South East Asian Institute of Technology, Inc.

NATIONAL HIGHWAY, BRGY. CROSSING RUBBER, TUPI, SOUTH COTABATO

College of Agriculture and Fisheries

LEARNING MODULE FOR

CROPPRO 312
GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY

_____________________________________

Prepared by

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES

2023
 TOPIC 2

Concept of Insect Physiology and Toxicology

To comprehend how toxic compounds, create adverse changes in organs, tissues,

or cells, an understanding of normal physiology and anatomy is required. Insect
physiology should be studied in order to identify and comprehend systems that are unique
to insects and not found in mammals, birds, reptiles, or fish. If insecticides are systems,
there is a high probability that they will be non-toxic to other species and so safe to handle,
and safe for the environment in which they are utilized. For example, there are several
pesticides for use on domestic pets that target the pupal stage of insect development and
prevent the fleas from reaching adulthood. These chemicals are of extremely low toxicity
to mammals and therefore safe for the pets and their owners.

Insect physiology
The study of insect anatomy or body parts and body systems along with their
functions.
The study of how insects live and reproduce
The study of insect physiology is usually divided into a systems approach. These
systems are the same as required by all animals. The major systems are: digestive,
excretory, circulatory, muscular, nervous, and reproductive
Plays a big role in insect toxicology for it gives information about how insect
systems work and helps toxicologists to develop substances that can only
negatively affect the target pest and not harm other organisms and leave a harmful
impact on the environment.

Why do we need to study insects?

The number one pest in cultivated land is insect which belong to the phylum
arthropods and the agricultural industry also depend on the study and knowledge
of insect.
Once you have identified a pest, you can learn about its life cycle and behavior,
the factors that favor its development, and procedures for its prevention or control.
Proper identification facilitates the use of more targeted control methods that
manage the pest while avoiding injury to beneficial organisms.
The study of insects serves as the basis for developments in biological and
chemical pest control, food and fiber production and storage, pharmaceuticals
epidemiology, biological diversity, and a variety of other fields of science.

The characteristic of insects

The insect is made up of three main body regions (tagmata), the head, thorax and
abdomen.
The head comprises six fused segments with compound eyes, ocelli, antennae
and mouthparts, which differ according to the insect’s particular diet, e.g. grinding,
sucking, lapping and chewing
The thorax is made up of three segments: the pro, meso and meta thorax, each
supporting a pair of legs which may also differ, depending on function, e.g.
 jumping, digging, swimming and running. Usually the middle and the last segment
of the thorax have paired wings.
The abdomen generally comprises eleven segments and contains the digestive
and reproductive organs.

INSECT TOXICOLOGY
derived from two Greek words, “toxicos” = poisonous and “logos”
= study)
is a very broad field of study involving multidisciplinary sciences related to adverse
chemical effects on living organisms—including humans.
It has many definitions. Generally, toxicology can be defined as “the study of
adverse, deleterious, and/or poisonous effects of chemicals on living organisms”
or “the study of symptoms, mechanisms/mode of action, treatments, and detection
of poisoning; and cause of resulting death.”
Toxicology is the scientific study of the harmful effects of chemicals on living
organisms: humans, animals, and plants
Deals with the scientific approach of controlling insect pest populations in the field
through the use of chemicals.
Insect toxicology plays an important role in controlling insect pests in the field of
agriculture, forestry, and public health.
Toxic chemicals so far are the main defense against pest attacks
Organisms that are harmful to man or its property are called Pests.
Chemicals that kill these pests by their chemical action are collectively termed as
Pesticides.
The pesticides include: Acaricides for the control of mites and ticks, Insecticides
for the control of insects, etc.
LD50- This value represents the lethal dose of the poison per unit weight which
will kill 50 percent population of test animals. It is expressed as milligrams per
kilogram of body weight
LC50- The lethal concentration of toxic compound mixed in an external medium;
the concentration in air at which 50 percent of the test animals (rats or mice) died,
usually within 1 hour; is the amount of a substance suspended in the air required
to kills 50% of a test animal during a predetermined observation period.

Figure 1. The general toxicological process

Complexity of the Body
The body of an organism such as an insect is immensely complex with numerous
components, all of which perform precise functions necessary for the body to
maintain health and well-being.

Malfunction of any component can result in disease or a breakdown of a portion of

the body.

Toxic substances can damage an organ or organ system so that it cannot function
properly, leading to death or sickness of the organism.

However, in nearly all cases, the toxic substance actually exerts its harmful effect
directly on specific cells or biochemicals within the affected organ. These cell and
chemical changes in turn cause the tissue or organ to malfunction.

Specific Toxic Effects

Most toxic substances are usually specific in their toxic damage to particular
tissues or organs, referred to as the "target tissues" or "target organs." Toxic
effects may affect only a specific type of cell or biochemical reaction.

For example: The toxic effect of carbon monoxide is due to its binding to a specific
molecule (hemoglobin) of a specific cell (red blood cell).

Organophosphate toxic substances, inhibit an enzyme (acetylcholinesterase)

responsible for modulating neurotransmission at nerve endings.

Homeostasis
This homeostasis allows insects to adapt to a wide array of ecological niches
and/or feeding strategies where they may be subjected to extremes in water, ion
and nutrient availability as well as intake. In many insects, the excretory system is
normally composed of the Malpighian tubules (MTs) and hindgut

Homeostasis is the ability of individual cells and multicellular organisms to maintain

relatively constant internal physical and chemical composition.

Individual cells contain a range of structures like protein channels that allow them
to move substances into and out of the cell as required.

Multicellular organisms often have body systems dedicated to maintaining

homeostasis including respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and excretory systems.

The ability of mammals and birds to regulate their body temperatures has allowed
them to live in conditions that could not be survived by other animals.

Homeostasis is the ability of the body to maintain relative stability and function
even though drastic changes may take place in the external environment or in one
portion of the body.
 A series of control mechanisms, some functioning at the organ or tissue level and
others centrally controlled maintain homeostasis. The major central homeostatic
controls are the nervous and endocrine systems.

Figure 2. Major functional categories of neurohormone-regulated processes

https://www.google.com/search?sca_esv=564220883&sxsrf=AB5stBhRl7osx2ryEdZwjvhkbQZ6Avm2dg:1694391309044&q
Insect neuropeptides are involved in almost all physiological processes in insects,
=insect+homeostasis&tbm=isch&source=lnms&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjr29fAo6GBAxUZxzgGHewDB8IQ0pQJegQIDRAB&biw=
1366&bih=643&dpr=1#imgrc=V3EGc29BsgqNSM
such as diuresis, ecdysis, pheromone biosynthesis, and control of muscle activity.

When the body loses its homeostasis, it may plunge out of control, into dysfunction,
illness, and even death. Homeostasis at the tissue, organ, organ system, and
organism levels reflect the combined and coordinated actions of many cells. Each
cell contributes to maintaining homeostasis
These regulatory peptides are synthesized in modified neurons, they are called
neuropeptides.
Neuropeptides are chemical messengers which are released from the neurons into
the haemolymph of the insect to reach their distant target organs.
Thus, these small peptide hormones and their receptors are promising targets for
a novel generation of selective and non-neurotoxic insecticides.
Neuropeptides are ubiquitous in the nervous system of insects and they are by far
the most diverse signaling substances, both structurally and functionally.
Neurohormone-regulated processes can however be grouped into four major
functional categories:

(1) growth and development

(2) behavior and reproduction
(3) metabolism and homeostasis
(4) muscle movement.

Maintaining Homeostasis
To maintain homeostasis, the body reacts to an abnormal change (induced by a
toxic substance, biological organism, or other stress) and makes certain
adjustments to counter the change (a defense mechanism).
 Homeostasis is the ability of individual cells and multicellular organisms to maintain
relatively constant internal physical and chemical composition.
Individual cells contain a range of structures like protein channels that allow them
to move substances into and out of the cell as required.
Multicellular organisms often have body systems dedicated to maintaining
homeostasis including respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and excretory systems.
The ability of mammals and birds to regulate their body temperatures has allowed
them to live in conditions that could not be survived by other animals.
The primary components responsible for the maintenance of homeostasis include:

❖ Stimulus — a change in the environment, such as an irritant, loss of blood, or

presence of a foreign chemical.
❖ Receptor — the site within the body that detects or receives the stimulus,
senses the change from normal and sends signals to the control center.
❖ Control center — the operational point at which the signals are received, and
analyzed, and an appropriate response is determined. This is sometimes
referred to as the integration center since it integrates the signals with other
information to determine if a response is needed and the nature of a response.
❖ Effector — the body site where a response is generated, which counters the
initial stimulus and thus attempts to maintain homeostasis.
❖ Feedback mechanisms — methods by which the body regulates the degree
of response that has been elicited. Negative feedback depresses the stimulus
to shut off or reduce the effector response, whereas positive feedback has the
effect of increasing the effector response.

Figure 3. Osmoregulatory circuits in insects

Figure 4. Simplified illustration of the organs implicated in the osmotic control of systemic
osmoregulation in Drosophila melanogaster as well as the classic hormonal pathways
involved in coordinating their responses. Capa, Capability; DH31, Diuretic Hormone 31;
DH44, Diuretic hormone 44; ITP, Ion Transporting Peptide; CNS, central nervous system.

Organisms adjust their internal environment in response to external conditions by

engaging physiological responses that actively oppose internal perturbations to
maintain homeostasis.
The systemic control of salt and water balance is among the most aggressively set
homeostatic mechanisms in animals as even small osmotic disturbances can have
fatal consequences for the organism.
In insects, systemic osmoregulation is maintained by the balanced actions of renal
(Malpighian) tubule secretion and hindgut reabsorption with both osmoregulatory
responses being under complex feedback control by diuretic and antidiuretic
hormones (Figure 4).
Intriguingly, several reports over the past decade have raised the view that the
classic osmoregulatory pathways are also implicated in regulating various aspects
of metabolism, such as energy intake, uptake, and mobilization.
Together, these studies point to an emerging model by which insect
osmoregulatory circuits and metabolic programs interact intimately to implement
the correct homeostatic program in response to different challenges.
In this review, we address the hormonal mechanisms by which insects defend
against large changes in hemolymph osmotic pressure and highlight how these
systems interact with other homeostatic networks.
Following a brief overview of the known diuretic and anti-diuretic hormones and
their canonical modes of action, we focus on how non-osmotic perturbations (in
particular nutrients) modulate these conventional osmoregulatory pathways and
how osmotic and non-osmotic cues are integrated to recruit individual effector
responses in a manner that optimizes overall homeostasis in insects.
 Neuropeptides function as central neuromodulators and circulating hormones that
modulate insect behavior and physiology

NEUROPEPTIDES

✓ Neuropeptides represent the largest single class of signal compounds and are
involved in regulation of development, growth, reproduction, metabolism and
behavior of insects.

CAPA peptides
Gene name: Capability
Function: Neurohormones
CAPA peptides are localized to numerous regions of the central nervous system
in insects
is a desiccation- and cold stress-responsive gene in diverse dipteran species
act as diuretic hormones in blood-feeding members of Diptera and as anti-diuretic
hormones in both blood-feeding and plant-feeding members of Heteroptera
This regulation is of enormous importance in hematophagous insects which have
to cope with the sudden and enormous intake of blood over a very short time period
In insects, CAPA peptides are the characteristic and most abundant neuropeptides
in the abdominal neurohemal system.
In many species, CAPA peptides exert potent myotropic effects on different
muscles such as the heart.
In others, including blood-sucking insects able to transmit serious diseases, CAPA
peptides have strong diuretic or anti-diuretic effects and thus are potentially of
medical importance.
Capa peptides were originally classified as cardio acceleratory peptides and were
subsequently found to additionally modulate tubule fluid secretion across a broad
range of species
Capa is expressed in neurosecretory cells innervating the corpora cardiaca (part
of the ring gland - The combined prothoracic glands, corpus allatum, and corpus
cardiacum) and the abdomen. CAPA-1 and -2 act as diuretic hormones on the
Malpighian tubules

DH31, Diuretic Hormone 31

Diuresis in insects is controlled by two antagonistic hormone groups: diuretic
hormones, which promote water loss, and antidiuretic hormones, which inhibit it.
All known antidiuretic factors act solely to promote fluid reabsorption by the hindgut
and do not affect secretion by the Malpighian tubules
In insects, DH31 plays species -specific but central roles in many facets of
physiology, including fluid secretion, and gut peristalsis
These neuropeptides and their receptors have multiple physiological roles,
including the regulation of body-fluid secretion, sleep: wake cycle, internal nutrient
sensing, and CO2-dependent response
working on the digestive tract and Malpighian tubules which are mainly affected by
pathogens and bacteria, theses peptides have an essential role in the elimination
of bacteria and toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) made by the immune
responses
 DH31 is secreted from enteroendocrine cells and promotes strong visceral
contractions through its DH31-R to secrete ROS and toxic molecules produced by
pathogens
DH31 peptide is also essential in maintaining normal circadian locomotor activity
The daily body temperature rhythm is regulated by DH31 peptide through DH31-R
expressing clock cells

DH44, Diuretic hormone 44

Enables G protein-coupled receptor binding activity. Involved in several processes,
including body fluid secretion; hormone-mediated signaling pathway; and
locomotor rhythm. Predicted to be located in extracellular space. Is expressed in
central nervous system; embryonic abdominal segment; neurosecretory neurons;
and ventral midline of embryo
brain neurosecretory cells, hormone, sensor of nutritive sugar, directs the detection
and consumption of nutritive sugar, leads to proboscis extensions and frequent
episodes of excretion, control of sperm retention and storage by females, circadian
output hormone that is required for normal rest: activity rhythms
The DH44-producing neurons are activated in response to nutritive sugars in D.
melanogaster
six DH44-producing neurons in the pars intercerebralis of the brain sense nutritive
sugars directly to activate two separate pathways: one in which that secreted DH44
promotes the consumption of nutritive sugars via positive feedback regulation, and
another in which DH44 stimulate gut peristalsis to promote waste excretion.
In addition to nutritive sugars, the DH44-producing neurons also directly sense
three amino acids, L-glutamate, L-alanine, and L-aspartate (but not the other 17 L-
amino acids); ingestion of these three amino acids rapidly promote food
consumption. Taken together, these studies suggest that DH44-producing
neurons are sensitive to specific-macronutrients and that the DH44 pathway plays
a major role in the coordination of feeding behavior in flies

ITP, Ion Transporting Peptide

an endocrine regulator of thirst and excretion, which integrates water homeostasis
with feeding - regulates sleep through the photoperiod network, expressed in pars
lateralis neurosecretory neurons, three hindgut-innervating neurons in abdominal
ganglia, and a stage-specific number of interneurons and peripheral bipolar
neurons
expression of ITP is elevated by dehydration of the fly, and the peptide increases
thirst while repressing excretion, promoting thus conservation of water resources.
ITP responds to both osmotic and desiccation stress, and dysregulation of ITP
signaling compromises the fly's ability to cope with these stressors. In addition to
the regulation of thirst and excretion, ITP also suppresses food intake. Altogether,
this work identifies ITP as an important endocrine regulator of thirst and excretion,
which integrates water homeostasis with feeding of Drosophila

Leucokinin peptides
The leucokinin family of peptides is an ancient signaling system evolutionary
restricted to protostomian groups such as insects, tardigrades, crustaceans,
nematodes, ticks, and mollusks
Leucokinin (LK) is an intercellular signaling molecule that mediates many
physiological and behavioral processes.
Insect leucokinins (LKs) are multifunctional peptides acting as neurohormones and
neurotransmitters, which regulate diuresis, sleep, metabolism, response to ionic
stress, food intake, and taste responsiveness
Leucokinins aid fluid excretion by increasing the secretion of primary urine by the
Malpighian tubules and contracting the hindgut. Together with insulin signaling, the
LK neuropeptide regulates stress tolerance and metabolism in D. melanogaster
This hormone is expressed and released from several distinct populations of
neurons in the brain and ventral nerve cord of the fly
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