Kermena Ishak

Chinese Philosophy
Prof. Littlejohn
11/10/2022
Moral Theory: Human Relations
A baby is born from a mother and is made to rely on her. Due to that fact, some Chinese
philosophers and most western philosophers and psychologists acknowledge that human
interchange is an essential factor (human nature) in achieving tranquility or stability. Many
westerners heard of the word “Confucius” or “Confucianism” and its relevance to China.
However, only a few are aware of Confucius’s teachings and influence on many western
philosophers regarding the fundamental term “the golden rule.” To briefly introduce Confucius,
his primary message/words revolved around “filiality.” Unlike Buddhism and Daoism, where
isolation is required to become one with nature and escape all suffering/relations, Confucius
encouraged familial relationality as the central factor of humanness (filiality, Xiao 孝). He
characterized humans as ren 人 and humane persons as ren 仁; “personing” originates from
where one learned to be humane in the contexts and practices of one’s family. One should
cultivate five relationships through learning: treating others as parent to child, spouse to spouse,
older sibling to younger, ruler to subject, and friend to friend. We are not thoroughly “persons” if
we do not develop humaneness in these connections; it is a process of moral self-cultivation to
regard others as relatives, and that one might enhance others into being “humane.” Being open to
learning from others is essential for self-development; others may help us polish ourselves and
progress toward being “exemplary persons” (Littlejohn. 127). In the discussion of moral theory
in Chinese philosophy, many have referenced Confucius and delivered their own standpoint on
the origin of morality and how one should live to reach the ultimate purpose/morality in life.
Philosophers such as Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming, and Bodhisattvas in Huan-Yan Buddhism base
their philosophy on the relationship of human beings. Mencius, Xunzi, and Mozi also comment
on Confucius’s philosophy which will be mentioned below. We can apprehend how morality is
determined by looking at how philosophers answer these questions: what is the origin of our
morality? How should we live? And what is the ultimate purpose of our lives?
Many Chinese Philosophers reference tian (“heaven”) to discuss the origin of our
morality and whether we are initially born good or evil. There’s likewise a common question
revolving “the punishment and reward” practice and whether it is considered “proper” morality.
Mozi, for example, proclaims that heaven directs reality and acknowledges that those who are
“good” will be rewarded, and those who are not will be punished by heaven. The will of heaven,
according to Mozi, is an inclusive concern and universal love. Moral norms express love that is
consistent with heaven’s will. He goes on to say that heaven operates in a way that “our interests
include those of others, improving the entire community...those who are old, without wives and
children, will have the means of support and nourishment through their old age, and those who
are young and weak, or who are alone without a father or mother, will have the means of help
and support while they grow into adulthood” (Littlejohn. 140). It is a “harmonious morality of
mutual benefits.” To live, one needs reciprocal acts; it is heaven’s words that one is born to
interact with others to enhance the world. Heaven loves all people; thus, people ‘should’ be
concerned for each other but not “love” them as friends or family. Although Mozi supports
Confucius’s ideas on the implied morality of one’s need for others, there are many differences in
the fundamentals of the origin of morality, as described above. Mozi answered the question of
the origin of morality (heaven), how we should live (by heaven’s will and punishment and
reward system), and the ultimate purpose of our lives (one’s support for harmony to be placed in
the world). There’s much criticism of Mozi’s reward and punishment system; Chinese
philosophers and westerners, like I, have asked if this system defeats the purpose of genuine
morality/kindness. Mozi, as much as he believes in “inclusive concern,” he does not believe in
true love towards others or developing relationships. Does that imply that the act of “inclusive
concern” is only by means of receiving rewards? And if so, is that true morality? Mencius also
argues on such question. Instead of a reward or punishment end to our actions, though it might
motivate us, true morality naturally revolves around an individual’s true intentions. In western
thinking, if you give a homeless man money only to receive an award and not because you
genuinely feel concern for him, then is it considered morality? Suppose you provide the same
homeless man lunch because you worry about him and your intentions are true, will receiving a
reward in the end still defeat the idea of humble action?
The question of if we are born good or evil is referenced many times by philosophers and
generally all human beings. Each religion answers that question as it also illustrates how we
should live the rest of our life “without sin.” To be “good” is to help others in need, not to waste
food, and to respect family. To be “evil” is to have ulterior intentions, lie, not support others, or
disrespect the elderly. In Chinese philosophy, Mencius and Xunzi contradict each other directly
in their sentiments on the origin of our morality. Mencius claims that we are born naturally good
and provides an example of a man seeing a young child nearly falling into a well. He explains
that we will be moved with “compassionate apprehension” and naturally help the child. Mencius
develops the idea that humans have “four seeds as he has four limbs: compassion is the seed of
humaneness; shame is the seed of dutifulness; courtesy and modesty is the seed of propriety;
moral discernment is the seed of wisdom. If he fails to cultivate the four seeds, he will not be
able even to serve his own parents” ( Mengzi, Littlejohn. 149 ). By mentioning that one has
“compassion,” “courtesy,” and “modesty” and that one will not be able to serve his parents
without them implies that human connection is significant in Mengzi philosophy. To help others
is a natural unconscious action born within us. A moral endowment, innate cooperative and
helpful tendencies, is present in us from the beginning. It is not just that we are born with it that
we can continue to be good; Mencius explains that the environment surrounding a person
impacts their morals, and so if one continues to cultivate/exercise the four seeds, one will be able
to continue being morally mature. Xunzi, on the other hand, declares that people are naturally
born with hate and feelings of revulsion; people go after power, violate others, and destroy the
social order. Xunzi claims, “people are born with desires. If there is no measure or limit to their
seeking, then they cannot help but struggle with each other. If they struggle with each other, then
there will be chaos” (Littlejohn. 154). Human nature, to Xunzi, is made from self-interest. People
are not only born “bad,” they are born creating chaos with others; thus, human compassion is
needed. Xunzi follows Confucius’s ideas, “people must await teachers and proper models, and
only then do they become correct. They must obtain li [i.e., cultural proprieties] and yi, and only
then do they become well ordered ... Individuals require substantial external control to become
fully moral and humane (ren 仁 )” (Littlejohn. 159). In believing in Confucius and that teachers
(other humans) are needed for one to be taught morality, Xunzi asserts that genuine human
relationships play a significant role in one’s nature and surroundings. To overview, the origin of
human morality to Mencius is goodness and human sympathy. While to Xunzi, it is self-interest.
How we live, and our ultimate purpose, to Mencius, is to believe in the four seeds and develop
oneself for virtue and human interaction. For Xunzi, it is to be taught by Confucius exemplary
persons to become not of self-interest or violence but of order. Xunzi and Mencius comprehend
that human moral relationships are required to avoid conflict. Xunzi fails to provide much
evidence that humans are born evil. If humans are born evil, why do young children never act
violently? It is comprehensible that one is born with equal tendencies to be good or bad, but to be
completely “evil” is complex to understand. Isn’t it because of the environment one is in that
people are taught to be bad just as they are taught to be good? In so, education, as seen by many
Chinese philosophers, is vital in cultivating morality. In Xunzi and Mencius’s case, education is
needed for social order.
Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming also revolve around similar answers to the question of
whether human companionship is a moral practice. For Zhu Xi, we will focus more on his
explanation of achieving life's fundamental goal and what that goal is. According to Zhu Xi,
living in "harmony" in one's relationship with nature and others is the foremost goal. Regarding
how that is maintained, "Before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are aroused, it is
called equilibrium ( Zhong 中 ). When these feelings are aroused, but each and all attain due
measure and degree, it is called harmony ( he 和 ) … When equilibrium and harmony are
realized to the highest degree, heaven and earth will attain their proper order, and all things will
flourish" (Littlejohn. 178). Without harmony, there cannot be equilibrium. Zhu Xi explains that
people have many relationships, and one cannot reach equilibrium without human relationships.
Unlike many Chinese philosophers, Zhu Xi indicates that living in harmony with others goes
beyond how we treat them morally. Some relations can be referred to as "nonmoral values." He
explains that there are "nonmoral" qualities that we should also have.. to maintain
harmonious relationships, to live with them in balance. Having a "Harmonious relationship is
happiness when "persons" do balance their desires" (Littlejohn. 181). There is no reward or
punishment in Xi's ideas; the only goal is to live with others harmoniously, without harmful
desires. Wang Yangming likewise based his beliefs on human associations. Wang Yangming's
principle revolved around the idea that knowledge and action simultaneously occur, with
naturalness, without cause. In response to Mencius well analogy on the falling child, "the great
person regards the world as one family and the country as one person…Therefore, when he sees
the child about to fall into a well, he cannot help a feeling of alarm and commiseration. This
shows that his humaneness forms one body with the child" (Littlejohn. 190). The great person
moves by "pure knowledge" to immediately "act." The clear mind is "pure knowledge" knowing
what is right or wrong, the knowledge is inherent in the human mind. "Pure knowledge," as
Yangming believes, helps us engage with the world. Pure Knowledge "is the heart-mind– it is
naturally able to know. When it perceives the parents, it naturally knows that one should be filial.
The ordinary man is not free from the obstruction of selfish ideas. He, therefore, requires the
effort of the extension of knowledge and the investigation of things to overcome selfish ideas and
restore principle" (Littlejohn. 190). When putting effort into "pure knowledge," the exemplary
persons (junzi) would be able to, "share a universal sense of right and wrong, share their likes
and dislikes, regard other people as their own persons, regard the people of other countries as
their own family, and look upon Heaven, Earth, and all things as one body" (Littlejohn. 185). It
is natural to go to a child in need, it is natural to know that a parent should be perceived as filial,
it is "pure knowledge." Knowledge that is born in us to help others and live with them instead of
shunning them. Although Wang Yangming's thoughts support the idea that human nature is good,
he does not address the question: How can one's moral concept be fully internal while
nevertheless being crucially tied to the outside world? If all people have "pure knowledge" of
morality, would there not be fewer people who exhibit violent behavior? And How does one also
know that we all share the same "pure knowledge?"
To include human relations, one must also discuss Bodhisattvas. In the book, The Art of
Happiness, by the 14th Dalai Lama and Howard C. Cutler, the Dalai Lama asserts that achieving
happiness is a vital element in life. The Dalai Lama also discusses the topic of how to avoid
suffering. As he defines it, suffering is the negative emotion we have, such as anger. One must be
compassionate in erasing or learning how to overcome negative emotions. He often claims how
much human relations matter and offers meditations that can limit negative emotions to cultivate
relationships. One needs empathy. He claims, “underlying the uncomfortable feeling is a very
high level of alertness and determination because you are voluntarily and deliberately accepting
another’s suffering for a higher purpose” (Cutler. 111). Empathy and compassion are developed
through practices of techniques that improve love. According to the Dalai Lama, these
techniques include “...using your imagination, your creativity, to visualize yourself in another’s
situation” (Cutler. 118). This explains the capabilities of empathy through comprehending others
from their point of view. In additional ways of cultivating compassion, it is noted that a genuine
interest in listening to others is also an excellent method to the path of empathizing with people.
Understanding each other, accepting yourself, and getting rid of harmful desires and emotions,
will help you reach happiness. Compassion is needed to be “based on others’ fundamental rights
and not your own mental projections.” In such ways, one can get rid of “suffering” and reach a
stable state. In the book, the Dalia Lama mentions many questions westerners might have
regarding the ultimate goal of happiness and emotion.
Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming, Bodhisattvas, Mencius, Xunzi, Mozi, and Dai Zhen (although
not discussed in the paper) predominantly base their exposition on how morality can be achieved
or defined through the mention of human relationships. Human relationships do not necessarily
mean hostile desires. Many philosophers mentioned have expressed that morally mature human
relationships without negative emotions such as anger or violence are needed to maintain the
land of the world. Helping others without detestation is ultimately a moral tendency people are
born or learned to do.
 Reference Page

Littlejohn, Ronnie L.. Chinese Philosophy and Philosophers : An Introduction, Bloomsbury

Publishing Plc, 2022. ProQuest Ebook Central,
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/belmont-ebooks/detail.action?docID=6933647.

Lama, Dalai. The Art of Happiness: A Handbook for Living. 10th Anniversary. 2009.