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L1 Merged Merged
L1 Merged Merged
Amartya Sengupta
amartya@physics.iitd.ac.in
Schedule: Mon, Wed (11-11.50 AM); Thurs(12:00 – 12:50 PM)
Room #: LH 325
Office: VI-415B
Phone #: x 1382
Office Hours: By appointment only
Course Objectives
To present the principles of behaviour of electrons in metals, semiconductors, dielectric and magnetic materials and
thus develop understanding of the basis properties of electronic materials. The course lays foundation for advanced
courses in engineering aspects of materials and their applications.
Concepts of Brillouin Zone, Concept of effective Structure of Solids like Copper, Silicon, Diamond and
mass and hole, Density of states in metal and Graphene in real & Reciprocal space, Interaction of
semiconductor in 3D to 1D, The Fermi–Dirac Xray and neutron with solids for determination of
Probability, Semiconductors in Equilibrium, Charge crystal and magnetic structures. Classical and
Carriers in Semiconductors, The Intrinsic Carrier quantum free electron theory, Drude Model, DC and
Concentration, The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position, AC conductivity of metal, Hall effect, Fermi Sphere
Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons & Holes. The and their temperature correlation. Energy bands
Extrinsic Semiconductor, Degenerate and (Bloch & K-P), Finding distinction of electronic
Nondegenerate Semiconductors, M-S junction, p-n materials: Basics of Magnetism, types of
junction, direct and indirect band gap interactions, Ordering temperature, Magnetic
semiconductors. domains, Anisotropies etc.
1
01-Jan-24
Course References
Syllabus – All topics covered till Mid-Semester Syllabus – All topics covered from Mid-Sem exams –
exams End Sem Exams
NO electronic devices are allowed during the lecture (EXCEPT When Directed)
To Obtain Pass grade, you must score at least 30% marks overall AND you have to obtain at least 25% marks
in each individual component.
Institute Attendance policy will be followed (for each session individually): if your attendance is < 75%, you
will get one grade less, < 60%, you will get 2 grades less. (ONLY PAPER BASED ATTENDANCE IN CLASS WILL
BE CONSIDERED)
2
01-Jan-24
Example: One trillion Si atoms fill a cube ~ 3 μm on a side. No more than 1 Fe atom can be allowed in such a volume of typical Si.
This is more than 1000 times the purity requirement of other applications.
Performance can have many aspects including electronic properties of the material such as conductivity, free carrier
mobility, etc., and physical and chemical properties such as mechanical strength, stability against diffusional mixing or
reaction with adjacent materials, and many more.
Example: (a) Metal Contacts: It has taken years to switch from Al to Cu as the metal connecting devices in integrated circuits.
Copper diffuses rapidly and causes very large problems if it gets into the active device regions.
(b) Semiconductors: Electrons can be more easily accelerated in GaAs than in Si and live a shorter time. Both of these
contribute to faster device speeds. However, GaAs is frail and also, there is lack of a good insulator and good contacts. These
problems have never been solved, while all of the major problems facing applications of Si, except its inability to emit light, have
been overcome.
3
01-Jan-24
Semiconducting Materials
4
03-Jan-24
• In order to account for decreasing resistivity with increasing temperature as well as other
properties of semiconductors, a new theory known as the band theory is introduced.
• The essential feature of the band theory is that the allowed energy states for electrons are
nearly continuous over certain ranges, called energy bands, with forbidden energy gaps
between the bands.
10
1
03-Jan-24
11
Formation of Bands
The formation of 2s energy band from the 2s orbitals when N Li atoms come together to form the Li solid.
There are N 2s electrons, but 2N states in the band. The 2s band is therefore only half full.
The atomic 1s orbital is close to the Li nucleus and remains undisturbed in the solid. Thus, each
Li atom has a closed K shell (full 1s orbital).
12
2
03-Jan-24
Formation of Bands
13
In our analysis through all of the earlier lectures, we do not have a solid to begin with. Instead the atoms are
independent to begin with and are brought together to build the solid. All of the electrons are bound to their
respective individual atoms to begin with. In this case the atoms are free to begin with while the “electrons are
tightly bound” to begin with. In view of the focus on the electronic properties of the materials, this approach is
referred to as the Tight binding approximation – highlighting the status of the electrons at the start of the
model.
There is another approach to modeling materials which starts from a diametrically opposite position. In this
approach, we adopt a picture of the solid that says that there are ionic cores at fixed lattice locations and that
there is a free electron gas enveloping these ionic cores. In other words we assume that the solid already exists
and that the ionic cores are tightly bound to their lattice locations while the “electrons are free” to run through
the extent of the solid. This is called the Free electron approximation.
15
3
03-Jan-24
As seen in this example and in Figure 3.35 , the E - EF >> kT notation is somewhat misleading. The Maxwell–Boltzmann and
Fermi–Dirac functions are within 5 percent of each other
when E - EF == 3 kT .
Electron Statistics
16
Practice Example
Approximately what is the probability that, at room temperature (300 K), an electron at the top of
the highest filled band in diamond (an insulator) will jump the energy gap Eg? For diamond, Eg is 5.5
eV.
18
4
03-Jan-24
Mobility ∗
Electric Field
5
04-Jan-24
Practice Example
Approximately what is the probability that, at room temperature (300 K), an electron at the top of
the highest filled band in diamond (an insulator) will jump the energy gap Eg? For diamond, Eg is 5.5
eV.
Boltzmann relation relates the population Nx of atoms at energy level Ex to the population N0 at energy level E0, where
the atoms are part of a system at temperature T.
We use the above expression to approximate the probability P that an electron in an insulator will jump the energy gap
Eg.
This means that approximately 3 electrons out of 1093 electrons would jump across the energy
gap. Because any diamond stone has fewer than 1023 electrons, we see that the probability of the
jump is vanishingly small. No wonder diamond is such a good insulator.
17
Mobility ∗
Electric Field
1
04-Jan-24
• Electrons interact with each other and in a real solid atoms are
vibrating causing time dependent variations in the potential
energy.
ℎ
− ∇ + 𝑉 𝜓 𝑟⃑ = 𝐸𝜓 𝑟⃑
2𝑚
• The wavefunctions for the electron must satisfy Bloch’s theorem
.⃑
𝜓 𝑟⃑ = 𝜓 , 𝑟⃑ = 𝑒 𝑢 , 𝑟⃑
𝜓 𝑟⃑ + 𝑅 = 𝑒 . 𝜓 𝑟⃑
, ,
𝑢 , 𝑟⃑ + 𝑅 = 𝑢 , 𝑟⃑
• There are two main categories of realistic band structure
calculation for semiconductors:
– Methods which describe the entire valence and conduction bands. Tight Binding Methods,
– Methods which describe near band-edge band structures. pseudopotential methods
K.P
methods
21
KrÖnig-Penney Model
sin 𝛼𝑎
𝑃 + cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎
𝛼𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑉 𝑏 2𝑚𝐸
𝑃= ;𝛼 =
ℏ ℏ
𝑑 𝜓 𝑟⃑ 2𝑚
+ 𝐸𝜓 𝑟⃑ = 0 Region 1
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
Allowed bands
𝑑 𝜓 𝑟⃑ 2𝑚
+ 𝐸 − 𝑉 𝜓 𝑟⃑ = 0 Region 2
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
22
2
04-Jan-24
KrÖnig-Penney Model
sin 𝛼𝑎
𝑃 + cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎
𝛼𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑉 𝑏 2𝑚𝐸
𝑃= ;𝛼 =
ℏ ℏ
𝑚𝑎𝑉 𝑏 3
𝑃= = 𝜋 Large Potential
ℏ 2
Barrier strength
𝑑 𝜓 𝑟⃑ 2𝑚
+ 𝐸𝜓 𝑟⃑ = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑑 𝜓 𝑟⃑ 2𝑚
+ 𝐸 − 𝑉 𝜓 𝑟⃑ = 0 Allowed bands are narrow
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
23
KrÖnig-Penney Model
sin 𝛼𝑎
𝑃 + cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎
𝛼𝑎
𝑚𝑎𝑉 𝑏 2𝑚𝐸
𝑃= ;𝛼 =
ℏ ℏ 𝑚𝑎𝑉 𝑏 𝜋
𝑃= =
ℏ 10
Small Potential
Barrier strength
𝑑 𝜓 𝑟⃑ 2𝑚
+ 𝐸𝜓 𝑟⃑ = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
𝑑 𝜓 𝑟⃑ 2𝑚
+ 𝐸 − 𝑉 𝜓 𝑟⃑ = 0 Allowed bands are wide
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
24
3
04-Jan-24
KrÖnig-Penney Model
RECALL • The parabola is repeated periodically in
sin 𝛼𝑎 intervals of 𝑛
𝑃 + cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘𝑎 • Energy is a periodic function of 𝑘𝑥 with
𝛼𝑎 the periodicity
𝑚𝑎𝑉 𝑏 2𝑚𝐸
𝑃= ;𝛼 =
ℏ ℏ
ℏ 𝑘
Free-particle energies, 𝑃 =0&𝐸 =
2𝑚
cos 𝛼𝑎 = cos 𝑘 𝑎 = cos 𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑛 ⋅ 2𝜋
2𝜋 2𝑚𝐸
⇒ 𝑘 +𝑛 =
𝑎 ℏ
6𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
− − −
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
25
4
08-Jan-24
E-k diagrams
ℏ 𝑘 1st Brillouin Zone
𝐸=
2𝑚
3𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 0 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
− − −
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 Γ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
28
Near-parabolic approximation
• These are the energy levels where free moving electrons and
missing valence electrons are found.
𝐸 𝑘 =𝐸 +𝐴 𝑘−𝑘
𝐸 𝑘 =𝐸 +𝐴 𝑘−𝑘
29
1
08-Jan-24
• The electron inside the crystal has to try to make its own
way.
30
GaAs
31
2
11-Jan-24
GaAs
35
Effective Mass
• Effective mass in a crystal varies as a function of 𝑘
36
1
11-Jan-24
Electronic Properties
37
2
15-Jan-24
Density of States
The Density of States (DOS) is essentially the number of different states at a particular
energy level that electrons are allowed to occupy, i.e. the number of electron states per unit
volume per unit energy.
Bulk properties such as specific heat, paramagnetic susceptibility, and other transport
phenomena of conductive solids depend on this function.
DOS calculations allow one to determine the general distribution of states as a function of
energy and can also determine the spacing between energy bands in semiconductors
1 2𝑚∗
𝑔 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ
41
45
1
15-Jan-24
1 2𝑚∗
𝑔 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ
1 2𝑚∗ ,
𝐸 −𝐸 =𝑔 𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ
𝑔 𝐸 =
1 2𝑚∗ ,
𝑚∗ = 𝑚∗ , + 𝑚∗ , 𝐸 −𝐸 =𝑔 𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ
47
1 2𝑚∗ ,
𝐸 −𝐸 =𝑔 𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ
𝑔 𝐸 =
1 2𝑚∗ ,
𝑚∗ = 𝑚∗ , + 𝑚∗ , 𝐸 −𝐸 =𝑔 𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ
48
1
15-Jan-24
Near Band-edge ℏ 𝑘 ℏ 𝑘 +𝑘
constant energy 𝐸 𝒌 = ∗ +
surface ellipsoids 2𝑚 2𝑚∗
0.98𝑚 0.19𝑚
• Above this is the Γ-point edge. The direct bandgap of Si is ∼ 3.4 eV – has
very strong absorption coefficient
• The split-off (SO) band is also very close for Si since the split-off energy is
only 44 meV.
49
Fermi function
1 • The function 𝑓(𝐸), the Fermi–Dirac distribution function, gives the probability that
𝑓 𝐸 =
an available energy state at 𝐸 will be occupied by an electron at absolute
1+𝑒
temperature 𝑇.
1
𝑓 𝐸 = • An energy state at the Fermi level has a probability of 1/2 of being occupied by
2
an electron
50
2
18-Jan-24
Carrier Concentration
1
𝑓 𝐸 =
1+𝑒
𝒏= 𝝆 𝑬 𝒇 𝑬 𝐝𝑬
𝑬𝑪
1 2𝑚∗
𝑔 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ
2
𝑛=𝑁 ℱ (𝜂 )
𝜋 Defining,
Effective CB Density of States 𝑚∗ 𝑘𝑇
𝑁 =2
Effective VB Density of States
2𝜋ℏ
2
𝑝=𝑁 ℱ (𝜂 ) 𝑚∗ 𝑘𝑇
𝜋 𝑁 =2
2𝜋ℏ
Rigorously correct expression for
Carrier Concentration
53
𝜂 , ≤ −3
𝐸 − 𝐸 ≥ 3𝑘𝑇
𝐸 − 𝐸 ≥ 3𝑘𝑇
1
≈𝑒 Applicable for
RECALL 𝑛=𝑁 𝑒
1+𝑒 NON-DEGENERATE
𝑚∗ 𝑘𝑇 Semiconductors
𝑁 =2
2𝜋ℏ 𝑝=𝑁 𝑒
𝑚∗ 𝑘𝑇 Approximate
𝑁 =2 expression for
2𝜋ℏ
Carrier concentration
55
1
18-Jan-24
𝑛=𝑁 𝑒
ℱ 𝜂 ,𝑒
Approximate
expression for
Carrier Concentration
𝐸 − 𝐸 ≥ 3𝑘𝑇 (𝜂 ≤ −3)
𝐸 − 𝐸 ≥ 3𝑘𝑇 (𝜂 ≤ −3)
56
𝑛=𝑁 𝑒
𝑝=𝑁 𝑒
Approximate
expression for
Carrier Concentration
57
2
23-Jan-24
62
𝑝=𝑁 𝑒
63
1
23-Jan-24
RECALL 𝑁 𝑁
𝐸 − 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 𝐸 − 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
65
67
2
24-Jan-24
RECALL
For a nondegenerate uniformly doped semiconductor with complete ionization, 𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛
−𝑛+𝑁 −𝑁 =0 ⇒𝑛 −𝑛 𝑁 −𝑁 −𝑛 =0
𝑁 −𝑁 𝑁 −𝑁
𝑛= + +𝑛
2 2
+
𝑁 −𝑁 𝑁 −𝑁
𝑝= + +𝑛
2 2
69
1
24-Jan-24
Practice Example
75
Practice Example
76
2
25-Jan-24
Lattice Impurity
1 1 1
= + +. .
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇
Mobility (cm2/V-s)
79
Resistivity
80
1
25-Jan-24
82
2
29-Jan-24
Practice Example
Draw the energy band diagrams of the sample for the above cases.
𝐸 ∗
𝐸 = − 0.0073 𝑒𝑉 Given, 𝐸 = 1.08 𝑒𝑉 and ∗ = 0.69 @ 300𝐾 & 0.71 @ 470𝐾.
2
𝑁
𝐸 − 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 = 0.239 𝑒𝑉
𝑛
𝐸
𝐸 =− 0.0104 𝑒𝑉
2
𝑝
𝐸 − 𝐸 = −𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 = 0.0195𝑒𝑉
𝑛
78
Drift Velocity
83
1
29-Jan-24
Semiconductor Electrostatics
• An (E, k) diagram is a plot of the total electron energy
as a function of the crystal-direction–dependent
electron wavevector at some point in space.
Only PE, No KE The slopes of the (𝐸, 𝑥) band edges at different points in
space reflect the local electric fields at those points.
Gains KE at the
expense of PE If the electric field between A and B were not constant,
the slope of the band edge would also not be constant
Scattering, lattice
but vary at each point reflecting the magnitude and
relaxation processes
direction of the local electric field.
Only PE, No KE In practice, the electron may lose its kinetic energy in
stages by a series of scattering events.
84
Practice Example
𝐸
𝐸 −𝐸 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = ±𝐿
4
𝐸
𝐸 −𝐸 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
4
85
2
31-Jan-24
Practice Example
𝐸
𝐸 −𝐸 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = ±𝐿
4
𝐸
𝐸 −𝐸 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
4
88
Practice Example
𝐸
𝐸 −𝐸 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = ±𝐿
4
𝐸
𝐸 −𝐸 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0
4
89
1
31-Jan-24
𝐺 =𝐺 =𝑅 =𝑅
91
𝑛𝑝 ≠ 𝑛 𝑝 ≠ 𝑛
𝑅 =𝑅
92
2
02-Feb-24
𝑛𝑝 ≠ 𝑛 𝑝 ≠ 𝑛
𝑅 =𝑅
92
93
1
02-Feb-24
RECALL 𝑁 𝑁
𝐸 − 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛 𝐸 − 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
94
2
07-Feb-24
Practice Example
GaAs is doped with 1015
acceptors/cm3. The
intrinsic carrier
concentration is
approximately 106 cm-3,
carrier recombination
lifetime of 10 ns.
97
Quasi-Fermi Levels
Quasi-Fermi levels are conceptual constructs, defined energy levels that can be used in conjunction with the energy
band diagram to specify the carrier concentrations inside a semiconductor under nonequilibrium conditions.
RECALL • Two energies, 𝐸 , the quasi Fermi level for electrons, & 𝐸 , the quasi-Fermi level for
𝑛=𝑛𝑒 holes
• These energies are related to the nonequilibrium carrier concentrations in the same way
𝑝=𝑛𝑒 𝐸 is related to the equilibrium carrier concentrations
100
1
07-Feb-24
Quasi-Fermi Levels
Quasi-Fermi levels are conceptual constructs, defined energy levels that can be used in conjunction with the energy
band diagram to specify the carrier concentrations inside a semiconductor under nonequilibrium conditions.
RECALL • Two energies, 𝐸 , the quasi Fermi level for electrons, & 𝐸 , the quasi-Fermi level for
𝑛=𝑛𝑒 holes
• These energies are related to the nonequilibrium carrier concentrations in the same way
𝑝=𝑛𝑒 𝐸 is related to the equilibrium carrier concentrations
𝑛
𝑛=𝑛𝑒 ⇒𝐸 = 𝐸 + 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑛
𝑝
𝑝=𝑛𝑒 ⇒𝐸 = 𝐸 − 𝑘𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑛
𝑝 = 𝑝 + Δ𝑝 𝑒
102
Quasi-Fermi Levels
Quasi-Fermi levels are conceptual constructs, defined energy levels that can be used in conjunction with the energy
band diagram to specify the carrier concentrations inside a semiconductor under nonequilibrium conditions.
RECALL
𝑛=𝑁 𝑒
𝑝=𝑁 𝑒
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛 1
𝑓 𝐸 =
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑁 𝑁 𝑒
1+𝑒
RECALL
1
1 𝑓 𝐸 =
𝑓 𝐸 = 1+𝑒
1+𝑒
Equilibrium Non-Equilibrium
103
2
12-Feb-24
p-n junctions
108
𝐷 𝐷 𝑘𝑇
= =
𝜇 𝜇 𝑒
109
1
14-Feb-24
Electrode
Oxide insulation
p+-AlGaAs (Contacting layer)
p-AlGaAs (Confining layer)
n-AlGaAs
p-GaAs (Active layer)
n-AlGaAs (Confining layer)
n-GaAs (Substrate)
114
I-V characteristics
𝑝 − 𝑛 diode
Schottky diode
‘Near Ohmic’
contact
Ohmic contact
115
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me a
nI
7,2111
Fermi integralsoforder
112
Bulk g E α E Ecl 3D
2D case Quantum well
SEE E
E 9 CE const indepofenergy
EEC
ME
Nc effective density ofstates at the conduction band
N 3D valance
RT
Approximatesituations E
E
e energy of election
f etyn
Ec at 300k 26 men
So our assumption holds
Eg
forbidden
region
Neb GCCE
e f E de
y Eff dentdy
E Ep E Ec EC EFI
ACKT e Eff f 2
y dy
intrinsic
not
is within
i i I it Isnt whenever the
Ifield
3kt under those cond semi cord
is in degenerate zone doped
on other cases it is non degenerate
Eu 11 I 1111 91113kt
EF bn NV
Ecf I Nc
Egf 4
we 21m P no
21m
we
first consider the caseof intrinsic semiconductors
Nc Nie Ec Efi kt
Ev Efi KT
Ny Nie
m EF Efi KT
nie
Ebi Ea KT
p ni e
Fri EF KTM
p n Np Na 0 charge neutrality
law
of Mass Action up n
can be used only when
thermal egm
Case Extrinsic Doped
Formal
temp
values Np
Ministered
Intended
n ND
majority
P minority
cases At temperatures
very high
all semiconductors become intrinsic
accepton NA 10 P
Pn ni
101 at 300k
nis
EFi Eg ten
I Eu Inp
312
scattering
α T
Meattice 22
theory
a
experiment
α
4 impurity
Pomakeptor
trend ofmobility
mostly tempis taken constt
we determine the
s
A 100mm ND 10
1 71 T
V
300K
lov
vel ME J neAvd
101 1 6 10194 100 10 Vd
fromgraph
Semiconductor Electrostats
whenever e is at bottom of conduction band
has P E no KE
only
E Ec when E Ec
LIFE If o KE 0
hole If is the
energy difference
on Ev and hole location
PEE E Eref qu
V E Fref
q
now E TV
day
we know the
energy variation how
can the
If we
predict
E field inside the material will look like
Ec
energy
Ev
a inverse plot
2 0.560.28 men e
Ei EF KT
3
0 0.84
Dos f NIE
fermingyi I FL
fermi f CE file
P s outon
2 Dos there will be
where we have so
transfer
R
rate oftransfer 1 2 2
Rl z α
Extraclass
9 2kt
My TH e
EF
EEE KIMMIN
EF enNYN
Egg KI
Efi Egg kt en
h
Efi Fgf only when T O or win met impossible
always slightly displaced from centre