stood the spears. This was the
custom then, as it now is among the Ilyrians.
Again, in examining whether what has been said or 8)
done by some one is poetically right or not, we must
|
not look merely to the particular act or saying, and ask |
whether it is poetically good or bad. We must also con- |
sider by whom it is said or done, to whom, when, in |
whose interest, or for what end; whether, for instance, it |
be to secure a greater good, or avert a greater evil.
Other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to 9
the usage of language. We may note a rare word, as in
ouphas pev mpe@tov, where the poet perhaps employs
ovpyas not in the sense of mules, but of sentinels. So,
again, of Dolon: ‘ill-favoured indeed he was to look upon. >

It is not meant that his body was ill-shaped, but that his
face was ugly; for the Cretans use the word evedés,
‘well-favoured, to denote a fair face. Again, Cwpdorepov
dé xépace, ‘mix the drink livelier, does not mean ‘mix
it stronger’ as for hard drinkers, but ‘mix it quicker.’
 102 XXV. 10—14. 1461 a 17—27
5) 2 =
pa Oeot te Kal avépes ebdov mavvdyuor” * peat dé dnow “7
Tot OT és Tedtov TO Tpawixov abpnceev, avrA@v cupiyyor
\ > / > aA ,

0 bs mA / \
0 épadov:”” To yap mwavres avtt Tod ToddoL KATA peTa-
\ \ A y \ \ € ce > »
20 popav eipytat, TO yap TAY TohU
TL Kal TO “ oin S dpo-
993 \ / %: \ , t \ 11
pos” KaTa wetapopay, To yap MATE AD) poovoy. KaTa
a re \ /
é Tpotwoiay,
UO
@OTEpP ‘Immias édvev
Rr ated
0 Oaawos. TO “ didopev
8é 0f”* Kal “70 pev ob KatamvbeTar OuBpo. 5 ra, be Suaipé- 12
/ lj ”

cet, olov “Epredoxrys “ ainya 5é€ Ovnt épvovto, Ta Tply pa-

fa} Vile) te \ \ L

25 Sov abavar <civar>,fwpa te mply Kéxpnto. Ta de aupiBoria, 13

” Nye! /

“mapeynkev 5¢ Théo VUE-”® Td yap Trew appiBorov éotuy.

/

i aes
Ta O€ KATA TO EO0S THs NEES’ TOV KEKpAapev@V <oiovody> oivor 14
lel / n f € fal Sar

1 [liad ii. 1, &ddow pév pa Oeol Te kal dvépes immoxopvorai

etdov mavvbxtol.
Ib. x. 1, Gddot wev rapa vgvoly apiories Tavaxacdv
eVdov mavyvyxvoL.
2 Ib. x. 11, 4 roe dr’ és rediov 7b Tpwikdv dOphoecev,
Oatpager mupa moda Ta Kalero Ihde mpd,
avh@v cuplyywv 7 évorny buaddr 7’ avOpdruv,
3 Ib. xviii. 489, oly © dupopds éore Noerpv ’Qxeavoio.
4 Ib. xxi. 297, didouev 5€ of ebyos dpécOa. Sed in Iliade ii. 15 (de
quo hic agitur) Tpdecor 62 Kjde’ €frrat.
5 Ib, xxiii. 328, 7d wey od} xaram’berar 3uBpw.
Oi, x=, Asi, Mada yap vvE dverar, eyytOc & Aas,
dorpa dé Oh mpoBéBnxe, mapwynKev dé whéwy vvE
Tay Ovo molpawy, TpiTaTy & re pwotpa NéXevTrrar.

17. immoxopuorai (Homerus) post dvépes add. Christ, habuit iam = (cf. Arab.
‘ceteri quidem homines et dei qui equis armati insident’) dravres
post eidov intercidisse suspicatur Bywater 19. @ éuadov Sylburg: re
ouaddy (Suadov apogr.) A& tod add. apogr.: om. A& 23. dé ol
apogr.: déo Ae 25. elvac add. Vettori ex Athenaeo x. 423 Fwpa
Athenaeus: 6a codd. Te <a> mply Gomperz secutus Bergkium ké-
Kpyro (u sup. scr. m. rec.) A®: Kéxpiro apogr.: &xpnra Karsten (ed. Empedocles)
26. mdéw A: mdéov apogr.: mdéwy Ald. mrelw] mdelov vel m)éov
apogr. 27. <doa> rév kexpauévwy Vahlen: <éca mo>r&v Kexpa-
pévev Ueberwee: may xexpaudvwy Bursian <olovodty> Tucker: <éna>
olim conieci
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 10o—14 103

Sometimes an expression is metaphorical, as ‘ Now all 10

gods and men were sleeping through the night,—while at
the same time the poet says: ‘ Often indeed as he turned
his gaze to the Trojan plain, he marvelled at the sound
of flutes and pipes,’ ‘All’ is here used metaphorically

for ‘many, all being a species of many. So in the

verse,—‘ alone she hath no part .. , oly, ‘alone, is

metaphorical; for the best known may be called the

only one.

Again, the solution may depend upon accent or ll

breathing. Thus Hippias of Thasos solved the difficulties
in the lines,—8idouev (dcdduev) dé of, and Td peév ov (ov)

kataTrubeTar OuBpe.
Or again, the question may be solved by punctuation, 12

as in Empedocles,—‘ Of a sudden things became mortal

that before had learnt to be immortal, and things un-

mixed before mixed.’

Or again, by ambiguity of construction,—as in 13

mapoxncey S&é Théo vve, where the word méw is

ambiguous,
Or by the usage of language. Thus any mixed 14

drink is called ofvos, ‘wine’ Hence Ganymede is said

 104 XXV. 14—17. 1461 a 28—1461 b 10

hac eivat,
9
[60ev merointar
/
“ KYnpis veoTevKTOU
7
KacoLTE-/
poto”]’ d0ev eipntat 6 Vavupndns “Avi otvoyoever,’” ov muvov-
€ > 7 999 r

30 Twy olvov, Kal yadKéas TOUS TOY aidnpov Epyalopevous.

s \ /
Ein \ \ / b / ”
15

dp TOUTO ye <Kal> KaTa peTapopar. } Et Oe Kal OTAaY Ovoma

8 A a A \ 3 / 8 lal oe Ne y /

TL UmrevayTiopda TL OOK THpaivew, eTLOKOTELY TOTAaYaS av

fol a a x

, a 5) alae) L e pry eet PM 4 ,

onpatvot TOUTO év TO_EiPHMEVM, Olov TO “TH p EaxXETO YadKEOY
t &yyos,”*® 7O TavTn7 korvOivac eto evdéyeTat. wot <6é>
egy
16

1 35 [) @s| wartor ay TS broraBor, KATA THY KATAVTLKPU 1) @S

146],b Travcov Dreyer, OTe Evia , GAOYOS Tee acu Kal
! abrol Katandicadpevos surdoyilovtar Kal ws eipnKotos 6
Ff

Te SoKel émiTiaow, ay UTevayTiov TH AUTOY olnTEL. TOU-

lal lal a lol an of. fal

Se t Q \ \ T / ” \ SN A ,
to 6¢ mémrovOe Ta Tept Ixdpiov. olovrar yap avTov AdKkwva
Ly BY IID ers aes opel a \ / aS oN >
= ELVaAL* ATOTTOY OVY TO [47) EVTUNELV TOV Tnr€uayov AUT@ els

Aaxedaipova éXOovta. Oo 8 lows éyer doTrep of Kedpars)-

f > e al \ a VA \ > /
vés acu map avToyv yap yhwar Néyovor Tov ‘Odvacéa
oes
a

kat elvat “Ixadvov adXX ovK “IKapov: 80 adwaptnwa 6 TO

>
cn
rs
SS
a

mpoBrAnua eiKos oT. Odws O€ TO adUVaTOY EY TPOS THY 17

/ x WS \ iA x Ni Bs t tal 2
neat ~ (2)
Ceuta, Toinow i mpos TO BéXTLoOv 7 Tpos THY Sokav Sel avdyeuv.
Same
a

1 Tliad xxi. 592. CHP iay 5.0.0, WIRY.

3 Tb. xx. 272,7h p eoxero meldivov eyxos.

28. d0ev—xacorrépoo secl. M. Schmidt 29-30. verba Sev elpyra:—

olvov in codd. post épyafouévous posita huc revocavit Maggi e cod. Lampridii
29. olvoxoeder A®: olvoxoevew apogr. mew ovTwy pr. AS 31. kai add.
Heinsius 31-32. dvduare vrevavTidpare AC doxp apogr.: Soke? A& 33.
onuatvo. Vahlen (ed. 1): onpualyoe AC: onunveey Parisinus 2038: onuatvece
alia apographa 33-35. olov rd <&v r@> “‘rH—7d Ta’Ty KwAvOFvat [roca-
xGs] evdéxerar SitAGs, 7} Os wdduor’ dy tis x.7.X. M. Schmidt 34, dé
addidi 35. 7) ws olim secl. Bywater wd 7 <dl>, ws coni. Vahlen :
wl 6} tows Tucker 1461 b1. do Vettori 2. elpnxdros 6 re Castel-
vetro: elpnkdres Ore AS 3. a’rév Parisinus 2038, coni. Heinsius: atréy
codd. 7. atrév apogr.: atrayv codd. 8. dv’ audernua Maggi :
dtaudprnua codd. 6) Gomperz: dé codd. 9. <elvar> eixds éorw
Hermann (fort. recte): elkds €or. <yevéoOac> Gomperz <i> pds
Ald. fort. recte
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 14—17 105

‘to pour the wine to Zeus,’ though the gods do not

drink wine. So too workers in iron are called yankéas,
or workers in bronze. This, however, may also be taken
as a metaphor.
Again, when a word seems to involve some incon-
sistency of meaning, we should consider how many
senses it may bear in the particular passage. For
example: ‘there was stayed the spear of bronze ’—we
should ask in how many ways we may take ‘being
checked there.’ The true mode of interpretation is the
1461
bprecise opposite of what Glaucon mentions. Critics, he
says, jump at certain groundless conclusions; they pass
adverse judgment and then proceed to reason on it; and,
assuming that the poet has said whatever they happen
to think, find fault if a thing is inconsistent with their
own fancy. The question about Icarius has been treated
in this fashion. The critics imagine he was a Lacedae-
monian. They think it strange, therefore, that Tele-
machus should not have met him when he went to
Lacedaemon. But the Cephallenian story may perhaps
be the true one. They allege that Odysseus took a wife
from among themselves, and that her father was Icadius
not Icarius. It is merely a mistake, then, that gives
plausibility to the objection.
In general, the impossible must be justified by 17
reference to artistic requirements, or to the higher
 106 XXV. 17—XXVI. 1. 1461 b 11—28

mMpos Te yap THY Toinow aipeTdétepovy TLBavoy advvaTor 7}

\ 2o7 \

atriBavoy
> /
Kai \ dvvatov.
/ ‘
<Kkal Av lows
9/7.
advvaToy>
10 /
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/
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s

olovs LedEus eypadev: adda BéATLOV* TO yap Trapadevypa Set

a sy Si , ra)

Umepexel. ™pos <O>a pacwy, TaAoya* OUT@ TE Kal OTL TOTE

a ane

15 OUK adoyov €
e€OTLV* €lKOS yap Kal Tapa. TO €tKOS ryiver Oar. Ta &

itrevavtiog eipnueva ota oKoTelv, HoTEp ot év TOIS OroLS

lal b ce a

édeyyot, EL TO AUTO Kal pos TO avTO Kal M@aaUTaS, WoTE

= \ > \ A © 4 A

> N / x ra nr / € fol
Kal AuTéor 7) T pos & avtTos Dreyer 4) O av PPOViplos bTo0i-

Tat. op0n & éretipnow Kal aroyig Kat poxOnpia, OTav pun
\ 2 y \ r / ef \

yf

f 20 avayKns ovons unbev ypnontar TO adoyo, Batrep EvpuTidns

a > ta) X A y: A > ey 6 lal /
To Aiyet, 7) TH Tovnpia, woTrep ev Opéoctn tod Meveddov.

TA Mev OV) ETITLLHMATA eK TéVTE ELOOY Hépovaty, 7) yap ws

\ \ § > 7 > / 3D / x \ e

advvata 3
@S droya 1) ws BraBepa ) @s brrevavtia 7} ws x / Xx ¢

\ , rn
Tapa TH opbornra THY KaTa TEX ND. at 6€ AUaELs eK TOV

25 elpnpevov dpiO perv OKETTEAL, elolv be o@deKa.

XXVI Tlérepov 88 Bedtiwv 4 érroTrouKy\ piwnots + 4 Tparyixt,

5
LATOPHTELEY
r
AY
”
TLS. ELSEN
Yap 7€ TTOV
@ a / ,
Popruicn Bertiov, Tovav-
7 5 » mpos Bedtious Oeatds éorw det, Nav Shrov Ste %

11. weavdy Ac 12. delBavov A& <kal tows ddvvarov> Gomperz,

secutus Margoliouth (‘fortasse enim impossibile est’ Arabs): kal ef ddvvaroy
coniecerat Vahlen 13. ofovs Parisinus 2038, Ald.: ofoy codd. 14. 6’ add.
Ueberweg (auctore Vahleno) 16. vrevayriws Twining (cf. Arab. ‘quae
dicta sunt in modum contrarii’): drevavria ds codd.: ds trevayria Heinsius
17. ore cal dAuTéov M. Schmidt: cre Kal avrdyv codd. 18. Ppdvipos
apogr.: Ppdynmoy (corr. m. rec. Ppdviuov) Ae 19. droyla kat pox Onpia
Vahlen: ddoyla cal woxOnpla codd. 20. fort. <mpds> pndeyv Gomperz
21. r@ Alyet ) ry margo Riccardiani 16: 7 aiyeutrn AC <TH> Tod coni.
Vahlen 26. Bedriwy apogr.: BéAriov Ac 28. & 4 apogr.: dy Ac
del, Nav Vahlen: decay codd.
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXV. 17—XXVI. 1 107

reality, or to received opinion. With respect to the

requirements of art, a probable impossibility is to be
preferred to a thing improbable and yet possible. Again,
it may be impossible that there should be men such as
Zeuxis painted. ‘Yes,’ we say, ‘but the impossible is
the higher thing; for the ideal type must surpass the
reality.’ To justify the irrational, we appeal to what is
commonly said to be. In addition to which, we urge
that the irrational sometimes does not violate reason;
just as ‘it is probable that a thing may happen contrary
to probability,’
Things that sound contradictory should be examined 18
by the same rules as in dialectical refutation—whether
the same thing is meant, in the same relation, and in the
same sense. We should therefore solve the question by
reference to what the poet says himself, or to what is
tacitly assumed by a person of intelligence.
The element of the irrational, and, similarly, depravity 9
pan

of character, are justly censured when there is no inner

necessity for introducing them. Such is the irrational
element in the Aegeus of Euripides, and the badness of
Menelaus in the Orestes.
Thus, there are five sources from which critical bo20
objections are drawn. Things are censured either as
impossible, or irrational, or morally hurtful, or contra-
dictory, or contrary to artistic correctness. The answers
should be sought under the twelve heads above mentioned.
XXVI The question may be raised whether the Epic or
Tragic mode of imitationis the higher. If*the more
refined art is the higher, and the more refined in every
case is that which appeals to the better sort of audience,
 108 XXVI. 1—4. 1461 b 29—1462 a 15
e , G \ > d / reg ig
drravrq pipovpevn popTiKy* ws yap ovK aicPavopévar ay
By avTos TpocOh, TOMY KivNnTW KiWobYTAL, OLov ot hatroL
\ REN: On rT ft an a € av
30

avAnTat KuALopMEVvOL av Sioxoy én ptpelcBaL, Kai EXKovTeES

‘tee

Tov Kopupaioy av Seddray avraow. 1 pev ody Tpaywdlta

“><
LA \ Ua in v
ToLavTn eoTlV, WS Kal Ol TpPOTEpOY TOS VATEPOVS AUTHY WOVTO
\ tate
UToKpiTds* ws Nav yap UTepBaddovTa lOnxov jo MovvicKos
€ / ¢ if \ (7 / | ee /

tov Kaddurmlinv éxdder, toradtn 6€ Sofa Kal mrept Ilov-

ra / \

#
35
ddpov jv ws 8 obtou &yovow pos avtovs, » bn TéExYN
/ s € ’ e v \ e he e ef /
/ 1462 a
wo
: TOs THY ETrOTTOLLaY EXEL.
\ \ > / ”
THY meV OdV pds DeaTas ErrLELKELS
\ \ 5 as 6 Xi > a

i
pacw eivat <ol> ovdev déovTar TOY TYnMATwY, THY S€ TPAyt-
5 W > ‘i / lal B: \ F, <i

Kiv Tpos Pavrovs eb ody popTiKy, yeipwov OHAov OTe av ely.

/ fel ¢

TpP@TOV pey OY Ov THS TomNTLKHS KaTHYyopla adda THs

rn \ 48 > lol an © / > \ a

es emet Eats Teprepy

ater Fay Trois onpetous Kal parre-
ig A > Ney: / lal / 2 4

Sodvra, drep [€oti] Swolctpatos, Kal diadovta, Strep érrotet

Myvacideos 6 “Omovytios. ita ovdé Kivnotws arraca a7roboKt-
pactéa, elmep pnd Bpxnous, GAN 1) pavrov, Omrep Kal KadXer-
mon éreTyuato Kal vOv adrOLS ws OvVK eXevbépas yuvaixas
/ > lal \ A a (2 > >. la lal
10

Mipoupevav. €Tt 1) Tpaypdla Kai dvev KUN TES Tovel TO.AUTHS, |

/ aA x y

@aomrep 9 érroTrouias 81a yap ToD Bn alias pavepa o7mroia

Tis €oTw: elovy éoTe Tay GdXa KPElLTTWV, TOUTO YE OUK avay-
Kalov avtTh UTapyev. éore S evel ta TavT evel OoaTrep 7) €r0-
15 Towa (Kal yap T@ meTp@
Mi \ \ a / iol Nor > \
EEEoTL xpha Pac), KL ETL OV [LLKPOV

30. xwvotyrac apogr.: xKivodvra A 1462 a 1. €yovor apogr.: 6 exouver

Ac airov’s Hermann: av’rovs codd. 3. of add. Vettori: émet Christ
oXnpdTwv Thy apogr.: oxnud|ra adrhy (ra ad m. rec, in litura) Ac
4. ef apogr.: 7 A° 5. otv add. Parisinus 2038, coni. Bywater, Ussing:
om. cett. 7. €ort secl. Spengel diddovra Maggi: diddovra apogr.:
diaddvra AS 8. 6 movyTuos AS 10. émirtudro pr. Ac ll. adrfs
apogr.: avrfs Ac 12. omoia Ae 14. airy apogr.: adr AS éore
5 émret Gomperz: écr 5’, bre Usener : érecra didre codd.
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXVI. 1—4 109

the art which imitates anything and everything is

manifestly most unrefined. The audience is supposed to
be-too-dull to comprehend unless something of their own
is thrown in by the performers, who therefore indulge
in restless movements. Bad flute-players twist and twirl,
if they have to represent ‘the quoit-throw,’ or hustle the
coryphaeus when they perform the ‘Scylla’ Tragedy, bo

it is said, has this same defect. We may compare the

opinion that the older actors entertained of their suc-
cessors. Mynniscus used to call Callippides ‘ape’ on
account of the extravagance of his action, and the same
1462 aview was held of Pindarus. Tragic art, then, as a whole,
stands to Epic in the same relation as the younger to
| the elder actors. So we are told that Epic poetry is
addressed to a cultivated audience, who do not need
gesture; Tragedy, to an inferior public. Being then oo

unrefined, it is evidently the lower of the two.

Now, in the first place, this censure attaches not to
the poetic but to the histrionic art; for gesticulation
may be equally overdone in epic recitation, as by Sosi-
stratus, or in lyrical competition, as by Mnasitheus the
|Opuntian. Next, all action is not to be condemned—
any more than all dancing—but only that of bad per-
la
aro Such was the fault found in Callippides, as
also in others of our own day, who are censured for
| representing degraded women. Again, Tragedy like. Epic
poetry produces its effect even without action ; it reveals
its power by mere reading. If, then, in all other respects
it is superior, this fault, we say, is not inherent in it.
And superior it is, because it has all the epic4
elements—it may even use the epic metre—with the
4omen

110 XXVI. 4—8. 1462 a 16—1462 b 19

Mépos THY pbovaLtKHY Kal TAs Opes, Ov As ai nOoval cuvicTaY-

»> a Lm ts \ /

Ta €vapyéctata* €iTa Kal_TO €vapyes Exel Kal ev TH avayve-

t. sh Ny ES: \ ” Nees, pee) /

|
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cel Kal ETL TOV Epywv' ETL TO EV ENATTOVL PNKEL TO TEXOS
1462 bTHS MipLNnoEws Elvat (TO Yap a0 powrepov HSvov 7
2) TOM@ Kekpa-%~ AL Tp 4

pévov TH Ypove: Aéyo 8 olov ef Tis Tov Oidizrovy Bein

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| pipnow 1 ToY émroTroL@V (onpeloy Oé+ ex yap oromenee

|
5 [wenoews] mdreious Tparypoiau yivovTat), Bore éav pev eva
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10 €avTa Eyer péeyeOos: Kaitot TadTa Ta Tounpata cuvérTnKeV
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Tept fev ovv Tpaywdlas Kal érroTotias, Kal adTor 8

Kal\ TOYna IQA \ an rn \ , \
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; y se

Kal Tou ed 4) Hay tives aitial, Kal qept éritipsicewr Kal

lal B) hie

/ ny A ———
Avoewy, eipjoOw TocavTa, * * * ;
ea \ oe 4

16. kal ras dpers secl. Spengel : post évapyéorara collocavit Gomperz : Kai Thy
dy Ald. 6c’ ds (vel als) coni. Vahlen: 6 #s codd. 17. dvayvadoe
Maggi: dvayvwpice. Ae 18. érv 76 Winstanley: én 7G codd.
1462 b 1. Hdvov 7) Maggi: jdefoy 7) Riccardianus 16: qdovy Ac 2. Tov
dlrov pr. A& dein bis A& 3. 7 (ds Riccardianus 16: # iNlas (fuit
idlas) A& ula ) Bywater: 4 ula A®: ula droucotv Riccardianus 16
5. piunoews secl, Gomperz 6. welovpoy Parisinus 2038 7. cuupérpy
Bernays: rod uérpov codd.: fort. rod perplov (cf. 1458 b 12) post vdapy,
<éay 0é mNelous> Ald.: <déyw dé ofoy « * dy de HH, od pla 7) plunows>
coni. Vahlen: <édy 6é m)elous, o pla 4 plunows> Teichmiiller: lacunam
aliter supplevi, vide versionem 9. d add. apogr. 10. kairo. radra
ta Riccardianus 16: kal rowdr’ drra AS 18. 7) apogr.: ef Ac

Ran
 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS XXVI. 4—8 Ti

music and spectacular effects as important accessories;

and these produce the most vivid of pleasures. Further,
it has vividness of impression in reading as well as in
representation. Moreover, the art attains its end within 5
2b narrower limits; for the concentrated effect is more
pleasurable than one which is spread over a long time
and so diluted. What, for example, would be the effect
of the Oedipus of Sophocles, if it were cast into a form
as long as the Ihad? Once more, the Epic imitation6
has less unity; as is shown by this, that any Epic poem
a
will furnish subjects for several tragedies. Thus if the
story adopted by the poet has a strict unity, it must
either be concisely told and appear truncated; or, if it
conform to the Epic canon of length, it must seem weak
and watery. <Such length implies some loss of unity,>
if, I mean, the poem is constructed out of several actions,
like the Iliad and the Odyssey, which have many such
parts, each with a certain magnitude of its own. Yet
these poems are as perfect as possible in structure; each
is, in the highest degree attainable, an imitation of a
single action. .
If, then, Tragedy is superior to Epic poetry in all these 7
respects, and, moreover, fulfils its specific function better
as an art—for each art ought to produce, not any chance
aera
ces
pleasure, but the pleasure proper to it, as already stated
—it plainly follows that Tragedy is the higher art, as
attaining its end more perfectly.
Thus much may suffice concerning Tragic and Epic s
poetry in general; their several kinds and parts, with
the number of each.and their differences; the causes
that make a poem good or bad; the objections of the
critics and the answers to these objections. *« * *
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