Manual Del Observador Militar

United Nations Military Observers:
Methods and Techniques for Serving

on a UN Observer Mission
C O U R S E AU T H O R
Lieutenant Colonel Phyllis J. Mihalas

United States Army Reserve
S E R I E S E D I TO R
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.
Peace Operations Training Institute

®
United Nations Military Observers:
Methods and Techniques for Serving
on a UN Observer Mission
C O U R S E AU T H O R
Lieutenant Colonel Phyllis J. Mihalas

United States Army Reserve
S E R I E S E D I TO R
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

®
© 2008 Peace Operations Training Institute. All rights reserved.

1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202
Williamsburg, VA 23185 USA
www.peaceopstraining.org
First edition: 1997 by LCOL Christian Hårleman

Second edition: April 2006 by LTC Phyllis Mihalas
Cover: UN Photo #99347 by Evan Schenider
The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the Peace Operations Training Institute, the Course
Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. Although every effort has been made to verify the con-
tents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute and the Course Author(s) disclaim any and all responsibility
for facts and opinions contained in the text, which have been assimilated largely from open media and other independent
sources. This course was written to be a pedagogical and teaching document, consistent with existing UN policy and doc-
trine, but this course does not establish or promulgate doctrine. Only officially vetted and approved UN documents may
establish or promulgate UN policy or doctrine. Information with diametrically opposing views is sometimes provided on given
topics, in order to stimulate scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.
UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS:
Methods and Techniques for Serving on a
UN Observer Mission
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI
FORMAT OF STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII
METHOD OF STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIiI
LESSON 1 – INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Background History of the UN
1.2 The Purpose and Principles of the UN
1.3 The Six Principal Organs of the UN
1.4 Roles and Function of the Secretary-General
1.5 UN Programmes, Agencies and Commissions
LESSON 2 – UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS (UNPKO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1 The Changing Nature of Conflicts
2.2 The Need for UN Peacekeeping
2.3 Fundamentals of Traditional Peacekeeping
2.4 Types of UN Peacekeeping Operations
2.5 Department of Peacekeeping Operations
2.6 Other UN Peace Activities
LESSON 3 – STRUCTURE OF UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.1 Generic Structure of Peacekeeping Operations
3.2 Organisation and Mission of the Office of the SRSG
3.3 Civilian Administration Component
3.4 Military Component
3.5 Representation of UN Agencies
3.6 Human Rights Component
3.7 Humanitarian Assistance Component
3.8 Electoral Component
3.9 Integration of Efforts and Cooperation
3.10 Chain of Command
iii
LESSON 4 – LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 The UN Charter
4.2 UN Security Council Resolutions (UNSCR)
4.3 Principles for UN Peacekeeping Operations
4.4 Law and UN Peacekeeping
4.5 Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA)
4.6 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
4.7 Rules of Engagement (ROE)
4.8 Impact on the UN Peacekeeper
LESSON 5 – STRESS MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.1 Stress and Stress Management
5.2 Types of Stress
5.3 Stress Response to a Critical Incident
5.4 Identifying Stress-Related Disease
LESSON 6 – ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOURS OF MILOBS AND PEACEKEEPERS . . . . . . 73

6.1 Code of Conduct
6.2 Cultural Awareness
6.3 Gender and Peacekeeping
6.4 Child Protection
LESSON 7 – PERSONAL SECURITY AWARENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

7.1 Security Responsibilities
7.2 UN Security Management
7.3 Basic Principles
7.4 Basic Strategies, Tips, and Considerations
LESSON 8 – LANDMINE AND UXO AWARENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

8.1 Types of Landmines and Unexploded Ordnance (UXO)
8.2 Methods of Landmine Activation
8.3 The Local Landmine and UXO Threat
8.4 What to do if Caught in a Minefield
8.5 In Case of Injury in a Minefield
LESSON 9 – MEDICAL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

9.1 HIV/AIDS
9.2 Malaria
9.3 Basic Life Support
9.4 Basic Hygiene
iv
LESSON 10 – HUMAN RIGHTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1 The Nature of Today’s Conflicts
10.2 What are Human Rights?
10.3 The Legal Basis for Human Rights
10.4 Human Rights and Host Countries
10.5 International Humanitarian Law (IHL)
10.6 Examples of Human Rights Violations
10.7 Applying Human Rights in a Peacekeeping Environment
LESSON 11 – COMMUNICATION AND NEGOTIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

11.1 Understanding Communication and Negotiation
11.2 Negotiation in UN Peace Operations
11.3 Working with Interpreters
LESSON 12 – UN CIVIL-MILITARY COORDIATION (CIMIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

12.1 The Need for Civil-Military Coordination
12.2 Definition of UN Civil-Military Coordination
12.3 Principles of CIMIC
12.4 CIMIC in Practice
12.5 Confidence-Building
12.6 Role of the Peacekeeper
LESSON 13 – MEDIA RELATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

13.1 The Importance of Media Relations
13.2 Peacekeepers’ Actions and the Media
13.3 The Public Information Office (PIO)
13.4 Speaking to the Media
APPENDIX A: TABLE OF ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
APPENDIX B: COMMUNICATION AND VOICE PROCEDURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
APPENDIX C: DAILY ROUTINE AND OBSERVING TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
APPENDIX D: REPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
APPENDIX E: REPORT WRITING STYLE GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
APPENDIX F: PERSONNEL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
APPENDIX G: UNITED NATIONS LOGISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
v
FOREWORD
Over the years, peacekeeping missions have become more dangerous and complex. The
change in the environment has made it necessary to provide comprehensive training on the
individual, small group, and unit levels for those who serve as Military Observers (MILOBS)
and peacekeepers.
Beginning with a Strategic overview of the United Nations organisation, the course
moves through the Operational spectrum of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations
(DPKO), and ends at the Tactical level of “on the ground” knowledge and skills required for an
individual MILOB to succeed. This Course will assist in training Military Observers by
enhancing the general understanding of peacekeeping and by providing specific knowledge of
methods and techniques for serving on a United Nations mission.
Set up in 1948, the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) was the
first peacekeeping mission established by the United Nations. Since that time, over 50 missions,
including 16 that are currently active, have been established. Throughout these missions,
MILOBS from the many Troop-Contributing Countries (TCC) have donned the Blue Beret. This
course will serve as their introduction to service as a Military Observer.
LTC Phyllis J. Mihalas
vi
FORMAT OF STUDY
This course is designed for independent study

at a pace determined by the student.
Course format and materials permit:
• MODULAR STUDY
• EASE OF REVIEW
• INCREMENTAL LEARNING
STUDENT’S RESPONSIBILITY
The student is responsible for:
• Learning course material

• Completing the End-of-Course Examination
• Submitting the End-of-Course Examination
Please consult your enrolment confirmation email or the end of

this course for examination submission instructions.
vii
METHOD OF STUDY
The following are suggestions for how to proceed with this course.
Though the student may have alternate approaches that are
effective, the following hints have worked for many.
• Before you begin actual studies, first browse through the overall course material.
Notice the lesson outlines, which give you an idea of what will be involved as you
proceed.
• The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizing individual

details, strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in regard to the
United Nations system.
• Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time.
• Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning of each
lesson, orient yourself to the main points. If you are able to, read the material twice
to ensure maximum understanding and retention, and let time elapse between
readings.
• When you finish a lesson, take the End-of-Lesson Quiz. For any error, go back to
the lesson section and re-read it. Before you go on, be aware of the discrepancy in
your understanding that led to the error.
• After you complete all of the lessons, take time to review the main points of each
lesson. Then, while the material is fresh in your mind, take the End-of-Course
Examination in one sitting.
• Your exam will be scored, and if you achieve a passing grade of 75 percent or
higher, you will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If you score below 75
percent, you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-of-
Course Examination.
• One note about spelling is in order. This course was written in English as it is used in
the United Kingdom.
viii
This page intentionally left blank.
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SYSTEM

Lesson 1 / Introduction to the UN System 2
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide Military Observers (MILOBS) with basic working
knowledge of the UN structure, principles and general functions of the different organs. After
completing this lesson, the student should be able to:
• Outline the background history of the United Nations;

• List the purposes and principles of the UN;
• List the ideals of the people that created the United Nations; and
• List the six principal organs of the UN and their general functions.
INTRODUCTION
As stated in the UN Charter, one of the most important purposes of the UN is “to
maintain international peace and security and to that end to take effective collective measures for
the prevention and removal of threats.” Peacekeeping provides the UN with one of the means of
achieving international peace and security. It has developed as a pragmatic response to problems
requiring the UN’s actions.
The forerunner of the United Nations

was the League of Nations, an organisation
conceived in similar circumstances during
the First World War and established in 1919
under the Treaty of Versailles to promote
international cooperation and to achieve
peace and security. The International
Labour Organisation was also created under
the Treaty of Versailles as an affiliated
agency of the League. The League of
Nations ceased its activities after failing to
prevent the Second World War.
The name “United Nations,” coined

by United States President Franklin D.
Roosevelt, was first used in the “Declaration
by United Nations” of 1 January 1942,
during the Second World War, when
representatives of 26 nations pledged their
governments to continue fighting together UN Headquarters in New York, New York.
(Photo by Harvey J. Langholtz)
against the Axis Powers.
After the Second World War, representatives of 50 countries met in San Francisco at the
United Nations Conference on International Organisation to draw up the United Nations Charter.
Those delegates deliberated on the basis of proposals worked out by the representatives of China,
the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, in August-October 1944. The
representatives of the 50 countries signed the Charter on 26 June 1945. Poland, which was not
represented at the Conference, signed it later and became one of the original 51 Member States.
The United Nations officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, when China,
France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, and a majority of other
signatories had ratified the Charter. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 October each year.
The United Nations Charter
The Charter is a basic document to which nations are signatory. It is also a basic
document of the Organisation, setting out the rights and obligations of Member States, and
establishing the United Nations organs and procedures. As an international document, the
Charter codifies the major principles of international relations – from the sovereign equality of
States to the prohibition of the use of force in international relations. The Preamble to the
Charter expresses the ideals and common aims of all the peoples whose government joined
together to form the United Nations:
WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to

save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our
lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in
fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person,
in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and
to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations
arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be
maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in
larger freedom,
AND FOR THESE ENDS to practice tolerance and live together in peace
with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to maintain
international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of
principles and the institution of methods, that armed forces shall not be
used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery
for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples,
HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH
THESE AIMS. Accordingly, our respective Governments, through the
representatives assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited
their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the
present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an
international organisation to be known as the United Nations.
The purposes and principles of the United Nations, as set forth in the Charter, are as follows.
Purposes
• To maintain international peace and security.
• To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal
rights and self-determination of peoples.
• To cooperate in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian
problems and in promoting respect for Human Rights and fundamental freedoms.
• To be a centre for harmonising the actions of nations in attaining these common ends.
Principles
• The UN is based on the sovereign equality of all its members.
• Members are to fulfil in good faith their charter of obligation.
• They are to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering
international peace, security, and justice.
• They are to refrain from the threat or use of force against any other state.
• They are to give the UN every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the
Charter.
• Nothing in the Charter is to authorise the UN to intervene in matters which are essentially
within the domestic jurisdiction of any state.
The Charter authorises the establishment of six principal organs. These organs are the
General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International
Court of Justice, the Trusteeship Council, and the Secretariat. In addition, there are subsidiary
organs, specialised agencies, and other bodies related to the United Nations, which, altogether,
form the “United Nations system.”
The Six Principal Organs of the UN
TRUSTEESHIP GENERAL SECURITY

COUNCIL ASSEMBLY COUNCIL
INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SECRETARIAT

COURT OF JUSTICE SOCIAL COUNCIL
The General Assembly
The General Assembly (GA) is the main deliberative organ of the UN. It is composed of
representatives from all Member States, each of which has one vote. Decisions on important
questions, such as those on peace and security, admission of new Members, and budgetary
matters, require a two-thirds majority. A simple majority is required for decisions on other
matters. The General Assembly meets annually in regular sessions. Special sessions can be
convened at the request of the Security Council; a majority of Members of the UN; or one
Member if the majority of Members concur. An emergency special session may be called within
twenty-four hours of a request by the Security Council on the vote of any nine Members of the
Council or if a majority of Members concur. Because of the great number of questions that the
Assembly is called upon to consider, the Assembly allocates most questions to its six Main
Committees:
• First Committee - Disarmament and International Security

• Second Committee - Economic and Financial
• Third Committee - Social, Humanitarian and Cultural
• Fourth Committee - Special Political and Decolonisation
• Fifth Committee - Administrative and Budgetary
• Sixth Committee - Legal
Security Council
The Security Council (SC) has the primary responsibility, under the Charter, for the
maintenance of international peace and security. The Council has 15 members: five permanent
members – China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States –
and 10 non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. Each
member has one vote. Decisions on substantive matters require nine votes, including the
concurring votes of all five permanent members. This is the rule of “Great Power unanimity,”
often referred to as “veto” power. Under the Charter, all Members of the United Nations agree
to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council.
When a complaint concerning a threat to peace is brought before it, the Council's first
action is usually to recommend that the parties try to reach an agreement by peaceful means. It
may also set principles for a peaceful settlement. When a dispute leads to fighting, the Council's
first concern is to bring it to an end as soon as possible. The Council usually issues cease-fire
directives, which prevent wider hostilities. The Council also sends United Nations peacekeeping
forces to help reduce tensions in troubled areas, keep opposing forces apart, and create
conditions of calm in which peaceful settlements may be sought. The Council may also decide
on enforcement measures, economic sanctions (such as trade embargoes), or collective military
action.
Under the Charter, the functions and powers of the Security Council are:
• To maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and
purposes of the United Nations;
• To investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction;
• To recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement;
• To formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments;
• To determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to recommend
what action should be taken;
• To call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the
use of force to prevent or stop aggression;
• To take military action against an aggressor;
• To recommend the admission of new Members;
• To exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in “strategic areas”; and
• To recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General and,
together with the Assembly, to elect the judges of the International Court of Justice.
Economic and Social Council
The Charter established the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) as the principal
organ to coordinate the economic, social and related work of the United Nations and the
specialised agencies and institutions, known as the United Nations family of organisation. Some
of the functions and powers of the Economic and Social Council are:
• To serve as the central forum for the discussion of international economic and social
issues of a global or inter-disciplinary nature and the formulation of policy
recommendations on those issues addressed to Member States and to the United Nations
system;
• To make or initiate studies and reports and make recommendations on international
economic, social, cultural, educational, health and related matters; and
• To promote respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedom.
Today, the ECOSOC comprises of 54 members with one vote each. Of these 54
members, 18 members are elected each year and serve for a three-year term. The Council meets
in an annual five-week session alternating between New York and Geneva. The Council is not a
decision-making body. Members of ECOSOC prepare items for the GA’s decisions and assist
the Security Council when so required.
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations. It settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions to the United
Nations and its specialised agencies. Its Statute is an integral part of the United Nations Charter.
The Court is open to all states that are parties to its Statute. These include all Members
of the United Nations and Switzerland. Only states may be parties in contentious cases and
submit disputes to the Court. The Court is not open to private persons and entities or
international organisations.
The General Assembly and the Security Council can ask the Court for an advisory
opinion on any legal question. Other organs of the United Nations and the specialised agencies,
when authorised by the Assembly, can ask for advisory opinions on legal questions within the
scope of their activities.
The Trusteeship Council
The Charter established the Trusteeship Council in 1945 to provide international

supervision for 11 Trust Territories placed under the administration of 7 Member States, and to
ensure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the Territories for self-government or
independence. The Charter authorised the Trusteeship Council to examine and discuss reports
from the Administering Authority on the political, economic, social and educational
advancement of the peoples of Trust Territories; to examine petitions from the Territories; and to
undertake special missions to the Territories.
By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence, either as

separate states or by joining neighbouring independent countries. The last to do so was the Trust
Territory of the Pacific Islands (Palau), which became the 185th Member State. Its work
completed, the Trusteeship Council – consisting of the five permanent members of the Security
Council – has amended its rules of procedure to meet as and where occasion may require.
The Secretariat
The Secretariat is the administrative organ of Member States and is staffed by

international servants. It works in duty stations around the world and carries out the diverse day-
to-day work of the organisation. It services the other principal organs of the United Nations and
administers the programmes and policies laid down by them. At its head is the Secretary-
General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security
Council for a five- year renewable term.
The duties carried out by the Secretariat are as varied as the problems dealt with by the
United Nations. These range from administering peacekeeping operations to mediating
international disputes, from surveying economic and social trends and problems to preparing
studies on human rights and sustainable development. As international civil servants, staff
members and the Secretary-General answer to the United Nations alone for their activities, and
they take an oath not to seek or receive instructions from any government or outside authority.
Under the Charter, each Member State undertakes to respect the exclusively international
character of the responsibilities of the Secretary-General and the staff and to refrain from seeking
to influence them improperly in the discharge of their duties.
The Secretariat is divided into several major organisational units, each of which is headed
by an Under-Secretary-General or an official of an equivalent level.
THE SECRETARIAT
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE

SECRETARY-GENERAL
OFFICE OF INTERNAL
OFFICE OF LEGAL AFFAIRS
OVERSIGHT SERVICES
DEPARTMENTS INDEPENDENT OFFICES OVERSEAS OFFICES
Department of Office for the Coordination of UN Office at Geneva

Political Affairs Humanitarian Affairs
Department for Office of the Iraq Programme UN Office at Vienna

Disarmament Affairs
Office of the UN Security

Department of UN Office at Nairobi
Coordinator
Peacekeeping Operations
Office for Drug Control &

Department of
Crime Prevention
Economic & Social Affairs
Department of
General Assembly Affairs &
Conference Services
Department of
Public Information
Department of Management
The Charter describes the Secretary-General as “chief

administrative officer” of the organisation, who shall act in that
capacity and perform “such other functions as are entrusted” to
him or her by the Security Council, General Assembly, Economic
and Social Council and other United Nations organs. The Charter
also empowers the Secretary-General to “bring to the attention of
the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may
threaten the maintenance of international peace and security.”
These guidelines both define the powers of the office and grant it
considerable scope for action. The Secretary-General would fail
if he did not take careful account of the concerns of Member
States. In addition, he must uphold the values and moral
authority of the United Nations, always speaking and acting for The Secretary-General
peace, even at risk of challenging or disagreeing with those same of the United Nations,
Mr. Ban Ki-moon.
Member States.
This creative tension accompanies the Secretary-General through day-to-day work, which
includes attendance at sessions of United Nations bodies; consultations with world leaders,
government officials and others; and worldwide travel intended to keep him in touch with the
peoples of Member States and informed about the vast array of issues of international concern
that are on the organisation’s agenda. Each year, the Secretary-General issues a report on the
work of the organisation that appraises its activities and outlines future priorities.
The Secretary-General is best known to the general public for using his stature and
impartiality to prevent international disputes from arising, escalating, or spreading. Each
Secretary-General also defines his role within the context of his particular time in office.
UN Secretary-General
Mr. Ban Ki-moon of South Korea is the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations.
He began his first term in 2007. On 21 June 2011, he was unanimously appointed by the General
Assembly for a second five-year term.
Under the Charter, the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the
recommendation of the Security Council. Mr. Ban’s predecessors were as follows:
• Kofi Annan (Ghana) January 1997 - December 2006

• Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt) January 1992 - December 1996
• Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru) January 1982 - December 1991
• Kurt Waldheim (Austria) January 1972 - December 1981
• U Thant (Myanmar) November 1961 - December 1971
• Dag Hammmarskjold (Sweden) April 1953 - September 1961
• Trygve Lie (Norway) February 1946 - November 1952
Mr. Ban’s many priorities while serving as Secretary-General include initiatives to address
global warming, prevention of and response to pandemics, access to clean water and food for the
world’s poorest, energy consumption and production, and economic stability. He credits witnessing
the United Nations’ efforts in post-war South Korea with inspiring him to dedicate himself to public
service. He is quoted as saying, “As Secretary-General, I am determined to see this Organization
deliver tangible, meaningful results that advance peace, development and human rights.”
Peacekeepers may encounter some of the UN’s programmes, agencies or commissions

working in connection with or as a part of a peacekeeping operation. The most common ones
include:
• UNHCR – Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, which is
voluntarily financed. It extends international protection to more than 18 million refugees,
seeking to ensure that they receive asylum and favourable legal status in their asylum
country.
• UNICEF – United Nations Children's Fund, which is voluntarily financed. It helps
developing countries, at their request, to improve the quality of life of their children
through low-cost community-based services in maternal and child health, nutrition,
sanitation and education, as well as emergency relief.
• UNDP – United Nations Development Programme, the world's largest channel for multi-
lateral technical and pre-investment assistance to developing countries. It supports over
6,000 projects in some 150 countries.
• WFP – World Food Programme, the world’s largest international food aid organisation.
It is responsible for handling annually around 3 million metric tons of food aid. WFP’s
mandate is to help poor people in developing countries by combating world hunger and
poverty.
LESSON 1
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The purpose of the UN is:

a. International peace and security, and friendly relations among nations;
b. Cooperation in solving international problems and a centre for harmonising the
actions of nations;
c. Neither of the above;
d. Both a and b.
2. The Secretary-General:
a. Is the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO);
b. Brings any matter which threatens international peace and security to the attention
of the Security Council;
c. Is impartial;
d. All of the above.
3. Select the statement that describes the General Assembly.

a. It is the main deliberate organ of the UN and consists of all members of the UN;
b. It consists of countries with GNPs higher than $2B to vote;
c. It consists of countries that each have two votes;
d. None of the above.
4. The Security Council has the primary responsibility, under the Charter, to:
a. Investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction;
b. Serve as the central forum for the discussion of international economic and social
issues;
c. Monitor the World Health Organisation;
d. Create laws for Member nations.
5. List and briefly discuss the six principal organs of the UN.
6. The principal judicial organ of the UN is the:

a. General Assembly;
b. Congress of the UN;
c. International Court of Justice;
d. Supreme Court of the Hague.
7. The International Court of Justice (ICJ):

a. Provides international supervision for 11 Trust Territories;
b. Provides advisory opinions on legal questions to the other UN organs;
c. Is the administrative organ of Member States;
d. Is the principal organ to coordinate the economic, social and related work of the UN.
8. Give a brief description (2 to 4 sentences only) of the UNHCR.
9. Give a brief description (2 to 4 sentences only) of UNICEF.
10. Give a brief description (2 to 4 sentences only) of the UNDP.

ANSWER KEY
1. d
2. d
3. a
4. a
5. Trusteeship Council; General Assembly; Security Council; International

Court of Justice; Economic and Social Council; Secretariat
6. c
7. b
8. Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, voluntarily financed

extends international protection to more than 18 million refugees, seeking
to ensure that they receive asylum and favourable legal status in their
asylum country
9. UN Children’s Fund, voluntarily financed, helps developing countries, at

their request, to improve the quality of the life of their children, through
low cost community based services in maternal and child health, nutrition,
sanitation and education, as well as emergency relief
10. UN Development Programme, the world’s largest channel for multi-lateral

technical and pre investment assistance to developing countries, is
supporting over 6,000 projects in some 150 countries

LESSON 2
UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS (UNPKO)

Lesson 2 / UN Peacekeeping Operations (UNPKO) 16
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide MILBOS with the basic knowledge of UN
peacekeeping operations. Upon completion of the lesson, all students will be familiar with UN
peacekeeping operations, its fundamentals and concepts. After completing this lesson, the
student should be able to:
• List some fundamentals of traditional peacekeeping;

• Explain broadly the differences between traditional peacekeeping operation and complex
peacekeeping operations; and
• List other UN peace activities.
INTRODUCTION
Military Observers (MILOBS) need to be guided by a deep understanding of UN

organisations and principles. In order to operate in the mission efficiently and effectively, they
should have a clear picture of the background, functions, and in particular the role of the UN in
peacekeeping activities. MILOBS should also be capable of operating in a conflict or post-
conflict area within a multi-national and multi-disciplinary environment, respectful of different
cultures and of professional ethics. They should also be able to avoid conflict-escalation while
also being ready to cope with it.
During the first decade of the post-Cold War era, the United Nations was confronted with
a significant change in the nature of conflict. Interstate wars have become more the exception
than the rule. Post-Cold War conflicts have been predominantly intrastate conflicts or civil wars.
Instead of wars in which two nations with organised armies face each other, today’s conflict is
typically an internal struggle, with irregular forces, light weapons, and guerrilla tactics. These
wars take place within a state rather than between two states. Examples can be found in
Somalia, the Balkans, Liberia, Haiti, Sierra Leone, Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of
Congo.
In addition, an increasing
number of actors add to the
complexity of post-Cold War
conflicts. In many intrastate and
ethnic conflicts, there are not just
two opposing forces. Rather, there
are typically rival warlords, factional
leaders, para-military forces, and
even organised criminal groups. The
principle of reciprocity in
international laws that has
historically given states an incentive
to cooperate with each other and to
respect international norms and rules
is inoperative in most of these
situations. This also applies to the UN Peacekeepers from Pakistan arrive in Che, DRC, with
reinforcements of ammunition to secure the area where refugees
principle of state sovereignty that have amassed after fleeing their towns following brutal militia
has defined whose consent was fighting. (MONUC Photo, Christophe Boulierac, January 2005)
traditionally sought before
undertaking a peacekeeping operation. Post-Cold War conflicts have thus blurred what lines
existed between national and international; military and civilian; organised crime and legitimate
political groups; and civil war and interstate war. The key problem in these situations is anarchic
violence within countries, not the use of military force between them.
As the nature of conflicts changed from interstate conflicts to intrastate conflicts, the
initial response of the international community was to expand peacekeeping greatly. In the late
1980s and early 1990s, the number, size, scope, and cost of these efforts all increased
dramatically.
Three factors accounted for this growth. Firstly, the end of the Cold War brought an end
to the superpower confrontation that so often rendered the UN unable to act. Largely due to this
rivalry, from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s, only one new Peacekeeping Operation (PKO), the
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) in 1978 was initiated. However, in the post-
Cold War period, with cooperation having replaced competition, the Security Council began
making greater use of the UN to deal with these wars.
A second factor was the change in the type and frequency of armed conflicts. The
decolonisation and independence of so many countries since the end of World War II resulted in
a surge in civil wars as political elites within these new nations struggled for dominance.
The third factor arose out of humanitarian concerns. As the international community
struggled to deal with human suffering caused by the growing number of intrastate conflicts,
policymakers saw peacekeeping as a vehicle for helping to solve or mitigate humanitarian crisis.
Peacekeepers were often given the task of creating a safe and secure environment within which
humanitarian actors could safely operate.
Peace and Security in the Charter
Peacekeeping was developed as a series of ad hoc practical mechanisms used by the

United Nations to help contain armed conflicts and settle them by peaceful means. The
mechanism devised by the United Nations to ensure international peace and security is outlined
in Chapters VI, VII and VIII of the Charter.
Chapter VI provides for the settlement of disputes by a variety of peaceful measures,

including negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, and judicial settlement
(Article 33). The Security Council is authorised to call on the parties to settle their disputes by
peaceful means or to make recommendations (Article 37). Thus, the decisions or
recommendations of the council for the appropriate terms of settlement of an international
dispute should be carried out by the parties themselves.
Chapter VI½ is not a provision of the UN Charter but a new and tentative concept
applying to the multi-dimensional operations which, while originally mandated under Chapter
VI, are forced by realities in the field to turn into a Chapter VII operation. An example of such
an operation includes when humanitarian convoys need to be defended by the force of arms.
Other terms to describe Chapter VI½ are multi-dimensional peacekeeping; robust peacekeeping;
a grey area operation; and a Chapter VI½ operation.
Chapter VII is essentially coercive and designed to deal with threats to peace, breaches
of the peace, and acts of aggression. Under Chapter VII, the United Nations Security Council
should determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of
aggression to make recommendations or decide what measures shall be taken to maintain or
restore international peace and security (Article 39). Before resorting to enforcement, the
Security Council may call on the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as
it considers necessary (Article 40). These measures may include complete or partial interruption
of economic relations and means of communication, the severance of diplomatic relations
(Article 41) or such action by air, sea or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore
international peace and security (Article 42).
The following fundamentals are applied to every peacekeeping mission:
• Consent – UN Peacekeeping Operations are established with the consent and cooperation
of the main parties involved in a conflict.
• Impartiality – A UN force must be impartial in character. The force cannot take sides
without becoming part of the traditional conflict it has been mandated to control and
resolve.
• Minimum Use of Force – In peacekeeping operations, force will not be used to carry out
the mandate. Minimum use of force does not exclude self-defence of United Nations
personnel and property. The use of force must be clearly defined in the Rules of
Engagement (ROE).
• Credibility – The credibility of a peacekeeping operation is the confirmation of its ability
to accomplish its mandate. In order to effectively carry out its mandate and earn the
confidence of the parties, a peacekeeping force must be composed of trained personnel
who are well equipped and possess high professional standards.
• Negotiation and Mediation – Negotiation and mediation have enormous potential in de-
escalating a conflict, to promote a secure environment, and to develop peaceful and
lasting solutions to a conflict.
Keep in mind that consent may not be the norm in complex peacekeeping. In fact, complex
peacekeeping may not have consent from any party. In addition, minimum use of force may also
not be the case for complex peacekeeping – the degree of force authorised will be provided by
the mandate.
Operational and Tactical Considerations
A traditional peacekeeping mission is primarily a political operation. The head of the

mission is responsible for establishing the inter-operability of the various components of the
mission, considering the political objectives defined in the mandate. The frame of reference for
dealing with rapidly changing or unanticipated situations that require an immediate response is:
• Transparency – Transparency is consistent with the prevailing requirements for security.

All parties should be fully aware of the motives, mission, and intentions of the operation.
• Coordination – A peacekeeping operation may involve a wide range of organisations,
e.g., United Nations relief agencies and non-governmental organisations. Personnel at all
levels should seek to establish and nurture coordination within the mission, with United
Nations headquarters, within their operational areas, and with the local population.
• Liaison – Communication should be established at every possible level at the earliest
opportunity.
• Information – Information is essential for the force in order to make continuously
updated assessments of the attitudes and capabilities of the parties concerned.
• Limitations and Restrictions – The area of operations is strictly defined, operations to

gather information are limited, and the Rules of Engagement will normally forbid the use
of force unless absolutely necessary for self-defence.
• Armaments – Peacekeeping forces are normally lightly armed and will deploy with only
the armaments required for self-defence, consistent with the mandate and the situation in
the area of operation.
• Visibility – The physical visibility of a force is enhanced by wearing distinctive, easily-
recognised United Nations headgear, badges, signs, and insignia. Peacekeeping forces
must also make their intentions perfectly clear to all parties.
• Mobility – Peacekeeping forces must be mobile in order to navigate large areas. They
must have the capacity to respond rapidly to incidents.
• Centralisation – All activities of the force and all incidents it encounters may have
political ramifications. Therefore, reporting and decision-making may be more
centralised than in standard military operation. Forces must have adequate
communication systems to facilitate the rapid transmission of information from the
lowest level in the field to the mission headquarters.
• Self-sufficiency – Peacekeeping units should arrive in the area of operations as soon as
possible and with sufficient stores to operate until a logistics base is in place.
By measuring the operational environment and the level of military effort involved in all
UN peacekeeping operations from 1948 to 2005, the resultant analytical framework places UN
peacekeeping operations into two general categories:
Traditional Peacekeeping Operations
Traditional peacekeeping operations relied on the consent and cooperation of the

belligerents and were largely restricted to the interposition of unarmed observers or lightly armed
peacekeepers between warring states, once the following conditions had been met: a cease-fire
agreement was in place, and the parties to the conflict fully consented to their deployment.
The objectives of traditional peacekeeping operations are the most circumscribed of all
UN operations and are generally limited simply to reporting conditions following the political
agreement. Within this general objective, one can distinguish three specific military tasks
commonly given to UN traditional peacekeeping operations:
• Border or demilitarised zone monitoring;

• Cease-fire, truce, or general armistice agreement monitoring; and
• Supervision of the withdrawal of forces.
Therefore, the primary military objective of most traditional peacekeeping operations is

to occupy a clearly-recognised and usually linear interposition buffer zone. Traditional
peacekeepers are authorised to use force only in self-defence. Traditional peacekeepers are
never intended to use active force to coerce belligerents; there were, of course, never structured
for this or mandated to do so. Despite this passive approach, operations are still often dangerous.
Many contemporary studies refer to traditional peacekeeping as “Chapter VI operations.”
Examples of Traditional Observation Missions

UNTSO UN Truce Supervision Organisation
UNMOGIP UN Military Observers Group in India and Pakistan
UNOGIL UN Observation Group in Lebanon
Examples of Traditional Observer and Peacekeeping Mission

UNEF I UN Emergency Force I
UNSF UN Security Force in New Guinea
UNEF II UN Emergency Force II
UNDOF UN Disengagement Observers Force
UNIFIL UN Interim Force in Lebanon
Complex Peacekeeping Operations
Complex peacekeeping operations may be authorised under Chapter VI and VII. These
operations are multi-functional missions in which the military component is only one part of a
comprehensive political, diplomatic, humanitarian, and economic effort. The objectives of these
missions include supporting civilian components and non-governmental organisations in the
provision of humanitarian aid; the organisation and protection of elections; the supervision of
government functions; the disarmament and demobilisation of a large number of parties; the
repatriation and rehabilitation of refugees; the protection of safe areas; the restoration of national
governments and institutions; and other such objectives. These tasks are also done as ancillary
missions in many traditional peacekeeping operations but on a much smaller scale and with
much less emphasis than in complex peacekeeping operation. The actual military missions of
complex peacekeeping operations are more complicated than those of their buffer zone
predecessors, even when conducted in a permissive environment.
The environment of complex peacekeeping operations are considerably more bellicose

and complex than those of traditional peacekeeping, where most missions are deployed in clearly
linear buffer zones between consenting nation states. In contrast, the environment of complex
peacekeeping operation is characterised largely by unstable intrastate conflicts. These often are
hostile environments where a virtual state of war existed or was in temporary remission.
Examples of Complex Peacekeeping Operations

UNPROFOR UN Protection Force
UNOSOM II UN Operation in Somalia II
UNOMOZ Operacao das Nacoes Unidas en Mocambique
UNAMIR UN Mission in Rwanda
UNTAC UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia
Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO)
Office of the
Under Secretary General
Mine Action Service Executive Office
Best Practices Unit
Office of Operations Military Division Civilian Police Division Office of Mission Support
Africa Division Military Planning Logistics Support Division
Asia and Middle East Division Force Generation Administrative Support Division
Europe and Latin America Division Current Military Operations
Situation Center Training & Evaluation
The Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) is the operational arm for all
United Nations peacekeeping operations and it is responsible for the conduct, management,
direction, planning and preparation of those operations. It develops plans and methodologies for
peacekeeping operations (Office of Operations, Military Division and Civil Police Division);
secures, through negotiations with governments, the personnel and equipment required for
operations; provides logistical and administrative support for operations and political or
humanitarian missions; proposes resource requirements and monitors and controls funds related
to peacekeeping activities (Office of Mission Support); maintains contacts with parties to
conflicts and members of the Security Council on the implementation of Council decisions;
undertakes contingency planning for possible new operations; carries out analysis of emerging
policy questions; and formulates policies and procedures in this regard. It also coordinates all
United Nations activities related to landmines and develops and supports mine action
programmes in peacekeeping and emergency situations (Mine Action Service). The Best
Practices Unit collects lessons learned and promotes the integration of these into the planning
and conduct of UN Peacekeeping Operations.
The head of the department – the Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations

– directs peacekeeping operations on behalf of the Secretary-General; formulates policies and
guidelines for operations; and advises the Secretary-General on all related matters.
Peacekeeping is only one of the UN’s mechanisms for conflict resolution. There are
other important UN peace activities, which need to be discussed as part of this lesson. These
activities are the most cost-effective ways of preventing disputes from arising, stopping existing
disputes from escalating into conflicts, and controlling and resolving existing conflicts. These
activities include preventive diplomacy, peace-making, peacebuilding, sanctions, and
disarmament. The Secretary-General continues to receive mandates from the General Assembly
and the Security Council to maintain existing efforts and to undertake new ones in this field. The
Secretary-General, through his special representatives, special envoys, and other emissaries on a
resident or visiting basis, is actively engaged in implementing these political mandates in several
countries. The primary responsibility for preventive action, peace-making, peacebuilding,
sanction, and disarmament rests with the Department of Political Affairs (DPA).
• Preventive diplomacy is action taken to prevent disputes from developing between

parties, to prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts, and to limit the spread
of the latter when they occur.
• Peace-making is diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to negotiated agreements
through such peaceful means as those foreseen under Chapter VI of the UN Charter.
• Peacebuilding is critical in the aftermath of conflict. Peacebuilding includes the
identification and support of measures and structures that will promote peace and build
trust and interaction among former enemies, in order to avoid a relapse into conflict.
• Sanctions are to apply measures not involving the use of force in order to maintain or
restore international peace and security. Such measures are commonly referred to as
sanctions. This legal basis is recalled in order to underline that the purpose of sanctions
is to modify the behaviour of a party that is threatening international peace and security
and not to punish or otherwise exact retribution.
• Disarmament is the assembly, control and disposal of weapons. Micro-disarmament is
the practical disarmament in the context of the conflicts the United Nations is actually
dealing with. Micro-disarmament is relevant to post-conflict peacebuilding.
Disarmament can also follow enforcement action. All sanction's regimes include an arms
embargo.
Ongoing Peacekeeping Missions

UNTSO UN Truce Supervision Organisation, June 1948
UNMOGIP UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan, January 1949
UNFICYP UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus, March 1964
UNDOF UN Disengagement Observer Force, June 1974
UNIFIL UN Interim Force in Lebanon, March 1978
MINURSO UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara, April 1991
UNOMIG UN Observer Mission in Georgia, August 1993
UNMIK UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, June 1999
UNAMSIL UN Mission in Sierra Leone, October 1999
MONUC UN Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

December 1999
UNMEE UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea, July 2000
UNMIL UN Mission in Liberia, September 2003
UNOCI UN Operation in Cote d’Ivoire, April 2004
MINUSTAH UN Stabilisation Mission in Haiti, June 2004
ONUB UN Operations in Burundi, June 2004
UNMIS UN Mission in the Sudan, January 2005
NOTE: As the status of missions change, the following website will reflect the most updated
map of current missions: http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/bnote.htm.
UN Headquarters Building for the UN Mission in Ethiopia

and Eritrea (UNMEE), Asmara Eritrea.
LESSON 2
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. List and briefly describe the five UN practices, other than peacekeeping.
2. Why was peacekeeping developed?

a. To help contain armed conflicts;
b. To help settle armed conflicts by peaceful means;
c. Both a and b;
3. What are the two types of peacekeeping missions?

a. Traditional and Complex;
b. Mediation and Traditional;
c. Humanitarian and Complex;
d. Judicial and Traditional.
4. Which is the “operational arm for all UN Peacekeeping Operations, and responsible for the
conduct, management, direction, planning and preparation of those operations”?
a. Office of Mission Support;
b. Mine Action Service;
c. Office of Operations, Military Division and Civil Police Division;
d. Department of Peacekeeping Operations.
5. Before resorting to enforcement, the UN Security Council may:

a. Call on the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as it
considers necessary;
b. Decide that the condition between the two adversaries does not warrant action;
c. Ask for a third party to mediate;
d. Allow the nations to struggle with the situation without UN assistance.
6. Chapter VI provides for:

a. The settlement of disputes by a variety of peaceful measures;
b. Negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, and judicial settlement
(Article 33);
c. The authorisation of the Economic and Social Committee to call on the parties to
settle their disputes by peaceful means or to make recommendations (Article 37);
d. The grey area between Chapters V and VII.
7. Which of the following characterises the importance of Chapter VII of the UN Charter?
a. It is essentially coercive and designed to deal with threats to peace, breaches of the
peace and acts of aggression;
b. It allows the United Nations Security Council to determine the existence of any
threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression;
c. It allows the UNSC to make recommendations or decide what measures shall be
taken to maintain or restore international peace and security;
8. List the three specific military tasks of traditional peacekeeping operations.
9. Traditional peacekeeping operations:

a. Do not require the consent or cooperation of the belligerents;
b. Consist of peacekeepers that come from the belligerent countries;
c. Have unarmed observers and/or lightly armed military units that come from neutral
Member States;
d. Have no buffer zone.
10. Match the following with their missions.
1. Office of Operations, Military a. Maintains contacts with parties to

Division and Civil Police Division conflicts and members of the UNSC on
implementation of the Council decisions
2. Office of Mission Support b. Develops plans for peacekeeping
operations
3. Mine Action Service c. Coordinates all UN activities related
to landmines
4. Best Practices Unit d. Develops and supports mine action
programmes
5. Under-Secretary-General e. Directs PKO on behalf of the Secretary-
General
f. Collects lessons learned
g. Secures, through negotiations with
government, the personnel and
equipment needed for a peacekeeping
. activity
ANSWER KEY
1. Preventive Diplomacy; Peace-Making; Peacebuilding; Sanctions; Disarmament
2. c
3. a
4. d
5. a
6. b
7. d
8. Border or demilitarised zone monitoring; cease-fire, truce, or general

armistice agreement monitoring; and supervision of the withdrawal of forces
9. c
10. 1b; 2ag; 3cd; 4f; 5e


LESSON 3
STRUCTURE OF UN PEACEKEEPING
OPERATIONS

Lesson 3 / Structure of UN Peacekeeping Operations 30
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide Military Observers and peacekeepers with
information on the structure of different traditional and complex United Nations peacekeeping
operations. After completing this lesson, the student should be able to:
• List the components normally present in UN peacekeeping operations;

• List the roles of each component;
• State how the different components may integrate and cooperate; and
• Identify his/her chain of command in accordance with his/her position in the mission.
INTRODUCTION
Since the early 1990s, peacekeeping operations have evolved significantly from
exclusively military forces to today’s complex missions. The expansion in both the scope and
complexity of UN peacekeeping has underscored the importance of training. Peacekeeping is no
longer primarily a military concern but has become more and more multi-dimensional,
employing an increasing number of civilian personnel, such as civilian police; human rights and
election monitors; humanitarian assistance personnel; and other components. Peacekeepers, both
civilian and military, work closely with colleagues from diverse nationalities and backgrounds
with various levels of training and experience. Therefore, it is important for all peacekeeping
personnel to share the same understanding and knowledge of the organisation and relationship
among the participants in United Nations peacekeeping operations.
Peacekeeping is a joint and combined effort, composed of many elements and people
united in their quest for peace. The United Nations, as the world’s major international
organisation, is both large and complex, staffed with personnel from all of its Member States.
Peacekeeping operations (also called missions or field missions) present a similar profile. They
are manned by military personnel, or “Blue Helmets,” from many troop-contributing countries
(TCCs). They are also manned by civilians from many organisations of the United Nations.
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), governmental organisations (GO), UN Civilian Police
(CIVPOL), and others are normally present in UNPKOs. Peacekeepers must be aware of all the
components present in the mission area and understand the complementary roles of each for the
success of the operation.
UN peacekeeping missions’ generic structure
SRSG or FC
(Head of Mission)
SRSG Staff Human Rights
Political Affairs Legal Affairs
Public Information
Deputy
Military Component Civilian Police Component Civilian Components
Formed Units Formed Units Civilian Administration
UNMOs Civilian Police Monitors Humanitarian Assistance
Electoral Component
In a mission, United Nations peacekeepers will normally encounter and work with the
following components:
• Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General

• Civilian Administration
• Military component, including UN Military Observers, Civilian Police, Formed Units, and
Staff Officers
• Human Rights component
• Humanitarian Assistance component
• Electoral component
In traditional missions, the organisation may be relatively simple. However, peacekeeping

operations that respond to complex emergencies require a multi-dimensional structure. This is
commonly referred to as a complex peacekeeping mission.
Traditional Peacekeeping
UNFICYP
(UN Force In Cyprus)
SRSG
FC CPC CAO
(Force Commander) (Civilian Police Commisioner) (Chief Administrative Officer)
Formed Military Units CivPol Monitors UN Civilian Administration

Battalions, Companies, Logisitic and Medical Units
Traditional peacekeeping operations normally have as their main element a military

component. Civilian Police may be present, and all are supported by a civilian administration
component. These peacekeeping operations tend to maintain their structure and organisation
with only minor changes for the duration of the mandate. Examples of traditional peacekeeping
operations include: UNMOGIP, established in 1949; UNMEE, a recent mission (2000) with a
traditional mandate of forces separation; and UNFICYP, whose organisation is described above.
Complex Peacekeeping
MONUC
(Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies au Congo)
SRSG
SRSG Staff Human Rights
D/SRSG
CAO
(Chief Administrative Officer)
CISS
(Chief Integrated Support Services)
Joint Military Commision FC CPC Humanitarian Assistance

(African Union) (Force Commander) (Civilian Police Comissioner)
Military Staff
CivPol Monitors
Formed Military Units CMO

(Chief Military Observer)
Guard Units Engineers Coy UNMO Teams
Riverine Units Medical Support
Military Police
Complex peacekeeping operations, by definition, involve situations that require the

participation of the full scope of the elements of the UN family of organisations. The Military
and Civilian Police components, however important in size, normally are just specialised
elements supporting the mandate with their specific capabilities. The Humanitarian Assistance,
the Civil Administration, and the Public Information components, among many others, are
supporting the success of the peace efforts with their own capabilities. Thus, these elements
have larger organisations and resources than in traditional peacekeeping. The situations tend to
be more fluid and difficult to predict, imposing continuous reassessments of the mandate.
Reorganisation and redeployment are normal in these operations. The first mission to be
described as complex was the successful UNTAC in Cambodia. Current examples of complex
peacekeeping operations include: UNTAET/UNMISET in East Timor; UNAMSIL in Sierra
Leone; and MONUC in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
The Secretary-General, with the approval of the Security Council, appoints the head of
peacekeeping operations in a mission area. This person determines the further delegation of
authority in the field on behalf of the Secretary-General. The chief of the military component in
a peacekeeping operation (the Force Commander or Chief Military Observer) is also appointed
by the Secretary-General. He/she is given appropriate authority over all military units and
personnel in the mission area in light of operational requirements. Therefore, the SRSG is a
specially-appointed individual who exercises diplomatic and political authority in the mission
area.
An SRSG supported by political and mediation staff conducts diplomatic efforts to

resolve the conflict. The following are the roles and responsibilities of the Office of the SRSG:
• Manages the political aspects of the mission to include the resolution and the mandate;
• Provides leadership to the mission;
• Plans the process: political / end-state / vision / steps in the process;
• Coordinates the overall operation by providing unity of effort and harmonising that effort
through personal leadership;
• Coordinates the United Nations’ response on the ground; coordinates all policy and
operational objectives; examines and supervises the roles of the various components in
the mission area;
• Conducts aspects of peacekeeping, such as mediation and negotiation, with the various
parties; encourages these parties to engage in negotiation; facilitates international action
to alleviate human suffering; and
• Executes the Security Council Resolution based on delegation of responsibility from the
Secretary-General.
The Civilian Administrative component is headed by the Chief Administration Officer

(CAO). The Chief Administration Officer is an international civil servant, normally with
extensive experience in UN peacekeeping operations and in UN administration. He/she plans
and forecasts requirements in areas of logistics, personnel, and finance; provides field
administration to all components of the mission; and advises the Head of Mission.
The Civilian Administration component consists of United Nations employees. In this

component one can find International Civil Servants supported for managerial, administrative,
and clerical tasks by locally recruited staff. Translators, clerks, drivers, and janitors are
examples of the support contracted to local staff.
The Civilian Administration’s tasks in support of the mission may include:
• Supply support, procurement and re-supply

• Food services
• Transportation
• Maintenance of vehicles and equipment
• Field construction engineering and technical services
• Aviation and air services
• Signals and communications
• Personnel administration and services
• Security services
• Budgeting and financial services
• Health services
• Postal and courier services
• Staff assistance
The Civilian Administration provides full direct support to all the elements in the
mission, according to their needs in the field. Military Observers, Civilian Police and Civilians
are provided with vehicles and, in some cases, even with food and lodging where these are
unavailable due to special geographical constraints, such as the desert in MINURSO. Formed
units are supplied, normally through the use of contractors, with supplies such as food and fuel.
In some operations, the Civilian Administration may even be responsible for supporting the local
government, for examples in UNTAET in East Timor.
Military Component
Generic Organisation
FC
(Force Commander)
COS
(Chief Of Staff)
Military Staff
Formed Units CMO

(Chief Military Observers)
Infantry Units Task Forces Sector HQ UNMO Teams
Medical Engineers
UNMOs Teams
Transport Logistics
The military component includes formed units and MILOBS depending on the size and
complexity of the mission. The Force Commander is always the chief of the military
component, whenever there are formed units. The Chief Military Observer commands the
MILOBS.
The Force Commander provides leadership and exercises command over assigned
forces. He/she will be an outstanding military officer at Major General rank, with ample UN
peacekeeping and command experience and from a troop-contributing country. He/she is
appointed by the Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations. His/her responsibilities
include:
• Command the military component, being also the main military advisor to the SRSG on
military issues. The Force Commander may also be designated Head of Mission if an
SRSG is not appointed;
• Execute the military mission; and
• Be responsible for discipline and conduct.
Military Staff is mostly integrated by professional officers from the troop-contributing

countries. In some small or traditional peacekeeping operations, these officers have Military
Observers status for the UN and deploy as individuals. In complex peacekeeping or large
missions, the military staff includes Non-Commissioned Officers in supporting roles, and all
members are deployed as Staff Officers (formed units type). The international composition is a
characteristic of UN Military Staff and is designed to ensure impartiality and proportional
representation of the TCCs. They accomplish the normal duties of Staff Officers, and they
normally have ranks from Major to Colonel. Each Field Mission will organise its military staff
in accordance with the size, complexity, and mandate of the operations.
The Formed Units assigned to peacekeeping missions are led by a designated Force
Commander. In the majority of situations, formed military units:
• Consist of battalion-size units (Officers, NCOs and Soldiers);
• Are organised with up to three Motorised Infantry Companies, one Mechanised Infantry
Company (Armoured Personnel Carriers), and are supported by a Headquarters
Company;
• Are normally armed with weapons up to cal 12.7 machine guns and 81 mm mortars in
traditional peacekeeping. This may vary based on a mission’s mandate. In some
UNPKOs with a stronger mandate, heavy armour is deployed, as well as attack
helicopters;
• Normally are organised in military style with a command and control central structure;
• Provide a large number of small armed detachments for manning positions, observation
posts, and checkpoints or ground patrols; and
• May include, depending on the size of the mandate:
− Engineers, for camp and road maintenance and construction, potable water, etc.;
− Medical, at different levels with the mission to provide the medical support to all
the mission personnel;
− Transport, such as land transport with transport sub units (trucks, buses, cars, etc),
air transport (aircraft and helicopters), and even sea/river transport with ferries,
boats and ships of different capabilities.
Formed units will strongly contribute to the creation of a secure environment in support of peace.
They deploy with their own equipment and specialised supplies, therefore having a large degree
of self-sufficiency.
Military Observers (MILOBS or UNMOs) are a group of international officers, usually

under the command of a Chief Military Observer. They must have a strong professional
background and receive specific training prior to deployment. In addition, these officers are:
• Unarmed, wearing their national uniforms and ranks, and the UN symbols on their
shoulder patch and blue beret;
• Normally with the ranks of Captain to Lieutenant Colonel; and
• Organised in groups and small teams distributed in all the area of responsibility of the
mission. Individuals from different TCCs always form the teams.
The tasks assigned to MILOBS may include the

following:
• Observe and report cease-fire violations;
• Liaise and communicate between factions;
• Patrol and report on isolated areas;
• Investigate accidents;
• Inspect and verify arms agreements;
• Negotiate and mediate between factions;
• Assist in cross-boundary movements;
• Facilitate body or POW exchange;
• Supervise the disarmament of militia and
military forces;
• Monitor the separation or withdrawal of
troops;
• Supervise the destruction of armaments;
• Observe and report alleged abuses of
Human Rights;
• Assist in the conduct of a referendum or Lt Col Smailes, a UK UNAMSIL Military
election; Observer, discusses their work with farmers in
• Provide assistance to humanitarian Sector West, UNAMSIL. (Photo by Kemal Saiki,
2003)
agencies; and
• Supervise disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration and cantonment of military forces.
The Civilian Police component is playing an increasingly important role in United

Nations peacekeeping. Civilian Police officers help build confidence in local communities. The
Police Commissioner has authority over all CIVPOL deployed in the mission. His/her primary
function is to assist and advise the political component SRSG and is also responsible for internal
police discipline and conduct. One of the first components of Civilian Police (CIVPOL) to be
deployed was in the Congo in the 1960s and has been part of the United Nations Force in Cyprus
for more than 30 years. Since 1990 the police presence in every peacekeeping mission has been
a regular feature. The role and functions of Civilian Police are constantly changing and are
directed towards the sustainable law and order capacity of the nation and assist in the
development of good governance.
Since the 1990s their roles have varied from monitoring, advising, and assisting, to their
executive role in recent complex missions. Executive roles are mandated normally in the
political context of a lack of national government authorities or their inability to maintain law
and order. In these cases, the United Nations Civil Police carry out their duties as in their home
country, with powers to arrest and investigate local citizens.
Organised in groups and teams under the command of a Civilian Police Commissioner,
Civilian Police (CIVPOL) have the following responsibilities:
• Ensure that law and order are maintained effectively and impartially;
• Ensure that human rights and criminal justice standards are fully respected;
• Monitor law enforcement activities of local officials;
• Supervise or control the local civilian police;
• Carry out general police duties, such as the investigation of incidents;
• Supervise the return of refugees and POWs;
• Supervise the demobilisation of local police forces;
• Assist in registration and election procedures; and
• Assist in the retraining of local police forces.
Since the end of the Cold War, there has been an upsurge in the number and intensity of
civil wars and inter-ethnic conflicts. These have caused large-scale humanitarian crises with
extensive loss of life, massive displacement of people, and widespread damage to societies in
complicated political and military environments. To address these complex emergencies, the
United Nations has upgraded its capacity to respond quickly and effectively. The General
Assembly in 1991 established the Inter-Agency Standing Committee to coordinate the
international response to humanitarian crises.
Many actors, including governments, non-government organisations (NGOs), and United

Nations Agencies, seek to respond simultaneously to such emergencies. The Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) works with these groups to ensure that there is a
coherent framework within which everyone can contribute promptly and effectively to the
overall effort.
Those involved in the Human Rights component are civilian specialists under the
direction of a representative appointed by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. Their
tasks include the investigation and follow-up incidents where alleged violations of Human Rights
have taken place. They have a very important role in complex peacekeeping, as one of the
characteristics of these operations is the recurrence of human rights violations toward the local
population, especially women and children.
These are groups of civilians usually headed by a Humanitarian Coordinator. The

Humanitarian Coordinator does not command humanitarian elements; rather he/she provides
international and field coordination to both agencies and NGOs. He/she provides guidance on
policy and allocates tasks. He/she also provides advice to the political, military, and civilian
police components, as required.
Conflicts strongly affect the weak elements of any society. Women, children, and the
elderly suffer. Diseases, lack of health support, and a strong diminution of the living standards
of the population will accompany conflict. The humanitarian elements will use all of their
resources to alleviate the crisis and support the return of the population to their normal lives.
Their collective responsibilities include the following:
• Food distribution
• Medical and shelter supply
• Other necessities for living
• Development projects
• Reconstruction efforts
Humanitarian assistance components work based on a strong principle of impartiality,

and their presence in a conflict area is always appreciated. Humanitarian workers normally
know the area and the people and arrive in the field before the peacekeepers. They should be
highly respected by all, as they are doing a dangerous and difficult job to mitigate the effects of
crisis and conflict.
Not all of the missions have

the mandate of supervising and
organising free and fair elections.
Where the mandate, exists there is an
“Electoral Component.” It consists
of civilians, mostly recruited through
the system of United Nations
Volunteers and organised in regional
groups under the authority of a Chief
Electoral Officer who:
• Monitors the process of
elections;
• Verifies on behalf of the
international community that
A woman voting in Muhira late morning in the reorganisation of
the elections are free and fair. elections in Kanyosha, Nyabiraba, Muhuta, and Isale communes
They are deployed in small teams in in the Bujumbura Rural and Bubanza Provinces. (ONUB Photo,
all the electoral districts of the Martine Perret, 7 June 2005)
mission area.
The multi-functional nature of peacekeeping operations and the complementary roles of

each component in the fulfilment of a mandate require cooperation and integration of efforts.
In complex peacekeeping operations all components must be considered and act as equal
partners. Each provides a different capability in the support of peace. The SRSG and the SRSG
office represent the political factor. The other components are elements that they use or
coordinate in order to fulfil the mandate. For example, the Disarmament, Demobilisation and
Reintegration process is a combined task. The military provide security and trained personnel to
receive, inspect, store, and destroy the weapons. They provide, together with the Civilian Police,
a safe and secure context for the parties to disarm.
The Humanitarian Assistance organisations support the effort by supplying food, shelter,
and tools for the demobilised soldiers, and they train them for the reintegration to civilian life.
UNHCR may help the return of displaced families to their homes, thus supporting the whole
process. The Explosive Ordnance Devices (EOD, mines) specialists of the Military component
or UN Mine Action Service support the reintegration of demobilised soldiers, ensuring the safe
use of land and communication lines (roads, bridges, etc.).
Each element has its own organisation, regulations, and objectives. More importantly,
each has its own organisational culture. It is important to understand and know about each
element. This will result in an integration of efforts and cooperation and will allow the full use
of available assets in the mission, thus setting the stage for the success of the peacekeeping
operation.
The chain of command in United Nations peacekeeping operations is normally integrated by the:
1. Secretary-General
2. Special Representative of the Secretary-General
3. Deputy SRSG
4. Force Commander or Chief Military Observer
This may vary in accordance with the organisation and composition of the mission.
Peacekeepers in formed units are commanded by their own officers and non-
commissioned officers. In all cases, discipline is a national responsibility, and the unit or
contingent commander is responsible to the Force Commander.
For discipline, the national chain of command applies to the MILOBS and CIVPOL.
However, the operational and tasking command are commanded by the senior officer in the team
or the element. UN Civilian Administration Staff and civilians of other components are subject
to their own organisation’s regulations.
LESSON 3
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Which of the following are some of the components normally present in a UN

Peacekeeping Operations?
a. Civilian Administration, Red Cross, Doctors Without Borders, Human Rights;
b. Military Observers, Civilian Administration, Secretary-General;
c. Electoral Staff, Civilian Police, Civilian Administration, Military;
d. Human Rights Staff, Red Crescent, MILOBS, Civilian Police.
2. Select two of the following components and describe their purpose(s) in a single paragraph:
Civilian Administration, UN Military Observers, Formed Units, Civilian Police, Human
Rights, Electoral Component, Humanitarian Assistance.
3. What is one of the roles of the Civilian Administration Component?

a. Supply and food services;
b. Transportation and medical services;
c. Field constructions and transportation;
d. Maintenance of UN-owned vehicles and equipment.
4. While you are in the field on a patrolling mission, you notice that a local man’s human
rights are being violated. What do you do?
a. Ignore it and move on. It is a local government issue;
b. Offer assistance to the man;
c. Report the incident through your chain of command;
d. Assume that someone has already sent it to the UNHCR.
5. You find yourself assigned to a mission that has been assigned, as its mandate, the
monitoring of free and fair elections. You have built a good relationship with the local
community leader, who asks you to make sure that no one threatens or interferes with the
voting process. Which of the following will you do?
a. Turn this over to the local authorities;
b. Tell him that you will organise a team of MILOBS to help you discourage anyone
from interrupting the voting process;
c. Remind him that you are only a MILOB and cannot do anything at all;
d. Remind him that the Chief Electoral Officer is a member of the UN mission and is
responsible for verifying that the elections are free and fair.
6. Identify which of the following organisations you would find in the Humanitarian
Assistance Centre of a UN mission.
a. UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), International Committee of the
Red Cross, UNICEF, UNDP;
b. Free the Children, OXFAM, International Committee of the Red Cross;
c. International Committee of the Red Cross, UNICEF, Doctors Without Borders,
World Bank;
d. UN Development Programme (UNDP), Doctors Without Borders, UNHCR.
7. As a MILOB, you are in a mission assigned to a UNMO Team that follows a Military
Component Generic Organisation. What is your chain of command? Select all that apply.
Military Component
Generic Organisation
FC
(Force Commander)
COS
(Chief Of Staff)
Military Staff
Formed Units CMO

(Chief Military Observers)
Infantry Units Task Forces Sector HQ UNMO Teams
Medical Engineers
UNMOs Teams
Transport Logistics
a. Your chain of command is directly to your country’s senior military in the mission;
b. The Force Commander has military control over all assigned military;
c. Your chain of command is through your sector HQ to the Chief Military Observer;
8. As a Military Observer, you will:

a. Always carry a personal weapon;
b. Patrol and report on isolated areas;
c. Never negotiate or mediate between factions;
d. Not be involved with Prisoner of War exchanges.
9. The Humanitarian Assistance Coordinator:

a. Commands over humanitarian elements;
b. Provides international and field coordination to both agencies and NGOs;
c. Never provides advice to the political, military and civilian police components;
d. Does no coordination whatsoever.
10. Which of the following individuals provides leadership and exercises command over
assigned forces in a peacekeeping mission?
a. Humanitarian Coordinator;
b. NGO Organiser;
c. MILOB;
d. Force Commander.
ANSWER KEY
1. c
2. See definitions in text
3. a
4. c
5. d
6. a
7. b
8. b
9. b
10. d

LESSON 4
LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR

UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS
4.1 The UN Charter

Lesson 4 / Legal Framework for UN Peacekeeping Operations 46
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide peacekeepers with the basic information of the legal
framework of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. After completing this lesson, the
• List the process by which the UN initiates a peacekeeping operation;

• Briefly state the concept of a mandate;
• Describe the legal framework for UNPKOs;
• Explain the concept of UN Rules of Engagement (ROE); and
• Describe the impact of the legal framework on personal behaviour.
INTRODUCTION
All United Nations peacekeeping operations are legitimate. Their legitimacy derives
from the fact that they are established by a mandate of the Security Council. Furthermore, the
respect and successful implementation of the mandate requires the support and approval of all
the actors involved in the peacekeeping operation.
On the basic level, it is essential that MILOBS and peacekeepers of all nations, whether
military, civilian police or civilian, understand and respects the legal framework for UN
peacekeeping operations (PKO). The conduct of each individual represents the United Nations,
and any misconduct or mistake at the tactical level may greatly affect the operation. There are
many examples of failures produced as a result of different interpretations of a mandate or other
legal issues. Furthermore, many of the aspects of peacekeeping operations have a legal context,
and these deal with many of the elements of complex interventions: conflict and war; military
intervention by the UN or coalitions; use of force in peace operations; status of individuals and
of forces in peace operations; refugees; internally displaced persons; international aid workers;
and NGOs working in the field.
Thus, the knowledge of the legal framework is a critical issue to include in all pre-
deployment training for UNPKOs and MILOBS.
4.1 The UN Charter
The Charter of the United Nations is the main legal document that states its organisation
and missions. The Charter was signed on 26 June 1945. During the years since its signature,
many amendments have been added to it. The UN Charter does not mention “peacekeeping” or
“peace enforcement.” These types of operations have developed to address particular
circumstances in the latter half of the 20th Century. The level of consent of the parties involved
in the conflict has an effect on the intervention and the legal aspects of the mandate. It is also the
mandate that provides the legal basis for intervention.
Peacekeeping
Peacekeeping is mandated under Chapter VI and requires consent of the state(s) into
which the UN force deploys. In short, there has to be a “peace to keep.” Therefore, there will
normally be a cease-fire in operation, and the situation will be relatively benign. Peacekeepers
and MILOBS must remain impartial toward all the parties involved. The posture of the UN
peacekeeping force is reflected in the Rules of Engagement (ROE), which will normally only
allow for self-defence.
Peace Enforcement
This is authorised under Chapter VII, entitled “Action with respect to threats to the peace,
breaches of the peace and acts of aggression.” The consent of the state or parties is not required.
It is the only legal context for intervention. In some circumstances, the UN will delegate the
authority to a regional organisation, such as NATO.
Today’s peacekeeping missions may contain elements of both Chapter VI and Chapter
VII in their mandate, as in the case of MONUC’s mandate, which is as follows:
• To monitor the implementation of the Cease-fire Agreement and investigate violations of
the cease-fire;
• To establish and maintain continuous liaison with the headquarters of all the parties
military forces;
• To develop, within 45 days of adoption of Resolution 1291, an action plan for the overall
implementation of the Cease-fire Agreement by all concerned with particular emphasis
on the following key objectives: the collection and verification of military information on
the parties forces; the maintenance of the cessation of hostilities and the disengagement
and redeployment of the parties' forces; the comprehensive disarmament, demobilisation,
resettlement and reintegration of all members of all armed groups referred to in Annex A,
Chapter 9.1 of the Cease-fire Agreement; and the orderly withdrawal of all foreign
forces;
• To work with the parties to obtain the release of all prisoners of war, military captives
and remains in cooperation with international humanitarian agencies;
• To supervise and verify the disengagement and redeployment of the parties' forces;
• Within its capabilities and areas of deployment, to monitor compliance with the provision
of the Cease-fire Agreement on the supply of ammunition, weaponry and other war-
related materiel to the field, including to all armed groups referred to in Annex A,
Chapter 9.1;
• To facilitate humanitarian assistance and human rights monitoring, with particular
attention to vulnerable groups including women, children and demobilised child soldiers,
as MONUC deems within its capabilities and under acceptable security conditions, in
close cooperation with other United Nations agencies, related organisations and non-
governmental organisations;
• To cooperate closely with the Facilitator of the National Dialogue, provide support and
technical assistance to him, and coordinate other United Nations agencies' activities to
this effect;
• To deploy mine action experts to asses the scope of the mine and unexploded ordnance
problems, coordinate the initiation of the mine action activities, develop a mine action
plan, and carry out emergency mine action activities as required in support of its
mandate.
Acting under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, the Security Council also
decided that MONUC may take the necessary action, in the areas of deployment of its infantry
battalions and as it deems it within its capabilities, to protect United Nations and co-located JMC
personnel, facilities, installations and equipment, ensure the security and freedom of movement
of its personnel, and protect civilians under imminent threat of physical violence.
The UNSCR will indicate the type of peace operation that it authorises in its own
language. For example, peacekeeping will mention the peace that is to be kept by reference to
any agreement that exists. Peace enforcement will mention that it is authorised under Chapter
VII of the UN Charter and will generally include the phrase “all necessary measures.”
Thereafter, the UN Secretary-General will put his plan together and appoint his Special
Representative (SRSG) and the Force Commander (FC).
The main actors are the Security Council, the General Assembly, and the Secretary-
General. The mandate is a negotiated document, which gives the guidance and context of the
peace operation. The Security Council is the authority for mandating and terminating UN
peacekeeping operations. The mandate and the mission are central to all peacekeepers and
MILOBS. It is a document that comes directly from the Security Council Resolutions. It will
normally be quite specific as to the tasks to be undertaken and will translate readily in missions
to each component of the mission. As the mandate is a document made by consensus, it may
sometimes require an analysis by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) in
order to produce a refined mission statement. The mandate will determine the degree of force
that can be used to execute the mission and provide for the self-defence of individuals, protected
personnel, and the units deployed in the operation.
The following principles apply to the entire structure of the operation, from UNHQ in
New York to the smallest element of the mission.
Legitimacy
Legitimacy derives from international support, adherence to statuary law, and
conventions and credibility of the mission. Composition of the mission, including personnel
from a wide range of states, reinforces legitimacy. In addition, the mission should have a clear
and achievable mandate and act within international and national laws, conventions, and rules
provided in the mandate.
Consent
In the mission area, the consent refers to acceptance of activities by the UN Force by all
recognised parties in the conflict. In today's environment consent becomes fragile. A party may
also withdraw its consent for the mission.
Impartiality and Neutrality

A UN force must be impartial in character. A careful distinction should be made here.
Impartiality deals with actions and the equal treatment of both sides in a conflict. However,
neutrality is a political or diplomatic position.
Use of Force
In peacekeeping operations, force will not be used to carry out the mandate. The use of it
would be considered an enforcement action under Chapter VII of the UN Charter. However, the
non-use of force does not exclude the defence of UN personnel. The use of force should be
clearly defined in the Rules of Engagement (ROE).
UNMEE, MaiAni, Eritrea, 2002. CIMIC Officer coordinates with

Italian Contingent to send their physicians to this village clinic.
This village had been without medical care for over two years.
(Photo by LTC Phyllis Mihalas, G5)
The legal aspects that may impact on UN peacekeeping derive from a number of
elements. These are:
• Legal issues that flow from the UN Charter and the Mandate:
- Legitimacy
- Consent
- Use of Force
• Legal issues that flow from International Law:
- International Humanitarian Law
- International Conventions
- Law of Armed Conflicts
- Human Rights Law
• Elements of National Law:
- Military Law
- Domestic and Criminal Law
• Specific legal documents that are related to the United Nations and Member States’
participation in UN peacekeeping:
- Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA)
- Status of Mission Agreement (SOMA)
- Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the UN (1946)
- Secretary-General’s “Bulletin on the Application of International Humanitarian
Law on UN Peacekeeping Forces” (1999)
- UN Convention on the Safety of UN and Associated Personnel (1994)
- Troop-Contributing Agreements or Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
The Status of Forces may be further impacted by:

• International Tribunals;
• International Criminal Court;
• Human Rights law;
• Evolving Common Law; and
• Landmines treaties.
The impact of the legal framework varies from mission to mission, in accordance with
many variables. For example, Human Rights Law is applicable in peace, conflict, and peace
restoration, while International Humanitarian Law applies uniquely to conflict. In peacekeeping,
the UN is not usually part of the conflict. Therefore, the UN is not party to International
Humanitarian Law Conventions.
Laws Protecting UN Service Personnel
UN Personnel deployed have protections provided for in several international agreements

and treaties. The basic framework is based on:
• UN Convention on the Safety of UN and Associated Personnel (1994)
• Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the UN (1946)
• Law of Armed Conflict (normally for Chapter VII: peace enforcement operations)
UN Convention on the Safety of UN and Associated Personnel (1994)
The UN Safety Convention does not apply in Chapter VII enforcement operations, but it
does apply to peacekeeping (Chapter VI). Its principal areas are defining offences for crimes
against UN personnel (murder, kidnapping, attack) or attacks on UN property. Adopted by the
General Assembly, it entered into force in 1999. It defines UN personnel as those “engaged or
deployed by the Secretary-General.” The Convention also defines the responsibilities of the
state, stating that they:
• May not attack or hinder UN operations or personnel;
• Must ensure the safety of UN personnel;
• Must release detained personnel and treat them in ways consistent with the Geneva
Convention until they are released; and
• Must prosecute or extradite offenders.
Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations (1946)
The Convention on Privileges and Immunities has a wider remit than simply UN
operations. It allows for certain UN personnel to be accorded “experts on mission” status, which
gives them certain immunities, e.g., from arrest or detention.
The privileges include:

• Juridical personality;
• Immunity of property assets; and
• Inviolable premises.
The immunities include:

• Personal arrest;
• Criminal Jurisdiction of the Host State;
• Functional immunity (personal, documents, equipment);
• Income tax;
• Immigration; and
• National Service.
The Secretary-General can waive immunities for any peacekeeper, but not for the High
Commanders positions. MILOBS and CIVPOL are recognised as experts on mission (Article
VI), and their status is quasi-diplomatic. They have functional immunity, immunity from
personal arrest and criminal jurisdiction. However, they are not tax-exempt.
Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC)
LOAC consists of many aspects that regulate the conduct of states and their armed forces
during conflict. Generally, it applies in circumstances of armed conflicts between states,
although there are some principles that apply to non-international armed conflicts.
Peacekeeping operations (Chapter VI) do not amount to international armed conflict.

Therefore, the Geneva Conventions of 1949 will not generally be applicable, nor will the
additional protocols. The application of the LOAC to UN operations depends on several issues,
including:
• The type of conflict; and
• The extent of the contributing state’s obligations in LOAC.
The role of UN forces is recognised in several international treaties, including:

• 1977 Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions 1949 (Arts. 37(1)(d) & 38 re use
of the UN insignia) – The Geneva Convention (GC) of 1949 is designed to safeguard
military personnel who are not or no longer taking part in the fighting and persons not
actively involved in hostilities, particularly civilians. Additional Protocols (AP) of 1977
sensed that the forms of conflict were changing and included other definitions of armed
forces and allowed the application to non-international conflicts.
• UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons 1980 (Protocol II, Art. 8 and
Amended Protocol II, Art. 9 re protection from the effects of mines).
• Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court 1998 provides for attacks against
peacekeepers.
UN Secretary-General’s Bulletin (1999)
For the protection of UN peacekeepers, the UN Secretary-General produced the “Bulletin

on the Application of International Humanitarian Law on UN Peacekeeping Forces” (1999). It
originates from the UNEF Regulations of 1957 stating that, “The Force shall observe the
principles and spirit of the general international Conventions applicable to the conduct of
military personnel.” It is intended to establish the application of LOAC to UN personnel. The
fundamental principles and rules of International Humanitarian Law set out in the Bulletin are
applicable to UN forces. When in situations of armed conflict, they are actively engaged therein
as combatants, to the extent and for the duration of their engagement. The Bulletin also provides
for:
• Protection of Civilian population;
• Means and methods of combat;
• Treatment of civilians and persons “hors de combat”;
• Treatment of detained persons; and
• Protection of the wounded, the sick, and medical and relief personnel.
These are documents signed in consent by the actors involved in a peacekeeping

operation. When a UN force enters a State, a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) will normally
have been agreed upon. This will not be possible if the state has “failed” or if the government is
not in a position to negotiate. In these instances, the UN Convention on Privileges and
Immunities will be considered to apply. A SOFA is not required in Chapter VII (peace
enforcement operations). The UN has a standard form of SOFA (UN DocA/45/594, dated 9 Oct
1990). It is a legal document agreed upon between the United Nations and the host country,
which defines the status of a peacekeeping operation and its members. SOFA is based on and
originates from Articles 104 and 105 of the UN Charter. The SOFA grants the members of a
peacekeeping operation the privileges and immunities given to mission commanders and UN
officials and experts. It has direct influence on the legal status of every peacekeeper and should
be known by all. It is limited to the status of the organisation, representatives of Member States,
UN officials, and experts carrying out missions for the UN.
The SOFA normally includes discussion on:

• Status of national contingents;
• Freedom of movement within the area of operation;
• Ease access to that area;
• Communications facilities necessary for the performing of tasks;
• Respect for local laws and conduct;
• Use of flags, uniforms, and the right to bear arms;
• Privileges and immunities;
• Jurisdiction; and
• Claims and disputes.
Host Nation’s Law
Exclusive jurisdiction for criminal matters is secured under the standard UN SOFA.
However, other aspects of the host nation’s law may impact upon the UN force. The UN force
should act in accordance with the host nation’s law and respect their customs and traditions.
Contributing Country’s Law
UN personnel take their own nation’s law with them. This involves military law
(military offences) and also domestic criminal law. Every peacekeeper and MILOB is subject to
the national laws of his/her own country during his/her tour of duty. The operational command
from the United Nations authority in the mission applies for operational matters. The SRSG or
the commanding authority establishes the guidelines for the conduct of the peacekeepers. The
Code of Conduct must also guide the behaviour of the peacekeepers. Criminal offences are
covered by the contributing nation’s jurisdiction in accordance with the UN standard SOFA. In
any case of a criminal act committed by a United Nations peacekeeper or MILOB during his
participation in the mission, the SOFA will define the responsibilities of the Force, the host
country’s law and the national law of the peacekeeper.
This document is an agreement concluded between the UN and the troop-contributing

country (TCC). It is not strictly a legally binding document, but it may have legal consequences
for the troop-contributing country. It is adapted to each type of contribution and mission.
However, there are some basic guidelines.
• Contribution: category and number of personnel.
• Authority: All personnel in a UNPKO are placed under the operational control of the
UN. The mission commander has the responsibility to maintain order and discipline.
• Duties of the Troop-Contributing Country (TCC): The government has the duty to
ensure that all personnel meet UN standards, and the government must comply with UN
procedures regarding personnel. National personnel cannot accept nor seek instructions
from any authority other than the UN. Each nation agrees to take judicial measures
concerning crimes committed by national personnel assigned to the operation, and they
must keep the mission commander informed of the consequences.
• Duties of the UN: The UN pays for travel and salary of MILOBS, CIVPOL, and civilian
personnel in the mission. It also arranges the rotations of contingents and the transport of
their equipment. The agreement details the financial and logistical aspects of the
participation of a TCC in an operation.
• Communication responsibilities of the UN: The UN informs the TCC in regard to all
relevant information concerning the contribution of personnel and equipment.
The Rules of Engagement (ROE) are operational tools that translate the legal and
political aspects of the Use of Force guidance provided in the mission mandate. These
operational tools are translated into the mission purpose. They represent an accommodation
between the political purpose of the UN deployment, the legal constraints of the force, and the
military mission. The ROE for peacekeeping will normally be restricted to self-defence.
Contributing nations will require their personnel to comply with their own laws; this may require
some national amplification of the ROE to ensure such compliance.
ROE authorise military personnel when force may be used in the conduct of a mission or
operation. Thus, they:
• Codify and quantify the “use of force”;
• Provide guidance to commanders; and
• Assist the soldier in executing his/her mission on the ground.
ROE are not absolute and are issued as guidance (action to be taken if judged to be
necessary) and as a prohibition (order not to take specific actions). ROE are one of the key
documents in any UNPKO. It is essential that they are unambiguous and easy to use.
Peacekeepers have the right to self-defence, which includes the right:

• To defend themselves;
• To protect other UN personnel;
• To protect non-UN personnel under the protection of the UN; and
• To response to a hostile act or demonstrated hostile intent.
No rule limits this inherent right. The Commander has the authority to use all means necessary
to defend the mandate and to defend the units and UN personnel.
The principles for employment of UN ROE are as follows:

• The conduct of UNPKO is guided by international law.
• All personnel must operate within the framework of this document (Guidelines for UN
ROE) that has been formulated in accordance with the parameters set out by the relevant
Security Council Resolutions.
• ROE provide directions to commanders at all levels, governing the use of force within the
mission area. The ROE informs commanders of the constraints imposed and the degrees
of freedom they have, in the course in carrying out their mission.
• Throughout the conduct of peacekeeping operations, where forces are to be used, all
military personnel must comply with the international principles of proportionality, the
minimum use of force, and the requirements to minimise the potential for collateral
damage.
For a better understanding of these principles, it must be understood that:

• The use of force should be applied only when necessary;
• Only minimum force consistent with the threat should be used;
• A proportionate level of response be dealt;
• Activities cease when the hostile acts are stopped;
• Peacekeepers must use escalation procedures;
• The use of deadly force should be controlled by leaders on the ground;
• Collateral damage should be minimised;
• Targets must be positively identified; and
• Restrictions may be applied by the Force Commander.
UN ROE Master List
Although the UN guidelines for ROE define what should be included in future ROE for
specific UNPKOs, adjustments may be introduced if needed. The UN master list of numbered
ROE provides the rules from which specific ROE for future UNPKOs should be drawn. The
master list is intended to cover the broad spectrum of requirements for any UNPKO. However, it
is not deemed to be exhaustive and may be subject to subsequent adjustments as required. Based
on this master list, specific ROE will be developed for each mission in accordance with all legal
aspects and factors detailed beforehand in this module. Each armed peacekeeper will be issued
an “ROE CARD”, which will include the ROE applicable in the mission.
The five basic UN ROE are:

1. Use of force
2. Use of weapons systems
3. Authority to carry weapons
4. Authority to detain, search and disarm
5. Reactions to civil action or unrest
Options of Each ROE
Each of the five basic ROE has a set of pre-determined options, with different levels of
use of force and for the control of their employment. The options for the “use of force” ROE are
detailed below as an example.
1.1 Use of force, up and including deadly force, to defend oneself and other UN
personnel against a hostile act or a hostile intent, is authorised.
1.2 Use of force, up to and including deadly force, to defend other international personnel
against a hostile act or a hostile intent, is authorised.
1.3 Use of force, up to and including deadly force, to resist attempts to abduct or detain
other UN personnel, is authorised.
1.4 Use of force, up to and including deadly force, to resist attempts to abduct or detain
other international personnel, is authorised.
1.5 Use of force, up to and including deadly force, to protect UN installations, areas or
goods designated by the head of the mission in consultation with the Force
Commander, against a hostile act, is authorised.
1.6 Use of force, up to and including deadly force, to protect key installations, areas or
goods designated by the head of the mission in consultation with the Force
Commander, against a hostile act, is authorised.
1.7 Use of force, excluding deadly force, to protect key installations, areas or goods
designated by the Head of Mission in consultation with the Force Commander,
against a hostile act, is authorised.
1.8 Use of force, up to and including deadly force, to defend any civilian person who is in
need of protection against a hostile act or hostile intent, when competent local
authorities are not in a position to render immediate assistance is authorised. When
and where possible, permission to use force should be sought from the immediate
superior commander.
1.9 Use of force, to prevent the escape of any apprehended or detained person, pending
hand-over to appropriate civilian authorities is authorised.
1.10 Use of force, up to and including deadly force, against any limits or intends to limit
freedom of movement is authorised.
The documents produced and signed at the highest level of the United Nations, the host
countries, the actors involved in the operation, and the TCCs all have direct influence on the
mission, the tasks, and the responsibilities of each individual peacekeeper. The mandate
normally describes the end state and governs the activity of all peacekeepers on the ground. A
clear and achievable mandate is important so the mission can be understood clearly by all
peacekeepers.
Duties and responsibilities are deduced from the legal framework, which provides
legitimacy to the peace operation. The objectives stated in the mandate are the guidance and
mission of the peacekeepers. All peacekeepers should comply with these terms of reference:
• The legal framework requires of all peacekeepers a complete impartiality;

• It requires them to obey and respect the Geneva Convention;
• The use of force must be limited to the minimum, in accordance with clearly defined and
agreed upon rules of engagement; and
• Any crime or grave misconduct in the mission will be dealt with judicially by the home
country of the person involved.
LESSON 4
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Which of the following has an impact on the UN peacekeeper? Select all that apply.
a. The mandate normally describes the end state of the mission;
b. The mission must be clearly understood;
c. The peacekeeper must be impartial;
d. They must obey and respect the Geneva Convention;
e. They must apply force in the context of the UN ROE;
f. Crimes or grave misconduct in the mission will be dealt with by the home country,
and in some cases, by the host country’s justice.
2. List the five basic UN ROE.
3. What is a mandate?
4. Where do mandates come from?

a. Economic and Social Committee;
b. International Criminal Court of Justice;
c. Security Council;
d. Secretary-General.
5. Name the four principles for UN peacekeeping operations.
6. The role of UN forces is recognised in which of the following?

a. The mission mandate;
b. The Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court 1998;
c. The UN Charter;
d. Each nation-state’s Constitution.
7. List at least 5 of the areas given to mission commanders and UN officials and experts as a
result of the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA).
8. In the UN Rules of Engagement (ROE), peacekeepers have the right to which of the
following? Select all that apply.
a. To defend themselves;
b. To protect other UN personnel;
c. To protect non-UN personnel under the protection of the UN;
d. To respond to a hostile act or demonstrated hostile intent.
9. Which of the following is NOT a principle for employment of the UN ROE?

a. The conduct of UNPKO is guided by international law;
b. All personnel must operate within the framework of the ROE document;
c. All military personnel must comply with the international principles of
proportionality, minimum use of force, and the requirements to minimise the
potential for collateral damage;
d. Use of force is always authorised.
10. Select the false statement.

a. Not all of the UN peacekeeping operations are legitimate;
b. Legitimacy comes from the fact that each mission is mandated by the UN Security
Council;
c. The Charter of the UN is the main legal document that states its organisation and
missions;
d. Chapter VI of the UN Charter requires the consent of each of the parties for a PKO
mission.
ANSWER KEY
1. a, b, c, d, e, f
2. The five basic UN ROE are: Use of Force; Use of weapons systems;
Authority to carry weapons; Authority to detain, search and disarm; and
Reactions to civil action or unrest.
3. A mandate is a negotiated document, which gives the guidance and

context of the peace operation. The mandate and the mission are central to
all peacekeepers and MILOBS.
4. c
5. The four principles for UNPKO are: Legitimacy; Consent; Impartiality

and neutrality; and Use of forces.
6. b
7. Any five of the following is correct: Status of national contingents;

freedom of movement within the area of operations; easy access to that
area; communications facilities necessary for performing the tasks; respect
for local laws and conduct; use of flags, uniforms, and the right to bear
arms; privileges and immunities; jurisdiction, and claims and disputes.
8. a, b, c, d
9. d
10. a
LESSON 5
STRESS MANAGEMENT

5.2 Types of Stress
Lesson 5 / Stress Management 62
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide peacekeepers with the basic concept of stress and
how to deal with stress symptoms. After completing this lesson, the student should be able to:
• Define in general terms what stress is;

• List and explain three types of stress; and
• Explain stress management techniques and guidelines.
INTRODUCTION
Peacekeepers and MILOBS are both competent and resilient professionals working under
extraordinary conditions. They have an increased risk of stress due to the hazardous, austere,
and isolated environments in which they work. The occupational complexities that characterise
peacekeeping operations, as well as the prolonged separation from family and other support
systems, exacerbate these risks. The stress that peacekeepers undergo in this context represents
predictable occupational hazards and normal responses to extraordinary circumstances. Most
peacekeeping operations are characterised by complex emergencies. It is important to promote
resilience and functional stress management through education, prevention, and advocacy.
Stress management has become a very fashionable and trendy “concept.” It has been
used in a lot of different ways, and for a lot of different reasons. But what does it mean exactly?
Stress management refers to the identification and analysis of problems related to stress,
as well as the application of a variety of tools to alter either the source of stress or the experience
of stress. The main objective of stress management is to simply enable an individual to function
at his/her optimal level in a healthy and positive manner.
Why does the United Nations care about stress management?

• The United Nations cares for their staff members and uniformed peacekeepers.
• It is a primary goal to avoid negative effects to individuals following participation in
peacekeeping operations.
• Psychologically stable and content personnel increase operational readiness and
efficiency.
What is Stress?
Stress is the physical and psychological process of reacting to and coping with events or
situations that place pressure upon a human being. Stress is often a normal reaction to an
abnormal situation. It may then serve the function of self-preservation and protection in a
threatening situation, enabling one to: (1) concentrate full attention on a particular threat; (2)
mobilise maximum physical energy; and (3) prepare for action in order to respond to the threat.
Stress serves and has always served a purpose. For our prehistoric ancestors and for us, stress
had and still has great informative value. It has allowed us to survive up to the present day.
Reminders:
• Stress is inherent to survival.
• Stress is necessary for human development.
• Stress is initially positive, but too much is unhealthy.
• Stress is addictive.
• Stress is manageable.
The Stress Reaction
The stress reaction is a positive and normal reaction, necessary for the protection of the
individual, as well as for optimal performance. It prepares the individual for “explosive”
performance. You can observe this by:
• The pupils getting bigger, which improves vision; and
• The pulse increasing, which is the heart pumping more blood to muscles.
A stress reaction is a psychological phenomenon that affects performance, emotions,

behaviour, and psychological well-being. It is also a physical process that makes the body ready
to react to threat. This reaction is often described with the three F’s, which are Fright, Flight and
Fight, suggesting that the stress reaction prepares the body for these situations.
What affects an individual’s reaction to stress?

• Life prior to a situation influences the reaction of the individual.
• If you have experienced similar situations you have “solved the problem before.”
• With education and skills come the set of solutions that are facilitated by the education
and skill you may have.
• With training comes experience but also the trust needed between you and your peers and
officers necessary for efficient stress management.
• Life brings experience.
• Physical fitness increases your resistance to physical, as well as psychological, trauma.
• It is easier to find solutions if you trust your own ability to do so.
• Spirituality and faith may support you in times of difficulty or danger.
5.2 Types of Stress
Peacekeepers are exposed regularly to both minor and major incidents, which can result
in the build up of stress. Three types of stress are described, which are listed below in the order
of increasing intensity:
• Basal (basic) Stress
• Cumulative Stress
• Critical Traumatic Stress (Traumatic Stress)
Basal Stress
Everyone experiences basal, or minor, stress on a daily basis. This can generate tension,
frustration, irritation or anger. A person’s reaction, or his/her vulnerability, is by and large
determined by his/her physical and psychological strength or weakness. MILOBS and
peacekeepers should be aware that they will often be confronted with stressful situations, even
more so if the mission is in a conflict zone.
Basal stress is unavoidable but may vary according to the normal circumstances of
individuals. For individuals with a steady relationship, the stress of being away from their
“significant other” may constitute major stress not experienced by individuals with such
relationships.
Typical areas of basal stress for soldiers in the field include:

• Lack of influence on their own situation;
• Lack of food variety;
• Repetitive or boring duties;
• Limited possibility for contemplation or privacy;
• Separation from other members of the unit;
• Minimal recreational possibilities; and
• Limited contact with loved ones at home.
Cumulative Stress
Cumulative stress is the result of strain that occurs too often (frequency), lasts too long
(duration) and is too severe (intensity). This type of stress is subtle but pervasive. It happens
when people suffer prolonged and unrelieved exposure to a variety of stressors. Cumulative
stress is frequently due to a combination of personal, work, and incident-specific events, which
generate frustration. When it goes unnoticed, or when it is not well managed, cumulative stress
can result in a burnout.
Cumulative stress is an excess of basal stress or other stressors that affect the individual
too often, too long, or too severely. Typical situations can arise from:
• Repetitive situations with lack of respect from superiors;
• Periods with overwhelming responsibilities;
• Periods with insufficient rest; and
• Periods with non-defined operational danger (e.g., harassment, shelling, etc.).
Both basic and cumulative stresses may derive from simple daily activities, or lack
thereof. In peacekeeping missions, it is very important to have something valuable to do. Living
in an unfamiliar environment, with little or no privacy, requires challenging activities and a
strong sense of participation and fulfilment to avoid demoralisation and stress.
Critical Incident Stress (Traumatic Stress)
A critical incident is usually defined as an event out of the range of normal experience. It
is a sudden and unexpected event that makes you loose control. It involves the perception of a
threat to life and can include elements of physical or emotional loss.
Critical Incident Stress (CIS) is a type of stress that is less familiar than basal stress or
cumulative stress. Critical Incident Stress is the reaction to a critical incident. CIS refers to the
unusually strong physical and emotional reactions experienced in the face of a critical incident.
The possibility that peacekeepers will encounter one or more of these traumatic situations in a
conflict zone is very high. The trauma is very often exacerbated because the peacekeeper is
unable to assist or change the plight of helpless victims.
CIS, or traumatic stress, describes the situation where one major emotional incidence
influences well-being. Typical examples in peacekeeping situations include:
• Friends or oneself being affected by road traffic accidents;
• Local atrocities;
• Being under direct fire;
• Negative news from family or friends at home; and
• Direct physical threat or hostage situations.
Few people remain unaffected by stress, and reactions may differ considerably. It is
important that all accept that the reaction to stress is as individual as all other reactions to
physical, psychological, or emotional situations. Some find that CIS is easier to live with than
cumulative stress, as the reactions are “more accepted” by others than with cumulative stress,
where a connection between the situation and the reaction may be more obscure. The severity of
reactions will depend on various factors relating to the incident, as well as to the individual (e.g.,
suddenness, intensity, duration, available social support; individual’s past experience, personal
loss, perception of threat, personal ability to cope, etc.). Some reactions are immediate. Others
may occur days, weeks, or even several months after the incident, resulting in Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD).
Critical incident stress-related reactions are normal reactions experienced by normal

people following an abnormal event. These reactions or symptoms can interfere with an
individual’s ability to cope at work or at home. For a vast majority of people, most symptoms
will diminish in intensity and frequency within a few days or weeks. In some cases, they may
last up to three months after the event.
Preparing for Stress
Planning ways to address stress has the same elements as planning a military action. It
must be based on experience, practice, and training. Seek to understand the situation in the
mission. Find out what types of situations you may encounter and how you might be expected to
perform. It is important that officers share information with their units. Operational and
emotional parameters should be explained to all. Training and planning for how to manage one’s
own stress or that of others must be part of the preparations. Training must be repeated in
mission training sessions.
Suddenness and unpredictability are frequently the essence of a critical incident. One can
never really be prepared to fully and totally face such an event. As with any military operation,
intelligence, planning, and briefing on stress management must be followed by individual
practice and preparation so that everyone will trust that they have the knowledge needed to
respond optimally. If you are prepared for the situations you encounter, you have a chance to be
prepared to meet the way they affect you.
• If you encounter a stress reaction and are prepared for it, you may acknowledge what is
behind the reaction, relate to it, and deal with it in an appropriate manner.
• All personnel having experienced stress-related reactions should be identified and offered
follow-up upon return from the mission.
• National experience on stress management should be collected for the good of future
deployments.
To prepare for managing stress is just as important as knowing what to do and what not to do!
Dealing with Stress
It is important for
peacekeeping personnel to recognise
the signs of stress and to be able to
cope with the effects of traumatic
situations. Most stress can be
managed. Determination and self-
discipline are keys to finding the
source(s) of stress and coping with it
before it has escalated to an
uncontrollable level. The following
guidelines have been found to be
effective in stress management
strategy development:
• Identify sources of stress;
• Know personal limitations; Maintaining a positive and up-beat attitude is an effective
• Manage time well; strategy in managing stress while serving at a mission.
• Be assertive but not aggressive; (MINUSTAH, UN Photo #87018, Sophia Paris, August 2005)
• Accept creative challenges;
• Get enough sleep;
• Rest or conserve strength;
• Eat regularly;
• Control intake of alcohol, tobacco, etc.;
• Make time for relaxation and physical exercise;
• Develop satisfying friendships and relationships; and
• Have a positive attitude and a sense of humour.
Stress Must be Expected
If you are to be prepared for the stressful situations you will encounter, you must be
prepared for the way they affect you. If you get a stress reaction and are prepared for it, you will
have a chance to acknowledge what is behind the reaction, relate to it, and deal with it. This is
how to prepare for stress management.
Non-Productive Stress Management
Many see alcohol as a way to relax. Limited consumption of alcohol is acceptable in

social settings, but alcohol as a means of relaxation only adds a new problem instead of solving
the problems of stress. The use of alcohol as a recreational drug is unacceptable! Excessive use
of alcohol or driving under the influence of alcohol is a major problem in many peacekeeping
missions.
Sex also does not solve or heal stress-related reactions. DPKO strongly advises against
having sex at the mission. Having sex with commercial sex workers or others from the local
population is against the Code of Conduct.
Many people do not react to subtle changes in their own emotions or behaviour but may
identify it in others. If you identify changes that may be stress-related in yourself or others, you
should take necessary action and seek treatment, if appropriate.
Symptoms of Stress-Related Disease
The reactions and symptoms of stress-related disease may be physical, cognitive,

emotional, or behavioural. Some examples of each type of reaction include:
• Physical symptoms: fatigue, cold sweats, elevated blood pressure, increased heart rate
with pains resembling angina pectoris or systematic tremors;
• Cognitive symptoms: temporary confusion, difficulty concentrating, slowing of thought
processes, difficulty in understanding situations and making decisions, racing ideas;
• Emotional symptoms: anxiety, feelings of guilt or sadness, feeling defeated and
apathetic, anger, irritability, having a scapegoat mentality, feeling all-powerful, excited
and invulnerable; and
• Behavioural symptoms: dangerous driving, hyperactivity, endless discussions and
senseless arguments, staying too long in the office.
Reactions to stress may also show in the performance of the individual.

• Concentrating on the tasks at hand may become increasingly difficult;
• Individuals normally in command of their performance start forgetting appointments and
decisions, change their priorities, and become forgetful; and
• Individuals who are normally decisive suddenly stop making decisions.
The physical side of stress reactions most often experienced are:

• Spells of dizziness and nausea;
• Higher than normal pulse with a feeling that the heart rushes away in periods; and
• Episodes of sweating.
Although the range of emotional reactions to trauma is limited, such reactions may vary
from one individual to another. The time it takes for these reactions to appear, as well as their
severity, depends on the person's character and vulnerability at the time. These reactions
typically manifest themselves when a normally well-balanced individual starts displaying
episodes of:
• Unprovoked anger;
• “Emotional incontinence” – good things become good “beyond belief” and sad things
become sad “without limits”;
• A feeling of sadness or depression without any known reason; and
• A feeling of not being able to perform to expectation.
Stress reactions lead to a number of other changes in the individual. A number of

reactions may lead to a change in eating habits. These changes may include bulimia, anorexia,
or an increase in eating, caring less about weight changes. In addition, those who are normally
impeccably tidy may become less particular with their personal hygiene. Behavioural changes
often lead to withdrawal from the company of others. Always beware of those who suddenly
become “invisible.”
The normal emotional state of an individual fluctuates between happy and unhappy, with
an average around “content.” In a mentally healthy individual, every day will have its highs and
lows. Stress reactions often make highs and lows go away, and the person becomes emotionally
“flat.” The most important warning sign for a “quiet sufferer” is the withdrawal, as the person
becomes a quiet nonentity and is easily overlook.
Stress management is like mental first aid and should be approached in the same manner:
• Observe that someone (maybe yourself) is in need of help.
• Identify the agent or cause that has initiated the process, leading to a need for help.
• Change the situation of the person so that this process can no longer affect him.
• By caring and applying your knowledge, you start reversing the process.
• Continue caring until the process is fully reversed.
• If you cannot reverse the process fully, seek professional help.
If you cannot manage your own stress, ask someone for support. If you see somebody in
need of support, do not shy away. Instead, apply what you have learned. Listen, comfort, and
support others. If you identify physical, behavioural, or emotional changes, or changes in
performance, look for stress factors. If you believe that stress may be the cause of the changes,
seek to identify which stresses are present and how they might be addressed. If possible, remove
the individual from any influence that may add to the stress.
Most situations can be solved at the unit level. It is no shame to the units or to the
individuals involved if this level of support is not sufficient. In these cases, refer to professional
stress management.
LESSON 5
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. Stress reactions are normal reactions to an abnormal or difficult situation.

a. True
b. False
2. List and describe the three types of stress, in the order of increasing intensity.
3. Cumulative stress is the result of which factors?

a. Normalcy, intensity, and frequency;
b. Abnormalcy, difficulty, and frequency;
c. Frequency, duration, and intensity;
d. Simplicity, severity, and frequency.
4. When unmanaged or unnoticed, cumulative stress can result in burnout.

a. True
b. False
5. Basal stress is frequently due to a combination of personal, work and incident specific
events, which generate frustration.
a. True
b. False
6. What are some of the factors that contribute to basal and cumulative stresses? Select all that
apply.
a. Lack of influence;
b. Little variation in food;
c. Few work challenges;
d. Limited sleep and privacy;
e. Limited recreation.
7. Which of the following is a non-productive way to reduce stress? Select all that apply.
a. Seek help within your unit;
b. Use recreational drugs;
c. Increase exercise and recreation;
d. Look for companionship and sexual encounters.
8. As an MILOB, you come across a new member to your team site who has become
despondent, withdrawn, is not eating on a regular basis, and has become very argumentative.
Because he/she is new to the mission, you believe that he/she misses their home and family.
What is the best course of action?
9. Difficulty concentrating, temporary confusion, and the slowing of thought processes are all
examples of:
a. Physical symptoms of stress;
b. Cognitive symptoms of stress;
c. Emotional symptoms of stress;
d. Behavioural symptoms of stress.
10. The physical side of stress reactions that are most often experienced includes all of the
following EXCEPT:
a. Episodes of sweating;
b. Higher than normal pulse;
c. Increased migraine headaches;
d. Spells of dizziness and nausea.
ANSWER KEY
1. a
2. Basal (Basic) Stress, Cumulative Stress, Critical Incident Stress
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. a, b, c, d, e
7. b, d
8. Refer to stress-management techniques
9. b
10. c
LESSON 6
ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOURS OF

MILOBS AND PEACEKEEPERS
6.1 Code of Conduct

Lesson 6 / Attitudes and Behaviours of MILOBS and Peacekeepers 74
LESSON OBJECTIVES
Peacekeepers and MILOBS represent the UN and their own countries. Their conduct, both
negative and positive, impacts on the success of the whole mission. The aim of this course is to
provide a standard of behaviour for peacekeepers in the field, particularly in the areas of cultural
awareness, gender, and child protection. After completing this lesson, the student should be able
to:
• List the “Dos and Don’ts” of the Code of Conduct;

• Explain the consequences of failing to abide by the Code of Conduct;
• To provide UN peacekeepers the information required to improve their ability to work and
live in a multi-cultural environment;
• Be familiar with the concepts of cultural awareness and how to work effectively within a
multi-cultural environment;
• Explain the impact of conflict on the roles and relationships of men and women;
• Explain how the presence of peacekeepers may further impact these roles in positive and
negative ways;
• Describe the role of peacekeepers in protecting children in situations of armed conflict; and
• Explain the impact that violent conflict has on children.
INTRODUCTION
The UN embodies the aspirations of the people of the world for peace. In this context, the
UN Charter requires that all peacekeeping personnel must maintain the highest standards of
integrity and conduct. Peacekeepers, whether military, civilian police, or civilian, must comply
with the guidelines on International Humanitarian Law for Forces Undertaking UN Peacekeeping
Operations and all applicable portions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the
fundamental basis of all their standards. It is imperative that peacekeepers understand and respect
the differences in cultures; understand the significance of gender relations in the work they
undertake; and uphold the rights of children in situations of armed conflict.
6.1 Code of Conduct
Peacekeepers represent the UN and are present in the mission area to aid in the recovery
from the trauma of conflict. As a result, they must consciously be prepared to accept social
constraints in their public and private lives in order to do the work and to pursue the ideals of the
UN. Peacekeepers are accorded certain Privileges and Immunities through agreements
negotiated between the host country and the UN solely for the purpose of discharging
peacekeeping duties. Expectations of the world community and the local population will be high
and the actions of peacekeepers must be correspondingly high. Their actions and conduct will be
closely observed.
The following guiding principles summarise the core values of the UN in its task of
maintaining international peace and security. They must be borne in mind by every peacekeeper.
• Impartiality: Even-handedness. Not being favourable, preferential or supportive of any

group, person or plan over another.
• Integrity: Honesty. The ability to know and do what is morally right.
• Respect: Acceptance of others’ ways. Giving value to others’ rights, customs, behaviours
and wishes even if they are very different from your own.
• Loyalty: Unqualified support. Fully and always supporting someone or something even
when circumstances or others may challenge this support.
In the following portion of this section, each principle is explained and accompanied by
relevant “Dos and Don’ts” to guide peacekeepers. Some of these guidelines will often apply to
more than one principle.
Impartiality
The impartial and objective pursuit of the mission’s mandate, regardless of provocation
and challenge, is essential to preserving the legitimacy of the operation and the consent and
cooperation of conflicting parties. The effort to maintain impartiality, however, must not
promote inaction. On the contrary, peacekeepers must discharge their tasks firmly and
objectively without fear or favour. Importantly, neither side should gain unfair advantage as a
result of the activities of a peacekeeping operation.
Do
• Remain impartial at all times.
• Understand the mission mandate and any subsidiary directives and operational
instructions.
Don’t
• Take any action that might jeopardise the mission.
• Make any unauthorised press statements.
• Improperly disclose or use information.
• Become involved in any illegal sexual liaisons.
Integrity
Personal integrity will establish both credibility and authority for the UN peacekeeper. It
is essential to the establishment of trust with the host population and as an expression of
commitment to the achievement of the mission mandate. Integrity involves behaving
professionally at all times whether or not you are under observation.
Do
• Conduct yourself in a professional and disciplined manner.
• Support and encourage proper conduct.
• Properly account for all money and property assigned to you.
• Care for all UN equipment placed in your charge.
The most obvious example of a lapse in integrity is undertaking some form of

misconduct, even one of a minor nature. Misconduct includes any act, omission, or negligence
that is in violation of Human Rights; UN values; mission SOPs or directives; or any other
applicable rules, regulations, or administrative instructions.
Don’t
• Wilfully damage or misuse UN property or equipment.
• Use a vehicle improperly or without authorisation.
• Participate in any illegal activities or corrupt or improper practices.
• Attempt to use your position for personal advantage, such as to make false claims, to
accept benefits, or to engage in criminal acts.
• Enter into any improper sexual relationships.
Respect
Within a UN peacekeeping mission there will usually be a wide diversity of nationalities,

races, religions, and cultural backgrounds. Part of the strength of the UN lies in this diversity,
and some cultures and behaviours may be vastly different from your own. Treat all people with
dignity and respect. Show respect and understanding of diverse points of view, and demonstrate
this understanding in your daily work. Examine your own biases and prejudices, and avoid
stereotypical attitudes. Also, exercise restraint at all times in the expression of personal views.
Do
• Respect the environment of the host country.
• Treat the inhabitants of the host country with respect, courtesy, and consideration.
• Support and aid the sick and weak.
• Respect all other peacekeepers regardless of rank, ethnic or national origin, race, or gender.
Don’t
• Be abusive or uncivil to any member of the public.
• Use unnecessary violence or threaten anyone in custody.
• Collect unauthorised souvenirs.
• Commit any act that could result in suffering of the local population, especially women,
children, or the elderly.
Loyalty
Remain loyal to the values, objectives and goals of the UN and the mission mandate.
You are in the mission to serve the interests of the UN and the international community. Do not
pursue any national or personal agenda. Stand by decisions that are in the UN’s interests even if
they are unpopular or different from your personal interests. If you are in a decision-making
position, resist undue political pressure from any faction or government. The sole consideration
for all you actions and decisions is the interest of the UN.
Do
• Dedicate yourself to achieving the goals of the UN in the mission regardless of your
personal views.
• Obey your UN superiors and respect the chain of command.
Don’t
• Bring discredit upon the UN, or your country through improper personal conduct, failure
to perform our duties, or abuse of our positions as peacekeepers.
• Pursue your own personal agenda.
The Blue Helmet’s Code of Conduct
The following ten rules included on the card of the Code of Conduct for the Blue Helmets
summarise the “Dos and Don’ts” associated with the four principles previously discussed.
Each peacekeeper is issued one card as a reminder of his personal code of conduct. Read
it frequently, and do not violate the code. There will be serious personal consequences for you
and possibly for the UN mission if you violate the code. This card is supported by the “We are
United Nations Peacekeepers” card, which sets out the “Dos and Don’ts” in a recognisable
format.
Consequences of Violations of the Code of Conduct
The immunities and privileges of the UN were briefly discussed in Lesson 4. These
privileges and immunities are granted to you by the Secretary-General for the performance of
your official duties and in the interest of the UN. They are not for your personal benefit.
Depending on your category (formed military contingent, MILOB/Civilian Police, civilian), the
immunities and privileges apply in different ways. However, regardless of application, you are
still liable to disciplinary action and, in serious cases, criminal proceedings for violations of the
Code of Conduct. As an individual and depending on your category, you are also liable to suffer
various consequences for your misconduct. The consequences will also depend on the severity
of your offence or misconduct.
Minor Misconduct
Minor misconduct is any act, omission, or negligence that is a violation of mission SOPs,
directives, or any other applicable rules, regulations, or administrative instructions, but which
does not result in major damage or injury to an individual or the mission. It may include, but is
not limited to:
• Improper uniform appearance;
• Neglect in performance of duty not amounting to a wilful or deliberate act;
• Intoxication while on duty or in public; and
• Negligent driving.
Serious Misconduct
Serious misconduct is any act, omission, or negligence, including criminal acts, that is a
violation of mission SOPs, directives, or any other applicable rules, regulations or administrative
instructions that results in serious damage or injury to an individual or to the mission. Serious
misconduct includes, but is not limited to:
• Sexual abuse and exploitation of any individual, particularly children;
• Harassment, including sexual harassment;
• Abuse of authority;
• Breach of confidentiality;
• Abuse of UN privileges and immunities;
• Use, possession, or distribution of illegal narcotics;
• Embezzlement or other financial malfeasance;
• Wilful disobedience of lawful order; and
• Driving while intoxicated or other grossly negligent driving.
Whatever your position within the mission, your misconduct may have wide consequences and
lead to:
• Erosion of confidence and trust in the UN.
• Jeopardising the achievement of the mission.
• Jeopardising the status and security of peacekeepers.
Depending on the level of your misconduct, you may find yourself subject to one or more of the
following consequences:
• Internal Disciplinary Action. You may be subject to disciplinary action by your superior
officer or supervisor. This may include a verbal or written censure, a reprimand, and/or
retraining in a skill area. Military peacekeepers may be subject to the code of military
discipline, resulting in fines, detention, repatriation, or dismissal.
• Repatriation/Termination of Contract. You may be repatriated to your home country on
the recommendation of the Force Commander or the SRSG. For a civilian peacekeeper,
this may lead to termination of your contract with the UN. No misconduct, however
attractive it may seem, is worth the loss of your good reputation, your job, or your career
prospects.
• Criminal Proceedings. In very serious cases of misconduct, especially where the laws of
the host country have been broken, you may find yourself facing criminal proceedings in
the host country. The immunities and privileges that you have as a UN peacekeeper do
not in any way permit you to break the established laws of the land.
• Financial Liability. In cases of negligent damage or loss of UN property, you may be
liable to bear the financial cost of replacement. This money may be sought from you or
your national contingent, which may in turn take disciplinary action to recover the money
from your salary.
Cases Studies
The following three case studies highlight different breaches of the Code of Conduct and
their implications. Each has a short scenario and a series of questions. After reading the
scenario and questions, put your answers in a short paragraph format.
Case Study 1 – “A Little Money on the Side”
During a peacekeeping mission, two peacekeepers decided to “make a little money on the
side” by buying alcohol cheaply from the UN PX shop and selling it to the locals for profit.
They knew that alcohol was expensive in local shops, and so there would be a ready market for
their trade.
In a short time, word spread around the local community that alcohol was on sale at one
particular UN position, and business boomed for the two soldiers. In order to secure more stock,
and to avoid raising the suspicions of the PX staff, the two soldiers encouraged other
peacekeepers to buy alcohol on their behalf in return for a share of the profits. Sales grew
further until word of the operation reached local shopkeepers and civic leaders. They
complained to the Mission Headquarters, which acted swiftly to close the illegal operation and
discipline those involved, but not before several articles had appeared in the local press creating
adverse publicity about the corrupt and unprincipled behaviour of the UN.
1. Do you see any violations of the Code of Conduct in this story?

2. Were these soldiers doing anything wrong? If so, what?
3. What consequences do you think their activities will have on:
a. The community?
b. The other UN troops at the position?
c. The relations between the UN troops and the local community?
d. The image of the UN and the country that these troops came from?
4. Do you think the behaviour of the soldiers poses any dangers to themselves and their
colleagues?
5. What appropriate disciplinary action do you think should have been taken against these
soldiers?
6. What other measures can be put in place to prevent this type of behaviour?
ANSWER:
This case study is intended to draw attention to the temptations of participating in the
black market. The peacekeepers would have been aware that most items in the PX shop are
specially priced or discounted and are not intended for resale, and they should not have utilised
this concession for personal gain. In the real-life situation of this study, the PX was closed.
Because prices were higher on the local economy and it was a great distance for UN workers to
get to the local business areas, this inappropriate action of a few adversely affected the larger
group.
Case Study 2 – “Money for Love”
Peacekeepers have established their base on the outskirts of a small rural community.
There is a large local family living near the camp that often come to ask the guards at the gate for
food, kerosene, and other small favours. The family is quite friendly and poses no threat to the
peacekeepers. There are also three attractive teenage sisters in the family.
After a few weeks, one of the peacekeepers invites one of the sisters into the camp and
begins an affair with her. In a short time, other peacekeepers “capture” the other sisters. It is
obvious that the sisters are having sex with their newly found boyfriends but there is no evidence
of rape. The peacekeepers who are having affairs with the sisters are now seen visiting the
families late in the night and showering them with gifts of food and kerosene and other small but
essential needs. The girls’ parents usually retire into their house whenever the peacekeepers
come to visit. They have not openly expressed any displeasure with their daughters’ affairs, and
they are obviously benefiting from the gifts and money that are being given to their daughters.
The sisters are also dressing better than the other girls in the village.
There is some gossip in the village about the girls and their peacekeeper-boyfriends, and
the local young men have become somewhat unfriendly towards the peacekeepers.
1. What violations, if any, of the Code of Conduct can you identify in this story?
2. Do you think the peacekeepers have behaved properly?
3. How do you think the girls’ parents feel about these circumstances?
4. How do think the local community feels about these circumstances?
5. What could be the possible consequences for the girls and the peacekeepers if these
relations are allowed to continue?
ANSWER:
This case study is aimed at drawing the attention of peacekeepers to the wider
consequences of sexual relations with members of the host population. Even when these sexual
relations are consensual, there are likely to be negative consequences. The parents of the girls
may not approve of their actions, but because of the survival benefits they derive from it, they do
not complain. The local community may also not approve of “strangers” taking their women and
may express their resentment in a number of ways. They may also feel inadequate because they
may feel that the peacekeepers are “buying” the women because they have money. This could
be a source of tension between the peacekeepers and the local community. In the real-life story
from which this case study was extracted, the local young men issued threats and physically
assaulted any girl who was thought to be having sexual relations with a peacekeeper. The girls
were also threatened about what would happen to them after the peacekeepers left.
Case Study 3 – “Are These the Sort of People the UN Sends to Help Us?”
The scene is a bar very popular to peacekeepers. A group of them are spending a night
out. They have been there for about three hours, and from the loudness of their conversation and
their laughter, they have been drinking quite a bit. Other patrons of the bar are not looking too
pleased, but nobody has requested that the peacekeepers keep their noise down.
The trouble starts when one of the peacekeepers, while trying to stand up, stumbles a
little and knocks the drinks off the next table. Four local young men who have also been in the
bar for some time occupy that table. One of the local young men demands that the peacekeeper
pays for his drink and the broken glass and compensate him for his wet clothes. The
peacekeepers disagree and a loud argument begins. Other patrons join the argument, and there
one local young man pushes a peacekeeper. The peacekeeper retaliates with a punch, and soon a
free-for-all starts in the bar. More bottles and glasses get broken and tables and chairs pushed
aside. One peacekeeper has blood gushing from the side of his head. Another has a swollen lip
and a torn shirt.
Other peacekeepers arrive and assist in restoring order. They also persuade the drunken
peacekeepers to leave the bar. As they leave, one local was heard to say, “Are these the sort of
people the UN sends to help us?”
1. What violations, if any, of the Code of Conduct have occurred?

2. What were the basic causes of the bar fight?
3. How could this situation have been prevented?
4. To what dangers, if any, did the situation expose the peacekeepers?
5. How could this situation affect the credibility of the UN Mission?
ANSWER:
This case study is primarily intended to draw attention to the inherent dangers of
peacekeepers’ excessive indulgence in alcohol, especially in public places. There are also
lessons to be drawn from the local’s comment on how such conduct affects the credibility of the
UN mission in a wider sense. Even though peacekeepers may not be prevented by regulations
from patronising public bars in the host country, their conduct while there is under the keen
observation of the host population. Drunkenness and indulgence in drugs usually leads to the
lowering of one’s guard and clouds judgement. In public places within the host country, it is
important that peacekeepers exhibit the highest standards.
Until recently, the importance of understanding culture in peace operations was under-
estimated. Challenges associated with culture have arisen due to the expanded and complex
nature of modern peacekeeping operations. Today’s missions are multi-culturally composed and
take place in diverse cultural contexts. Culture is a sensitive topic. It provides understanding of
group and individual beliefs, values, and behaviour, as well as how they are interpreted. It is
most important that peacekeepers understand the differences in cultures and their effects to
prevent misunderstandings.
Culture
Many factors form and influence culture – hundreds of definitions, concepts, and theories
exist. A simplified working definition of culture is that it is a system of both implicit and
explicit meanings, beliefs, values, and behaviours shared by members of a community or a
group, through which experience is interpreted and carried out. Culture determines the way we
act, the manner in which we relate to others, and the way that we think about and interpret events
happening around us.
Culture is acquired through the process of socialisation. We learn relative values and
appropriate behaviours from our community members. One level of culture deals with
observable aspects, such as clothing, language, and food. Another level, which we cannot
always see, includes our shared ideas, beliefs and values, which usually become apparent when
people from different social systems interact. Individuals also do not embody a single culture,
but rather multiple cultures. Many cultural groups exist within the larger ones, including age,
gender, class, profession, and religion.
Culture colours everything we see and do. It is impossible to leave our cultural lenses
behind during our interactions, particularly the perspective and experience through which we
interpret events. A number of factors play a role with a varying degree in shaping a culture.
They include:
• Urbanisation • Ethnic background
• Nationalism • Religion
• Migration • Gender
• Colonisation • Language
• Industrialisation • Profession
• Minority experience • Cross-cultural adjustments
• Education • Personal culture: values, worldview, beliefs, behaviours
• Social background
Dangers
Human beings frequently make generalisations about people and attribute characteristics
to them. In other words, we create stereotypes. When we do this with cultural groups, there is a
danger of developing negative stereotypes, which leads to prejudice. A cycle of prejudice begins
when we start judging other cultures by our own set of standards to define the world around us.
Lack of knowledge or an unwillingness to learn can result in an unintentional conflict or

misunderstanding. The prejudices are often based on imperfect information and are normally
filtered through an individual’s background and experiences. The only way to break this cycle
is to be aware of cultural differences and try to understand their origins. When working in a
culturally-diverse environment as peacekeepers, we have to be careful to question our own
cultural expectations to avoid making stereotypes or forming prejudices against other groups.
Culture in Peace Operations
Cross-cultural interaction in peace operations occurs at various levels:

• National contingents;
• Diverse personnel who work for diplomatic, humanitarian, and other civilian agencies;
• Military and civilian organisations involved in establishing and sustaining missions;
• International staff and local communities; and
• Different ethnic groups in conflict.
Understanding Cultural Differences
The most striking and common

differences that new peacekeepers will
experience include the following.
Eating Habits
Some nations use knives, forks, and
spoons. Some use chopsticks and a spoon,
while other nations have very high hygiene
and use the clean right hand instead of cutlery.
Some nations eat from individual plates, and
others (such as Eritrea and Ethiopia) have one
big common plate. Do not get surprised.
Food
Beef is not eaten in Hindu countries,
Muslims do not eat pork, and Christians keep
cats, dogs, and horses as pets. In some
countries, people have no problem with eating
“everything that moves.” These habits are Local housekeeper for Team Site Shilalo (Eritrea)
different for everyone, and it is important to makes injera, the local bread-like food that is eaten in
understand and respect that these differences traditional Eritrean meals. (CPT Scott Harrington,
exist. MILOB, July 2002)
Religion
In most of our societies, religion is an important factor. Peacekeepers and MILOBS
should be aware of and sensitive to the religious beliefs and customs in the mission area. You
will find other religions not only among local people but also among other peacekeepers.
Respect all religions as you do your own beliefs.
Family and Gender

In some cultures family ties are considered very important. Elders are most respected in
some societies. As a rule, paying respect to elders and being humble will never be wrong.
Gender beliefs of the local community may be different from yours. In some matriarchal
societies, women do all the work and are the “providers” for the family. You will learn more on
this subject in the next section.
Communication
Language is culture-specific. Cultural undertones always exist when a person is speaking
in English and is not a native of an English-speaking country. So, if you are not a native English
speaker, you may not always understand and may have to ask the person to repeat or re-phrase.
When speaking English to a non-native speaker, it is best to use short sentences. Also, avoid
idiomatic language and complicated grammar. Humour is a positive approach. But be aware
that humour is not cross-cultural and that your sense of humour can make enemies.
Body Language
Body language is very important, as it conveys many things that you do not say.
Different gestures have different meaning in different cultures. A smile, however, will never be
misunderstood. A polite handshake is accepted in most cultures, though there are exceptions
where men do not shake hands with women. Men walking hand in hand are quite common in
many countries and indicate trust and friendship. In some other cultures, hand-holding may be
related to sex.
Dress Code
Dress code is different
amongst various cultures. It
depends upon customs, traditions,
and the climate. Peacekeepers
need to understand and
acclimatise.
Traffic
Countries have different
traffic conditions and rules. These
have to be understood and adapted
to by the peacekeepers. Many
casualties in peacekeeping are not
from combat, nor from sickness.
Peacekeepers and MILOBS die in
traffic accidents!
• Drive defensively and
carefully. Women of the Kunama tribe dress in vibrant colours and live in the
• Study the local traffic Central-Western parts of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Temporary
Security Zone (TSZ) in UNMEE cuts across tribal lines, as with the
conditions.
case of the Kunama. (LTC Phyllis Mihalas, G5, October 2002)
Time
The concept of time also differs between cultures. The military has its own
understanding of what being “on time” means, which may differ substantially from what is
understood by civilians or the local community. In some cultures, being late is a symbol of
status and power. In one of the missions, when asked, a local leader said, “You have the clock,
we have the time.”
Building Cultural Awareness
Culture and cultural differences can have a powerful effect and can lead to
misunderstanding and conflicts. Cultural awareness is necessary to manage these differences,
which we otherwise tend to measure against our own standards.
• As a first step, we need to fully understand our own culture, how personal cultural
experiences have shaped our communication styles, and why we do things a certain way.
• The next step is to understand the specific culture we would be working with.
• Lastly, we need to view cultural differences not as weakness but as strengths that enable
us to solve problems in a unique and creative manner.
Culture of the Host Country

If feasible, try to know at least the most current development in the local history of the
mission area. You can be sure that the parties have different opinions on the history, but basic
facts are helpful and make you a more convincing peacekeeper.
Cultural Shock – Adaptation Stages
The stages of the adaptation to a new culture are:

• Honeymoon;
• Initial confrontation;
• Adjustment crisis; and
• Recovery.
For a new peacekeeper or MILOB, it is normal to face some discomfort. Some become
homesick or depressed, and others even get hostile towards the host nation’s culture. How do
you manage culture shock? Speak out with your friends and your commanders. Ask questions
before getting angry about attitudes or facts that you may be misinterpreting. If you have
previous experience in peacekeeping, you may feel nothing, but help the younger and newer
soldiers to adjust.
Maintaining Good Relations
The knowledge and understanding of other cultures is critical for the maintenance of
good relations to all the people in the mission. It will not only help you as an individual, but
your organisation will work more effectively, and the mandate will be easier to accomplish.
Always remember that each organisation also has its own culture and values. As you did for
other people in the mission area, do your best to know and understand the culture of all
organisations, elements, and partners in UN peacekeeping.
It is essential that peacekeepers and MILOBS of all nations, whether military, civilian
police, or civilian, understand the significance of gender relations in the work they undertake.
Experience in recent years has sadly demonstrated the negative effects on a conflicted population
of the presence of peacekeepers who lack this appreciation, or who choose to act contrary to the
principles and standards established by the United Nations. Their failure to conform to these
standards and to respect the interests, needs, and desires of the population, particularly the
women, has weakened the effectiveness of UN peace operations.
Without an understanding of how the relations between women and men are structured,
how they are affected by violent conflict, and how the mere presence of peacekeepers further
impacts on those relations, there can be little meaningful advance in the effectiveness of
peacekeeping operations. At the same time, when such an understanding is present, UN peace
operations are meaningfully enhanced, and the chances of achieving sustainable peace are
greatly improved.
Impact of Conflict
Absence of Rule of Law, increased human rights violations. Normal law and order
systems and traditional social systems and cultural taboos collapse as a result of conflict. Sexual
violence is a prevalent feature of modern warfare. It is used to terrify, intimidate, and destroy the
enemy psychologically.
Upheaval, migration, and

displacement. Women constitute
the majority of refugees and
Internally Displaced Persons
(IDPs). Civilians, who are mostly
women, children, and the elderly,
are deliberately targeted in modern
conflict.
Changes in responsibility.
Men and boys go to war, leaving
the women to care for the home,
property, and family. Women’s
roles change when men are absent.
They have to make all family Residents in the partially destroyed Muslim enclave of Stari Vitez,
decisions in the absence of males. Bosnia and Herzegovina. (UN Photo #186718C)
Some women also go to war as
soldiers, messengers, camp followers, and “bush wives” (mostly against their will).
Focus on ex-combatants. Post-conflict efforts often focus on male ex-combatants and

neglect the role of women during and after conflict.
Unemployment, shortages, and disrupted social services. Conflict destroys or disrupts

government and social services, such as education and health. It causes shortages in goods and
services, as well as inflation of prices, growth, and often dependency on the illegal black market.
The physical infrastructure (roads, bridges, transport, and power and communication lines) are
often damaged. Women lose access to reproductive health care and schooling for their children.
They often also lose their peacetime jobs, pensions, and other necessities of life. Because of
poverty and desperation, women and children are prey to organised crime and are open to the
pressures to earn a living. Some may be forced to turn to begging and prostitution.
Change in Roles
New roles and responsibilities.

During armed conflict, women also
assume new roles and responsibilities
within the family and the community.
Many play a more public role than they do
during times of peace. It may be difficult
to revert to the previous roles after the
conflict.
Contribution to the war and peace

effort. Women contribute to the war effort
in many ways: messengers, suppliers of
food and shelter, safe houses, distribution
of information, etc. They also contribute
to the peace efforts by mobilising for A local Eritrea woman begging on the street to support
action to stop the fighting, crossing the herself and her child. (UNMEE, Asmara, LTC Phyllis
lines of fire, lobbying political figures, and Mihalas, G5, July 2002)
more.
Increased political participation. Women play a more political role, provide leadership
and support, and expect this to continue in the post-conflict environment.
New skills and knowledge. They also develop skills and knowledge – surviving in such
conditions is difficult – and they become more confident and knowledgeable about life outside
the domestic sphere. These positive features often go unnoticed by the international community.
Peacekeepers can contribute to this education process by ensuring that they provide all possible
support to leading women community members.
Women are likely to provide a fuller picture of community problems than men because
they have remained throughout the conflict, taken care of the children, the sick, and the elderly,
and they have survived. This requires strength and resourcefulness.
Gender Roles
What is “right” for women and men. Every culture, including minorities within the
dominant culture, has rules, beliefs, and attitudes about how men and women should behave, the
work they should do, and the responsibilities they should fulfil. It is part of what society
believes is right and what a society values in its men and women.
Varies between cultures. Being submissive, subordinate, and discreet may be thought of
as womanly in some cultures and not in others. Being tough, strong, and warlike may be valued
by some societies for its men. This can change. We all have ideas of what women and men are
capable of and what roles they can fill.
Social differences. Not everyone in society is seen in the same way. Poor women always
work – often in and out of the home. Women and men may be equally discriminated against if
they are from a lower caste or place in society. Likewise, race is a significant factor in society’s
image of what is appropriate for men and women, and age can provide women with more respect
and recognition. On the contrary, in some societies, discrimination may increase if a woman is a
widow.
Special Vulnerabilities
Sexual violence. Women are

particularly vulnerable to sexual violence
during armed conflict. Without the normal
forces of law and order, as well as the
breakdown of traditional social values and
taboos and the absence of traditional male
protectors, women are vulnerable. Sexual
violence is often a strategic weapon of war,
not a random act. All sexual violence is
unacceptable. In wartime it is used to de-
stabilise and destroy the enemy
psychologically.
Women and girls who were kidnapped, raped or
suffered other abuses such as amputations can have
Trafficking and forced prostitution.
difficulties reintegrating into their families and
Organised crime often moves into the communities. (©iAfrika Photos, Eric Miller)
vacuum created by the absence of law
enforcement. Trafficking in humans and forced prostitution has become increasingly common in
post-conflict societies. Women are vulnerable and desperate and are easy prey to traffickers.
Social services. Female-headed households are particularly affected by the absence of

social services and the increase in poverty due to the loss of income and lack of employment.
Loss of access and rights. Because of their social roles and the absence of male family
members, women are often unable to move freely, to approach official structures, to get financial
assistance, or to claim rights to property and inheritance.
Gender and Sex
Many languages lack a literal translation for the word “gender” in their vocabulary, so it
is often impossible to translate. The following examples will illustrate the distinction between
gender and sex. Gender refers to the ever-changing roles that the family, community, and state
expect women and men to play in public and in private. Gender is about how we are expected to
act and think because we are male or female. Gender changes across time and across cultures.
Society’s beliefs about gender have a profound impact on the opportunities that men and women
have and how and whether they have access to resources and to their rights.
Unlike gender, sex is fixed, determined by biology at birth, and is universally recognised.
We all know the physical differences between the sexes. Gender roles are determined by the
roles society give to men and women. Sex roles do not change: women give birth and breast-
feed children. This is a sex role. Men cannot perform this function. However, both men and
women can care for children. This is a gender role; both men and women can perform this
function.
Men have greater body mass, are generally physically stronger, and can grow beards.
This is determined by their biological make-up. It cannot change. However, both men and
women can be soldiers, political leaders, or social leaders. This is determined by society and
culture.
Both sex and gender roles have an impact on the freedom of movement, the need for
specific services – such as reproductive health care for women – and influence the kinds of work
people do.
Gender, Culture, and Human Rights
Culture changes over time. The comment is often made that, “We are not here to change
the culture.” This is true, but the fact is that peace operations will contribute to cultural change.
Culture is always in a state of change; it is not static. Conflict will speed up and re-direct
cultural shifts. The international community is not present to impose cultural values. That is
why the focus is on a rights-based approach.
Universally-accepted human rights standards. Your personal cultural value system, or

your personal views of what men and women should or should not do, is not the measurement to
be used. The UN Members States have agreed on a set of universally-recognised human rights
(the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other such treaties), and these agreements serve
as the universally-accepted standards that UN peacekeeping operations must adhere to, promote,
and defend.
Peacekeepers must project human rights culture. International Human Rights laws are
based on universally-shared values regarding respect for the dignity and worth of the human
person and the equal treatment of men and women. Perversion of these laws is partly a result of
war and conflict.
Respect and trust contribute to security. Peacekeepers have a responsibility to respect

the local culture and, thereby, develop trust with the host population. This will increase the
peacekeepers’ own security.
Discrimination on the basis of gender. This is any distinction, exclusion, or restriction

based on sex which is intended to prevent the recognition and exercise of rights or freedoms.
Women are particularly vulnerable to violation of their rights in conflict. In conflict

environments, women are particularly vulnerable. They may not receive adequate food supplies
in refugee camps; may be forced to provide sexual favours to police and border guards in order
to gain asylum in another country; not be able to pass on citizenship to their children in the
absence of the father; be refused employment; be denied provision of specialised health care; and
other violations.
Sexual violence as a weapon. The most profound form of discrimination in wartime is

the sexual violence committed against girls and women.
Gender Discrimination
The following are examples of discrimination on the basis of gender:

• Denial of political rights to women (right to vote, right to be elected);
• Lack of uniformity of laws (dress codes, freedom of movement, property rights, divorce,
children, inheritance, etc.);
• Vulnerability to sexual crimes: rape, trafficking, abuse (prostitution, soliciting,
pornography, sex with minors, etc.);
• Separation of men and women so that both sexes can be victimised (specific actions to
kill, displace, rape or capture on the basis of sex, e.g., separation of men and women in
Srebrenica: approximately 7,000 men and boys were massacred, while scores of women
were raped and killed);
• Sex-specific mortality rates (indicate specific acts or omissions); and
• Sex-specific unemployment (laws that prevent women from employment, or employment
in certain categories).
Peacekeepers and Gender Rights
Expected to uphold Human Rights. Peacekeepers are obliged to uphold human rights.
As members of UN missions, they are bound by the spirit and principles of the UN Charter, the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and other relevant international treaties and
conventions.
Human Rights laws. Human Rights laws are founded on the principles of being
universal (for everyone), indivisible (rights cannot be selected, all apply), and equal (they are of
equal value). Peacekeepers cannot choose which Human Rights to uphold and which to ignore;
they must uphold all.
UN concept of human rights. Peacekeepers cannot choose which Human Rights to

uphold (on the basis of their own culture’s interpretation of human rights). They are bound to
uphold the UN concept of Human Rights, i.e., as per the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
agreed to by most UN Member States.
Protecting Gender Rights
The extent to which a peacekeeper may act to uphold Gender Rights depends on the
mandate of the peacekeeping operation. Actions may range from reporting to protecting,
depending on the mandate of the mission and the Rules of Engagement (ROE).
Reporting. There will always be a need to report, even when you may also act to protect
human rights. Obtain as much information as possible of the alleged human rights abuse (make
notes, take photos), and report it as soon as possible to your superior. Report on the what, where,
when, who, and how of the situation.
Protecting. If you are allowed or obliged by the mandate of the mission to act to protect a
person’s rights (such as the right to life), this will be made very clear in your orders and ROE.
There will be no specific ROEs for use for protection of Gender or Human Rights; the ROEs will
apply to all situations that may require the use of force. ROEs are mission-specific, as they
depend on the mandate and other factors.
Sexual Relationships in Peace Operations
This question and answer has been included here because this question is often asked in
relation to this topic. If you, as a peacekeeper or MILOB decide to engage in sex in a
peacekeeping mission, please make certain you are aware of the consequences your actions
might have on the local community, yourself, your home country, and the UN mission.
Question: Am I allowed to have sex in a peacekeeping mission?
Answer: You will be a UN peacekeeper and you are under obligation to uphold
international human rights standards. Remember the eyes of the whole world
are on you. You will not only be judged as an individual, you will now be judged
as a national of your country and a representative of the UN.
Your actions must be guided by:

• International human rights standards;
• The UN Peacekeeping Code of Conduct;
• In case of formed military units, the national laws of your country and your military
disciplinary codes;
• The specific instructions in this regard from your superiors; and
• The laws, culture, religion, and values of the host country.
Always be guided in your personal action by the knowledge that, on- or off-duty, you
represent the United Nations. Think of the consequences of your actions and how they will
impact others.
Power Imbalance
Peacekeepers are powerful because they have money, mobility, access to food, water and
other goods, and force. This causes a power imbalance between the peacekeepers and the host
population.
Use the power to do good. Most peacekeepers use this power to do good. The
international presence can have a positive effect by initiating and supporting efforts to stop
organised crime and improve the conditions of the local population, including that of women.
Do not allow others to abuse power. Some peacekeepers have, however, used the
powerful situation they are in to abuse vulnerable populations. They do this by using prostitutes,
thus encouraging prostitution, including often children; by spreading HIV/AIDS in the process;
by getting involved in or even unknowingly encouraging organised crime involving prostitution
and the trafficking of women; by abandoning children they have fathered; and by abandoning
women who have been promised marriage or other benefits in exchange for a sexual relationship.
This compounds the difficulties these communities face. Such behaviour is illegal and morally
unacceptable and will not be tolerated by the United Nations.
We should not allow a few irresponsible people to impact negatively on the credibility of
the UN and the peace operation and, therefore, on our ability to achieve our overall goal of
sustainable peace.
In recent years the Secretary-General and the Security Council have actively undertaken
the task of placing the issue of child rights in situations of armed conflict squarely on the UN
peace and security agenda. The Security Council has expressed its resolve to give special
attention to child rights and protection and has adopted four resolutions devoted to child
protection in times of armed conflict. Resolutions 1379 (2001), 1314 (2000), and 1261 (1999)
call upon parties to armed conflicts to include child protection provisions in peace agreements
and to address child rights concerns throughout the consolidation of peace in the aftermath of
conflict.
Pursuant to the Council’s recommendation, the Secretary-General has submitted annual

reports to the Council on Children and Armed Conflict since 2000 and has referred to child
protection concerns in scores of recent other reports to the Council.
In recognition of the critical role peace operations play in providing protection to

children, the Security Council has explicitly incorporated the protection of children into the
mandates for the missions in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) by its Resolution 1260 (1999) and in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) by its Resolution 1279 (1999), and it has
endorsed the deployment of Child Protection Advisers in both of these missions.
Many peace operations without such explicit provisions also address child protection
concerns in the execution of their mandate, often in collaboration with the United Nations
Country Team (UNCT).
Understanding Child Protection
Definition of a child. The United

Nations Convention on the Rights of the
Child (UN CRC) defines a child as a person
under the age of 18 years. Regardless of
what local laws apply to children in the
country of the mission, the UN CRC
definition guides the behaviour of mission
personnel. By respecting the UN CRC
definition in their own behaviour, mission
personnel will be contributing to the
protection of children and improving their
development opportunities.
Children are vulnerable. Children

are vulnerable at all times, but particularly
in situations of armed conflict. Both boys
and girls are affected by conflict, but girls
are particularly vulnerable to sexual A young refugee girl with a food ration stands at a table
exploitation, family and community at the temporary facility in Karlovac, Croatia. (UN
violence, and discrimination made worse by Photo #159244C)
conflict. Boys are vulnerable to forced
recruitment by armed groups or forces. Conflict increasingly affects women and children. In
many conflict-affected areas, children comprise as much as half or more of the population,
making them the majority not a minority. Gender must be a cross-cutting concern, as special
attention needs to be given to the vulnerability of girls in all considerations.
Childhood should be protected. Children need special protection in view of their young
age, small size, and lack of maturity. They are also learning about life, and there are many things
they do not understand, as well as many dangers they do not suspect. This is why they need the
protection of adults.
War violates every right of a child. War violates a child’s right to life, food, shelter,
security, education, sexual integrity, non-discrimination, health, and many others. Armed
conflict takes away a child’s right to grow up and develop in peace and security so that he/she
can achieve their full human potential.
Facts and Figures
The following is a list of important facts and figures provided by UNICEF’s State of the
World’s Children 2000.
• In the past 10 years, about two million children have been killed and four to five million
have been disabled as a result of wars and armed conflict.
• War and armed conflict have left one million children orphaned and 12 million homeless.
• About 300,000 children under 18 are currently taking part in hostilities around the world.
• Of the 23 million refugees worldwide, 50% are children.
• Women and girls constitute a massive 80% of civilian victims of conflict.
• About 800 children are killed or maimed by landmines every month.
• The number of child refugees increases by approximately 5,000 per day.
• Most child soldiers are between the ages of 15 and 18, but there are children as young as
8 or 9 who have been recruited by armed groups. They include both boys and girls.
The Rights of a Child
In peacekeeping missions, there are personnel from many different backgrounds and
cultures. The concept of childhood is understood differently in different contexts, but in the UN
context, peacekeepers are obliged to uphold the internationally accepted and agreed upon
common standards for child rights, which are stated in the following documents:
• The Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocols;
• The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Optional Protocol on the
Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict;
• The 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees;
• The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against Women; and
• The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
CRC Guiding Principles
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has three key principles that should
guide all of the actions of adults towards children:
• Non-discrimination (Article 2): No discrimination on the basis of race, gender, colour,
religion, ethnicity, etc.
• Best interest of the child (Article 3): Acting in the best interest of the child means doing
what is best for the child and not what is best for you. For example, if you have a child
who needs to go to school, and there is an excellent school across town, you will make
the effort to send that child to that school, although it would be more convenient for you
to send the child to a school that is located near your home.
• Participation (Article 12): States Parties shall assure to the child who is capable of
forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters
affecting the child, the views of the child given due weight in accordance with the age
and maturity of the child. For this purpose, the child shall in particular be provided the
opportunity to be heard in any judicial and administrative proceedings affecting the child,
either directly or through a representative or an appropriate body, in a manner consistent
with the procedural rules of national law.
Impact of Conflict on Children
Basic needs. War violates every right of a child. A conflict situation often results in a
situation where some children’s basic needs, like food and water, health care, and shelter are
severely affected. Armed conflict also usually causes basic social services like education and
clinics to seize functioning.
Refugees. Many children become refugees or internally displaced when they flee from
the fighting and violence, and some get separated from their parents.
Sexual abuse. Because of the general lawlessness, the breakdown of social taboos and
the lack of peacetime cultural and social protection measures, the sexual abuse of children
increases considerably during war. Those close to the fighting, such as child soldiers, camp
followers, and girls who are forced to clean and cook for soldiers, are most at risk.
Mines and violence. A disproportionately high number of children become victims of

mines because they are more often exposed to mined areas since they play in close proximity to
these danger zones. Children also often witness violence, such as the killing of their parents and
the rape of female adults or older girls. Often they become victims of violence themselves.
Child soldiers. Boys and girls are often forced to become soldiers, or they join one of the
fighting factions because it is their only means of survival. As child soldiers, they are often
exposed to drugs and participate in or witness severe human rights abuses and violence that will
affect them for the rest of their lives. Girls are often forced to become camp followers and are
treated as sex slaves or “bush wives” that have to cook, clean, and sexually serve their masters,
on whom they are dependent for their survival.
Effect of Conflict on Children
Traumatised children. Children who have witnessed violence, especially perpetrated

against close relatives; children who have been victims of violence; and children who have been
perpetrators of violence (and often all three) are typically traumatised. They find it very difficult
to adjust to normal life.
Malnourished children. The lack of food and health care, especially among younger
children, hamper physical and mental development and can cause health problems suffered later
in life.
Orphans and street children. Children whose parents are killed during the war, or who
get separated from their parents during the conflict, end up having to fend for themselves as
street children, or they may be treated as unaccompanied children in a refugee context or as
orphans by state institutions. Countries recovering from war typically do not have developed
social welfare systems, and the children in these categories not covered by international
humanitarian efforts are most often left to fend for themselves.
Child Soldiers
A child soldier is any person who is under

18 and who is part of a regular force or armed
group in any capacity, other than purely as family
members. It does not only refer to those carrying
arms but includes cooks, porters, messengers, and
those accompanying such groups, including girls
recruited as concubines or forced into “marriage.”
The recruitment and use of child soldiers

is governed by the 1977 Additional Protocols to
the Geneva Conventions, the 1989 United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), and
in Africa, by the 1991 OAU African Charter on
the Rights and Welfare of the Child. The Khmer Rouge child soldiers at the perimeter of
International Criminal Court (ICC) also refers the French UNTAC camp. (UN Photo #159496,
specifically to child soldiers. by J. Bleibtreu)
Reporting on Child Soldiers
Peacekeepers, particularly United Nations Military Observers, have an important role to

play in reporting on child soldiers. They are often based closest to the front lines or go on
verification missions to frontline areas and are, thus, likely to have the most frequent contact
with child soldiers. When child soldiers are encountered, MILOBS should take the time to
complete a child soldiers reporting checklist, which would typically be distributed to MILOBS in
such missions. The checklist will help them to gather information such as names, numbers, sex,
place of origin, physical condition, and post-conflict expectations of the child soldiers. The
information will be very useful to the Child Protection Unit in the mission; to those agencies and
NGOs specifically mandated to deal with child protection issues, like UNICEF; and in the
planning and execution of the Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration (DDR)
programme.
Child Protection in Peace Operations
Prevention. Work will be undertaken to make the local authorities and armed factions
aware of the rights of children and to establish monitoring and support structures in order to
prevent the abuse of the rights of children, or to mitigate it where it has already occurred (for
example, in the case of child soldiers).
Humanitarian assistance. Some agencies and NGOs will focus humanitarian programmes
specifically on the needs of children to assist them with basic needs (food, water, sanitation,
health care, and shelter), education, and other developmental necessities.
Collection of data. Research will be undertaken to map the extent and type of problems
so that the prevention, humanitarian assistance, protection, and advocacy and education
programmes can be designed according to the real needs of the situation. This kind of research
will also help the programmes to be designed in ways that will be most effective according to
local customs and cultures.
Advocacy and education. Work will be undertaken to advocate child protection issues
and to educate local authorities, fighting factions, politicians, peacekeepers, and others. This will
typically extend to the peacebuilding phase, where new lawmakers will be encouraged to adopt
or strengthen laws promoting the rights of children.
Building institutions. Work will be undertaken to build new institutions, as well as

rehabilitate and support existing institutions, that will provide care and protection for children.
Personal contributions. Peacekeepers often feel the need to make positive personal
contributions to the welfare of children. There are many examples of good work carried out by
peacekeepers on behalf of groups of children or individual children. However, the trainer needs
to remind participants that efforts to help the situation of children need to be coordinated through
the appropriate mission structures, UN or non-governmental humanitarian agencies.
Peacekeepers should not assist individual children, projects, or programmes without first
consulting specialist colleagues and/or people associated with credible child-focused
organisations such as UNICEF, Save the Children, IRC, and others.
What Can the Peacekeeper or MILOB Do?
The extent to which a peacekeeper may act to uphold Child (Human) Rights depends on
the mandate on the peace operation. Actions may range from reporting to protecting, depending
on the mandate of the mission and the Rules of Engagement (ROE).
Reporting. There will always be a need to report, even when you may also act to protect
human rights. Obtain as much information as possible of the alleged human rights abuse (make
notes, take photos) and report it as soon as possible to your superior. Report on: What, Where,
When, Who, How?
Protecting. If you are allowed by the mandate of the mission to act to protect a person’s
rights (e.g., the right to life), this will be made very clear in your orders and Rules of
Engagement (ROEs). There will be no specific ROEs for the protection of Child or Human
Rights; the ROEs will apply to all situations that may require the use of force. ROEs are
mission-specific, as they depend on the mandate and other factors.
Peacekeepers are expected to protect children within the limits of the mission mandate
and to respect their rights both in their duties and in their personal behaviour:
In their daily work, peacekeepers should:

• Report violations when found, and, if specific mandate allows intervention, follow ROEs;
• Uphold and promote child protection through example; and
• Provide indirect assistance through security and other support for humanitarian
assistance. For example, they can help with the logistics for the distribution of
humanitarian relief or with the demobilisation of child soldiers.
In their individual behaviour, peacekeepers should keep the following in mind:

• Children are defined by international standards and UN DPKO disciplinary procedures as
anyone under the age of 18.
• Codes of conduct do exist, and clear disciplinary standards and procedures are in place
and will be enforced.
• Serious breaches of the Code of Conduct may not only result in repatriation but also in
prosecution under national or international law.
• The credibility of an entire mission can be undermined by the behaviour of individuals.
• Recent scandals involving UN peacekeepers have rocked the international community.
Documented reports of the exploitation and abuse of children and women in Somalia,
Kosovo, Sierra Leone, Eritrea, and Mozambique by peacekeepers or MILOBS have
severely damaged the credibility of the UN.
LESSON 6
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. The four principles of the Code of Conduct are:

a. Impartiality, integrity, respect, and loyalty;
b. Integrity, professionalism, respect for diversity, and loyalty;
c. Impartiality, commitment, respect, and loyalty;
d. Impartiality, diversity, integrity, and respect.
2. An example of serious misconduct is:

a. Harassment, including sexual harassment;
b. Breach of confidentiality;
c. Embezzlement or other financial malfeasance;
3. Which of the following best describes culture? Select all that apply.
a. A shared system of meanings, beliefs, values, and behaviours;
b. A system of beliefs that have nothing in common;
c. A system that has nothing to do with our behaviour;
d. The way that we act and relate to others.
4. The village elders believe that all MILOBS are deceitful and dishonest because a former
MILOB stole money from the local market. In fact, the locals believe that all MILOBS are
thieves and refuse to deal with them at all. This is an example of:
a. Ignorance;
b. Objective behaviour;
c. Stereotyping;
d. Rational thinking.
5. Human rights are:

a. Imposed by the international community;
b. Applicable only in certain situations;
c. Only represented by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights;
d. Based on gender.
6. Sexual violence towards girls and women during armed conflict is:
a. Not a typical consequence of war;
b. Generally not considered a weapon of war;
c. Prevalent due to the absence of law enforcement;
d. Acceptable under certain circumstances.
7. In deciding whether or not to engage in sexual activities during a mission, peacekeepers

should:
a. Abide by the Code of Conduct;
b. Consider the fact that they represent the United Nations;
c. Make the decision based on their own discretion;
d. Both a. and b.
8. According to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, what is the official definition of
a child?
a. A person under the age of 16;
b. A person under the age of 18;
c. A person under the age of 21;
d. A person who is not married.
9. Humanitarian assistance, advocacy and education, and building institutions are all methods
used to promote awareness for:
a. Refugees;
b. Mines and violence;
c. Child protection;
d. Sexual abuse.
10. To uphold Child Rights, peacekeepers are encouraged to:

a. Promote child protection through example;
b. Report violations only if the situation requires mission support;
c. Assist individual children without first consulting with appropriate organisations;
d. Both a. and b.
ANSWER KEY
1. a
2. d
3. a, d
4. c
5. a
6. c
7. d
8. b
9. c
10. a
LESSON 7
PERSONAL SECURITY AWARENESS

Lesson 7 / Personal Security Awareness 104
LESSON OBJECTIVES
This lesson will provide you with information on the UN policies and procedures for
personal security and tips for your personal safety while deployed in the field. The aim of this
lesson is to provide the student with the knowledge required for increasing their safety awareness
in United Nations’ peacekeeping operations. After completing this lesson, the student should be
able to state:
• Individual security responsibility;

• The five basic principles of personal security; and
• The actions to take for residential security, car accidents, or hijacks.
INTRODUCTION
UN personnel, including peacekeepers and MILOBS, are finding themselves in more

diverse security environments than ever before. It is critical that everyone has a clear
understanding of basic security awareness principles and responsibilities to ensure that they can
effectively perform their duties. For example, one must always be aware of considerations for
security while at the residence. This can include such activities as walking or jogging or
preparing for travel (either internationally or internally in the country of assignment). They must
also keep in mind of what to do in the event of a breakdown, accident, ambush, or car hijacking.
These details are provided to better prepare the peacekeeper for the daily threats he/she may
encounter.
• Host government - primary responsibility

• Peacekeeping missions - own security
• Observer Missions
– Host government
– Local authorities
– Regional peacekeeping force
In all peacekeeping missions, an agreement will be reached with the host government for
the security of UN personnel and property. However, in most peacekeeping missions conflict
and crisis exist, and the authority of the government(s) may not be present in all areas. As with
agency operations, the host government has the primary responsibility.
In a peacekeeping mission, the force has a capability to defend itself; therefore, they can,
in many instances, provide their own security. In a military observer mission, observers are not
armed, and security responsibility reverts back to the host government, local authorities, or even
a regional peacekeeping force, if one is present in the country.
Secretary-General
UN Security Coordinator
Designated Official
The field Security Handbook is a cornerstone of the UN Security Programme. It

establishes the UN security policy and addresses the UN system-wide security management plan.
It is revised every two years. The Secretary-General is the overall United Nations security
authority. The UNSECOORD (United Nations Security Coordinator) is the proponent agency
for the UN Security System. UNSECOORD duties are:
• Acting as the main security advisor to the Secretary-General;
• Acting on behalf of the Secretary-General;
• Coordinating responses to security threats;
• Maintaining databases and distributing information;
• Reviewing and evaluating all country security plans; and
• Recruiting and managing all field security officers.
Every UN agency and organisation has a Security Focal Point. The primary tasks for this
person are:
• To manage all security matters;
• To interface with UNSECOORD to support agency field operations;
• To coordination among different elements; and
• To ensure that staff comply with system-wide security policies, procedures, and
instructions.
Head of Mission (HOM)
As you have already seen in an earlier lesson, there are specific roles and functions of the
Head of Mission, both SRSG and FC. In this lesson, we will stress the role and functions of the
Head of Mission in terms of their security responsibilities. The Head of Mission (HOM) can be
either a Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG, Civilian), a Force Commander
(FC, Military), or a Chief Military Observer (CMO, Military). The HOM is responsible for the
security of all personnel assigned to the mission, and he/she reports to the Secretary-General
through the Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations. In some cases, the HOM is
responsible for the security of not only mission personnel but also UN agency personnel. In this
case, the HOM has the title of Designated Chief Security Officer.
Chief Security Officer (CSO)
Each newly established peacekeeping mission has a security section, which is managed
by a Chief Security Officer (CSO). This individual is a mission appointee and is responsible for
advising the HOM on security matters affecting the mission. The CSO focuses primarily on the
security needs of the civilian component but routinely advises the HOM on security-related
issues regarding the force. The CSO is responsible for accomplishing the following duties:
• Brief staff and dependants on security measures;

• Ensure that locally recruited staff understand security measures;
• Establish the travel clearance system; and
• Provide staff with appropriate security instructions.
The CSO may be supported by an alternate designated official who is a member of the
Senior Management Team (SMT). The system also includes Area Coordinators (AC). Military
officers are usually appointed as AC, and a UN agency individual is appointed as the Deputy
AC. The AC is responsible for coordinating the security of both the mission and the UN
agencies operating within the area. This extends the control of the Designated Official to remote
areas and ensures that there is good security coordination between the mission and the UN
agencies operating within the area. The Area Security Management Team is formed, and all
agencies are included in the Area Security Plan. Once the mission leaves the country at some
point in the future, the UN agencies will assume the primary AC responsibility so that there is a
seamless transition from mission responsibility for security to agency responsibility and for
security within the area.
Security Plan
Every country and every mission will have a Security Plan. The Plan may be simple or
elaborate, depending upon the country and the mission. Every member of a peacekeeping
mission should be aware of his or her responsibilities with regard to the implementation of the
Mission Security Plan.
Common Sense
You are responsible for your own security
First of all, you must understand that the UN cannot protect you 100% of the time. A
large majority of an individual's security and safety depends on the various situations the
individual is involved in and his/her response to these situations. Personal Security Awareness is
nothing more than common sense. While all humans have common sense, we sometimes have a
problem using it!
Secondly, there are many threats that face all UN staff around the world. Once you get
to your mission area, make certain to identify the threats that are prevalent in your mission.
Threats include, but are not limited to: sexual attacks, violent robbery, political acts, protests, and
kidnapping or hostage-taking. Threats can also face you through accidents, natural disasters,
such as a tsunami or earthquake, verbal harassment, and gratuitous violence.
The Head of the UN Operation in Burundi, Carolyn McAskie, visits a

military camp hosting South African ONUB peacekeepers in Kabezi
commune to appraise the security and humanitarian needs of the local
population. (UN Photo #65712, Martine Perret, February 2005)
There are some very basic principles that, in concert with common sense, will help
minimise the threats.
• Always be alert and aware of your surroundings. Be aware and suspicious. Look for the
unusual: loiterers, unauthorised parked cars, your car being followed, etc.
• Be methodical. Do not be complacent - be disciplined in establishing and maintaining
your security precautions. Try to avoid routines like using the same route to go to and
from work. When you go to the field, have a preparation checklist to make sure you have
everything you will need.
• Do not be too conspicuous. Try to blend in with your new environment; try not to stand
out. Thieves always look for the person who is not sure of where they are and what they
are doing. Try to show confidence even if you are lost. Do not wear an excessive
amount of jewellery, even costume jewellery. It may be cheap to you, but it looks
valuable to a criminal.
• Plan for the worst. Presume that you will be a victim and be prepared to react if,
unfortunately, you find yourself in any threatening situation. Simply ask yourself: If this
happens, what will I do?
• Use common sense. We all have it but sometimes are distracted and fall victim to human
nature. The best example of this is the vehicle seat belt. Everyone knows that using the
seat belt can significantly reduce the risk of serious injury in an accident. Yet many UN
staff drive without using their seat belt. This is a great illustration of not using common
sense.
Many of the tips and considerations that will be mentioned in this section are very basic
and will be known to you. But there are numerous staff members who report being a victim of a
crime because they did not follow these same common sense suggestions. As you read through
this lesson, take a moment to reflect if you follow these basic strategies. They include the
following:
• Brief staff and employees on security procedures;
• Rehearse safety drills;
• Know how to use local phones;
• Carry change or a local phone card;
• Know emergency telephone numbers; and
• Carry your radio, if issued.
It is important that families, staff, and employees, such as domestic staff, are briefed on
security procedures. You need to take the time to do this. Each home and office should have a
fire evacuation plan, which should be known by all and practiced at least once a year. If
assigned a radio, you must have it with you at all times. Leaving the radio at your house or in
your office in the charger does you no good in an emergency.
Staying away from isolated areas is critical to not becoming a victim. Criminals prefer to
attack when you are in an isolated area and not on a crowded street. Your risk is much higher
when you travel through this type of area. Many of us have to travel as a part of our business.
Tell associates and family your travel plans: where you are going; when you are leaving; when
you are returning; and call them when you arrive.
The majority of criminal activity directed against staff members occurs at night or during
the early morning hours. While it is impossible to not go to work early and stay late, it is
recommended that you do not do this routinely. If this is unavoidable, tell someone what you are
doing. Employing these simple actions could save your colleagues and your family needless
worry.
Walking and Jogging Considerations
Besides having to walk just to get around, many staff engage in these activities to stay fit
and healthy. While this is encouraged, you need to be aware of your surroundings and determine
if it is safe to do these activities.
Be aware and alert. Only carry what you need, or in other words, only carry what you
can afford to loose. Put your valuables in front pockets or under clothing, which makes it
difficult for pickpockets. Doorways can be used as hiding places, so walk near the curb, away
from bushes, buildings, and doorways. Do not use recreational earphones, as it can cause you to
become less aware of your surroundings. If you must, keep it on low volume so you may
continue to be aware of your surroundings. This is a personal decision, but it is not
recommended because it does cut off one of your key protective capabilities: your ability to hear.
You cannot hear if someone walks up from behind while wearing headphones! Only carry the
keys you need, have a small light on the key ring, and do not place your name on the key ring.
If you discover that you are being followed, get to safety – the police, fire department,
UN building, or other public area. Normally before a criminal strikes, there is usually a period of
surveillance. If you suspect you are being followed, go into a store, cross the street, or turn down
another street to see if the individual follows you. If after doing this several times he is still
there, immediately get to safety and do not be afraid to ask for help. If you have a mobile
telephone, call for help from a safe area.
While walking or jogging, do NOT approach a vehicle to give directions. Staff have
been pulled into cars and robbed or have been a victim of an “express robbery” in which they are
driven to several ATMs and forced to withdraw cash. You should give directions a safe distance
away from the vehicle. Also, do not hitchhike or accept a ride from a stranger. Do not walk
alone at night or take shortcuts through isolated areas, and do not talk to strangers at night.
These are all common sense.
Hotel Considerations
Many staff are required to travel as a part of their official duties. There are certain
actions one should consider when travelling, whether it is between duty stations or from the
capital to the deep field.
Always stay in hotels with good security. Generally, cheap hotels have cheap security;
you should pay a little more and be safe. Ask for a room by the elevator, especially for women
travelling alone. You will get to your room faster, the area around an elevator has more people
traffic, and thieves generally target rooms at the end of the hall so they are not easily seen or
discovered.
Ask for a room between the third and seventh floor of a hotel. In the event of an
indiscriminate bombing, these floors are far enough from the ground level activity, yet not too
high to get out quickly. Keep the door locked and curtains closed. Use a rubber doorstop: many
staff travel with their own door stop and use it at night when they go to bed. If someone attempts
to enter the room with a passkey, opening the door will create noise and could alert you to
trouble.
Identify fire escape routes upon checking in. Read the fire plan when you arrive in your
room. Survey the hall and find the exit door. It is a good idea to count the number of doors to
the exit. In a fire there may be smoke. You should drop to the floor and crawl, counting the
doors, until you reach the exit.
Field Travel
Before departing on
travel, there are specific actions
that you need to take. Get a
security clearance if required and
an update on the security
situation. The security officer or
security focal point can easily
provide this information. Do not
depend on someone else to get
this – you must get it yourself.
Tell the office your travel plans.
Also tell your communications
room your plans and when you
will contact them. Prepare a
checklist so you do not forget
anything, and be methodical. Poor roads and lack of infrastructure make the work of UNAMSIL
Military Observers a difficult task. Sector East, Sierra Leone.
Make sure your communications (UNAMSIL Photo, Michael Mondeh, 2003)
equipment works and that you
know how to use it. Research your route: know where you are going and where you are at all
times. Measure the distance, and divide the trip into legs.
Also consider not travelling alone. The buddy system is always the best method. If
possible, go in a convoy and make certain that all vehicles are prepared. Do not assume the
driver has checked – ask or even look yourself. If all is in order compliment the driver for
having a fully prepared vehicle.
Know the local emergency actions procedures, such as what you will do in the case of an
accident, breakdown, ambush, or hijacking. Make periodic contact with the office. If possible,
travel with a satellite or iridium telephone. Many missions have them available. Conduct radio
checks and advise your location with pre-arranged code words.
It is best to be accompanied by someone familiar with the area you are visiting, so take a
guide or escort with you. By no means pick up a hitchhiker regardless of his/her begging or
pleading. The general UN policy is: no non-UN personnel in UN vehicles. If you are in an
accident and the person is hurt, you may be liable for medical cost to treat injuries or worse.
Threats During Travel
When making plans to travel from the capital to the field, there are actions you should
consider. There are five prominent threats that all staff face when travelling to the deep field:
accidents, breakdowns, checkpoints, hijackings, and kidnappings.
As previously mentioned, there are common threats to all staff when travelling to the
field. It is important that all are aware of local procedures for responding to these situations.
These are only general guidelines. You must be briefed on specific procedure at your station.
Vehicle Accidents or Breakdown
Vehicle accidents are on the rise in the UN. If you are involved in an accident, it is
important to remember to remain calm. Do not panic, as this only makes the situation worse. To
avoid further damage or injury, move to the side of the road so that another vehicle cannot hit
you or crash into your vehicle. Administer first aid to those who need it, and call for help using
the radio or telephone. All UN vehicles are equipped with radios and can reach their respective
team sites. Call for help using the radio or telephone to notify your office that an accident has
occurred and to get their assistance. Most missions have an investigation section that will
respond. Obtain police assistance, especially in receiving a police report of the accident. Your
security office can provide further guidance on this. Wait for UN assistance, and remain at the
scene unless otherwise directed.
Checkpoints
Checkpoints are among the

most common security problems that
staff encounter in the field. There are
official checkpoints, which are
established by the government.
However, there is also a wide range of
unofficial checkpoints, which result in
the restriction of the freedom of
movement. It is important for you to
quickly identify which type of
checkpoint it is, as well as determine if
the people manning the checkpoint
possess firearms and if they are
UN peacekeepers from Nepal on a mission to check the
intoxicated (alcohol or drugs). The security situation in Isale, Bujumbura Rural. (ONUB Photo,
following are standard procedures Martine Perret, 22 December 2004)
used for passing through a checkpoint:
• Reduce speed. If at night, dim headlights and turn interior dome light on so the
checkpoint can see who is inside.
• Stop if told to do so.
• Roll your window down no more than one inch.
• Be friendly and courteous. If you yell, shout, or scream, you may have difficulty passing.
• Show identification if asked, but do not surrender it.
• Stay in the vehicle unless ordered out. If that is the case, stay by the vehicle, if possible.
• Observe any search of the vehicle. Staff have had possessions and equipment taken, and
they have had illegal items placed in the vehicle.
• Protest the removal of personal or official items, but do not resist. In most cases, the
individual is armed, and you should never argue with an armed person. Immediately call
and report the incident, and obtain further instructions.
Security problems at checkpoints vary from location to location. You should never
become complacent with crossing checkpoints because they could become extremely dangerous
at any time.
Hijackings
The purpose of a hijacking is most often to embarrass the UN, disrupt the peacekeeping
mandate, or to gain popular support for a local cause. Evasive action is your judgment call. If
there is no escape, then stop and do not resist. Keep your hands in view, do not make any
sudden moves, and explain what you are doing. Comply and do not provoke the hijacker, and do
not look at them directly.
The “Hostage Incident Card”

• Your only job is to survive.
• At the time of your seizure, do not attempt to fight back. The first 15 to 45 minutes are
the most dangerous. Do not play the hero; do not talk back or act “tough.”
• Be certain that you can explain everything you have on your person. Do not carry any
items that may call into question your motives or status within the mission.
• Fear is a normal reaction. Try to relax, pause, take a deep breath and accept the situation.
• Keep a low profile.
• Try to gain your captor’s respect, and try to build rapport with them. An excellent topic
of discussion is family and children.
• Emphasise that as a UN employee, you are neutral and are not involved in politics.
• Encourage your captors to let the authorities know your condition and whereabouts.
• Take care of yourself; exercise, stay well groomed, and eat/drink even if you are not hungry.
• Be patient and mentally prepared for isolation. Focus your mind on pleasant scenes,
memories, or prayers.
• Do not attempt to escape unless you are certain you will be successful.
• If there is a rescue attempt by force, drop to the floor and keep your hands over your
head. Once the situation stabilises, identify yourself.
Kidnappings
There are various reasons for kidnapping. Kidnapping may be motivated by money,
where a ransom is expected from the UN. It may only be for publicity, where the kidnappers
expect to raise interest in “their cause” by garnering attention through kidnapping UN
representatives. If politically motivated, the purpose may be to use you as an exchange for the
release of jailed comrades.
There are two basic methods to kidnap a victim. The first is a static location, such as
your residence, workplace, or someplace that you frequent, such as a restaurant or shop. The
second is en route where you may be on foot or in a vehicle moving from one static location to
another.
Phases of Kidnapping En Route
Once an attack site is selected, the kidnappers work to control and isolate that site. In
order to control that area, they may jam phone lines, fake roadblocks, stage accidents, or
establish other diversions. Remember, they know who they want to kidnap. They have run
surveillance to establish patterns and timing and have been able to control and isolate the area.
Blocking your vehicle is the next stage. This may be accomplished by fake traffic signs,
“official” roadblocks, ramming or blocking your vehicle, forcing your vehicle up against the
curb, or staging a roadside emergency, such as a downed bicyclist or injured child. The goal is
to get you to stop your car. Once your car is blocked, they will try to neutralise UN security
personnel, gain control of the victim, and leave the attack site with the victim.
Always remember that it is your job to survive. Be aware of your surroundings!

LESSON 7
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. A duty of the UN Security Coordinator (UNSECOORD) is:

a. Acting as the main security advisor to the Secretary-General;
b. Acting as a security guard at the local hotels;
c. Checking your luggage at the airport;
d. Travelling between missions to consult with the Force Commanders.
2. Every UN agency and UN organisation has a Security Focal Point. List the three primary
tasks for this person.
3. The Chief Security Officer (CSO) is responsible for accomplishing which of the following
duties:
a. Travelling between UNHQ and the various missions as a security consultant;
b. Ensuring that locally recruited staff understand the security measures;
c. Appointing local politicians to their positions;
4. There are many threats that face all UN staff around the world. List five different potential
threats.
5. Scenario. Each day you and a fellow MILOB walk from your living location to the UN
Team Site. Because it is almost 2 km, you always take the shortest route and stop for coffee
at the same place every day. On the way home in the evening, you stop at the same news
kiosk for a pack of cigarettes. Of course, you are always in your military uniform, wearing
your Blue Beret. What is wrong in this scenario?
a. There is nothing wrong with this scenario, as these people are your friends;
b. Because there is strength in numbers, it is a safe plan to walk the same route every
day with a colleague;
c. Creating a predictable pattern of travel, regardless of how many people you are
with, allows criminals and terrorists the opportunity to ambush you;
6. Scenario. You are out for your evening walk, and you are approached by a car with two
people in it. From their attire, you know that they are locals, so you are not frightened to
answer their questions for directions. What should you do?
a. Give them directions and ask them for a ride because you are tired;
b. Walk right up to the open window so you do not have to yell and give them
directions;
c. They seem like nice people, so make certain to invite them to your home for coffee;
d. Give them directions from a safe distance away from the vehicle.
7. Scenario. You are travelling alone and preparing to check into your hotel. The room is on
the second floor at the end of the hallway by the stairs. Because you are tired, you are
happy with the room location and decide to investigate the fire escape locations in the
morning. It is a lovely night with a full moon, so you open the drapes and unlock the
windows to sleep with the breeze. List five things wrong in this scenario.
8. Which of the following is a standard procedure at a checkpoint?

a. Drive quickly through the checkpoint so the guard cannot see you;
b. Once you stop at the checkpoint, you should open you window all the way;
c. Stay in the vehicle unless ordered out. If that is the case, stay by the vehicle, if
possible;
d. Resist if someone tries to remove articles from your car.
9. If you are taken hostage, which of the following should you NOT attempt?
a. Try to escape right away;
b. Emphasise that as a United Nations employee, you are neutral and are not involved
in politics;
c. Keep a low profile;
d. If there is a rescue attempt by force, drop to the floor and keep your hands over
your head. Identify yourself once the situation stabilises.
10. What is your job if you are taken hostage?

a. Tell your captors that you they cannot hurt you because you wear a Blue Beret;
b. Survive the situation;
c. Yell at your captors;
ANSWER KEY
1. a
2. Managing all security matters, interfacing with UNSECOORD support

agency field operations, and coordinating among different elements
3. b
4. Sexual attacks, violent robbery, political acts, protests, kidnapping or

hostage-taking
5. c
6. d
7. You should: ask for a room between the 3rd and 7th floors; identify the fire
escapes upon checking in; ask for a room near the elevator, as thieves
usually target rooms at the end of hallways; keep your curtains closed; and
keep your door and windows locked.
8. c
9. a
10. b
LESSON 8
LANDMINE AND UXO AWARENESS

Lesson 8 / Landmine and UXO Awareness 118
LESSON OBJECTIVES
This lesson discusses landmine and UXO awareness and has been developed with
information from the UN Landmine and Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) Safety project of the
United Nations Mine Action Service (UNMAS). The aim of this lesson is to provide
peacekeepers with an awareness of the danger of landmines and UXOs. This lesson does NOT
constitute a specific pre-deployment training package for landmine and UXO specialists. This
lesson only provides an overview of landmine and UXOs and is generic in nature. After
completing this lesson, the student should be able to:
• Dispel a few common misconceptions about mines, UXO, and mine action;
• Understand the general threat posed by landmines and UXO;
• Establish proper safety procedures related to mines and UXO; and
• Take appropriate action in emergency situations involving mine or UXO incidents and in
case of accidental entry into a minefield.
INTRODUCTION
The lesson does NOT teach the student how to work with mines or UXO, survey mined
areas, or find and remove mines. Proximity to mines and UXO is always dangerous and should
be avoided. Only trained specialists should seek out or handle mines and UXO. In addition, this
lesson does not aim to provide landmine and UXO awareness education to local inhabitants and
populations. Community mine awareness should be the object of locally designed programmes
adapted to local cultures and needs. This is NOT general safety training or training in first-aid
and medical assistance to victims.
A mine is explosive or other material, normally encased, designed to destroy or damage

vehicles, boats, or aircraft, or designed to wound, kill, or otherwise incapacitate personnel.
Mines are used to cause casualties to the enemy, to hinder movement, and to provide protection
to important positions. They are also used in civil conflicts to disrupt infrastructures by denying
the civilian population access to agricultural land, water, roads, schools, health-care facilities,
and other socio-economic targets.
Anti-personnel (AP) landmines are designed to injure or kill one or more persons. AP
mines can be located underground, on the ground surface, or fixed above ground level. Once
triggered, they cause death or serious injury by an explosive blast and/or by airborne fragments.
They are grouped according to the manner in which they inflict injury: blast effect mines and
fragmentation mines.
Blast effect mines are often very cheap and designed to be triggered by the pressure
caused by direct personal contact with the mine. They inflict injury through an explosive blast.
Most of these types of landmines have a relatively small explosive charge, often containing less
than 100 grams of explosive.
Fragmentation AP mines are designed to cause death or severe injury from fragments
propelled by the mine’s explosive charge. Most of these mines have metal casings designed to
shatter into fragments upon the detonation of the mine, or they are armed with ball bearings or
metal fragments that are turned into lethal projectiles by the detonation of the mine. The most
commonly found standard fragmentation AP mines are stake mines, which are designed to fit on
wooden or metal stakes hammered into the ground until the mine is resting about 21 cm above
the surface.
Directional (or “Claymore” type) fragmentation AP mines are designed to project a

dense pattern of fragments within a specified arc. Bounding fragmentation AP mines are
generally triggered by pressure on tripwires and/or direct pressure. An initial charge lifts the
mine up to waist height before the main charge detonates. Upon detonation, the explosion shoots
out metal fragments in a 360-degree horizontal arc.
Anti-tank (AT) landmines are mines that are designed to disable or destroy vehicles,
including tanks. Because they need much greater power to achieve their objective, AT mines are
much larger than AP mines and have a far heavier explosive charge.
Unexploded ordnance (UXO) are explosive munitions that have not yet been set off.
UXO may already have been fired, dropped, or launched, but it has failed to detonate as
intended. UXO include grenades, rockets, mortars, artillery shells, bombs, cluster munitions,
and fuses. They can function almost exactly as landmines, exploding when stepped on, moved,
or touched. Some UXO also contain motion-sensitive fusing or magnetic sensors; others may
have a timed self-destruct feature. Because UXO are very unstable and can be detonated easily,
they are very dangerous.
Be aware of the threat of the following methods of landmine activation:

• Direct pressure;
• Tripwires;
• Tilt rods (vertical rods often attached
to anti-tank mines and designed to
detonate once the hull of a tank has
bent the rod);
• Command detonation;
• Time-delay;
• Disturbance; and
• Other (e.g., light).
Mines can also be booby-trapped by using,

for example, anti-handling devices to make Anti-tank (AT) mines in Sudan. (UNMAS, 2003)
their removal more difficult.
During your in-processing at the mission site, ask for the country-specific leaflet that
discusses local landmine and UXO threats. When available, it is necessary to contact the
following for reliable information:
• Local Mine Action Centres (MACs) and mine action agencies;
• UN Security Officers;
• UN Military Observers or Liaison Officers; and
• NGOs and aid agencies working in the area.
Regardless of mission, an area or route that is not marked as contaminated with mines does not
mean it is safe.
Typical and Local Warning Signs
What types of signs are typically used to warn of a minefield? A “skull and crossbones”
on a red triangular or rectangular background is typically used, but it is important that during
your mission in-processing you ask for the specific warning signs typically found in your
mission area. Once again, the country-specific leaflet will give you examples of what is found in
your country.
An area can be mined, whether or not it is a military area, and there are often clues that
can indicate an area as potentially dangerous.
UNMEE, near Senafe, Eritrea. This area contained one of the largest
minefields of the war between Ethiopia and Eritrea. (Photo by LTC Phyllis
Mihalas, July 2002)
There are three cardinal rules:

• When in doubt, stay out!
• When properly laid, landmines are almost impossible to see!
• Never approach or touch landmines or UXO!
Be aware of the following local and typical warning signs:

• Positions of the military;
• Destroyed buildings, vehicles, or equipment;
• Partially visible mines/UXO or discarded packaging from their containers;
• Tripwires and tilt rods;
• Casualties, those who are injured, or dead animals;
• Signs of fighting;
• Disturbed soil or vegetation;
• Overgrown areas; and
• Local behaviour (areas and paths avoided).
Be Informed and Prepared
Make sure you know whom to contact for help in case of a mine or UXO emergency.
Ensure that you and your team-mates have received appropriate mine and UXO awareness and
first-aid training, and make sure that you are familiar with your organisation’s safety procedures.
Carry with you at all times the UN Mine and UXO Handbook and country-specific information
corresponding to your area of operations. Keep contact details of the mine action centre and
agencies, UN security officers, and medical facilities on hand. Verify and update emergency
contacts on a regular basis.
Do not travel without a radio, and be sure you know how to use it. Be informed of all the
alternative frequencies that you may require (e.g., mine action agencies, UN security officers).
The use of a global positioning device (GPS) is also strongly recommended. Also carry a travel
pack with a first-aid kit in your vehicle at all times. Regularly check the expiry date and
serviceability of all items, and know how to use them.
Update your mine and UXO information on a regular basis. Obtain relevant and detailed
information on the mine and UXO situation prior to any movement into an area or region that
may contain mines or UXO. Carry a map marked with the best available information about
routes known to be free of mines. Update this information by checking with local populations as
you travel, and pay attention to their warnings!
In addition to contacting the mine action centre and UN security officers for reliable
information, also contact local authorities, hospitals, and members of the local population for
additional information. Keep in mind, however, that returning populations may not be aware of
the local mine and UXO threat.
If there are any doubts as to what constitutes reliable information, refer to the country-
specific leaflet for a listing of local sources of information. However, information must be
checked, and perceptions of risk may be different between cultures. Thus, a path may be “safe”
but may also be bordered heavily by mines.
If in doubt, assume that the worst-case scenario applies. Even if only one source
indicates that an area is dangerous, do not go.
Pass new information to your head office, the local Mine Action Centre, UN Security
Officers, and mine action agencies, so that they can share it with other organisations and staff
members.
Be Careful
Drive slowly. Speed is not a priority over safety!

• Do not enter known or suspected risk areas, and use only cleared and approved routes.
• Maintain radio contact.
• Whenever possible, travel with a companion, preferably one who knows the area and the
route you need to use.
• Stick to well-travelled routes, and stay in the travelled zone of the road.
• On dirt roads, stay on the existing tracks.
• Never drive around roadblocks of former military positions. Never drive over anything
on the road. A paper bag, a piece of cloth, or a wooden board can all conceal mines.
• Always be extremely careful driving during or after heavy rains. Mines may be moved or
exposed by rain.
Don’t take risks! If you are in any doubt, turn back!

• When travelling on foot, allow a local guide to lead the way, and allow a distance of
around 25 meters between members of the group.
• Never walk through overgrown areas. Instead, stick to sidewalks and well-used paths.
• Carry a radio and a first-aid kit at all times. Do not leave them in your vehicle. These
items should be carried by a person walking in the middle of the team or towards the
back, not by the lead person.
• Do not move obstacles – they may be mined or booby-trapped.
• Do not enter abandoned buildings or visit deserted locations. Talk to the local population
and observe local behaviour to find out about safe areas in communities.
• Resist offers to be shown a mine, as this is probably still in a mined area and therefore an
area of extreme danger.
• Do not touch objects in mine-contaminated areas, especially unexploded ordnance. Do not
collect war souvenirs, and do not approach abandoned military vehicles or facilities.
Do not rush! Exiting a

minefield is a time-consuming and
dangerous process. Immediately
after stopping, warning others, and
calling for help, you can assess the
situation further:
• Examine the ground
immediately around your
feet to make sure your base
is safe.
• Look around slowly and
carefully, without moving,
to see if you can spot Aerial view of Croatian demining efforts in the Western Sector of
mines, tripwires, etc. Eritrea. (UNMEE, LTC Phyllis Mihalas, G5, August 2002)
• Crouch down without
moving your feet, and visually scan for tripwires or signs of mines.
• Visually locate the nearest safe ground. This may be where you last knew you were on a
safe surface, such as a hard surfaced road, well-used path, or steel structure, such as an
irrigation canal or a large pipeline.
It is strongly recommended to remain where you are and wait for assistance to arrive. It
is better to spend two days in a minefield than getting injured or killed!
When a vehicle strikes a mine, the first instinct of survivors may be to rush out.
However, unless the vehicle is on fire or has ended up in a life-threatening position, stay in the
vehicle. It is very likely that there will be more mines, including AP mines, in the area. If you
can, render first-aid assistance to other passengers in the vehicle who require it. If absolutely
necessary, leave the vehicle from the back, staying in the wheel tracks.
Once out of the mined area, make sure that you report the threat to your office and to the
mine action organisations operating in the area.
It is essential to resist the temptation to go into a minefield to try to extract someone.

Minefield extraction is a specialist enterprise, and many people have been killed or injured
unnecessarily trying to help friends or family. In case of a mine or UXO accident, you are
advised to do the following:
• Remain calm. Do not rush to the victim, and do not attempt to rescue him/her in what
may be a minefield.
• Note the time and exact location of the accident.
• Call for help. Arrange for both mine clearance assistance and MEDEVAC.
• Warn the mine victim not to move, and advise him/her that help is on its way.
• If you do not have it with you, and if you can safely do so, collect your first-aid kit from
your vehicle.
Once the victim is brought to safe ground by a mine clearance team, and if there are no
medical personnel available, you may administer emergency first aid, if appropriate, as per your
formal training:
• Check the victim for breathing. If required and possible, clear the airways and give
artificial respiration or cardio-pulmonary resuscitation.
• Stop the bleeding. Elevate the injured limb above the level of the heart. Use whatever
bandages or material are available to make pressure dressing for the wounds. If bleeding
continues through the dressings, apply more material and apply firm manual pressure.
• If the wounded person is unconscious, put them in the recovery or “semi-prone” position.
• Protect the victim from the wind, rain, cold, or bright sunlight. Keep him/her calm and
warm, talk to him/her, and explain what you are planning to do.
Once you get the patient to a vehicle, transport him/her at once to the nearest medical
facility. Use the best transport immediately available, and leave instructions for any better or
faster transport to follow you when it arrives.
LESSON 8
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. When moving in a potentially mined area, danger zones can include:

a. Forks in a road and knapsacks of local guides;
b. Baggage in vehicles that pass by;
c. Edges of roads and natural or man-made objects that are out of place;
d. The middle of the roads.
2. In areas that may be mined or booby-trapped, hard roads or recent vehicle or foot tracks can
be considered safe areas.
a. True
b. False
3. Driving livestock through a field will make the field safe from mines.
a. True
b. False
4. If you know a piece of land has been stepped on, you know you are safe. If a mine did not
go off the first time, it will not explode later.
a. True
b. False
5. There is a type of mine that will click when you step on it and then blow up only when you
take your foot off. This can allow you time to find a heavy object to place on the mine as
you remove your foot.
a. True
b. False
6. One way to avoid injury in a dangerous area is to run or drive as fast as possible. If you run
or drive very quickly, you can avoid the blast of an exploding mine.
a. True
b. False
7. Luckily landmines do not last very long, and after a few years in the ground, they tend to
rust and will not work.
a. True
b. False
8. Unexploded bombs pose less of a threat because you can see them and then simply move
them out of your way.
a. True
b. False
9. Burning an area may clear some mines but not all of them.
a. True
b. False
10. What should you do if you are caught in a minefield?

ANSWER KEY
1. c
2. a
3. b
4. b
5. b
6. b
7. b
8. b
9. a
10. MINED:
Movement stops
Inform and warn. Tell them not to move, contact base, and indicate location.
Note area, examine ground, look for tripwires/mines, identify safe ground.
Evaluate situation, take control.
Do not move from your location, wait for assistance.

LESSON 9
MEDICAL ISSUES
9.1 HIV/AIDS
9.2 Malaria
9.4 Basic Hygiene
Lesson 9 / Medical Issues 130
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide MILOBS and peacekeepers with the basic facts and
information about HIV/AIDS and malaria. This lesson will also provide peacekeepers with the
steps of basic life support and how to apply these to a casualty in a mission. After completing
this lesson, the student should be able to:
• Demonstrate detailed understanding of the basic facts, spread, and prevention of

HIV/AIDS;
• Understand the various policies, resolutions, and preventive measures that interplay and
interrelate in the fights against the spread of HIV/AIDS worldwide;
• Understand the importance of malaria prevention;
• Identify the typical symptoms of malaria and how to react to them;
• Understand the importance of basic life support;
• List the steps of basic life support and execute the basic life support techniques; and
• Explain the importance of maintaining one’s personal hygiene while at a mission.
INTRODUCTION
MILOBS and peacekeepers in the field can find themselves in hazardous situations both
during and after conflicts. While many of these dangers originate from violence inflicted
amongst people, others occur as a result of various medical issues. Therefore, it is imperative
that peacekeepers arm themselves with knowledge of diseases like HIV/AIDS and malaria. The
maintenance of one’s personal hygiene will also help prevent the spread of disease. In addition,
peacekeepers should familiarise themselves with basic life support techniques, which could save
someone’s life in the event of injury in the field.
9.1 HIV/AIDS
It is essential that peacekeepers and MILOBS of all nations both uniformed and civilian,
understand the significance of HIV/AIDS prior to taking on peacekeeping duties anywhere in the
world. Revelation in recent years shows that peacekeeping operations may be playing a role in
the spread of HIV/AIDS between high prevalence areas and low prevalence areas. This is a
situation involving the individual peacekeepers, the troop-contributing countries (TCC), the host
country, UN DPKO, and the medical fraternity at large, including the World Health Organisation
(WHO). Failure to conform to existing prevention and prophylactic measures in curbing this
menace has far-reaching consequences to UNPKOs.
HIV is a deadly virus!

HIV infection is preventable!
You may find the HIV virus everywhere!
Sexual Relationships in Missions
Peacekeepers are strongly discouraged from entering into a sexual relationship with any
member of the host population, as these relationships are normally unbalanced in favour of the
peacekeeper. If, however, they have sexual relations, it is expected that they behave responsibly
and protect themselves, as well as their partner, from the spread of HIV or other Sexually
Transmitted Infections (STI).
The UN strongly advises that MILOBS and peacekeepers do not engage in penetrative
sex while in the mission. As it is, however, a fact that many peacekeepers do, the mission makes
condoms available to all MILOBS and peacekeepers. Condoms are the only relative protection
against the spread of HIV when engaging in penetrative sex with a person who may carry the
HIV virus. Condoms are the only protection available to prevent spread.
Condoms are freely available in all missions. Any mission member should feel free to
use them. This does not constitute an acceptance by the United Nations for entering into a sexual
relationship. It is an acknowledgement of the fact that some do enter into sexual relationships
and have a need for protection. Condoms must be used whenever penetration is a part of the
sexual act, whether it is between man and woman or between men. They are equally important
as protection in oral, anal, or vaginal sexual intercourse.
UN Engagement
The pandemic of HIV/AIDS is a global concern as it influences every aspect of life. In

varying degrees, all nations are affected. In most societies, the disease is stigmatising, and
people known or suspected to be HIV-positive are often socially excluded. Children are born
with HIV, and parents die from AIDS. The productive population is decimated, and those left
are not able to maintain production and support their relatives. In many areas, there is a lack of
teachers, medical personnel, and uniformed security forces. Medical services are congested, and
treatable diseases are often neglected.
SC Resolution 1308 (2000). In 2000, the Security Council passed a resolution describing
the pandemic as affecting human security as it affects the stability in nations and regions.
SC Resolution 1325 (2000). As women are especially vulnerable in societies in conflict,

the Security Council emphasises that we are all responsible for developing our societies with due
respect for the rights of women and children.
UNGASS. The United Nations General Assembly Special Session in June 2001
emphasised the way HIV/AIDS affects all areas of life, with a special emphasis on the human
and financial impact to the poorest nations.
The Global Fund. The UN Secretary-General is creating a global fund to combat

HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria, diseases that kill millions each year, predominantly in
poor nations. These diseases must be addressed in the name of humanity.
Global Numbers
As of 2005, approximately 40 million people carry the HIV virus. Fifteen million are
between 15 and 24 years old. At least 15,000 new people are infected daily. The chances of
HIV-positive pregnant women passing on the virus to their child are 1 in 3. Over 20 million
people have already died from AIDS worldwide. On average, at least 12,000 will die each day in
the next 10 years.
The Effect of HIV/AIDS on your Body
The virus enters the specialised cells that protect the body against infections. The virus
multiplies and renders the cell useless. After a period of time, there are no longer enough cells to
protect the individual from infection, and the patient suffers more and more often from
infections.
How does it enter the cells? The HIV virus is concentrated in bodily fluids. The highest
concentration is in blood, sexual fluids, and breast milk. The virus is passed to others through
the exchange of fluids or through sharp objects infected by these fluids. When in the body, the
virus seeks out and enters the so-called T-cells, cells that protect the body from infections.
How does it multiply? Inside the T-cell, the virus multiplies and makes the cell unable to
fight infections. The new viruses are released into the bloodstream and enter new T-cells.
How does this affect your body? The body has a big reserve, so that in the early stages of
HIV infection there are still enough healthy T-cells to fight infection. However, eventually the
ability to fight infection decreases, and the patient suffers from more and more “ordinary
infections” and symptoms of ill health.
Can you see who is infected? Until the end stages of AIDS, one cannot see if a person is
infected or not.
What are the end stages? In the late stages of AIDS, even infections that rarely affect
humans will affect the patient. Eventually the patient dies from an infection.
How Does HIV Spread?
All spread of the HIV virus is avoidable and

preventable!
Sexual spread. In more than 80% of

cases, the virus spreads through unprotected
sexual intercourse as sexual fluids, where the
virus concentration is high, are exchanged. The
changes of spread increase where one or both
have a sore or bleeding. The spread is
facilitated by unprotected sex, such as
intercourse, anal intercourse, oral sex, or any
other form of sex without a properly-worn
prophylactic.
Spread through infected needles and

utensils. The next largest group are infected
through the use of infected “medical utensils,”
such as those used in ritual scarring and
circumcision. The spread will also occur
through improperly cleaned medical equipment
or through the sharing of needles in drug abuse. A woman bottle-feeds an infant at a home for
women and children in Ethiopia. Mother-to-child
Mother-to-child. An infected mother transmission of HIV is the most significant sources
may pass the virus to her baby in pregnancy, of HIV infection in children below the age of 10
during birth, or by breast-feeding. years. (UNAIDS, Gubb)
Blood transfusions. The use of improperly tested blood or blood products may lead to the
spread of infection.
How HIV Does Not Spread
Those who are HIV-positive can live a normal, responsible life.
Normal parent/child activities. All normal activities between parents and children are
safe. They can share a bed, a bath, or a meal, and they may play, share love, emotions, and
interact like everybody else.
Normal boyfriend/girlfriend activities. The normal, non-sexual, exchange of love like

hugs, kisses, and touch do not spread the HIV virus between people. Sexual activities that do not
include direct contact with another person’s sexual fluids are safe. Unprotected penetration, i.e.,
without a condom, is the only dangerous sexual activity.
Caring for the sick. Caring for the sick is not dangerous as long as one takes normal
hygiene precautions, even if the patient suffers from an HIV-related disease.
Sharing food or drink. Drinking from the same bottle or sharing food with someone who
is HIV-positive is normally safe.
Insects. Insects, such as mosquitoes, do not lead to significant exchange of blood, and
therefore, do not lead to the spread of HIV.
First aid and resuscitation. No HIV infection has been observed resulting from mouth to
mouth resuscitation. In normal first aid, one should use rubber gloves when possible. If no
gloves are available, a thorough wash with soap and water is sufficient. If the first-aid helper
him/herself is bleeding, the bleeding area should be covered before performing first aid to avoid
blood-to-blood contact.
Treatment for HIV/AIDS
There is no vaccine to protect against AIDS, and none are close to being used in humans.
When a vaccine is produced, it will not influence the health of people already infected with HIV.
In addition, no drug treatment can cure a patient with HIV. It may prolong their life, but the
treatment has great cost financially, as well as in life-quality. By adopting a healthy lifestyle
with a regular life and optimal nutrition, an HIV-infected person can influence his/her life-
quality and the progress of the disease.
Factors Influencing the Spread
Population on the move. In

refugee situations, women and
children may find themselves in
situations where sex is exchanged for
security, food, water, or drugs.
Poverty. The chances of

getting infected are influenced by the
status of the immune system when
challenged by the HIV virus.
Poverty influences living conditions
as well as nutrition, thus influencing
the changes of getting infected.
Training session on HIV prevention for a group of students in
Poverty also may be part of a woman Botswana. (UNAIDS, Pirozzi)
becoming a commercial sex worker.
STIs. Sexually Transmitted Infections enhance the chance of getting infected. This is
due to the increased discharge and the vulnerability of the sexual surfaces.
Promiscuity. A frequent change of sex partners or the use of commercial sex workers
greatly increases the chance of getting infected or infecting others. All unprotected sex can be an
opportunity for transmission of HIV.
Commercial sex. Engaging in commercial sex means sharing infections from all
previous sexual encounters of both partners. Commercial sex workers as a group may have up to
a 90% HIV infection rate in some areas. The United Nations does not accept that MILOBS or
peacekeepers engage in commercial sex.
Violent sex. Violent sex increases the chances of bleeding and, therefore, the chances for
getting infected.
Circumcision in women. Women who are ritually circumcised often bleed during
intercourse, and sex rarely gives the normal lubrication that protects the female sexual surfaces.
Dry sex. In some cultures, potions to make the surfaces dry are used. This brings the
partners to the same situation as above.
Men having sex with men. Sex between men is more likely to provoke microscopic
bleeding and, therefore, facilitate the spread of HIV.
Different Cultures May Interpret the Same Signal Oppositely
The MILOB or peacekeeper is the guest, and it is his/her responsibility to protect and
relate to the local culture. This does not mean that the peacekeeper has to adopt the culture; it is
important to remain true to your own culture while respecting the culture in the host country.
Between the two cultures, a “safe” rule of thumb is to behave according to the culture with the
most restrictive rules for human relationships.
Understanding the local culture. As guests, peacekeepers must understand and respect
the local culture. Believing that the host community should adhere to the culture or the standards
that peacekeepers bring along is cultural imperialism. Peacekeepers are there to respect and
protect the culture, not to challenge it. If your own culture sets higher standards for behaviour
than what you experience in the mission, retain your respect for your own cultural values.
Seeking contact. Some cultures and religious creeds discourage direct contacts and
indirect contacts, such as eye contact and smiles, between women and men that do not belong to
their closest family. In other cultures, a friendly look or a smile is a natural sign of friendliness
and welcome. The latter should never be interpreted by a peacekeeper as an invitation or
encouragement for a relationship. Some cultures and religious creeds encourage women to cover
their hair or de-emphasise their bodily features through dress. The peacekeeper must respect this
and not openly challenge it. The practice in itself does not signal a specific view on women’s
positions or repression, neither does challenging it.
Touch. Some cultures and religious creeds discourage bodily contact between men and
women unless closely related. It normally does not constitute impoliteness if a member of the
opposite sex chooses not to shake hands with you. All cultures accept touching the area of your
heart with your right hand as a polite greeting.
Nudity and breast-feeding. Some cultures do not discourage upper-body nudeness or

breast-feeding in public. This is not a statement of “availability,” an invitation, or a proof of
promiscuity, and a peacekeeper must never see it as such.
Respect for women. MILOBS and peacekeepers should protect women and children.
Treat all women as you want others to treat the significant women in your life. You will never
go wrong if you treat women the way you want and expect others to treat your mother, your
wife, or your daughter. A woman has the right to choose if she wants to get into a relationship.
If you see the relationship she invites you to join as improper according to your and/or her
culture, refrain from entering into the relationship. A person has the right to choose whether or
not to enter into a relationship with another person, and it is improper to seek to coerce or force
another person into any relationship they resist or should resist according to their culture.
Sex with children is criminal. International conventions normally set 18 years as the age
where a man may enter regular military service. All peacekeepers are expected to be above 18.
The International Convention on the Rights of the Child states the age of maturity to be 18 and
that younger persons should be respected as children. Whatever is the age of consent in the
home country of the peacekeeper or in the host country of the mission, the peacekeeper must
abide by the strictest interpretation of the convention. Entering into a sexual relationship with a
person that has not reached legal maturity is unacceptable for a peacekeeper.
A balanced relationship. A relationship must be built on a balance between the partners:

• Balance in security. A woman or man seeking the security offered by peacekeepers
cannot enter into a balanced relationship with a peacekeeper.
• Balance in physical situation. A person who does not have shelter or food cannot enter
into a balanced relationship with a peacekeeper.
• Balance in emotional needs. Remember that sex may be for sale whereas love is never!
Remember that you can never buy a person to satisfy and reciprocate your emotional
needs.
• No material bonds. A relationship where one person exchanges material values for
emotional or physical services is never balanced.
• Shared wish to engage. The relationship is balanced only if both parties share the wish to
engage emotionally or physically.
The Role of the Military and the Police
Uniformed security forces defend the nation against any enemy. A higher goal is the
protection of the weak and vulnerable against evil. Today, the biggest enemy to all mankind is
HIV/AIDS, and it is natural that every soldier takes part in protecting the most vulnerable in the
mission area, as well as their own nation, against this disease.
Most uniformed personnel are between 15 and 45 years, which is the age where men and
women are most active sexually. In many societies, uniformed personnel are part of a highly
respected group, which influences the behaviour and lifestyle of others. In most military or
police organisations, the majority of the members are males. There may be a tradition to
encourage showing a “male” behaviour where conflict should have a “winner” and where the
strongest and most assertive is the leader of the pack. The peer pressure to conform to the
behaviour decided by the group as “acceptable” is great. This may include being coerced into
active sexual acts or behaviour, at times under group pressure. As in many male groups, women
are the focus of interest and fantasies.
The peacekeeper is quite often seen as bringing peace. The population normally has high
expectations of peacekeepers. They bring about stability and security, but they are also expected
by some to bring about prosperity. The facilities of peacekeepers are normally of high standard
and signal that the peacekeepers have money. The standards of the peacekeepers, materially and
socially, may influence local standards. The peacekeeper must be aware of this, so as not to
accidentally abuse or be abused by the people.
While on mission, the unit and the officers offer the only social control. The control
mechanisms of family, friends, and culture are not there, and this may influence a peacekeeper to
let go of the normal taboos and inhibitions. Loneliness and the lack of privacy also at times
reduce the adherence to cultural values.
Alcohol and Drugs
The use of alcohol for relaxation and in social contexts influences behaviour in a negative
way. It reduces the normal social control, and it may lead to actions and behaviour that is not
seen as acceptable, even to the individuals themselves.
In areas of conflict, recreational drugs like marijuana, kat, cocaine, and pharmaceuticals
are often readily available, as are drugs for intravenous use. All these drugs influence behaviour
and reduce inhibitions. With intravenous drugs, there is an additional risk of spreading HIV
through the sharing of needles.
Voluntary Confidential Counselling and Testing
The UN advocates
everybody’s right to
Voluntary Confidential
Counselling and Testing.
Mandatory testing is not
supported, but it is accepted
if it is a national decision to
perform mandatory testing.
The HIV status of MILOBS
and peacekeepers should be
confidential, and the United
Nations does not request to
know this status of their
peacekeepers. The UN does,
however, insist that a
MILOB or peacekeeper
should not have a medical Testing for HIV/AIDS in a Ministry of Health laboratory in Amman,
Jordan. (UNAIDS, Pirozzi)
history or a medical
examination suggesting any
stage of AIDS.
Psychologists show that the important side of a test is the possibility to change the
behaviour according to the test result. Behavioural change is more consistent if following a
voluntary testing procedure. As a person’s HIV status may affect his/her standing and
acceptance in the community, the status should only be known by those he/she chooses to share
the results with.
The result of a test is only important if you know how to cope with the knowledge and
are supported in finding how to adjust your life to whatever the test might show. It is, therefore,
not acceptable to test a person without offering the support of counselling. Testing may be done
as a rapid screening test. This test is intended to avoid false negative tests and may produce false
positive tests. More specific tests should be used for verification to avoid the inclusion of false
positive tests.
The Advantage of Knowing your Status
Protect yourself and others. Knowing you are HIV negative and discussing it with the
counsellor may help you choose a lifestyle that helps you remain HIV negative. Knowing you
are HIV-positive and discussing it with the counsellor may help you choose a lifestyle that helps
you not infect others.
Lifestyle. As the progress of disease is influenced by lifestyle, a person knowing that

he/she is HIV-positive may adjust his/her lifestyle to be more optimal for protecting health. This
will influence nutrition, the use of tobacco, alcohol or recreational drugs, rest, sleep, and the
planning of future activities.
Medical considerations. A person knowing that he/she is HIV-positive will have been
told by the counsellor of the medical signs of HIV-related diseases, which may influence the
course of the disease through addressing these diseases early. There are also a number of cheap
regimes that influence the frequency of chest infections and tuberculosis.
Treatment. If you, your family, or your society can get you treatment, it is important to
know your status at the earliest possible time.
The Window Period
When infected by the HIV virus, it takes time before the virus concentration is high
enough to convert your test from negative to positive. The time before this happens is called the
window period. The window period may last up to 6 weeks. In this time, you may be infected
and have the ability to transmit the disease, even though the test may be negative. Testing after
risky behaviour should take place immediately after the incident and then again after six to
twelve weeks.
9.2 Malaria
It is essential that MILOBS and peacekeepers of all nations, both uniformed and civilian,
understand the importance of malaria prior to taking on peacekeeping duties anywhere in the
world. Statistics indicate that malaria is one of the leading causes of death of peacekeepers,
together with traffic accidents. Many peacekeeping missions require deployments in areas of
high prevalence of malaria. However, malaria may be prevented with very simple measures to
be undertaken by the individuals and the units in the field. It is, thus, critical that all
peacekeepers be informed and trained on how to avoid being sick and how to identify and react
immediately to the symptoms.
UN Engagement
Why is the United Nations concerned about malaria? There are more than 200 million
cases of malaria each year worldwide. This has a major influence on productivity and security.
Malaria kills more than one million people every year, of which 75% are children. The course of
malaria is worse in immuno-compromised patients. This leads to malaria becoming more deadly
in the present HIV/AIDS pandemic.
How Malaria Attacks the Body
Malaria is a significant cause of death in peacekeeping missions on the African continent.

Approximately ten peacekeepers die from malaria every year. Nearly all of these deaths are
avoidable! Malaria is a significant cause of morbidity in peacekeeping missions. In some
contingents, one-third of the soldiers have clinical malaria every month. This is avoidable!
Malaria is a disease that spreads from person to person through the Anopheles mosquito.
A disease that spreads through an animal or insect is called “vector borne.” The mosquito breeds
in water and a hot climate, and it bites only at night. The parasite that causes the disease
multiplies in the body and spreads from the infected person to non-infected people through the
mosquito. Reducing the number of vectors can influence the spread of vector-borne diseases.
Protecting against vectors can influence whether the individual gets the disease or not.
A person gets infected through the bite of the female Anopheles mosquito. The bite
injects parasites that infect the liver. After having multiplied for approximately ten to twenty
days in the liver, the parasites are released into the bloodstream and enter the red blood cells.
This causes the clinical disease of malaria. The ten to twenty days are called the incubation
period, and it is part of the disease as the number of parasites is increasing in this period even if
the patient has no symptoms.
When the parasite enters the red blood cells, the cells eventually burst. Often so many
cells may burst that the patient becomes anaemic. The products of the burst cells may cause
jaundice, and they may also cause the liver and spleen to grow as they are performing the task of
clearing the blood from the products of the burst cells. Other products may cause other cells in
the blood to stick together in small clots that may close the tiny blood vessels.
When more and more red cells burst, the patient becomes anaemic. This leads to a
feeling of heaviness and reduced ability to perform physical activities. The products of the burst
cells may lead to a slight jaundice, where the skin gets a slight tan and the white in the eyes
becomes yellowish. In cleaning the blood, the liver and spleen grow. As an enlarged liver or
spleen is quite brittle, the patient may suffer internal bleeding following minor trauma to the
abdomen.
Symptoms of Acute Malaria
The first symptoms are similar to those associated with the flu. The patient does not feel
well and experiences headache, muscle and joint pain, and a slight fever. After a while, the
patient typically experiences a feeling of being cold and shivers while the temperature rises to a
spike of high fever. The fever goes down while the patient is normally sweating profusely.
After this, the patient feels relatively well until the fever comes back at irregular intervals. After
about a week, the fever spikes become regular with an interval of 48 to 72 hours.
A MILOB and peacekeeper must understand and relate to the symptoms of malaria:
• Bouts of fever that come and go until after 7-10 days, when it becomes rhythmic with 48-
72 hours between bouts.
• Fever comes with pains in muscles and joints, and it may simulate influenza.
• Enlarged spleen or liver and jaundice may be later symptoms.
If you suspect malaria you should always seek medical attendance. Always react to
fever, unusual fatigue, and the flu. As the early symptoms have a lot in common with the
symptoms of influenza, it is easy to mistake them for a “normal” flu. You should always
remember that you might have malaria if you suddenly get flu symptoms. If you feel unusually
tired and worn out after a “two-day flu,” suspect malaria. If you have an irregular high fever,
you should suspect malaria.
Only patients having had malaria repeatedly should be treated as outpatients. All other
patients should be observed as inpatients. In cases of anaemia, jaundice, or circulatory problems,
the patient should always be seen in a hospital. MEDEVAC is vital in any case of mental
confusion or convulsion, as well as with reduced production of urine.
Death from Malaria
Why do people die from malaria? The products of burst cells may make other cells
sticky and facilitate them in forming small blood clots. Small clots may get stuck in the thin
vessels of vital organs and cause malfunction. Parasites may “steal” vital nutrients and oxygen
from normal cells. This may result in vital organs breaking down after first having functioned
badly. Death follows this breakdown.
Who dies from malaria? In endemic countries, 75% of those dying from malaria are
young children. In peacekeeping missions, most of those severely affected come from non-
endemic countries and have never had malaria prior to being deployed to a mission. Individuals
with an immune system affected by other disease or drugs become more severely affected. This
is an important cause of death in HIV/AIDS patients.
How to Prevent Malaria
Malaria is, to a large extent, a preventable disease. Active physical and pharmaceutical
prophylaxis significantly reduces the chance of being infected by malaria.
Is there such a thing as immunity? People from areas with a high rate of malaria are
considered semi-immune. This does not prevent them from getting malaria, but it generally
seems to lead to a milder form of the disease, with less complications. Some do, however,
become severely ill.
Influencing the environment to prevent the disease:

• Vector control: By controlling the environment, it is possible to reduce the number of
mosquitoes:
− Drain pools of stagnant water, as mosquitoes breed there.
− Cut grass and brush short.
− Cut low hanging branches.
− Use spray or fog to kill mosquitoes.
• Repellent: Dip uniforms, tents, and mosquito nets in chemicals that repel mosquitoes
(such as Peremetrine).
• Nets: Cover doors and windows with nets to avoid letting mosquitoes into buildings.
Cover your bed with a mosquito net.
Action taken by the individual to prevent infection:

• Attire: The Anopheles mosquito only bites at night. The individual should therefore
dress in a way covering as much skin as possible to prevent mosquito bites.
• Repellent: Skin not covered by dress should be treated with repellent. Less than 30%
DEET is recommended for this.
• Drug Prophylaxis: Prophylaxis does not stop you from being infected, but is nearly
always protects you from developing malaria. The United Nations expects every
peacekeeper to use prophylaxis, and it reimburses all contributing countries for providing
prophylaxis to their peacekeepers. The United Nations follows the advice of the World
Health Organisation in recommending a weekly dose of Mefloquine (Lariam) as
prophylaxis which reduces clinical infections hundredfold. Prophylaxis does not lead to
significant side effects, and any biochemical change is reversible.
It is essential that MILOBS and peacekeepers of all nations, both uniformed and civilian,
be prepared to provide basic life support to other peacekeepers or any casualty in cases where
they may be the first responders. Most incidents will happen in places where there is no
immediate medical support. Statistics also indicate that the first two hours are critical for
survival and recovery. It is in this moment that a few simple actions taken decisively by the first
responders may decide the fate of the injured persons.
The intention of this section is to present a basic understanding of the vital functions of
the human body. This knowledge should be used in applying effective, basic life support
measures as first responders in accidents and as a result of hostile action.
Remember the basics:

• Airways - Open airways and functional exchange of air
• Bleeding - No significant bleeding reduces the circulating volume
• Circulation - Pumping action from heart
• Head - Be aware of signs of head injury
• Spinal Cord - Avoid movement of the neck and the spinal column
• Fracture - Fractures and suspected fractures should be immobilised
Standards
You are encouraged

to use your own national
guidelines to train your
personnel. The important
issue is that each and every
peacekeeper will deploy to
the field prepared to
provide first aid or basic
life support anytime,
anywhere. Basic life
support should be fast and
decisive. However, speed
must never take preference
over care, knowledge, or
security!
Evaluate the
MONUC Moroccan contingent medical staff treat refugees in Che, Ituri,
security situation before after they fled their homes due to violent militia fighting. (MONUC Photo,
you approach the patient. Christophe Boulierac, February 2005)
You must always regard
your own personal safety. You are of no help to a patient if you behave in a way that may
potentially injure you as well. You must also evaluate whether the patient’s security situation
(fire, chemicals) should take preference over treatment.
Mechanism of Injury
Always try to understand the mechanism of injury before you begin first aid.
• Spinal Injury – As a practical precaution, always treat a patient as if he/she has a spinal
injury that may get worse until you feel reasonably sure that this is not the case.
• Head Injury – While preparing for applying first aid, try to get an impression of the
mental status of the patient.
• A = Airways – Secure open airways.
• B = Bleeding – Apply pressure at points of major bleeding. A clean bandage is better
than a dirty bandage; a dirty bandage is better than no bandage.
• C = Circulation – Check for adequate circulation, and position the patient to facilitate
optimal circulation.
• A2 = Respiration – If there is no spontaneous respiration, prepare for mouth-to-mouth
respiration. Very few people are experienced in this. But, a good try is never wrong and
may save a life.
• C2 = Circulation – If there is no pump action, start cardiac compressions. Few are
experienced in this as well, but a good try is never wrong and may save a life.
If and when the patient has spontaneous respiration and circulation, continue to the following.
• Report – Report your findings and treatment in a short, exact message to medical
personnel to facilitate the correct priority being given for MEDEVAC.
• B2 = Bleeding – Apply pressure and bandages on minor bleeding.
• Fractures – Immobilise fractures.
• Evacuation – With due concern for the injuries, the patient should be evacuated to a
medical facility according to the priority given by medical personnel.
The Importance of Oxygen
All cells need oxygen to maintain normal function. With insufficient oxygen supply,
cells become dysfunctional; without oxygen, cells die. Brain cells die if they are without oxygen
for three to five minutes; muscle and skin cells can repair after over an hour, but they may have
lost some of their function. Basic life support is aimed at maintaining the circulation of oxygen
in the body to facilitate optimal function and prevent cell death.
Oxygen for the cells is absorbed in the lungs when we breathe. When you inhale, the
protein haemoglobin in the blood cells passing through the lung tissue absorbs oxygen from the
air. When the heart contracts regularly, it creates pressure so that the blood cells can be
circulated in the body to give oxygen to all cells.
The basis for life is that oxygen reaches the lungs in order to be absorbed by the blood
cells passing through the lung tissue. For this to happen, there are three important
considerations, all relating to the basic facts above:
• There must be free passage between the outside air and the lungs!
• The chest must expand (inhalation) for the area inside to get bigger and the pressure
lower for oxygen-rich air to flow from the outside to the lungs and turn oxygen-poor
blood cells into oxygen-rich cells.
• The chest must deflate (exhalation) for the area inside to get smaller and the pressure
higher so that oxygen-poor air will flow from the lungs to the outside.
The first commandment of first aid is OPEN AIRWAYS.
• Empty the mouth from liquids and all things that are not normal parts of the anatomy.
This includes: water (drowning), vomit, dentures, and food. Emptying the mouth may be
unpleasant, but it is necessary!
• Tilt the head carefully backwards to make the airways more like a straight tube from the
mouth to the neck. Lift the jaw upwards to ensure that the tongue does not close the tube.
Next, CHECK BREATHING. If the patient does not breathe (expand and deflate the chest),
oxygen-rich air does not reach the blood cells passing through the lung tissue.
• If the patient is breathing, maintain open airways. Position the patient to facilitate the
airways to remain open and restrict the possibility of blocking through vomit or foreign
bodies.
• If the patient is not breathing, the pressure in the chest of a patient who is not breathing is
the same as the pressure in the air surrounding the patient. You can get oxygen-rich air
into the lungs of the patient by blowing air into them (creating a higher pressure). The
elasticity of the chest wall of the patient creates higher pressure in the chest by making
the chest cavity smaller and oxygen-poor air flows out.
Bleeding and Circulation
CHECK FOR BLEEDING. A cut, a burst, or a wound creates a point of low resistance, and
blood flows from the higher pressure of the circulation to the lower pressure of areas not
contained in the circulatory system.
• If the patient is not visibly bleeding, remember that a patient may bleed significantly
without blood being seen.
• If the patient is visibly bleeding, bleeding is a flow of liquid caused by differences in
pressure. You can counter the pressure from the circulation by applying pressure to the
bleeding area. Treat by applying sufficient pressure for the bleeding to stop. Pressure is
more efficient if you apply it to the whole area around the bleeding. Be careful when
applying pressure to the neck so you do not impair breathing!
CHECK CIRCULATION. For blood cells to reach the lung tissue and get oxygen from oxygen-
rich air, and for the oxygen-rich blood cells to reach the body cells, there must be a functional
circulation. For functional circulation, you need sufficient circulating volume (blood) and an
active pump (the heart).
• If there is adequate circulation, support the circulation through positioning the patient by
lying them down. This decreases the resistance by gravity against pumping blood to the
head and facilitates circulation.
• If there is inadequate circulation, or a weak or no peripheral pulse, support as above.
Also raise the legs; gravity lets blood flow from the mass of muscle and skin in the legs,
which can maintain function longer without oxygen, to the important and vulnerable
organs more centrally-located in the body.
• If there is no circulation or no central pulse, apply Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation
(CPR) to produce pumping action.
The Next Step
After having checked and maintained the basic functions of ABC (airways, bleeding, and
circulation), you may start considering the most important factors for the present and future
function of the body.
Mental Status
• Awake. The patient probably does not have major trauma to the head. Offer the patient a
partnership in support of him.
• Confused or semi-conscious. The patient may have a head injury or be affected by
reduced circulation, and therefore is a higher priority patient. Observe closely and
support the patient.
• Unconscious or comatose. The patient probably has a head injury and is a high priority
patient. Observe closely and start ABC if required.
Motor Status
It is vital that motor status is observed, and all precaution is taken to avoid spinal injury.
• Injury to the spinal cord. The ability to move arms and legs, and feel heat, cold,
vibration, and pain in the arms and legs, depends on contact between the brain and the
periphery through the spinal cord. If the spinal cord is cut, all areas of the body
supported by areas below the cut will no longer move or sense.
• Protection of the spinal cord. The spinal cord is protected by the spinal column and may
suffer injury if the spinal column is stretched, compressed, twisted, or “broken.”
• Avoiding further damage to the spinal cord. If you suspect or find it difficult to exclude
spinal injury, the patient should be treated as if he/she has an injury that may get worse if
not handled carefully.
• Moving a patient that may have spinal injury. Try to keep the spinal column straight in
all dimensions when moving the patient. Preferably, use a vacuum mattress or a
backboard when moving the patient. If that is not available, roll the patient carefully onto
a stretcher. Maintain a slight pull on the head to keep the neck straight when moving the
patient, and apply a stiff neck collar.
• Testing spinal function. Ask the patient to carefully move his/her hands and feet, and ask
if the patient feels gentle touch of the skin on the hands and feet. Remember that
function does not exclude injury that may get worse if the patient is not properly handled.
Fractures in Arms and Legs
If the patient shows any sign of fractures, the extremity should be kept immobile with a
splint. The splint should include the nearest joint on both sides of the fracture.
How do you diagnose a fracture? The history of the trauma may suggest the possibility
of a fracture. The extremity may show an angle that is not on the other extremity, or there may
be a swelling or bleeding to the skin, suggesting that something has happened on the inside.
When in doubt, immobilise the possible fracture.
People come from miles to this clinic in Maiani, Eritrea, for the chance to have medical
care for the first time in years. (LTC Phyllis Mihalas, G5, July 2002)
9.4 Basic Hygiene
Most of the diseases that affect humans may be avoided with a few simple steps. Until a
few decades ago, most military casualties in all conflicts were the result of the sum of harsh
conditions in the field plus bad hygiene. Even today, grave diseases may occur just due to un-
hygienic conditions. This is increased by the fact that most peacekeeping missions are in areas
were there is very little infrastructure and were climates conspire against hygiene. It is the duty
of every UN MILOB and peacekeeper to care about his/her personal hygiene and the hygiene of
the living quarters and work areas in to avoid disease in the mission.
Personal Hygiene
Personal hygiene describes how you can influence the effect that physical factors in the
environment (outside your own body) can have on your health and physical well-being. Personal
hygiene is your own contribution to preventing disease, as well as your contribution to
preventing disease that may affect others.
The United Nations Cares
Why is the United Nations concerned about hygiene? The United Nations has pledged to
combat communicable diseases, and it cares about the health and well-being of MILOBS and
peacekeepers. The state of hygiene of a unit influences operational readiness. The sum of
individual and general hygiene influences the lives of many!
Important Points for Maintaining your Individual Hygiene
• When washing, use clean water to avoid infecting any breaks in your skin.
• Eat healthy and varied food, and exercise regularly to maintain strength, stamina, and the
normal “balance” of your body.
• Keep your hair short and wash it regularly.
• Wash your skin daily with soap and water.
• Protect yourself against insects and animals that may spread disease.
• Cover and use repellent against mosquitoes after sunset.
• Avoid touching birds’ nests and animal droppings.
• Inspect yourself for bite marks. Keep bite marks clean and covered.
• Brush your teeth regularly to avoid oral infections.
• Clean your hands before eating, after toilet use, etc.
• Wash your feet regularly. Inspect them for sores, skin breaks, or signs of infection, and
keep them without socks and shoes for some time every day.
• Air and dry boots regularly to avoid that they become breeding grounds for bacteria.
• Change underwear and socks regularly and wash properly.
• If possible, iron all clothes regularly to kill bugs, insects, and bacteria.
• Be prudent in the use of alcohol and refrain from using recreational drugs.
• Abstain from unprotected sex to avoid Sexually Transmitted Infections and HIV/AIDS.
Food and Drink
When food and drink are concerned, always remember: peel it, boil it, cook it, or forget
it! Also, always know what you eat and drink.
• Drink water only if bottled or from containers marked as drinking water. If no such
water is available, boil water for at least ten minutes or use water purification tablets,
allowing enough time for the tablets to work.
• Never keep opened bottles of drink for more than six hours.
• Meat must be cooked or fried through (Sorry, no medium or rare!).
• Eggs must be fully coagulated before eating.
Precautions should also be taken in the mess area.

• Store only chocolate, candies, dry food, soft drinks, or tinned food outside the unit storage
area.
• If you store food, keep it in tightly closed containers.
• Eat only food produced in controlled and approved facilities.
• Never store food that has been heated, and never eat reheated food.
• To keep the number of rodents down, only eat at designated eating areas.
Keep your “Personal Space” Clean
• Use insect nets to cover doors and windows at all times.

• Keep all surfaces (tables, floors, walls, and ceilings) clean by regularly washing them.
• Avoid food on and around beds so as not to attract rodents.
• In malaria areas, always cover your bed with a mosquito net.
• Ventilate your quarters every day.
• Regularly ventilate bedding in direct sunlight, as this kills bugs and bacteria.
• Change and wash your bedding regularly.
Maintain Hygiene in Ablution Facilities
• Use only designated ablution facilities for urination and defecation.

• Keep ablutions clean and neat.
• Flush and clean the toilet bowl after use.
• Do not wash or dry clothes in facilities meant for personal hygiene.
• Do not leave soap unless in special containers. Old soap may become breeding grounds
for bacteria.
• Clean, clean, and clean again!
Maintain the Mess and Communal Areas
• Keep all rooms clean, ventilated, and protected against rodents and insects.
• Keep facilities and communal areas clean and tidy at all times.
• Ensure proper disposal of leftover food.
• Keep eating utensils clean by washing them in detergent and hot water after use.
Do Not Attract Animals and Insects that May Spread Disease
• Keep the environment in and around your base tidy (ensure waste control).
• Do not create breeding areas for disease-carrying rodents or insects. Avoid creating
pools of stagnant water and drain puddles after rain.
• Ensure proper disposal of liquid and solid waste.
• Do not litter.
Remember the following important points:
• Protect your health, and treat you body with respect.

• Respect the health of others, and do your best to protect it.
• Treat the environment with respect.
• Follow rules and given requirements.
• Be aware of hazards and other threats in your environment.
• Attempt to recognise health and safety threats in the area of operations.
LESSON 9
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. A witness to the accident of a UN person should assess whether:

a. The person can breathe properly, whether he is conscious or bleeding, and
whether he has a pulse;
b. The accident is minor or serious enough for a written report;
c. The person is conscious and would like to be helped;
d. The person was responsible for the accident.
2. In giving help to an unconscious person, you should:

a. Give the patient fluids;
b. Turn the patient on the uninjured side and clear their air passages;
c. Put the patient into an upright position with ice on their head;
d. Avoid unnecessary movement of the patient and keep people at a distance.
3. To treat a head injury:

a. While preparing for applying first aid, try to get an impression of the mental
status of the patient;
b. Place an ice pack on the patient’s head;
c. Clean the area with cold water and sit the patient upright;
d. Give them an aspirin.
4. What are the “ABCs” for Basic Life Support?

a. Attitude, Behaviour, and Consciousness;
b. Attitude, Bleeding, and Circulation;
c. Airways, Bleeding, and Consciousness;
d. Airways, Bleeding, and Circulation.
5. Why is malaria a concern in peacekeeping?

a. As long as you take your malaria medicine, it really is not a concern;
b. Medicines are expensive, and it is hard to provide medicine for every MILOB
and peacekeeper;
c. Malaria is unavoidable;
d. Malaria is a significant cause of death in peacekeeping missions on the African
continent.
6. What are the symptoms of acute malaria?

a. Fever, red skin rash, thirst, and a tendency to fall asleep;
b. Lower than average temperature, red skin rash, and disorientation of the patient;
c. The patient does not feel well and has a headache, muscle and joint pain, and a
slight fever;
d. Fever, cough, and headache.
7. What factors influence the spread of HIV/AIDS?

a. Commercial sex, poverty, promiscuity, and Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs);
b. Commercial sex, STIs, and touching a person with HIV/AIDS;
c. An HIV/AIDS positive person on medication is not a threat to spread HIV/AIDS;
d. Middle and upper-class people do not get AIDS. Only those who are poverty
stricken, homosexuals, or prostitutes get HIV/AIDS.
8. Entering into a sexual relationship in a mission is:

a. Encouraged because being away from home is hard and companionship is
important;
b. Strongly discouraged, as these relationships are normally unbalanced in favour
of the UN personnel;
c. Acceptable, as long as your spouse or significant other at your home station
does not find out;
d. Acceptable, as long as you use protection, such as condoms.
9. In countries with very different food habits than yours:

a. You should eat everything that is offered to you;
b. Eating raw or rare cooked foods is normally safe, though common sense
must prevail;
c. Do not worry about washing the fruits and vegetables because they normally
come directly from the fields;
d. Peel it, boil it, cook it, or forget it.
10. How should you maintain your “personal space?”

a. In malaria areas, always cover your bed with a mosquito net;
b. You can store food items in opened containers and bags;
c. Wash and dry your clothes in the same facilities as used for personal hygiene;
d. Poached or half-cooked food is common place and should be eaten that way so
you do not offend your hosts.
ANSWER KEY
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. d
5. d
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. d
10. a
LESSON 10
HUMAN RIGHTS

Lesson 10 / Human Rights 154
LESSON OBJECTIVES
This lesson contains an introduction to human rights norms and the role of MILOBS and
peacekeepers in promoting and protecting human rights. The aim of this lesson is to introduce
the students to human rights concepts and principles in order to enable them to perform their
duties more effectively. After completing this lesson, the student should be able to:
• Understand how human rights apply to their work in a UN peacekeeping operation;

• List some examples and characteristics of human rights;
• Explain how their work can affect human rights, positively and negatively;
• Explain the standards on the use of force and firearms; and
• Explain what they can do with regard to human rights violations.
INTRODUCTION
There is an obvious link between human rights violations and conflict. Where violations
occur, conflict is more likely to arise. As recent history shows, post-Cold War conflicts have
often been rooted in gross violations of human rights. Therefore, addressing human rights
problems is an essential aspect of finding solutions to conflicts.
When conflict is ongoing, ensuring respect for human rights by the parties is an important
confidence-building measure and can act towards the de-escalation of hostilities. The just
resolution of disputes based on respect for human rights is also an essential element of effective
conflict-prevention.
UN peacekeeping missions usually include in their mandate human rights aspects.

Increasingly, peace settlements incorporate explicit obligations for the concerned states to
comply with international human rights norms. Thus, it is important for peacekeepers to be able
to perform their tasks effectively to have a general awareness and understanding of human rights
concepts, as well as their relevance to the mission in which they operate.
The post-Cold War era has witnessed a new pattern of armed conflicts. While conflicts
continue to occur in many parts of the world and have increased in the last decade, they have
mainly been of an internal nature, involving states and non-state actors, which include irregular
forces, private militia, and guerrillas. They have often been rooted in ethnic tensions, fights for
the control of natural resources, the people’s struggle to achieve freedom from oppression, social
justice, and a democratic government. In several situations, conflicts have resulted in the
phenomenon of “failed states,” where the government structure, authority, legal, and political
systems have collapsed, rendering the protection of human rights more difficult.
The victims of today’s armed conflicts are disproportionately civilians. A recent UN

study noted that during the 1990s civilians accounted for up to 90% of casualties, a sharp
contrast to the First World War, where only 5% of all casualties were civilian.
Civilians are deliberate targets of violence. Mass population displacement, the use of
child soldiers, violence against ethnic and religious groups, gender-based and sexual violence,
deliberate destruction of property and crops, and mutilations are some of the human rights
violations that accompany contemporary conflicts. Thus, human rights violations are, at the
same time, the cause and consequence of conflicts.
Secretary-General Kofi Annan meets with victims of sexual violence.

(UNMIS Photo, Evan Schneider, May 2005)
Human rights are entitlements that every person possesses by virtue of being human.
These rights are universal and are guaranteed to all, irrespective of their race, colour, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth, or other
status. While the term “human rights” is relatively modern, the principle on which it is based is
as old as humanity: that certain rights and freedoms are fundamental to human existence.
Respect for human dignity, which is at the heart of human rights, is a value common to
the world’s cultures and religions. Initially, claims to human rights were considered to be only
moral. However, as history progressed, human rights were formally recognised and came to be
protected by international law, national constitutions, and domestic laws. That is why we say
that they are legal entitlements.
Characteristics of Human Rights
Human rights can be characterised as follows:
Universal: Every human being, with no distinction, is entitled to human rights.
Internationally guaranteed: Human rights are established in international law, including treaties
and other documents.
Legally protected: They are guaranteed by constitutions and domestic legislation.
Protect individuals and groups: Some human rights protect individuals (e.g., freedom of
movement, right to vote, right to education), and others protect groups as such (e.g., rights of
minorities, rights of indigenous people).
Cannot be taken away: Nobody can deprive a person of his/her rights. Human rights can be
violated, as they often are, but this does not mean that they are taken away from the person
concerned.
Equal and indivisible: All human rights are equally important. The realisation of one human
right is linked to the realisation of the others. For example, in order to be able to express their
genuine political opinion through a vote, citizens must be able to receive adequate information.
Oblige states and state actors: States and state actors have the responsibility to abide by
international human rights instruments. Violations can be punished through the individual
prosecution of the concerned persons, as well as through punishment of the state by the
international community in the form of embargos, sanctions, and other measures.
With the creation of the United Nations in 1945, in the wake of the atrocities of the
Second World War, human rights became a matter of international concern. The international
community recognised the need to develop commonly-agreed minimum standards for the
treatment of persons by governments and agreed to take measures to safeguard human rights.
The UN Charter, an international treaty that is legally binding to all Member States,
contains important provisions on human rights. The Charter recognises international cooperation
in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights for all as one of the purposes of the
organisation (Article 1). The Charter states that the UN shall promote universal respect for and
observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex,
language, or religion (Article 55).
By joining the United Nations, Member States pledge to take action in cooperation with
the UN to achieve respect for human rights (Article 56). In the framework of the United
Nations, the international community has engaged in an extensive process of setting standards
with the objective of creating a legal framework for the effective promotion and protection of
human rights. This has led to the development of numerous treaties, declarations, guidelines,
and other instruments that detail the contents of human rights, the obligations of states, and the
mechanisms to protect them and monitor their implementation.
Treaties, conventions, and covenants are legally binding documents. This means that if a
state is party to a treaty, it has an obligation to take measures to protect and promote the rights
contained therein.
International Bill of Rights (http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html)
Among the many instruments developed by the international community, the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights form what is known as the
“International Bill of Rights.”
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly on 10 December 1948, represents the first comprehensive agreement among nations as
to the specific rights and freedoms of all human beings (the UN Charter did not contain a
definition of human rights).
These include civil and political rights, such as the rights to life, not to be subjected to
torture, to liberty, to equality before the law, to a fair trial, to freedom of movement, to assembly,
to asylum, to freedom of thought, conscience, religion, opinion and expression, and others.
They also include economic, social and cultural rights, such as the rights to food, clothing,
housing and medical care, to social security, to work, to equal pay for equal work, to form trade
unions, to education, and others.
The Declaration is not, by itself, a legally binding document (unlike the UN Charter and
other international treaties). Encompassing as it does legal, moral, and philosophical beliefs held
true by all peoples, it has a very strong moral and political authority. However, some of its
provisions (for example, the right to life, the prohibition of torture, and others) are considered to
be part of customary international law and hence are legally binding for all states.
The two International Covenants are treaties and, therefore, set legal obligations on states
parties. Most UN Member States have ratified the two Covenants, thus committing to take
action to ensure that the rights guaranteed by these treaties are effectively implemented and
enjoyed by people under their jurisdiction.
There are also regional human rights treaties that are treaties developed within a specific
region and are open for ratification only to the states belonging to that region. So far, there are
human rights treaties for Africa, Europe, and the Americas.
Other Human Rights Treaties (http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf)
In addition to the International Bill of Rights, a number of human rights treaties were also
developed within the United Nations to address specific human rights issues. These include the:
• International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965);
• Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979);
• Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment (1984);
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989); and
• International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of their Families (1990).
UN human rights team from Bujumbura and Ngozi regional office monitoring
the situation of Batwas people in Kirundo province. Batwas people represent
roughly 1% of the population in the country. (ONUB Photo, Martine Perret,
March 2005)
The state hosting a peace operation is bound to protect and promote basic human rights
based on general international law. It is often party to one or more international human rights
treaties and has, therefore, undertaken the obligation to protect and promote the rights contained
in these treaties.
Peace agreements also increasingly incorporate obligations for the parties to comply with
international human rights treaties and standards. As an example, the Dayton Peace Agreement,
which put an end to the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1995, sets an obligation for the
parties to secure human rights and to comply with a comprehensive list of human rights treaties,
both regional and international (Annex 6 on human rights, Article 1). Thus, human rights are
part of the legal framework within which peacekeepers operate.
Some Examples of Human Rights
Human rights touch upon all aspects of human existence. These examples are non-
derogable rights; that is, they must be respected in all circumstances without exception.
Right to life: No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of life. No person or entity is allowed
to take the life of an individual, even in extreme circumstances, without due process of law.
Freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment: It is

important to explain that the prohibition covers torture as well as other forms of less extreme ill-
treatment. The prohibition is absolute. Torture is illegal under ALL circumstances, including
in conflict situations or the fight against terrorism. Torture under the orders of superior officers
is also illegal and does not provide any protection from prosecution.
Right not to be held in slavery: This also covers modern forms of slavery-like practices,
such as human trafficking.
Freedom of thought, conscience, and religion: No one can be coerced to change or alter
religion or denied the practice of their individual choice of religion.
Other examples of human rights include:
Fair trial: Every individual is entitled to a fair and public hearing by competent,
independent, and impartial tribunals established by law, in the determination of any criminal
charges against him/her or of his/her rights and obligations in a suit at law.
Right to liberty: Deprivation of individual liberty is an extreme measure and can be

justified only when it is both lawful and necessary and is done in accordance with internationally
accepted standards. Arbitrary arrest and detention are prohibited.
Freedom of movement: Freedom of movement in pursuit of an individual’s needs is one

of the fundamental rights of the individual. In certain cases, this right can be limited by the state,
but only within very strict parameters. Restrictions must be clearly specified in the law, and they
must be necessary to protect national security, public order, public health or morals, or the rights
and freedoms of others. It is advisable to explain this by referring to checkpoints and
roadblocks. Military and police often create roadblocks and checkpoints that may amount to
unlawful restrictions on people’s free movement if not fulfilling the above conditions.
Right to privacy: Military and law enforcement officials need to pay particular attention
to this right in the performance of their security functions, such as during searches at checkpoints
or while gathering intelligence.
Right to adequate housing: It is the right of every human being to live somewhere in
peace, security, and dignity. It includes the protection from forced evictions, that is, the removal
of individuals, families, and communities from their homes, land, or neighbourhoods, against
their will.
Freedom of expression: This includes the right of every individual to seek, receive, and
impart information of any kind, only with the restrictions specified by the law and necessary to
protect the rights and reputation of others, or to protect national security, public order or health,
or morals.
Right to education: This includes the right of everyone without discrimination of any
kind to have access to and benefit from education that is relevant, culturally appropriate, and of
good quality. Girls, the poor, and children from marginalised communities are particularly
vulnerable to exclusion.
Right to peaceful assembly and association: Certain limitations may be administered to

protect the normal life and security of the citizens. These restrictions may be, for example, in the
form of administrative measures limiting the date, time, and the modalities of the gathering and
demonstration. However, the same conditions as above must be respected.
Limitations
Under certain specific conditions established in international human rights treaties, states
can impose some limitations on the exercise of some human rights. Limitations on rights are the
exception, not the rule.
When some rights can be limited, the permissible limitations are specified in the text of
the treaties. In general, these limitations are only those that are determined by law and are
necessary in a democratic society to ensure respect for the rights and freedoms of others, or to
protect public safety, order, health, and morals. The effects of the limitations cannot be
disproportionate to their objectives. Limitations outside these conditions are illegal.
It is not up to the individual police, military, or public official to determine when and
how rights can be limited. Cases and procedures for limitations must be written in the law of a
country, and they must respect the conditions set by international law. It should be recalled,
however, that non-derogable rights could never be limited or suspended.
Derogations
Derogations – or temporary suspension – of some human rights are only allowed in

instances of public emergency that threatens the life of the nation. The emergency must be
officially declared and made known to the population. Derogations must be strictly required by
the exigencies of the situation, and they must not cause discrimination on the basis of race,
colour, sex, language, religion, and social origin. The UN must be informed of the derogations
effected by a state. Derogations must be enforced for the shortest possible time. Any derogation
from rights that does not respect the above conditions is illegal.
Non-derogable rights may never be suspended and may continue to apply also in
situations of emergency. Some of these rights are the right to life; the freedom from torture and
cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment; the right not to be held in slavery; and the
freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.
A public emergency might be declared in a conflict situation, and as a result, certain

rights might have temporarily been suspended.
Another body of international law that is relevant to peacekeepers is International

Humanitarian Law (IHL). IHL is applicable in cases of armed conflict, both international and
internal. It includes: standards for the protection of victims of conflict and non-combatants
(including wounded, sick, shipwrecked, prisoners and civilians); the Geneva Conventions of
1949 and two Protocols of 1977; and rules regulating means and methods of combat, also known
as the Hague Law.
It can be held that International Humanitarian Law is designed to safeguard and maintain
the fundamental rights of civilians, victims, and non-combatants in the event of armed conflict.
It is important to notice that, even in times of conflict, human rights law continues to
apply. However, since an armed conflict situation would typically qualify as a “public
emergency,” it is possible and likely that some restrictions and derogations to some rights may
be introduced by states. Therefore, the highest level of protection to individuals should be
provided by international humanitarian law. International Humanitarian Law does not allow for
derogations.
UN peacekeepers must make sure that International Humanitarian Law is fully observed
if they are forced to use military force. The United Nations Secretary-General issued a Bulletin
in 1999 establishing that UN forces must apply International Humanitarian Law in the conduct of
their operations. The Rules of Engagement (ROE) of a peacekeeping force incorporate
fundamental rules of international humanitarian law. If any confrontation occurs, they must be
recorded and reported. The rights of prisoners, civilians, children, and all non-combatants need
to be preserved.
There are some general rules that are common to the four Geneva Conventions and the
two Additional Protocols. They are the following:
• Humanitarian law applies in all situations of armed conflict;

• Principles of humanity must be safeguarded in all situations;
• Non-combatants, prisoners, civilians and those who are wounded, sick, or shipwrecked
must be respected and protected;
• Persons suffering from the effects of war must be aided and cared for without discrimination;
• The following acts are prohibited in all circumstances:
− Murder;
− Torture;
− Corporal punishment;
− Mutilation;
− Outrages upon personal dignity;
− Hostage-taking;
− Collective punishment;
− Executions without regular trial; and
− Cruel and degrading treatment.
• Reprisals against the wounded, sick and shipwrecked, medical personnel and services,
prisoners of war, civilians, civilian and cultural objects, the natural environment, and
works containing dangerous forces are prohibited; and
• Protected persons must at all times have access to a protecting power (a neutral state
safeguarding their interests) or to the ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross)
or any other impartial humanitarian organisation.
Some of the human rights violations that are frequently encountered in a conflict and
post-conflict context and to which peacekeepers should be alerted include the following:
Summary executions: Summary executions are a grave violation of the right to life,
involving killings carried out by government agents or with their complicity or acquiescence.
This may include death through the use of excessive force by the military, police, or security
forces.
Torture: Torture is defined as severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental,

inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or
person acting in an official capacity, for such purposes as: obtaining from the person on whom it
is inflicted or a third person information or a confession; punishing that person for an act which
he/she or a third person has committed or is suspected to have committed; intimidating or
coercing him/her or a third person; or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind. It is
prohibited in all circumstances.
Arbitrary arrest and detention:

This involves deprivation of liberty by
a public official, such as a member of
the military or police, or any other
person acting in an official capacity or
with official instigation, consent, or
acquiescence, without a valid and legal
reason, by confining a person in a
prison or other detention facility.
Discrimination: This can be

based on race, sex, national or social
origin, political opinion, colour,
religion, language, birth, property, or
other grounds.
Violence against women: It

includes all forms of physical, sexual,
and psychological violence whether
A disabled woman working in the carpentry shop of a school in
occurring in the community, in the Myanmar. People with disabilities experience discrimination,
family (domestic violence), or a human rights violation. (UN Photo #146044C)
committed by public officials.
Genocide: Acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic,
racial, or religious group, including:
• Killing members of the group;
• Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
• Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about their
physical destruction in whole or in part;
• Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the groups; and
• Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.
War crimes: War crimes are grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions. They are
prohibited acts committed against persons and property protected by the Conventions, including
wilful killing, torture or inhuman treatment, illegal detention, hostage-taking, the arbitrary and
unlawful destruction and appropriation of property, and others.
Crimes against humanity: These are serious human rights violations. They include the
following acts when they are committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack against any
civilian population with knowledge of the attack. These acts are absolutely prohibited under
international law:
• Murder;
• Extermination;
• Enslavement;
• Torture;
• Deportation or the forcible transfer of the population;
• Imprisonment or other severe deprivation of physical liberty;

• Rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution or sterilisation, and forced pregnancy;
• Persecution against any political, racial, national, ethnic, cultural, religious or gender
group;
• Enforced disappearance; and
• Apartheid.
Deportation and forcible transfer of populations: This includes situations when the
inhabitants are forcibly evicted from their place of domicile and deported to an alien land on any
pretext. This has been frequently observed during ethnic conflicts.
Rape and sexual exploitation: Recent conflicts have seen the use of rape as a weapon or
a form of reprisal, especially in ethnic conflicts with the intent to intimidate, humiliate, and
degrade the opposing ethnic community. The International Criminal Tribunal on the Former
Yugoslavia has ruled that rape at the instigation of a public official in situations of armed conflict
is torture.
Vulnerable Groups
In a peacekeeping environment, there are groups of the population that are particularly
vulnerable to human rights violations and to the effects of conflict. It is important for
peacekeepers to be alerted to them and their needs. Some of these groups are:
Women: Women and girls are especially affected by conflict. Their gender and their
position in society, even prior to the conflict, make them particularly vulnerable to violence and
abuses. Gender-based and sexual violence and exploitation have increasingly become weapons
of warfare and have sadly become typical of modern conflicts. Rape, trafficking, sexual slavery,
forced prostitution, economic exploitation, and lack of access to medical care are some of the
violations that more often take place in conflict and post-conflict situations.
Women are entitled without discrimination to all the protections established by human
rights instruments and international humanitarian law. In addition, they enjoy additional
protections because of their vulnerability. For example, they must be protected against rape,
enforced prostitution, and any form of indecent assault. Trafficking and exploitation of
prostitution are also prohibited. Women are also to be protected against discrimination in all
fields of civil, political, social, economic, and cultural life.
Peacekeepers must be particularly alerted to the risks of violations against and

exploitation of women. The international presence that follows conflict has been linked to an
increasing demand for prostitution and trafficking of women and girls. Peacekeepers must
absolutely refrain from any form of sexual or economic exploitation. These constitute crimes
and human rights violations, which are punished under national and international law.
Children: The special rights of children and their most frequent needs in a peacekeeping
context were addressed in Lesson 6 of this course.
The elderly: Elderly citizens are often overlooked

when looking at conflict or post-conflict situations. Unable
to effectively withstand the pressure of war, they are easy
prey for humiliation and physical abuse.
Minorities: Minorities are groups of residents within

a state who are smaller in number, have a non-dominant
position, and have common ethnic, religious, or linguistic
characteristics different from the rest of the population. They
are entitled to all human rights without discrimination, and
they are entitled to enjoy their distinctive culture, profess
their religion, and use their language. Conflicts in the
modern era are often rooted in ethnic or religious tensions.
Refugees: Refugees are protected under international

law and have the right to seek and enjoy asylum from
prosecution. A refugee is defined as a person:
• Who, owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted
for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership A resident of Awsard Refugee
of a particular social group or political opinion, is camp. (MINURSO, Evan
outside the country of his nationality and is unable or Schneider, June 2003)
unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that
country; or
• Who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual
residence, is unable or unwilling to return to it.
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): These are people who have fled their homes or
places of residence suddenly or unexpectedly as a result of armed conflict, internal strife,
systematic violations of human rights, or natural or man-made disasters but have not crossed an
internationally-recognised border. Large-scale internal displacement is typical of many conflicts.
IDPs are entitled to enjoy human rights without discrimination.
In a peacekeeping operation, military, police, and civilian personnel from many different
countries find themselves working together to fulfil the mission’s mandate. They have different
cultural, legal, and national backgrounds. Human rights standards – developed as they were in
the context of the United Nations and with their universal character – provide a common
standard of achievement and conduct for all people serving in a peace operation.
Peacekeeping must be conducted with respect to the principles, norms, and spirit of the
international human rights conventions and other instruments relevant to the conduct of military,
police, and civilian personnel. It may be useful to refer again to the Code of Conduct for
peacekeepers.
Both UN personnel and the host government must respect human rights principles and
norms. As mentioned previously, by its Charter, the UN is bound to promote universal respect
for and observance of human rights for all without discrimination. When serving in a peace
operation, all UN personnel are equally bound to promote, protect, and respect human rights.
SGT Betty Soi, CIMIC Team Senafe and LTC Mihalas, Chief G5 for UNMEE at an IDP
Camp to the south of Senafe, Eritrea. The camp was established following the fighting
between Eritrea and Ethiopia in 2002. (UNMEE, LTC Phyllis Mihalas, July 2002)
Who Works on Human Rights in a Peace Operation?
Multi-dimensional peace operations almost always include human rights as part of their
mandate and structure. Since human rights violations are at the origin of many modern conflicts,
addressing human rights issues is essential to finding solutions. Therefore, they are also essential
to the success of peace operations. Most current peace operations include a human rights unit or
component. Human rights components have the lead role in implementing the human rights
mandate of a mission. Their work may include:
• Monitoring and investigating human rights violations;
• Reporting on human rights violations;
• Assisting the host government in developing laws complying with international human
rights norms, creating institutions able to protect and promote human rights, as well as
train military, police, and other government officials;
• Working with local non-governmental organisations to strengthen their capacity to report,
analyse, and develop programmes for the advancement of human rights; and
• Dealing with problems related to specific groups, such as women, IDPs, and children.
MILOBS and peacekeepers can also play an important human rights role. They are
usually much more numerous in a mission area than human rights workers. For example, Sierra
Leone in 2005, there were 23 human rights officers, 250 MILOBS, and 17,500 military
personnel. MILOBS and peacekeepers are also deployed more extensively over the territory,
and they are in close contact with military and other armed forces in the host country. CIVPOL
also have a crucial role in protecting human rights, through their monitoring, assistance, or law
enforcement functions. It is important for MILOBS and peacekeepers to be aware of the work
of human rights components, as well as how they can assist the human rights components.
Human Rights Roles for MILOBS and Peacekeepers
MILOBS and military peacekeepers can contribute in several ways to fulfilling the
human rights mandate of the mission.
• They have the advantage of being much more numerous than other components and of
having a wide operational presence. Therefore, they are in a position to observe and
monitor the actions of the armed forces but also the civilian population.
• They can gather important information about the human rights situation and monitor
violations or risks of violations. They must report this information to other components
of the mission so that an appropriate analysis may be made and necessary action taken.
• Their physical presence can act as an important deterrent of human rights violations.
• Large numbers and means for mobilisation give an additional advantage for the
peacekeepers in dealing with situations of abuse. Any action should be taken in
consultation with the human rights component.
• Through their conduct, they can provide to the local armed forces a positive example of
law-abiding military, respectful of the human rights of the population they are to protect.
• By taking action for or contributing to the protection of human rights and the prevention
of violations, as well as through their proper conduct, MILOBS and peacekeepers will
contribute to maintaining the credibility of the peace operation in the eyes of the host
population and of the international community. Reports of violations of human rights by
peacekeepers have seriously undermined the credibility of the UN.
If Human Rights Violations are Observed
If human rights violations are observed by a MILOB or peacekeeper, they should:

• At the very least, take note of the facts and prepare a report based on the procedures in
place within the mission;
• If the situation and mandate allow, decide appropriate intervention with the relevant
authorities to stop the abuse. It is important to coordinate action with the human rights
component of the mission. Human rights work is very complex, and the utmost care
must be taken to avoid that ill-devised interventions harm, rather than help, victims of
violations;
• Promptly report the information within the military structure and to the human rights
component; and
• Continue to follow the situation, such as through repeat patrolling and observation.
The exercise at the end of this lesson illustrates an example of the importance for military
personnel to be alert to possible human rights violations and to transmit information to human
rights workers.
Common Tasks Performed by Military which May Affect Human Rights
In the performance of their regular peacekeeping tasks, MILOBS and peacekeepers must
pay particular attention not to negatively affect the rights of the host country population.
Checkpoint duties: Checkpoints are often set up to prevent the entry of hostile elements
and to enforce restrictions on the infiltration of explosives, arms, and ammunitions. However,
they may impinge on the fundamental right to the freedom of movement. It is important that the
personnel manning the checkpoint maintain a thoroughly professional behaviour to ensure that
the general public feels comfortable and does not develop hostility towards the peacekeepers.
Searches: While undertaking searches of vehicles or individuals, military personnel must

ensure that the search is conducted professionally, without harassment or in a way that is unduly
intrusive or affects the dignity of the person being searched. Respect for local culture and
traditions are essential in this situation.
Patrolling: Patrolling may be a very useful tool to show the peacekeepers’ presence and
deter human rights violations. Military patrolling must be alert and interactive with the local
population, which can be a tremendous source of information in peacekeeping missions.
Crowd control: In situations of crowd control, peacekeepers’ behaviour must be strictly

guided by international standards guaranteeing the rights to assembly, expression, security of the
person and life, and those regulating the use of force by law enforcement officials.
Use of Force
The use of force by peacekeepers is a very important subject. It is relevant to both

military and civilian police personnel of peace operations. The use of force may impinge on
fundamental rights, including the rights to life and security and the prohibition of torture and
cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.
International human rights standards regulate in detail the use of force and firearms.
Peacekeepers must strictly adhere to these rules when they are in situations in which they might
use force, such as arrests or crowd control.
The principles of proportionality and necessity are paramount in regulating the use of
force. Non-violent means must always be attempted as the first option to deal with the situation
at hand. Force can only be used when strictly necessary, as well as in a way that is proportional
to the objectives pursued and the threat faced. As a rule, the minimum level of force required
under the circumstances should be applied. When using force, peacekeepers must exercise
restraint and minimise damage and injury to persons and property. Immediate medical assistance
must be provided to any injured person.
Firearms
Firearms involve a very high level of force. Therefore, the rules regulating their use are
even stricter. The use of firearms is only allowed in extreme circumstances, when less extreme
measures are insufficient and all other means have failed. In addition, their use is only intended
for self-defence or defence of other persons against an imminent threat of death or serious injury.
The intentional lethal use of force and firearms shall be permitted only when it is strictly
unavoidable in order to protect human life. Under normal circumstances, MILOBS are unarmed.
Military peacekeepers and CIVPOL, however, may be armed.
The duty of MILOBS and peacekeepers is to be visibly present on the ground with the attitude
and determination to deter potential human rights violations.
EXERCISE ON THE USE OF FORCE AND FIREARMS
(From: United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Training materials
on human rights for military peacekeepers)
This exercise aims at facilitating the application of some of the human rights principles and
norms taught through the module to a hypothetical peace operation’s scenario. It focuses on the
use of force and firearms by peacekeepers in a situation in which they deal with local civilians.
Scenario
1. A man, long unemployed and desperate for money, has broken into a UN storehouse and
stolen a portable computer and a radio set. The stolen articles in one hand, and a large knife
in the other, he runs from the compound as the alarm sounds, and he threatens several
bystanders who attempt to block his escape. Breaking through the crowd, he spots two
peacekeepers approaching in response to the alarm. He turns and runs to an open field,
dropping the knife as he clutches the loot in flight. Aware that the computer contains
sensitive security files, one of the peacekeepers draws his weapon and shoots the thief in the
back, killing him instantly. As rumors of the incident circulate, an angry crowd begins to
gather at the UN compound.
2. Some 200 people start protesting angrily against the UN in front of the compound. The
crowd is made up of men, women, and children. Some 15 armed peacekeepers stand in
formation, with their backs to the high fence surrounding the compound, facing the
protesters.
3. A muscular young male protester picks up a bottle and throws it at the peacekeepers. Three
of the peacekeepers break from formation and chase the protester, catching him against the
fence. The protester resists arrest, throwing punches and kicks. Responding with blows
from their rifle butts, the peacekeepers knock the man to the ground and handcuff him. The
protester, face down and handcuffed on the pavement, squirms about, refusing to hold still.
The peacekeepers respond by continuing to kick, punch, and hit him with the butts of their
rifles. They deliver some 20 blows to the man’s head and body, continuing in rage even after
he lies motionless on the ground. The commander of the unit then orders them to carry the
man into a UN vehicle. They do so, leaving him in the parked and locked car, and then
return to formation.
4. By this point, the crowd, having witnessed the incident, has turned violent. Heavy
reinforcements arrive and completely surround the protesters. Rocks and bottles begin to fly
toward the peacekeepers, who stand with their guns aimed at the protesters. Some of the
protesters fall to the ground, clutching children and friends and screaming in a general panic.
Others rush forward toward the peacekeepers. As the violence increases, the peacekeepers
open fire, with several protesters falling as they are hit with rounds of live ammunition.
Questions
1. Referring to the international standards on the use of force and firearms, determine what
went wrong with regard to:
a. The use of firearms on the thief in the first paragraph;
b. The deployment, formation, and equipment of the original 15 peacekeepers in the
second paragraph;
c. The use of force on the male protester in the third paragraph;
d. The deployment and formation of the reinforcements in the fourth paragraph.
2. What should be done in the immediate post-incident period to see that all involved persons
are granted fair redress for any violations of their rights; to ensure that long-term damage to
the mission is minimised; to improve procedures for enhanced security and respect for
human rights; and to restore the confidence of the local community?
Guidance for Review of Answers
Question 1:
a. The use of force by the peacekeepers was not necessary; the peacekeepers failed to apply
non-violent means before resorting to the use of force and firearms; the force applied by
the peacekeepers was not proportional to the seriousness of the threat; the peacekeepers
failed to exercise restraint in the use of force and to minimise injury; the use of firearms
was not justified, as the thief posed no imminent threat to the life of the peacekeepers or
other persons; no warning was given by the peacekeepers before firearms were used.
b. The 15 peacekeepers were equipped and positioned so as to increase, rather than reduce,
the risk of escalation of violence, and of resort to force.
Their deployment, with their back to the fence, provided no possibility of escape or
protection for the peacekeepers, and it was provocative for the crowd. Their equipment
was inadequate to allow for differentiated means in the application of force, as well as
proportionality to the threat.
International standards call for a graduated response, which takes appropriate training and
equipment. Deployment behind the fence, for example, would have resulted in increased
security for the peacekeepers, and thus a lesser risk of having to resort to force to deal
with the situation in the scenario.
Other required course of action by the peacekeepers included calling for intervention by
the local authorities, which remain responsible for the maintenance of law and order
(except in the less frequent case of UN missions with executive authority). This should
be done in close coordination with CIVPOL. In general, this would be the preferred
course of action, as military peacekeepers are less likely to be both equipped and trained
to deal with situations such as that described in the scenario.
c. The use of force was disproportionate to the threat represented by the protester. Once the
man was handcuffed, the use of further force was unnecessary and unlawful, as it did not
respond to the need to achieve a legitimate law enforcement purpose. In addition, the
injured prisoner should have been given medical assistance, not abandoned in the vehicle.
From a practical perspective, one can question the judgment of chasing the man in the
first place, considering that his action did not represent a significant threat to the safety of
the peacekeepers. The considerations made under (b) on the need to adopt tactics to
diffuse, rather than escalate, violence, apply here as well.
d. The deployment of the soldiers did not allow the crowd to move or disperse. Violent
confrontation became inevitable. The deployment and formation of the peacekeepers
resulted in provocation to the crowd and escalation of violence. The use of force by the
peacekeepers, including the use of firearms with live ammunitions, was not proportional.
Question 2:
The following actions would be appropriate:
• Preparation of a report of the incident;

• Investigation of the incident, by independent authorities if appropriate;
• Peacekeepers suspected of violations of national or international law brought to
justice and, if necessary, repatriated first;
• Local community and victims informed of proceedings;
• Restitution made to victims, if appropriate;
• Insistence that local offenders be brought to justice;
• Usage of incident to sit down with local officials and community leaders to discuss
how to encourage better relations; and
• Review of internal procedures to ensure better handling of similar situations.
LESSON 10
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. An international treaty that is legally binding on all Member States and contains important
provisions on human rights is:
a. The UN Charter;
b. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights;
c. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;
d. The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.
2. The state hosting a peace operation is bound to protect and promote basic human rights
based on:
a. Local statutes;
b. State ordinances;
c. International law;
d. Its own discretion.
3. Examples of human rights include all of the following EXCEPT:

a. Right to adequate housing;
b. Right to privacy;
c. Right to education;
d. Right to torture prisoners in times of war.
4. Who determines when and how rights can be limited?

a. The individual police force;
b. The individual military;
c. The individual public official;
d. Limitations must be written in the laws of a country and not determined by any
individual.
5. Derogations of some human rights:

a. Are allowed at any time when deemed necessary;
b. Are allowed for only brief periods of time;
c. Are only allowed in times of public emergency;
d. Are never allowed, regardless of the circumstance.
6. International Humanitarian Law includes:

a. Standards for the protection of victims of conflict and non-combatants;
b. The Geneva Conventions of 1949;
c. The Hague Law;
7. Does International Humanitarian Law allow for derogations?

a. Yes, without any restrictions;
b. Yes, but only immediately following a conflict;
c. No, except during times of war;
d. No, without any exceptions.
8. If human rights violations are observed by a MILOB or peacekeeper, they should NOT:
a. Take note of the facts and prepare a report based on established procedures;
b. Ignore following up the situation through repeat patrolling and observation;
c. Promptly report the information within the military structure and to the human
rights component;
d. Coordinate action with the human rights component of the mission.
9. The use of firearms is:

a. Permitted under extreme circumstances;
b. Permitted when all other means have failed;
c. Intended for the self-defence or defence of other persons;
10. Non-violent means must:

a. Be attempted as the first option to deal with the situation at hand;
b. Be attempted after the use of force to deal with the situation at hand;
c. Be attempted as a last resort;
d. Never be attempted.
ANSWER KEY
1. a
2. c
3. d
4. d
5. c
6. d
7. d
8. b
9. d
10. a

LESSON 11
COMMUNICATION AND NEGOTIATION

Lesson 11 / Communication and Negotiation 178
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide the student with the basic guidelines for
communication and negotiation in the peace operation environment. After completing this
lesson, the student should have an understanding of the importance of communication and
negotiation in the peace operation context and be familiar with some basic tools and techniques
that can be used for this purpose. The student should also be able to explain:
• The role of communication and negotiation in the context of peace operations;

• The basics of cross-cultural communication;
• How to plan and conduct a negotiation; and
• How to use interpreters.
INTRODUCTION
As a representative of the United Nations in a peacekeeping mission, our primary task is

to manage conflict so that it does not escalate into violence. Where it has escalated into
violence, our task is to contain and de-escalate the situation until it returns to a non-violent state.
At the peacekeeping mission level, a variety of techniques are used whenever tension
arises to de-escalate the potential for violent conflict, as well as to facilitate and support the
peace process among the parties to the conflict and other stakeholders. These techniques include
a complex combination of operational and structural conflict prevention and conflict
management techniques. At the management and command level, this implies communication,
negotiation, and mediation with both parties to the conflict and any other stakeholders. At the
individual level, every civilian, police, or military peacekeeper will eventually find themselves in
a situation where he/she will be interacting with others with the objective of reaching an
agreement between them. It does not matter if the person is somebody involved in the mission or
from the host nation.
The communication environment in a peacekeeping mission is much more complex than

one is used to under normal circumstances. The peacekeeper will typically be communicating
with somebody from another culture, without a common language, often under threatening or
tense situations in a context where people are stressed and easily irritable.
Apart from having to deal with each other, every civilian, police, and military
peacekeeper will find themselves in situations where they interact with the local population.
This will range from friendly social interaction to shopping for food or other commodities to
work-related official communication. The individual peacekeeper would also have to manage
conflict among friends and colleagues that are stressed by the situation; between civilian, police,
and military peacekeepers with different cultures, religions and languages and often with very
different working styles, approaches and techniques; between international and local staff in the
mission; and between peacekeepers and other internationals and people from the host country.
Because of the nature of the work, people will often approach the UN personnel with
complaints, criticisms, or demands. These situations can quickly and easily deteriorate into
disputes and even violence if not correctly managed. The normal cultural guidelines that help
one to manage these situations among people of a common culture and language are typically
absent in the peacekeeping context. People misunderstand each other because of their cultural
and language differences. This situation is further aggravated by an already tense political and
social context often characterised by mistrust, rumours, and preconceived negative stereotypes of
each other. In this environment, every individual needs more communication and negotiation
skills than they would have needed if they were carrying out the same duties in their own country
or under peaceful circumstances.
The secret to more successful communication and negotiation in the peace operation
context is awareness and preparation. Every minute spent on learning, planning, and preparation
will influence the outcome of the next negotiation. An individual’s ability to communicate and
negotiate will improve with experience and practise.
This lesson serves as an introduction to communication and negotiation. It creates

awareness for the type of situations the peacekeeper will have to deal with and suggests some
tools and techniques for understanding the conflicts that one is dealing with and preparing to
undertake, as well as conducting negotiations and working with interpreters.
Overview of this Lesson
This lesson is divided into three parts. The first part, “Understanding Communication
and Negotiation,” explains why communication and negotiation are necessary in peace
operations; what negotiation is and is not; the principles of successful negotiation; and the need
for cross-cultural communication skills. The second part, “Negotiation in UN Peace
Operations,” will focus on negotiations in the peace operations context and will explain the
three stages of negotiation: the opening stage, the discussion stage, and the closing stage. The
third part of this lesson deals with “Working with Interpreters.” Because of the multi-national
nature of peace operations, most peacekeepers will not be able to communicate directly with the
local people of the host country in their own languages. The United Nations will typically
employ local people as language assistants to assist the peacekeepers with translation and
interpretation. This part provides some guidance on how to work with interpreters and how to
make use of an interpreter in a negotiation.
This section will cover the following topics:

• Why are communication and negotiation skills necessary?
• What is negotiation?
• Principles of successful negotiation
• Cross-cultural communication
Why are Communication and Negotiation Skills Necessary?
The following points are aimed at soldiers, and they explain how the peacekeeping
context is different from war (which is the primary role all soldiers are trained for).
• In war, you are one of the warring parties. In peacekeeping, you are the neutral third
party. You are not part of the conflict – you stand above it.
• In war, your aim is victory, which implies defeat to the enemy. In peacekeeping, your
aim is to assist the parties to achieve peace. You have no enemies or opponents in
peacekeeping. You work with the warring parties to achieve peace.
• In war, you want to surprise the enemy; hence, you wear camouflage and try to conceal
your presence, strength, and movements from the enemy. In peacekeeping, your visible
presence emphasises your role as the neutral third party and helps to instil confidence in
the peace process among the parties and local people. Typically, you want the parties to
know your strength, and you will inform them of your movements. Your presence is,
thus, transparent. There is no secrecy or stealth; your visibility is your strength. That is
why you wear blue helmets and have white-painted vehicles.
• In war, you achieve victory by defeating your opponent through combat. In
peacekeeping, you achieve peace through managing the conflict, by containing it at
manageable levels. By keeping the conflict from becoming violent, you provide your
political and humanitarian colleagues with the stable and secure environment they need to
facilitate the peace and to provide humanitarian assistance. The primary tools you will
use to manage the conflict are communication and negotiation.
What is Negotiation?
Negotiation is not capitulation. Some people, especially soldiers, associate negotiation

with capitulation, giving-up, or giving-in to the other side’s demands. This is a misperception.
Negotiation describes a process, not an outcome.
Negotiation is communication with the aim of reaching an agreement. It includes any

communication with the aim of reaching an agreement. Every time two or more people
communicate with the aim of reaching an agreement, it is a negotiation.
Mediation is the intervention into a dispute by an acceptable, impartial, and neutral third
party who has no authoritative decision-making power. This person assists parties to voluntarily
reach their own mutually-acceptable agreement. If the peacekeeper is called upon to assist two
parties to reach an agreement, he/she is mediating between the two parties. In arbitration, the
arbitrator has some enforcement capability, but in mediation, the enforcement capability is
absent.
Purpose of Negotiation
UN peace operations take place after two parties have signed a cease-fire or peace
agreement. The role of the UN peace mission is to assist the parties to the conflict to implement
the cease-fire or peace agreement. This means that the UN is there to assist the parties to change
their behaviour from the previous state they were in – a state of violent conflict – to a new state
of positive peace. Positive peace goes beyond peace and is defined as the absence of violence to
include the presence of justice, fairness, and the rule of law.
The peacekeepers assist the parties to implement the cease-fire or peace agreement by
monitoring the cease-fire and by helping them to avoid a return to violent conflict. Experience
has shown that if we use force to suppress violent conflict, it will remain under control only for
as long as that force continues to be applied. That is why we need to use negotiation, so that we
can obtain the voluntary cooperation of the parties and, thus, have a much higher probability of
achieving a sustainable peace over time.
Negotiation in the UN Peace Operations Context
Whenever peacekeepers negotiate with other parties in a peacekeeping context, the

subject of the negotiation is likely to fall into one of the following categories:
• Negotiate freedom of movement of peacekeepers, NGO, or population through an area
controlled by one of the parties, such as a roadblock;
• Discuss the relationship and roles between peacekeepers and the parties or local
authorities, such as a patrol moving through a village;
• Peacekeepers seek to prevent escalation or reoccurrence of conflict by parties agreeing to
certain behaviour, such as a patrol coming across fighting between two villages;
• Peacekeepers resolve disputes with or between parties or between local people, villages,
communities (depending on the mandate); and
• Peacekeepers meet among themselves, or with parties, the local authorities, and/or
community leaders to coordinate a specific event, such as a marriage or other traditional
ceremony in a sensitive area, making arrangements for a vaccination campaign,
coordinating the return of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) or refugees, or
coordinating humanitarian relief distribution.
Principles of Negotiation
Successful communication and negotiation depends on your understanding of the

following three principles:
1. Understand the mandate and role of the UN in the conflict (in other words, your interests).
You need to have a clear understanding of your own interests, such as what you want to
gain from the negotiations. In the peacekeeping context, your interests will derive from
the mission’s mandate, the policies of your unit, and the instructions you have received.
For instance, if you are manning a checkpoint, the instructions you have received will be
about who should and should not be allowed to move through the checkpoint.
2. Understand the interest(s) of the other party or parties.
You need to anticipate and understand what the other parties’ interests are and what it is
that they want to gain from the negotiations. You can do so to a large degree by studying
their previous statements and actions in order to detect any changes in policy. Your focus
should be on identifying their real underlying interests, not their stated positions.
3. Understand the cultural and historical context within which you operate.
By being sensitive to the cultural and historical context you operate in, you can avoid
critical cultural mistakes and improve your credibility and acceptability.
Preparing for Negotiations
Preparations are crucial to a successful negotiation. The more prepared you are, the
better your chances of successfully calming and managing a potentially violent situation.
However, you may often find yourself forced to respond to an impromptu situation where
there is no time for preparation. For instance, you may come across a village dispute on a patrol,
or you may be forced to deal with a situation at a checkpoint or at your post, or you may come
across a roadblock while on convoy escort duty. However, by being generally well prepared,
you will be armed with the knowledge to deal with most impromptu situations.
• Make sure you have knowledge of the history, culture, and conflict;
• Be well briefed on your own mandate and orders (e.g., convoy protocols); and
• Use the start of the negotiations to gather information about the specific problem you are
facing.
Cross-Cultural Communication
Cultures are different – when it comes to culture, there is no right or wrong. Cross-
cultural understanding, tolerance, and sensitivity start within the mission, among the various
cultures present in the mission. Multi-nationality is a key strength and principle of
peacekeeping. It shows that the world is working collectively for peace, and it contributes to
impartiality. The parties are more likely to view peacekeepers from one nation as partial or
merely seeking to advance their own national interests; thus, the presence of many different
nationalities are a critical factor in the UN’s ability to project impartiality and neutrality.
Peacekeepers need cross-cultural communication skills in dealing with culture(s) of the

host country. Most countries have more than one indigenous culture.
Show respect, and do nothing to offend them. The foundation of cross-cultural

communication is respect. The golden rule is to do nothing that will offend the other culture. If
you are professional, humble, friendly, and respectful, your chances of not offending anybody
are very good.
Take note that every

culture has developed customs
and tradition to regulate formal
communications like
negotiations and mediations.
Find out what the cultural
expectations are, and try to shape
the way in which the negotiation
is conducted according to local
custom and tradition.
You should maintain UN

standards and guidelines. If
these are in conflict with local
Actively listening to the other party is an important communication
culture and tradition, follow UN
technique. (UN Photo #99349)
standards and guidelines, and
explain why this is being done.
Basic Communication Techniques
The following basic communication techniques are useful in most communication and
negotiation situations:
• Emphatic listening:
− Listen actively with understanding, even if you do not agree with what is being
said. Be alert and focused on the person speaking. Do not speak to your
colleagues when the other person is speaking, even if you are waiting for
interpretation.
• Paraphrasing:
− Listen and restate in your own words what another person is saying. For instance:
“So, what you are saying is. . .”
• Communicating openness:
− Be open to hearing the perceptions and needs of others, even if you disagree with
what they are saying. For instance: “How would that work if. . .”
• Reframing:
− Shifting the focus from positions to interests, encouraging flexibility expressing
something in a different way. For instance: “In other words, what you want is…”
• Non-verbal communication:
− Non-verbal acknowledgement that you are listening (eye contact when culturally
appropriate, body focused on the person); paying attention (not looking away,
etc.); hearing what is being said (nodding); and being genuinely interested in
solving the problem.
− Non-verbal communication is culture specific. Make sure you know what your
non-verbal communications mean in the local context, and avoid taboos.
Summary of this Section
The three most important messages in this section are:

• The fact that communication and negotiation are the primary tools peacekeepers will use
to achieve sustainable peace;
• The principle factors that will influence successful negotiations, which are your
knowledge of: your own mandate, the interests of the other party(s), and the cultural and
historic context within which the negotiations are taking place; and
• The importance of cross-cultural sensitivity, summarised as “Respect others, and do no
harm.”
This section deals with actual negotiations. You will recall from the first section that
negotiation is communication with the aim of reaching an agreement. The structure of this
lesson follows the three stages of negotiations: the introduction (start), the substance
(discussion), and the conclusion (end). Any actual negotiation event or session will always have
these three stages, regardless of whether the session was planned in advance or is an impromptu
session.
Stage I: Introduction (The Start)
When you are the host or the facilitator of the meeting, it will be your role to welcome
the other parties to the meeting and to start by introducing your delegation. Once you have
introduced your delegation, you should give the other party or parties the opportunity to do the
same. Be sure to follow the appropriate local customs and protocol. You should only deviate if
you feel that the local traditions are incompatible with United Nations policy and international
standards and norms, such as including female members in your delegation in a culture where
only men will normally participate in this kind of formal meeting. In this kind of situation,
explain why you are not following local custom by providing them with information on the
relevant UN policies and international standards and norms. If there is any chance that your
behaviour may cause insult, inform the other party beforehand so that there is an opportunity to
discuss and resolve the issue outside the formal negotiations. There should be no surprises to
either party in the introduction stage.
After the welcoming and introductions, you should explain the purpose of the meeting
and present the agenda. If there was no time to prepare an agenda beforehand, ask the
participants at the meeting to identify the points that need to be discussed, and agree on the order
in which you will deal with them.
Lastly, take the time to discuss the “rules of procedure” according to which the meeting
will be run. The parties should voluntary agree to these “rule” and, in the case of mediation,
agree to the role the facilitator will have in enforcing these “rules.” “Rules of procedure”
typically include such issues as the role of the chair or facilitator in the case of a mediation and
not allowing any interruptions. Others include the maximum time allowed for any one speaker,
how decisions will be taken, who is responsible for taking notes, where formal minutes are kept
and how they will approved, and joint statements to the media. In some cases, these may be very
basic, in others more elaborate. Use your own judgement.
Once you and the other party are comfortable that you have a common understanding of
the process and the rules of procedure, you may move on to the substantial discussions.
Stage II: Substance (The Discussion)
Substantive sessions will normally start with an opening statement by each party. This is
typically a statement that sets out the overall position and main arguments of the party. Allow
the other party to start. Listen attentively, and show through your non-verbal language that you
are listening.
If, as is likely at some point in the peacekeeping context, your opening statement is
conveying a complaint, make sure your compliant is very clear, detailed, and factual. In most
cases, it will be a good idea to put your complaint in writing and to give the other party a copy.
If the UN is being criticised, which is often the case in a peacekeeping context, listen
attentively and do not show displeasure and/or disagreement through your non-verbal
communication. Do not take it personally; it is not about you. When responding, do not respond
to allegations, or emotions. Correct factual data if it is presented incorrectly by the other party.
If UN action resulted in deaths, injuries, or destruction of property that may be subject to

a claim and/or investigation, be careful not to pre-empt the outcome of such an investigation or
commit the UN to the payment of claims. Instead, explain the procedure for making claims and
how they are processed, and explain the investigative process.
As facilitator, host, or as one of the parties, you can summarise what was said by listing
the items that each party stated was important for them to achieve. Such a list can serve as a
basis for further discussion.
The facilitator, host, or chair can then use this summary or list of issues to suggest a
process, the priority or order in which these issues could be discussed, and the purpose for
discussing them.
In general, such discussions should lead to generating different options, such as a list of
things that can be done to avoid the recurrence of an incident in the future. The next step is the
reduction of the list to a list of options the parties can agree on that will achieve the desired effect
and that can be implemented. When you feel all parties have reached a common position, the
proposed agreement can be summarised and presented for formal agreement. The agreement
should include, or be followed by, further discussion on the steps that need to be taken to
implement the agreement.
The substantive discussions should close with a summary of all the agreements reached
during the meeting, and these should preferably be put in writing in the form of minutes,
confirmatory notes, and/or a joint declaration, statement, or communiqué.
The parties should also consider how and when they want to release the news of the
agreement to the public and the media, as well as how much information should be released. If
the agreement is of such a nature that the media would be interested, it is always a good idea to
rather have an agreed-upon statement or communiqué. You want to avoid continuing the
negotiation in the media.
Stage III: Conclusion (The End)
Once the representatives have concluded the drafting process and the parties have
informally agreed to the text, the facilitator, chair, or host can call the meeting to order and
present an equal part of the final agreement. However, it should be noted that they also have the
option of asking one of the other parties to present if they so desire.
Sometimes, some further negotiations on the wording of the agreement may develop but
should be kept to a minimum to avoid the whole agreement from unravelling. Once all parties
agree, the formal agreement should be recorded, and/or all parties can sign copies of the
agreement. Each party should leave the meeting with signed original copies in all the languages
agreed upon during the introductory phase.
The last item on the agenda is agreement on the date, time, and place of the next meeting,
and/or an agreement on when any working groups, sub-committees, or verification mechanisms
established through the agreement will start their work.
As per the introduction and throughout the rest of the meeting, it is important to follow
the proper custom and protocol during the closure of the meeting according to the local culture
and tradition.
Reporting on Negotiations
Negotiation and mediation always take place among a small group of representatives of
the parties. The agreements reached need to be implemented by a much larger group. Thus, the
follow-up and information-sharing with these wider constituencies are of vital importance.
In the peacekeeping context, you should prepare a short report (commonly referred to as
a Situation Report - SITREP) for immediate release to higher headquarters and other elements.
This could be a verbal radio message or a short written “flash report.” It should contain the
essential information that higher HQs or other elements need to know until a more detailed
report arrives.
A short summary of what was agreed upon for release to the media and wider community
(use Public Information specialists where available), if appropriate, should be agreed to during
the negotiation and mediation.
A detailed report should be prepared, filed, and sent to the appropriate higher HQs and all
relevant departments. Partners from other organisations and/or colleagues from other
departments at your level should be briefed. The report should include copies of all the
documents, your assessment of the situation, and your analysis of the future. It should include an
analysis of the negotiation and mediation and should be detailed enough to serve as a thorough
briefing for your replacement, should this problem re-occur during his/her tour of duty.
If it was agreed as part of the process, formal minutes or confirmatory notes need to be
prepared so that they can be considered for approval at the next meeting.
The third section of this lesson deals with working with interpreters. Because of the
multi-national nature of peace operations, most peacekeepers will not be able to communicate
with the local people of the host country in their own languages. The United Nations will
typically employ local people as language assistants to assist the peacekeepers with translation
and interpretation. This section provides some guidance on how to work with interpreters and
how to make use of an interpreter in a negotiation.
This section is divided into two parts. The first deals with the difficulties of negotiating
or communicating through an interpreter in another language. The second deals with some
specific tools and techniques for the use of interpreters during negotiations.
Negotiating in another Language
Our languages are extensions of our cultures. It requires great cultural sensitivity and
knowledge of both cultures and languages to be able to correctly translate not only the words but
also the content, emotion, and meaning of the words when interpreting a conversation between
two people with different languages and cultures.
Most interpreters in peacekeeping operations are not professionally trained interpreters.

They are people with some knowledge of the mission language, such as English, and the local
languages. They have been hired by the UN as “Language Assistants.” Very few Language
Assistants would have received any formal training in interpretation. This does not mean that
they are not dedicated; this only means that they are not professional interpreters. Thus, one
should have that understanding when working with them.
It is, thus, likely that most of what you are saying to the other party is not being conveyed
and understood in the same way as you said it or meant it. Likewise, it is likely that most of
what you are told is not very accurate, particularly what is said about the other party.
You need to assume that there are many opportunities for misunderstanding and
misinterpretation. If something sounds out of context or does not make sense, double-check it
for accuracy by paraphrasing or repeating the point.
Plan to devote twice the amount of time when conducting a meeting, negotiation, or
mediation with interpretation, as each statement will need to be repeated.
If you want to avoid miscommunication, you should make the work of the interpreter as
easy as possible by:
• Using short sentences and encouraging others to do the same;

• Refraining from using technical terms or abbreviations. In cases where this is
unavoidable, discuss it with the interpreter beforehand so that they can look up the terms
in a dictionary or prepare an appropriate word/phrase in the local language; and
• Refraining from using culturally-specific idioms or jokes.
Negotiating with an Interpreter
As mentioned in the previous section, it is unlikely that the Language Assistant assigned
to your section would have received any formal training as an interpreter. Therefore, it will be
helpful if you tell the interpreter what you want him/her to do and how you want them to act.
Do not show disrespect in front of your interpreter towards the country, religion, people,
culture, food, leaders, or one of the parties in a conflict situation. Think of the interpreters and
other local staff as your ambassadors to the local community. Interpreters are normally
influential in their communities because they are more educated than most others. Interpreters
and other local staff stay within their own communities. Therefore, one can expect that they be
asked by family and friends about their experience of working with the UN. One should also
take this situation into account in terms of their personal safety and not to expose them to
situations that may result in reprisals against the interpreter.
Brief the interpreter of the physical position you want them to take, e.g., half a foot
behind you on your right when standing and talking, or seated to your left when sitting down.
Look at the person you are speaking to, not the interpreter. Even if you do not
understand their actual words, keep eye contact or show that you are focused on them in
whatever way may be culturally appropriate under the circumstances.
Brief the interpreter to repeat what is being said, not to give you a summary or
evaluation. Also, brief the interpreter not to analyse, value-judge, or edit what is being said.
What the interpreter can do is to explain the culture or context, where necessary to you, in
addition to interpretation and while making a clear distinction between the interpretation and the
contextualisation.
With the help of an interpreter, Mrs. Nane Annan talks with one of the
mothers at a child feeding centre in Zinder, Niger. (UN Photo #85803)
LESSON 11
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. During negotiations, the MILOB or peacekeeper may have to:

a. Accept all restrictions and limitations that have been locally imposed, so that he
does not alienate negotiators;
b. Ignore restrictions and limitations that have been locally imposed, in order to be
able to complete his mission;
c. Negotiate concessions to restrictions that have been locally imposed, in order to be
able to complete his mission;
d. Do whatever is necessary to complete the mission.
2. During any negotiation meeting, the negotiator should take note of the following social
requirements:
a. Maintain dignity and politeness, show respect, and pay military and social
compliments to hosts and representatives;
b. Maintain dignity and politeness, show respect, but not pay compliments to anyone,
in order to avoid being accused of favouritism;
c. Respect all participants and show everyone politeness, but give the major leaders
the most amount of speaking time and attention in order to enhance their
importance and speed up negotiations;
d. Because you are a UN MILOB or peacekeeper, your attitude really does not matter,
since the Blue Beret speaks for itself.
3. In presenting opening remarks at a negotiation meeting between the parties in conflict, the
negotiator should:
a. Give the necessary salutations, and then begin the meeting in order to allow the
maximum amount of time for negotiations;
b. Greet everyone, and ask each member of the UN team to give their perspective as a
way to begin the negotiations;
c. Give the customary salutations, and then take the time to assess the mood and give
everyone a chance to get used to the language in use;
d. Let someone else volunteer to lead the meeting while you take notes.
4. If incorrect information is given at any point during a negotiation, the negotiator should:
a. State the actual facts and the evidence that supports them, without arguing;
b. Let it pass until an advantageous time arises to speak the true facts;
c. Correct the person on the spot;
d. State the actual facts and evidence that supports them, assert the correct version
firmly, and, if necessary, argue the facts.
5. As a negotiation meeting is ending, the negotiator should:

a. Ask each person to repeat what they believe has been agreed upon and appoint
someone to summarise the points of view;
b. Have everyone orally repeat what was said;
c. Summarise each person’s point of view and ask each one to rethink their position
before the next meeting;
d. Summarise what has been agreed upon and make sure that it is in writing.
6. If a mediation session results in no agreements, the negotiator may suggest that:

a. Each party summarise in writing their position on the main issues and list the areas
in which they are willing to make concessions;
b. They at least agree to meet again;
c. The negotiator acts as an arbitrator to make the tie-breaking decisions required to
reach an agreement;
d. They agree to not meet again.
7. Negotiation is:
a. Giving in to someone else taking over and being in charge of the situation;
b. Any communication with the aim of reaching an agreement;
c. Giving up your rights to state your point of view;
d. The same as arbitration and mediation.
8. Successful communication and negotiation depends on your understanding of three

principles. Name the three principles.
9. Emphatic listening, paraphrasing, communicating openness, reframing, and non-verbal

communications are:
a. Unnecessary during negotiations, arbitration, and mediation;
b. Nice to be familiar with, but they are not vital to the success of a negotiation;
c. Not useful in most communication and negotiation situations;
d. Are useful in most communication and negotiation situations.
10. Main topics likely to be discussed during a negotiation headed by a UN MILOB are:
a. Definition of cease-fire lines, refugees, areas of limitation, and help to be given by
the superpowers to rebuild war-torn areas;
b. Exchange of prisoners, cease-fire lines, refugees, and separation of the parties in
conflict (territory or otherwise);
c. Exchange of prisoners, cease-fire lines, refugees, and the type of government that
would be set up after a peaceful settlement;
d. Exchange of prisoners, cease-fire lines, restructuring of the peacekeeping forces,
and donor support from the various UN Member States.
ANSWER KEY
1. c
2. a
3. a
4. a
5. d
6. c
7. b
8. Understand the mandate and role of the UN in the conflict (your interests);
understand the interests of the other parties; and understand the cultural and
historical context within which you operate
9. d
10. b

LESSON 12
UN CIVIL-MILITARY COORDINATION (CIMIC)

Lesson 12 / UN Civil-Military Coordination 196
LESSON OBJECTIVES
This lesson provides information on United Nations Civil-Military Coordination. It

addresses how civilian and military peacekeepers coordinate their efforts and work together to
achieve the peace operations’ mandate and goals. After completing this lesson, the student
should be able to:
• Explain what Civil-Military Coordination is;

• Explain the principles of Civil-Military Coordination;
• Explain how Civil-Military Coordination is practised; and
• Given a scenario, explain the role and relevance of Civil-Military Coordination to the
peacekeeper.
INTRODUCTION
The large number of multi-dimensional actors present in today's complex peace

operations, in addition to the broad range of issues they deal with, have made coordination
among the various multi-functional actors a crucial element in the success of these missions.
Coordination is needed among the various components of a United Nations peace operation;
between the UN mission and other international, bilateral, and NGO components; and between
the UN mission, the local government or administration, and the parties to the conflict.
International and local multi-dimensional actors include the humanitarian relief

community, the peacebuilding and development community, military peacekeepers, civilian
police, and others involved in the criminal justice system, human rights organisations, election
specialists and observers, and those responsible for conflict prevention and peacemaking.
Most modern peacekeeping operations are deployed in response to complex emergencies.

Complex emergencies usually imply intra-nation conflicts, food shortages, refugees, and/or
Internally Displaced People (IDPs).
UNMEE, an IDP camp outside Senafe, Eritrea. Most of these IDPs came
from Ethiopia and await return to their village. (LTC Phyllis Mihalas,
July 2002)
Peacekeeping operations that respond to complex emergencies require a multi-

dimensional structure. This is commonly referred to as a complex peacekeeping mission.
Complex peacekeeping missions typically consist of the following components:
• The Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) is responsible for conflict
prevention, peacemaking, and the overall management of the peacekeeping operation;
• The Peacekeeping Force (PKF) is responsible for establishing a safe and secure
environment;
• The Humanitarian Coordinator (HC) is responsible for coordinating the humanitarian
relief effort of the various UN humanitarian agencies, international organisations (IOs),
and non-governmental organisations (NGOs);
• The Civilian Police (CIVPOL) is responsible for monitoring the local police force or, in
some missions, for ensuring law and order, depending on the mandate;
• A Human Rights Unit (HR) is responsible for monitoring human rights and for human
rights education and advice; and
• The United Nations Development Fund (UNDP) is responsible for leading the long-term
recovery and reconstruction efforts.
In order to ensure that all of these different components work together as one integrated
mission, we need to use Civil-Military Coordination mechanisms and structures to facilitate
coordination, support, joint-planning, and the constant exchange of information among them.
United Nations Civil-Military Coordination (UN CIMIC) refers to the coordination

mechanisms and procedures used by the UN System, for example, in UN peacekeeping missions
and by UN humanitarian and development agencies.
NOTE: CIMIC is known by other names or acronyms in different countries and organisations.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and some nations, mostly those in Europe and
North America, use other concepts with approximately the same intent as CIMIC, such as Civil-
Military Cooperation (CIMIC) or Civil Military Operations (CMO).
UN Civil-Military Coordination refers to all of the actions taken to ensure that there is a
continuous process of coordination and feedback among all the components of the UN mission
and others in the mission area in order to achieve an integrated peace operation. The definition
adopted by the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) in its Civil-Military
Coordination policy document of 25 September 2002 is as follows:
UN Civil-Military Coordination is the system of interaction, involving exchange

of information, negotiation, de-confliction, mutual support, and planning at all
levels between military elements and humanitarian organisations, development
organisations, or the local civilian population, to achieve respective objectives.
Note that for the purposes of DPKO policy, the term “Civil-Military Coordination” includes
civilian police.
The following three principles lie at the core of all Civil-Military Coordination:
Interdependence: Interdependence is the realisation that each component’s success is

dependent on the success of the other. For instance, the electoral component cannot successfully
organise an election if others such as CIVPOL and the Peacekeeping Force do not help to create
a safe and secure environment within which elections can take place. If so, coordination, mutual
support, joint-planning, and the continuous exchange of information on progress and setback
become a critically important aspect of the mission’s overall success.
Duplication: In the absence of meaningful coordination, you will experience overlap,

duplication, and an overall uneconomic and inefficient application of resources. Different
components will use time and resources to collect the same information. Many components will
focus on the same high-profile cases while neglecting the less-high-profile, often more
inaccessible cases. The more meaningful the coordination, the more efficient the overall effort
will be. For instance, if the medical units of a Peacekeeping Force Battalion, a local clinic, and
medical non-governmental organisations do not coordinate efforts, they may all cover the same
area and perhaps neglect others. However, if they coordinate their efforts, they can spread out
and cover a much wider area, with each providing a service according to their resources and
capabilities.
Combined effort: By combining effort through mutual support and by coordinating

different initiatives to coincide over the same time period, one can achieve the power of
leverage, such as achieving more together than each component would have been able to achieve
on its own. Through the exchange of information, joint-planning, mutual support, and ongoing
coordination and feedback, the mission will achieve a holistic effort. For instance, through
coordination, the various components involved in a Disarmament, Demobilisation, and
Reintegration (DDR) campaign – including the Peacekeeping Force, Military Observers, Civilian
Police, UN agencies, international and local NGOs, local authorities, conflicting parties, the local
community, and former combatants and their families – will mutually enforce each others’
efforts and, in so doing, develop a positive momentum around the DDR campaign that will help
each component overcome the obstacles it faces in its own area of specialisation.
CIMIC activities include information-sharing, joint planning and evaluation, negotiation,

coordination, mutual support and cooperation, and confidence-building. The exchange of
information is at the core of all coordination. It can take place through meetings, through
exchanging written and/or electronic information, and through joint operations centres. The
success of the CIMIC effort is directly linked to the quality and quantity of information shared.
Joint planning and evaluation is the most advanced form of coordination and the most
difficult to achieve but, when applied, is also the most effective. Coordination is when
initiatives, campaigns, and programmes are synchronised and linked so that they compliment one
another. Mutual support and cooperation is when one component assists the other to achieve an
objective, such as when the PKF provides a security escort for a humanitarian relief convoy.
Confidence-building is those efforts aimed at improving the confidence that the local
government, parties, and population have in the peacekeeping operation and the peace process.
Coordination
Coordination should take place at all levels (headquarters, sector/region/district, and

local) and in all areas (security, humanitarian relief, reconstruction, human rights, electoral, etc.)
where more than one component are working together. At the headquarters or mission-wide
level, a Joint Operations Centre (JOC) or similar body, where all the mission components are
represented, is a crucial management tool for the SRSG to ensure overall coordination.
The Peacekeeping Force (PKF) typically uses a Civil-Military Operations Centre

(CMOC) to ensure coordination in their area of operations at the sector and/or battalion level.
The Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) or the Humanitarian
Coordinator or lead agency will be responsible for coordinating humanitarian relief. They
typically establish a UN Humanitarian Operations Centre (UNHOC) and/or a Joint Logistics
Operations Centre (JLOC) for this purpose.
In Transitional Administration missions, such as UNTAET in East Timor, CIVPOL may

be the lead component for security, law and order, and disaster-management coordination.
CIMIC in UNMEE
The Civil Military Centre (CIMIC) in

the UN mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea is a
good example of Civil-Military Coordination in
a mission.
Depending upon the circumstances of

the UN mandate for a particular mission,
CIMIC personnel may vary from several
peacekeepers or MILOBS who identify
worthwhile projects for assistance to a fully
manned CIMIC (G5) staff. UNMEE is a
mission that has a robust commitment to CIMIC Kindergarten with bathroom being constructed in
and the humanitarian projects to assist those Barentu, Eritrea. (UNMEE, LTC Phyllis Mihalas,
adversely affected by the war between Ethiopia G5, November 2002)
and Eritrea. There have been 14 officers and
senior enlisted personnel from about 11 countries specifically assigned to the mission as CIMIC
(G5) personnel. Three UNMEE CIMIC teams live amongst the local populace – one team per
Sector. The G5, the primary CIMIC staff officer for the Force Commander, and a small
administrative staff serve at the Mission Headquarters in Asmara, Eritrea, where projects are
managed and monitored. UNMEE is the recipient of a Country Donor Programme, whereby
several “donor countries,” such as Ireland, the Netherlands, and Norway (as of 2003), donated
hundreds of thousands of U.S. dollars for specific humanitarian projects. These projects,
referred to as QIPs (Quick Impact Projects), can be initiated by anyone who has a worthy idea to
help people adversely affected by the war. Projects range from education (building schools and
providing books), medical (providing doctors and building and resourcing clinics), and public
health and sanitation (building water points and providing electricity), to programmes to take war
widows off the street and teach them a viable trade. QIPs have a limit of $15,000 US Dollars.
Although a special focus may be

necessary at different points in a mission’s life
cycle, such as during the preparation for
elections, all components of the mission need
to be coordinated all the time.
In many instances, it is very useful to

appoint specific persons to be responsible for
coordination. Many components and
organisations appoint Liaison Officers and
place them with another organisation to
improve coordination. The Force Commander
may, for instance, place a Liaison Officer with
UNMEE CIMIC Officer, CPT Renato Scudicio of the the UN High Commissioner of Refugees
Italian Army, cuts the ribbon on a new water project
in Rama, Ethiopia. This was a successful CIMIC
(UNHCR) in a situation where the PKF is
project. (LTC Phyllis Mihalas, July 2002) working closely with the UNHCR to assist
them in the repatriation of refugees.
Note that some NGOs have different cultures and, therefore, participate in UN CIMIC
coordination efforts with different perspectives. In some circumstances, these organisations do
not want to participate in coordination activities in order to protect their independent identity and
mandates. The UN respects their independence, and, when necessary, both parties can
informally exchange information to avoid duplication and to ensure the safety and security of
civilian personnel.
Coordination in the UN Context

Coordination
Cooperation Competition
Coexistence Conflict
Cooperation and mutual support can take place in many ways and between most
components. For example, the Peacekeeping Force (PKF) can support others in the following
ways:
• The PKF will normally not use 100% of its own transport capability because it would
have been deployed with some excess capacity in anticipation of any unforeseen
developments. It can provide other organisations with this unused capacity or access to
cargo space on its aircraft, ships, and/or vehicles. This is one of the most used and useful
support activities that takes place within a UN mission.
• The PKF usually also has an engineering capability with some capacity factored in for the
same reasons. Again, this capacity can be used under certain conditions to assist with the
emergency provision or maintenance of roads, water, and electricity or construction
services.
• Although PKF medical units are deployed in support of the PKF, medical personnel often
find it possible to assist the local population with some basic medical care or with
education and assessments.
• The PKF will have its own independent means of communication, and it can provide
communication services to others in an emergency when their normal
telecommunications systems are inoperative.
• The PKF is also often the only institution with the capacity to provide specialty services,
such as weather forecasting and air traffic control.
Confidence-building campaigns, aimed at strengthening the confidence of the local

population in the PKF, the UN operation, and the peace process in general, is usually an
important element of any peacekeeping operation. Most UN peacekeeping operations will
deploy with a Public Information component, and in most cases the PKF will also have a small
public information capacity. The PKF will undertake its confidence-building campaigns
through:
• CIMIC Patrols that specifically include in their objectives the gathering of information
for humanitarian purposes (through the use of a pre-developed questionnaire), and the
establishing of good relations with local populations through disseminating information
about the UN mission; and
• Organising cultural and social activities. For example, in East Timor, various PKF
battalions respectively organised sporting events, beach clean-up, and other
environmental events, and they trained local farmers in agricultural techniques, such as
how to better utilise their water buffalos for preparing rice paddies.
Adwa, Ethiopia (UNMEE). Adwa Kids Fun Run was initiated by a Canadian MILOB and
coordinated by the G5 and Central Sector CIMIC Team. This was the first community event since
the war and was designed as an educational awareness program. Over 600 children from ages 10-
18 participated, and the cooperation from 10 different countries’ PKF and MILOBS made this day
a success. Every entrant won a prize, in addition to learning about HIV/AIDS awareness. This is
another example of a CIMIC success. (LTC Phyllis Mihalas, G5, Adwa, Ethiopia, October 2002)
Civilian, military, and police peacekeepers can support each other and the local
community in many ways. For instance, some of the most common ways in which a soldier may
expect to become involved in support to humanitarian efforts are by:
• Providing security: Guarding relief supplies, securing roads, and guarding refugee camps;
• Gathering information: Gathering humanitarian information during CIMIC Patrols and
other contacts with local communities;
• Escorting convoys: Providing security escorts for humanitarian convoys;
• Transport: Providing access space for humanitarian goods on ships, flights, and trucks;
• Construction: Pitching tents or rebuilding schools, hospitals, etc.;
• Water: Providing potable water or helping to purify water and fix pumps and pipes; and
• Manpower: Providing manpower to off-load equipment, pitch tents, etc. In most cases,
however, the UN will make use of the skills available within the local population. This
provides them the opportunity to earn money, learn new skills, and identify with
whatever project it may be.
Mai Aini, Eritrea (UNMEE). Under watchful eye of Italian Caribineri, this young girl carries
her brother to a clinic for medical assistance. The clinic had been closed for over two years
due to lack of medical personnel. The CIMIC project coordinated for Italian physicians to
travel to Mai Aini twice a week. (LTC Phyllis Mihalas, G5, July 2002)
LESSON 12
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. CIMIC projects can only be initiated by:

a. CIMIC personnel;
b. MILOBS or peacekeepers;
c. NGOs, IOs, or PVOs;
d. The Mission Force Commander.
2. Who is responsible for leading long-term recovery and reconstruction efforts?

a. The United Nations Development Fund;
b. The Civilian Police;
c. The Humanitarian Coordinator;
d. The Peacekeeping Force.
3. CMOCs, JLOCs, and UNHOCs are all examples of:

a. CIMIC Coordination Centres;
b. Offices that are used to register local school-aged children;
c. Areas where PKF are in-processed;
d. Organisations at UNHQ that help in the field.
4. During a daily patrol, you encounter an administrator from a local village. He insists that
the UN can build a new school for his village. What can you do?
a. Do nothing. You are only there to protect and maintain the peace according to the
UN mandate;
b. Promise him that you will take up his cause, but you know that you will do nothing
because you will never see him again;
c. Tell him that you are not there to help;
d. Take down the basic information and forward it back to the CIMIC or G5 office at
your headquarters.
5. From the following, select the example(s) of cooperation and support to the local populace:
a. Restoration or enhancement of water service and purification facilities;
b. Provision of public sanitation;
c. Acquisition of basic medical equipment and medical supplies;
d. All of these.
6. CIMIC projects can include:

a. Building new barracks for the local military;
b. Building a new house for the local regional administrator;
c. Building a new school to replace the one destroyed during conflict;
d. Financing a new project for the country’s senior politician.
7. List five ways that Peacekeeping Forces (PKF) can support CIMIC projects.
Describe at least three of them.
8. Which of the following is NOT a role of a MILOB or peacekeeper?

a. Gathering humanitarian information during CIMIC patrols and other contacts with
local communities;
b. Providing potable water or helping to purify water and fix pumps and pipes;
c. Guarding relief supplies, securing roads, and guarding refugee camps;
d. Acting as a personal bodyguard for the local political administrator.
9. List some of the ways that PKF can help the local populace.
10. There are three main principles in CIMIC. They are:

a. Dependence, Duplication, and Combined Effort;
b. Overlapping Efforts, Cooperation, and Dependence;
c. Interdependence, Duplication, and Combined Effort;
d. Coordination, Limited Assistance, and Duplication.
ANSWER KEY
1. d
2. a
3. a
4. d
5. d
6. c
7.
• The PKF will normally not use 100% of its own transport capability
because it would have been deployed with some excess capacity in
anticipation of any unforeseen developments. It can provide this unused
capacity or access to cargo space to others on its aircraft, ships, and/or
vehicles. This is one of the most used and useful support activities that
takes place within a UN mission.
• The PKF usually also has an engineering capability with some capacity
factored in for the same reasons. Again, this capacity can be used under
certain conditions to assist with the emergency provision or maintenance
of roads, water, and electricity or construction services.
• Although PKF medical units are deployed in support of the PKF,
medical personnel often find it possible to assist the local population
with some basic medical care or with education and assessments.
• The PKF will have its own independent means of communication, and it
can provide communication services to others in an emergency when
their normal telecommunications systems are inoperative.
• The PKF is also often the only institution with the capacity to provide
specialty services, such as weather forecasting and air traffic control.
8. d
9. Communication; Specialty Services; Confidence Campaigns; CIMIC

Patrols; Cultural and Social Activities; Engineering Capabilities;
Transport; Medical Services
10. c
LESSON 13
MEDIA RELATIONS

Lesson 13 / Media Relations 208
LESSON OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lesson is to provide the student with basic information on media relations
and how to participate in an interview. It will familiarise the student with the importance and
effect of the media in the success of peacekeeping operation. After completing the lesson, the
• State how the UN Public Information System promotes peacekeeping through use of media;
• State how the behaviour of an individual may affect the mission;
• State the UN’s media guidelines; and
• State the do’s and don’ts of an interview.
INTRODUCTION
All peacekeeping operations attract media attention, but not all media reports on
peacekeeping missions are consistent in the same way. Some local media tend to be biased. The
tendency of taking sides is very likely. Furthermore, the local media tend to be less informed
than international media and operate at a different level. International media, on the other hand,
tends to be more interested in a peacekeeping operation when the level of conflict is high,
particularly when problems are encountered or failures occur. They become less interested as
the peace process moves forward.
Peacekeepers have to communicate with the local population through both the local and
international media, broadcasting in that area and with the international community through
regional and international media. The ability to disseminate truthful, credible, and impartial
information within the region, and beyond, is consequently an essential requirement of every
peacekeeping mission.
Information generated by peacekeepers or others that is inaccurate, unclear, or untimely

can be harmful to the mission. Negative behaviour by peacekeepers can do great harm,
especially if reported in the media. Information that is distorted by the media can also be
damaging. While it is the job of the public information officers in the mission to ensure that the
media receives accurate and reliable information, all peacekeepers are permitted to respond to
questions from the media, if they choose to do so, about their specific activities or areas of
responsibility.
Therefore, all MILOBS and peacekeepers within the mission must understand the impact
of their responses to the media on peacekeeping operations. They must understand that any
irresponsible act on their part can have very negative consequences for their national contingent
and the United Nations, especially if the media reports on it. MILOBS and peacekeepers also
need to know how to participate in media-relation activities during their tour of duty.
MILOBS and peacekeepers need to understand that the media can play a significant role
in a peacekeeping operation. If the media is provided with accurate and timely information, they
will use it to carry the UN’s messages. If the media is not given information about UN
operations, they will find other, perhaps less reliable sources, or they will speculate about
outcomes, often negatively. Peacekeepers need to know how the Public Information Office
(PIO) is structured and how the Military Public Information Office (MPIO), if present, and the
military spokesperson work with the PIO and the mission spokesperson. They should feel
confident that the information structures within the mission would be able to deal effectively
with any media situation. At the same time, they should also understand that they might be
required to play a role at some point in dealing with the media. If such an occasion arises, they
will need to know how to react, without being manipulated by the media.
The media is interested in conflicts because conflicts are the basis of news. This interest
is neither good nor bad but a professional activity which requires a professional response. Most
international journalists are very professional and usually quite sympathetic to the United
Nations and what it stands for. Local journalists may or may not be as professional and can
often be controlled by one of the sides in the conflict.
The UN needs to convey information about the mandate and the peace process to the
local population, which may be the target of false information or hostile propaganda by parties to
the conflict. The UN must provide accurate, reliable, and impartial information. This helps the
peace process. It does this through its own information structures, as well as through the media.
The UN must also inform the international community about its work, and it also does this
through the media.
The media plays a very important role by informing the world about UN peacekeeping.
UN Public Information can deal with the media at all levels and is equipped to handle most
situations. However, one of the most difficult situations to deal with is an irresponsible act by
UN MILOBS and peacekeepers.
UNMIS spokesperson Radhia Achouri being interviewed.

(UNMIS Photo, John Charles, April 2005)
Nothing damages the reputation of the UN or a national contingent more than the
irresponsible acts committed by UN peacekeepers. This can take the form of sexual abuse,
inappropriate sexual activities, alcohol or substance abuse, lack of respect or denigration of the
local population, and smuggling. Once the media learns of the reports of such incidents, the
effect is devastating for the national contingent, the mission, and the UN. The local population
loses trust in the international community, which is seen as a negative rather than a positive
force. The reputation of the UN is damaged, and the values of the organisation are diminished.
MILOBS and peacekeepers must understand that any misbehaviour can have far-reaching
consequences and that prevention of misconduct is always the best option. They should behave
honourably and correctly at all times, showing respect for their uniforms and national flag, as
well as the flag of the United Nations and the blue shoulder patch they all wear. The United
Nations will not cover up or in any way be a party to behaviour that undermines the values of the
organisation.
All MILOBS and peacekeepers must understand that they are a potential source of
information for the media and that certain rules apply when talking to the media. The Secretary-
General encourages transparency and openness with the media. For uniformed peacekeepers,
this means they may talk about their own work or area of responsibility in a factual manner.
With minimal training, peacekeepers will be able to do this. Local media is always present, but
their reliability to report accurately varies. They may be partisan or under the control of one
side. They may lack professional training. Local media must be dealt with patiently and
carefully.
International media will maintain a presence in the region, often through a local
correspondent who will have been trained or an international correspondent if the peacekeeping
operation is becoming interesting. This could occur either because the conflict is warming up or
because the peace process is reaching a critical stage.
Peacekeepers must get used to the idea of doing their jobs while the media watches. This
means they must be careful to project the right image at all times.
Positive behaviour reinforces the ability of the UN to help move the peace process
forward and creates bonds of trust with the local population. Positive behaviour means
respecting the Code of Conduct. It can also take the form of helping the local community with
simple projects – for example, repairing a school, interacting with the local community, or
playing sports. Such actions create good rapport and win respect for the national contingent and
the UN.
Negative behaviour, however, undermines the reputation of the national community and
the UN, and it weakens the peace process. Parties to the conflict can exploit negative behaviour
and use it to delay the peace process. The local community’s expectations about the UN
presence in their country are undermined, and respect for the Blue Helmets is diminished.
The media works 24 hours a day, and news of an event or incident can be disseminated
around the world before the mission has time to verify the facts, report to HQ, and prepare a
response. The print media, including magazines and newspapers, is expensive and requires time
to be produced and distributed. However, radio and television have an immediate and global
impact. The availability of satellite communications and portable audio-video equipment allows
the media to transmit their reports directly from anywhere in the world. A reporter will always
be there, whenever and wherever the news occurs. Because the media works so rapidly,
information about an incident or an event can be on television or radio around the world before
the peacekeeping mission has had the time to verify the facts and react officially.
MILOBS and peacekeepers should be careful to ensure that they do not distribute any
information to the media about any incident or event that will be investigated by other structures
within the mission. Any questions that they are asked by the media about such incidents or
events must be referred to the UN Public Information Office in the mission. Traffic accidents
can occur between UN vehicles and local vehicles in a peacekeeping mission; if local casualties
result, the incident can quickly become serious. The UN must investigate all accidents, but this
takes time. Meanwhile, the local media may use the incident to discredit the UN, irrespective of
who is at fault. The family of the victim(s) may try and make excessive claims against the UN.
Because insurance liabilities are involved, any comment, however well intentioned, can be
misconstrued or used against the UN. This sort of incident requires handling by the UN Public
Information Office.
Peacekeepers have been known to engage in wrongdoing while on mission. Although

only a small minority do break the rules about behaviour and violate the Code of Conduct, the
effects of this minority can be far-reaching. Typically, sexual misbehaviour by a few can
damage the reputation of a whole contingent. Commercial sex workers, many of whom may be
below the age of 18, will try and attract the attention of peacekeepers. Peacekeeping missions in
Bosnia, Kosovo, East Timor, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo have all had incidents of sexual misbehaviour reported by the international media. The
damage to the reputation of the national contingents involved and the UN has been considerable.
The best practice is to avoid any behaviour in violation of the Code of Conduct. If this is
accomplished, then the media has nothing to report.
One of the best ways to create a bond between the local population and the peacekeeping
contingent is by helping the local community with small-scale projects, such as repairing utilities
or public buildings, providing medical assistance, or just engaging in sporting or cultural events
with local people. The costs are normally small and the benefits large, especially when reported
by the media, which the UN Public Information Office can help arrange. The reputation of the
national contingent can be enhanced around the world.
Each mission has a Public Information Office (PIO). The PIO:
• Will develop and manage the communications strategy, assist the media, and ensure that
the local population is informed about the mandate and the peace process;
• May operate its own radio station or broadcast on local stations, produce video material
for television, and publish informational brochures, posters, and pamphlets, all in a
number of local languages;
• Employs local staff, usually journalists, who have good knowledge and understanding of
local customs and traditions;
• Will accredit journalists to have access to the UN and will issue ID cards to reporters that
can be checked by contingents in the field;
• Works closely with the military public information structures - the military spokesman
and the military public information officers attached to contingents, implementing the
communications strategy; and
• Is a resource that MILOBS and peacekeepers can draw on for all sorts of useful
information about the mandate, the peace process, and the mission. The PIO can help
contingents manage their media relations, and promote the positive image of contingents
that engage in activities that assist the local community.
Contingents should not hesitate to ask the PIO for information or assistance.
Nobody is obliged to
speak to reporters if they do
not want to. MILOBS and
peacekeepers may decline,
politely, if they wish.
However, past experience
shows that peacekeeping troops
that talk to the media about
their work can be very
effective in conveying positive
messages.
When talking about

their jobs, MILOBS and
peacekeepers should convey a
sense of pride in what they do MONUC public information officer hands out MONUC magazines as
part of an outreach campaign in Butembo, DRC. (MONUC, Daniel
because they are working for Wangisha, November 2004)
the UN. They should be
positive about their role. They should always be factual and impartial in the way they convey
information and should always speak respectfully about the local population, which often lives in
conditions of extreme poverty and hardship. They should try and empathise with the situation of
the local people and avoid remarks that may sound condescending or patronising.
MILOBS and peacekeepers must remember that they are ambassadors for their own
countries and the UN and should, therefore, present themselves appropriately. It may happen
that a reporter interviews you in the field. When speaking with the reporter, remember his or her
name, as well as the media organisation they represent. If you do speak to a reporter about your
work, please let the UN Public Information Office know about it. Contact the military public
information officer attached to your contingent or your superior officer so they can pass on the
information.
Remember what you are allowed to talk about and what you cannot say.
Do:
• Always refer reporters to UN information personnel if they ask you any questions that
you are not authorised to answer. It is always better to refer to an authorised person than
to give a wrong answer;
• Always be polite with the media, even if they appear rude or unfriendly. They may be
under pressure to get the news; you should keep your professionalism and maintain an
educated and polite attitude;
• Stick to facts, as they cannot be refuted; and
• Be brief and precise. Time is the main limitation of the modern media, as only so much
news and images can be conveyed each minute. If you speak too much or are unclear,
the positive image you want to present will be lost.
Do not:
• Offer your personal opinion about the peace process or about UN activities. Any answer
you provide may be regarded as an official opinion or, if negative, may reflect badly on
the mission and the organisation;
• Answer questions that are speculative, such as “what will happen if….?” Speculations
are just that. You may be providing wrong information that may affect the mission;
• Give any information about UN security plans or procedures. The UN is an open
organisation and has no secrets. However, security may be affected;
• Discuss the state or activities of local or other combatant forces; and
• Do not appear to support or favour one side over the other. Remember at all times that
you are impartial.
Remember that you do not have to talk to the media if you do not want to. Politely but firmly
decline an invitation to speak.
The mandate of a UN peacekeeping mission is your main mission. All that you have
been tasked to accomplish is designed to support the mandate. The mandate of a peacekeeping
operation is contained in a Security Council Resolution. This document constitutes the legal
authority under which the UN mission is operating. The mandate will describe the aim of the
peacekeeping mission, and it will be periodically updated by the Security Council as
circumstances change. While MILOBS and peacekeepers are not expected to remember all of
the details of a mandate, they should be familiar with the main points. These may include
reference to the disarmament and demobilisation of illegal forces, transitional power sharing
arrangements, eventual elections, the restoration of the rule of law, and so on.
You may ask the UN Public Information Office in the mission for a summary of the
mandate. It is useful to have this information, both for your own understanding of the country’s
participation in the UN peacekeeping operation and also when talking to journalists. You will
then be able to place your work in the context of the mandate.
The media needs to reach the public. In most countries, people like human-stories.
High-ranking officers are normally associated more with large and impersonal organisations.
However, soldiers are perceived as the true peacekeepers. Their messages and stories reach the
public in an informal and refreshing way. Thus, public opinion will prefer to see an interview
with a soldier than with a high-ranking officer.
How to Handle an Interview
The basic rules for handling an interview are few and simple. The camera or the reporter
should not intimidate you. You are a professional, and you are executing your mission in a
highly professional manner.
• Always look at the reporter, never at the camera. Looking at the camera will give
viewers the impression that you are not behaving naturally.
• To avoid making mistakes or loosing face with a wrong answer, listen carefully to each
question. If needed, ask the reporter to repeat it to you. Gain time to compose your
answer and then stick to what you know and can say.
• Speak naturally and with facts, avoiding exaggerated movements with your hands and
face.
If you speak and say “no comment,” the reporter and the public will have the impression
that you are trying to hide something. It is much better to answer with “I do not know” or to
refer to a qualified officer. Answering with “yes” or “no” will give basically the same
impression. Instead, use small sentences. For example, do not answer the question “Do you like
your work?” with simply “yes”. Instead, state, “I enjoy my work with the UN” or a similar short
and clear answer.
The expression “off the record” may suggest that what you say is only for the reporter
and will not be published or transmitted. However, this is professional terminology, and it
applies basically to professionals of the media. If you say something of interest, the reporter may
decide to use it. It is better to decline to answer.
You represent the UN 24 hours a day and seven days a week. Whatever you say may be
received as the opinion of the organisation. Provide information as authorised. If you do not
have complete guidelines, remember not to compromise the security of the organisation, its
mission, and its people.
LESSON 13
END-OF-LESSON QUIZ
1. In giving media interviews, MILOBS and peacekeepers should:

a. Discuss only factual matters in their own area of responsibility and divulge only
misleading information about local forces;
b. Discuss only factual matters in their own area of responsibility while not providing
information about local forces which might be of use to opponents;
c. Say as little as possible about any subject;
d. Talk as much as possible to make sure that your opinion is heard.
2. The UN Public Information Office:

a. Does not inform the public about the mandate since it is public information;
b. Looks to the Force Commander or Chief of Staff to explain developments in the
peace process;
c. Only works for the Regional Administrator;
d. Supports the mission leadership and keeps the mission personnel informed.
3. As a MILOB or peacekeeper, when you are approached by the media or journalists, you
should do which of the following?
a. You do not have to talk if you do not want to;
b. This is the time to complain about the problems in the mission;
c. Don’t worry about respecting the local people -- they know that the UN is superior;
d. Give your opinions regardless of what the local customs and cultures may be.
Provide an answer for the following frequently asked questions:
4. Do you like being here?
5. How long will it take to bring peace?
6. There is still fighting going on. What do you think will happen?
7. Aren’t you afraid that things are going to get worse?
8. What do you think about the alleged sexual exploitation by UN personnel of the local girls?
9. Are you in favour of changing the mandate of the mission?
10. What is your mission?

ANSWER KEY
1. b
2. d
3. a
4. Acceptable answer: I miss my friends and family, but I am pleased I can

help make things better here. It is a good experience, even if the
conditions are difficult.
5. Acceptable answer: I do not know the answer to that. It depends on many

things. You should ask the UN Public Information Office.
6. Acceptable answer: I cannot answer that question. The UN Public

Information Office can help you with that.
7. Acceptable answer: I am a [soldier, police officer, MILOB, or UN

peacekeeper]. I have been trained to do this, and I am confident that the
UN is doing everything possible to advance the peace process.
8. Acceptable answer: I cannot answer that question. The UN Public

Information Office can help you with that.
9. Acceptable answer: The mandate of the UN peacekeeping mission is my

mission, which I will support. The UN Public Information Office can help
you with further information.
10. Acceptable answer: As a UN peacekeeper/MILOB, my mission is to

support the mission mandate.
Appendix A / Table of Acronyms 217
APPENDIX A: TABLE OF ACRONYMS
Acronym Meaning
AC Area Coordinator
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AP Anti Personnel (Mines)
CA Civil Affairs
CAO Chief Administrative Officer
CIMIC Civil-Military Coordination
CIS Critical Incident Stress
CISS Chief of Integrated Support Services
CIVPOL Civilian Police
CMO Chief Military Observer
CMOC Civil-Military Operations Centre
COE Contingent-Owned Equipment
CRC Convention on the Rights of Children
CSO Chief Security Officer
CTO Compensatory Time Off
DDR Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration
DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations
ECOSOC Economic and Social Council
EOD Explosive Ordnance Devices
FC Force Commander
GA General Assembly
GPS Global Positioning System
HC Humanitarian Coordinator
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HOM Head of Mission
ICC International Criminal Court
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
IDP Internally Displaced Persons
IHL International Humanitarian Law
IRC International Red Cross
ITS Integrated Training Service
JLOC Joint Logistics Operations Centre
JOC Joint Operations Centre
LOAC Law of Armed Conflict
Acronym Meaning
MAC Mine Action Centre

MEDEVAC Medical Evacuation
MILOBS (UN) Military Observers
MONUC United Nations Mission in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
MPIO Military Public Information Officer
MSA Meal and Subsistence Allowance
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
PIO Public Information Office(r)
PKF Peacekeeping Forces
PKO Peacekeeping Operation
PTSD Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
PX Post Exchange
QIP Quick Impact Project
ROE Rules of Engagement
SC Security Council
SMT Senior Management Team
SOFA Status of Forces Agreement
SOMA Status of Mission Agreement
SOP Standard Operating Procedures
SRSG Special Representative to the Secretary-General
STI Sexually Transmitted Infections
TCC Troop-Contributing Country
TOD Tour of Duty
UNCRC United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children
UNCT United Nations Country Team
UNDOF UN Disengagement Observers Force
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNDPKO United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations
UNEF I UN Emergency Force I
UNEF II UN Emergency Force II
UNGASS United Nations General Assembly Special Session
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNHOC United Nations Humanitarian Operations Centre
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
Acronym Meaning
UNIFIL UN Interim Force in Lebanon

UNLB United Nations Logistics Base
UNMAS United Nations Mine Action Service
UNMEE United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
UNMO United Nations Military Observers
UNMOGIP UN Military Observers Group in India and Pakistan
UNOE United Nations Owned Equipment
UNOGIL UN Observation Group in Lebanon
UNPKO United Nations Peacekeeping Operations
UNSAS United Nations Standby Arrangement System
UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution
UNSF UN Security Force in New Guinea
UNSECOORD United Nations Security Coordinator
UNTAET United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
UNTSO UN Truce Supervision Organisation
UXO Unexploded Ordnance
WHO World Health Organisation
Appendix B / Communication and Voice Procedure 220
APPENDIX B: COMMUNICATION AND

VOICE PROCEDURE
Preparation before deployment regarding radio communications skills is a vital aspect for
any MILOB. UN personnel at the unit level will normally operate radio communications in their
mother tongue, using national voice procedures. At a minimum, personnel should be familiar
with:
• Equipment;
• UN call sign system;
• Net orders; and
• Basic UN communications.
However, you may be required to communicate in the mission language, and you must also know:
• The phonetic alphabet;

• Basic radio communication procedures;
• The use of procedural words, such as wait out, read back – I read back, correction,
speak slower, etc.; and
• Plain procedure, such as long message, roger so far – roger send over, etc.
Preparing the Radio Set for Operation
• Make sure that there is a sufficient power source, and ensure that there is a correct
connection to the radio set.
• Check the antenna and all cable assemblies, ensuring tight and correct connection to the
set.
• Connect the audio accessories and check proper operation of function switches.
General Instructions for Transmitting
• Decide what you are going to say, making certain that it will be clear and brief.
• Make sure no one else is speaking on the net when you start.
• Remember to divide your message into sensible phrases, make pauses, and maintain a
rhythm to your speech.
• Avoid excessive calling and unofficial transmissions.
• Use standard pronunciation.
• Keep a distance of about 5 cm between the microphone and your lips.
• Shield the microphone from background noises.
Phonetics and Numbers
The following INTERNATIONAL phonetic alphabet shall be used.
A ALFA H HOTEL O OSCAR V VICTOR

B BRAVO I INDIA P PAPA W WHISKEY
C CHARLIE J JULIET Q QUEBEC X XRAY
D DELTA K KILO R ROMEO Y YANKEE
E ECHO L LIMA S SIERRA Z ZULU
F FOXTROT M MIKE T TANGO
G GOLF N NOVEMBER U UNIFORM
In general, numbers are transmitted digit by digit, except that multiples of hundreds and
thousands are spoken as shown in the examples below.
0 ZERO 1 WUN 2 TOO 3 THU-RRE 4 FO-WER

5 FI-YIV 6 SIX 7 SEVEN 8 ATE 9 NINER
Examples:
12 TWELVE 500 FI-YIV HUNDRED

44 FO-WER FO-WER 7000 SEVEN THOUSAND
90 NINER ZERO 16000 WUN SIX THOUSAND
136 WUN THUH-REE SIX 1478 WUN FO-WER SEVEN ATE
Procedure Words
The following list contains the most common prowords (except precedence prowords) to be used
in radio communication and their meanings.
PROWORD MEANING
Confirm that you have received my
ACKNOWLEDGE! message and will comply (WILCO).
AFFIRMATIVE Yes/ Correct
NEGATIVE No/Incorrect
ALL AFTER….. Everything that you (I) transmitted
after….(Keyword)
ALL BEFORE….. Everything that you (I) transmitted
before….(Keyword)
What you have transmitted is correct, you
CORRECT (THAT IS CORRECT) are correct
PROWORD MEANING
CORRECTION An error has been made in this
transmission. It will continue with the last
word (group) correctly transmitted.
An error has been made in this
transmission. The correct version is……
That which follows is a corrected version
in answer to your request for verification.
WRONG Your last transmission was incorrect. The
correct version is…..
DISREGARD THIS TRANSMISSION- This transmission is an error. Disregard it
OUT (This proword shall not be used to cancel
any message that has been already
completely transmitted and for which
receipt or acknowledgement has been
received).
DO NOT ANSWER – OUT Station(s) called are not to answer this call,
acknowledge this message, or otherwise to
transmit in connection with this
transmission.
SILENCE-SILENCE-SILENCE Cease all transmissions on this net
immediately. Will be maintained until
lifted.
SILENCE LIFTED Silence is lifted. The net is free for traffic.
This concludes the message just
END OF MESSAGE – OVER (OUT) transmitted (and the message instructions
pertaining to a formal message).
The textual part of a formal message ends.
END OF TEXT Stand by for the message instructions
immediately following.
FETCH……….! I wish to speak on the radio to that person
(appointment title).
Requested person is now using the radio
…….SPEAKING by himself.
I have received your message, understand
ROGER it, and will comply (to be used only by the
addressee) ROGER and WILCO are never
used together.
Have you received this part of my message
ROGER SO FAR? satisfactorily?
I have received your last transmission
WILCO satisfactorily.
The identify of the station calling or with
UNKNOWN STATION whom I am attempting to establish
communication is unknown.
PROWORD MEANING
Verify entire message (or portion
indicated) with the originator and send
VERIFY correct version. To be used only at
discretion of or by the addressee to which
the questioned message was directed.
WAIT – OUT I must pause for a few seconds.
VERIFY – WAIT I am in contact with the station you are
(WAIT-WAIT) calling. I can act as a relay station.
WAIT-WAIT I must pause longer than some seconds,
and I will call you again when ready.
WORD AFTER… The word of the message to which I have
reference is that which follows…..
WORD BEFORE….. The word of the message to which I have
reference is that which precedes…..
WORDS TWICE Communication is difficult.
Transmit(ting) each phrase (group) twice.
This proword can be used as an order,
request or as information.
Report of Reception
The following phrases are to be used when initiating and answering queries concerning signal
strength and readability.
• RADIO CHECK – What is my signal strength and readability, how do you read me?
• YOU ARE – Your signal strength and readability is as (I READ YOU) follows. . .
Reports of Signal Strength
• LOUD – Your signal is strong.

• GOOD – Your signal is good.
• WEAK – I can hear you only with difficulty.
• VERY WEAK – I can hear you only with great difficulty.
• NOTHING HEARD – I cannot hear you at all.
Reports of Signal Readability
• CLEAR – Excellent quality.

• READABLE – Good quality. No difficulties in reading you.
• DISTORTED – I have troubles in reading you.
• WITH – I have troubles in reading you due to. . .
• INTERFERENCE – Interference.
• NOT READABLE – I can hear that you transmit but I cannot read you at all.
Examples:
• 52 THIS IS 11 – RADIO CHECK – OVER

• THIS IS 52 – YOU ARE LOUG AND CLEAR – OVER
• THIS IS 11 – YOU ARE LOUG AND CLEAR AS WELL – OUT
Appendix C / Daily Routine and Observing Techniques 225
APPENDIX C: DAILY ROUTINE AND

OBSERVING TECHNIQUES
The duties of a United Nations Military Observer are to:
• Observe
• Verify
• Report
Contents of Reports (typical significant incidents):
• Movements;
• Shooting, hostile acts, or threats;
• Any improvement of defense positions;
• Over flight of cease-fire lines or lines of the Area of Operation; and
• Violations of armistice or cease-fire agreements.
Daily Routine:
• Maintain log;
• Carry out patrols and investigations for further observation, as ordered;
• Maintain line and radio communications to the next highest headquarters; and
• Maintain specified minimum strength.
A Day in the Life of an UNMEE MILOBS
0600 Wake-up and go for a run. It is still early so most of the children may not be up yet. This
is the only time of day when you will not be overwhelmed with kids chasing you and screaming,
"You, you gimme gimme...”
0700 Shower and get some breakfast, maybe a banana and a roll. If you can find jam and
butter, then life is good. Hope you brought some coffee or tea from home! This is the only meal
each day that you have to get on your own, though, so that's good. Most team sites hire a local
woman to clean and cook for them. Normally, they only cook lunch and dinner.
0800 Go to the office and get ready for your patrol. Maybe it's by helicopter today... no, you will
be the patrol leader going by 4-Runner to a small militia post on the outskirts of your Area of
Responsibility (AOR). You make sure the patrol driver has prepared the car; you grab the map,
GPS, and patrol binder and head out. The language assistant has the day off today, so you
anticipate a long drive followed by a short interview with the militia since they don't speak English
and you only know how to say "hello," "peace," and "thank you."
Appendix C / Daily Routine and Observing Techniques 226
0930 You reach the militia post after crossing some "roads" that you are sure a donkey would
have trouble with. You find the militia men, and they welcome you to sit down and have some
tea. They are being generous and you know good manners require you to accept their
invitation for tea, even if it is not prepared to the standards you would require at home. You
take a seat on the log bench in their home. It's a chilly morning, so they have a small fire going
in the middle of the dirt-floored living room. It's pretty smoky but the kids and chickens don't
seem to mind. They bring out some bread that you find to be pretty tasty, not like the sour-
tasting ingera. You drink some sweet mint tea and have a little bread and attempt to
communicate. They are interested in you because you are an outsider, and they are friendly
with you to share their meager rations, but you still get the sense that they are guarded. After
about an hour, you are ready to go. You thank them and say good-bye. Now you get to brave
the roads back to the team site.
1200 You arrive back to the team site and write up the report for your patrol. Not much to
report this time around, so it only takes you a few minutes. You check the schedule and notice
that you will be the duty officer tomorrow. No need to stick around now except to check your
email or call home. You will be in the office all day tomorrow and will have plenty of time to
do it then. You head back to the accommodations for lunch. While you were gone, the
cooking lady prepared the food that you are about to consume. It looks strikingly similar to
what you had yesterday and the day before and the day before. Maybe this explains your lack
of appetite and weight loss.
1400 Time for a nap... and why not? You don't have anything to do until 1700 when you have
your daily meeting. Maybe you can catch up on some reading or do a little studying of the
various UN training manuals. Did you bring a portable DVD player? Sure would be nice to
watch a movie right now.
1700 You walk back to the office for your daily meeting. You talk about what you saw today
and what everyone will be doing the next day. It's a little hard to understand everyone since
you are the only native English speaker, but the longer you are here, the easier it gets. Plus,
these guys are hilarious, so there are always a lot of laughs.
1830 The dinner bell is ringing, and although you are not excited to eat again, you know you
need to. You have some dinner and joke around with your teammates. What's on the satellite
TV tonight? Anyone up for a movie? No... you are tired and want to read a little before you go
to bed. It will be nice tomorrow to catch up on your emails back home and to call your family.
It’s all in the day in the life of a MILOB.

Appendix D / Reports 227
APPENDIX D: REPORTS
Principles of Reports:
• Only accurate and checked statements of facts should be reported;

• Unclear observations should be cross-checked;
• Make sure the contents are clear and concise, avoiding ambiguity; and
• Include a count (such as of planes, vehicles, and the number of people).
Types of Reports: The type of reports vary; however, they will be based on Mission Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs):
• Activity forecasts, vehicle movement;

• Warning reports;
• Situation reports (SITREP) on:
o Ground incursion;
o Shooting;
o Firing close to Observation Post (OP);
o Position report; and
o Air activity report.
Types of Requests:
• MEDEVAC/CASEVAC requests; and

• Supply requests.
Contents of Reports: At a minimum, all reports should include:
• What report was sent, name, and logging report:
Date Time Type Number
• Originator and relation of report:
Name of Observation Post, Position, Reference/Previous Reports

Command Post, Patrol
• Time of incident (when):
Beginning End Progress

• Identification and description of incident (who and what):
Originator of Incident Numbers Objects
• Location and action (where was what observed):
Grid/Map Reference Observation of Incident
• Action taken by United Nations:
Investigation Reinforcement Information to Others
• Additional information consisting of anything that might be helpful for further

assessments.
OPERATIONAL REPORTS
All peacekeeping missions are required to provide UN headquarters with daily Situation Reports
(SITREP). SITREPs are not intended to replace the normal, detailed communications between
the missions and headquarters on specific matters. The daily SITREP should cover the period
from midnight to midnight local-time.
Before you start working refer to the Mission Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).
HIGHLIGHTS
The Highlights cover the major events or trends of the reporting period. This should include any
new political, military, or humanitarian developments and any major casualties, plus any
significant developments that could impact the safety and security of UN personnel. Further
details would be provided in topic paragraphs (below).
Note: The HIGHLIGHT paragraph is not the same as the GENERAL SITUATION.
POLITICAL
Any governmental or political events directly affecting the mission or the mission’s mandate.
Meetings: In-country, international. Proposed, actual, dates, attendance, decisions and outcome.
Elections: Proposed, actual, dates, attendance, decisions and outcome.
Negotiations: Proposed, actual, dates, attendance, decisions and outcome.
Internal political parties: Formation, alliances, change of leadership, change of direction.
Setting up of councils, local government.
Any political decisions which affect the mission.
MILITARY
Any military events of significance during the reporting period: Cease-fire agreements, military
action (both by UN and factional forces), aid to the civil powers, use of new weapons, escalation
of violence, changes in operating procedures, new alliances.
UN Forces: Significant troop movements. Formation of new sector or regional commands and
units. Changes to mission deployment or withdrawal of national contingents. Relocation of
national contingents.
Factional Forces: Significant troop movement or redeployment. New commanders. Changes to

weapons or formations.
Military assessments.
RESTRICTION ON UN MOVEMENT
Status of routes – which routes are open or closed. Blocking, either natural or man-made
roadblocks, and who is responsible for the block.
HUMANITARIAN
Significant developments. Problems encountered in provision and support of aid distribution:

road, rail, air, sea.
Refugees: Numbers, locations, movement, housing, feeding, or health problems.
Infrastructure: Hospitals, roads, power and water supplies, schools. UN aid in providing or
repairing infrastructure.
CIVILIAN AFFAIRS
Important developments affecting electoral activity, Civilian Police operations, mine-clearing, or

UN agencies in areas of responsibility (could include NGOs if applicable), where they impact on
mission activities, if not covered elsewhere. Coverage of other organisations’ activities, when
applicable, to enhance the ability of managers at headquarters to liaise at this level on behalf of
the mission concerned (not to include wider governmental or political activities which will go
into the political section of the report).
SECURITY AND SAFETY OF PERSONNEL
Any information noted or activity observed that affects, or could affect, the safety of UN personnel.
Targeting or threats against UN personnel, kidnapping, extortion, murder.
CASUALTIES
Death and injuries. Separate military, civilian police, and civilian, and classify as to whether it
was from hostile action, accident, natural causes, i.e., heart attack, etc.
LOGISTICS
Major logistic activities or problems affecting operations: equipment, accommodation, transport

(both strategic and tactical), food, power, fuel, money.
COMMENTS
Comments by the person in charge (Special Representative to the Secretary-General, Force

Commander, Military Observers, or Sector Commander).
Appendix E / Report Writing Style Guide 231
APPENDIX E: REPORT WRITING STYLE GUIDE
This guide is intended to aid Staff Officers and Duty Officers in the writing and editing of
reports.
Reference: UN Editorial Manual, ST/DCS/2. UN Correspondence Manual, ST7DCS/4/Rev1.

The Oxford English Dictionary.
Abbreviations
Unusual abbreviations or acronyms should be spelled out fully the first time that they are used in
a document.
Use USA, not US, as an adjective describing the United States. This is because reports are
sometimes telexed in uppercase and the noun “us” can be confused with the adjective “US” in
uppercase.
Abbreviations for reports should be in uppercase, i.e., NOTICAS, SITREP, SINCREP.
Should you come across any abbreviations which are unknown, check back with the originator
and follow the rule mentioned above when you report.
Capitalisation
Capitalisation of words in English is never easy. Proper names are almost always capitalised,
along with titles when they are attached to names. Example: President C……
The titles of organisations are also capitalised. Example: ….the Royal Cambodian Armed
Forces.
But a generic description of something is rarely capitalised. Example: The presidents of the
parties will meet tomorrow.
Note that when a title is used to signify a specific individual, it should be capitalised. Example:
President J…is visiting the UN. The President will speak on 22 March.
Government is almost always capitalised, even when used generally.

Dates
Dates should follow the format: Day, Month, Year. Example: 22 March 2005.
To avoid confusion, do not use “today” or “yesterday,” use dates instead. All dates should be
written in full, i.e., 02 November.
When in doubt, begin the report statement with the date of the event. Example: On 13
December…..
One need not insert the year unless the event is related to other years. Example: All USA
soldiers will depart by 31 March 2007.
Format
Reports may carry a header and footer with a UN Classification.
Maps or diagrams used to illustrate a particular point are to be included in the report, if technical
means for the layout and the communication of the report are available.
When writing the reports, take care to leave the correct spaces after punctuation marks to make
the document easier to read:
After a full stop (.) or colon (:) leave two spaces.
After a comma (,) or semi colon (;) leave one space.
Grammar
Two equal phrases in one sentence require a semi colon (;). Example: They fired; we fired back.
The three-word rule: Any prepositional phrase at the beginning of a sentence with three or more
words in it, i.e., “In the winter” must have a comma after it.
Adverbs, such as “reportedly” or “recently,” should come close to the verb to which they relate.
They should rarely begin a sentence.
“Media” is a plural noun and is, therefore, followed by the plural form of a verb when it is used
as a subject. Example: The media report that…..
When describing armed forces, avoid using just the title of the forces or unit. Write: “The NPFL
attacked a village” or “NPFL forces attacked a village.”
Media
Media reports should be accredited at the end of the sentence or paragraph with the source in
parentheses, i.e., (AFP), (ITN) or (REUTER), etc.
When using media reports, always indicated the source, i.e., “The media report that…” If it is
not clear how reliable the media report may be, use phrases such as “UNITAR-controlled media
courses claim that….”
Names and Places
Always use the person’s title or Mr. or Ms. Example: Mr. Cle…., Secretary-General ….. etc.
As a general rule, the United Nations says “the Government of Canada.” (Note the
capitalisation.) This avoids confusion since there can be many governments at various levels in a
country. If you are in doubt whether a particular government is recognised by the United
Nations, check the list of “Permanent Mission to the United Nations.” Only recognised
governments can have representatives or observers at the UN.
If a place or region is not internationally recognised, put the name in quotation marks when
describing it. Example: “ABKHAZIA” or the “ABKHAZIAN defence minister.”
All place names should be typed in capital letters, i.e., UTZLA, ADWA, etc.
When a geographical expression is part of a name, it should be capitalised. Examples: Sector

East, State of California, New York City.
When referring to a place name that is not on the map, indicate its distance and direction from a
marked place name.
Numbers
The numbers from one to ten are usually spelled out in full, i.e., seven. Those above ten are
usually expressed as figures, i.e., 42. But there are exceptions, i.e., “between seven and eleven,”
or “the 4th Brigade,” or “07 November.”
Avoid having a number which is expressed as a figure as the first word in a sentence. Example:
Eight soldiers were observed.
Sequencing
If incidents are referred to by date, ensure that they are put down in the correct sequence, i.e.,
“On 21 December, a meeting took place between…..On 23 December, three vehicles….”
Spelling
Be aware that the UN uses International English (British spelling as described in the Concise
Oxford Dictionary).
Common spelling problems:

• The words “cease-fire” and “machine-gun” are always hyphenated when used as a noun.
• “Middle East” is not hyphenated.
• The expression “small arms” is always plural and consists of two words.
• The word “logistics” as a noun is always plural.
• The word “battalion” has two “t’s” and one “l” in English.
• “It’s” is an abbreviation in English for “it is.” The possessive “its” has no apostrophe.
• Secretary-General is always hyphenated and written in full.
Style
Refer to the UN Correspondence Manual and the UN Editorial Manual when in doubt as to
matters of style, abbreviation or format.
OTHER REPORTS
The number of different reports the operational MILOBS need to be familiar with depends to a
great extent on the mandate of the mission and the situation on the ground.
The formats needed are in the computers of the mission. But when MILOBS are working in
areas where electricity is not always 100% available, some handwritten documents may also be
needed.
The below-mentioned examples should not be considered a comprehensive selection of report

forms. You may also find minor deviations in the content of the reports depending on the
mission in question. Therefore, review the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for the actual
mission before you start reporting.
Warning Report (WARNREP)
The purpose of a Warning Report is to warn other UN units, patrols, and Observation Posts (OP)
to give them time to take appropriate action. It is used when a serious or potentially serious
violation of a cease-fire agreement is occurring, is about to occur, or has occurred. A Warning
Report should be followed up as soon as possible by the appropriate operational report.
Although there is no formal format for a Warning Report, the following information on the
incident/activity should be included:
• To (call sign)
• From (call sign)
• WHEN it started (time group) if known
• WHAT is happening
• WHERE it takes place
• WHO are involved (if they cannot be identified, state: unidentified)
• WHAT ACTION is being taken by the reporting individual
• [The appropriate incident/activity] report to follow in ….minutes.
Situation Report (SITREP) / Special Incident Report (SINCREP)
The purpose of a SITREP/SINCREP is to report any incident/activity which could lead to a

breach of a cease-fire agreement or any other incident/activity which is not covered by any other
report.
Aircraft Activity Report (AIRREP)
The purpose of the AIRREP is to report the flying and/or the attack by one or several aircraft.
A WARNREP has to be sent first to ensure that everyone’s attention is drawn to the sky.
Shooting Report (SHOOTREP)
The purpose of a SHOOTREP is to report any firing of weapons which could be considered a
violation of a cease-fire agreement, or to report on warring factions’ activities.
All such firing, with any type of ammunition (including flares, illumination and smoke) that is
seen and heard, heard only, or if the origin of the fire and the impact area of the direction to the
impact area could be determined, should be reported.
NOTE: The basis for a SHOOTREP is that at least two of the following facts are known:
Origin, Direction, or Impact Area. Do not give any damage assessment of the impact area.
Firing Close to OP Report (FIREREP)
The purpose of a Firing Close to Observation Post (OP) Report is to report all firing of weapons
or detonation of any device which:
Passes within 10 metres of UN personnel, vehicles, or equipment;

Impacts within a UN compound;
Causes casualties to UN personnel;
Causes damage within a UN compound; or
Otherwise endangers the safety of UN personnel.
A Warning Report should be sent first.
The report has the same format at the SHOOTREP and the same information, but the following
should also be included:
• Use map references at the closest point at which the round passed UN personnel;
• State the point of the OP/Compound at which the rounds/fragments impacted;
• Description of the action taken by the OP/Position/Patrol, such as Investigation, Ready
Reaction Group requested, Liaison Officer informed, Medical Section informed
(CASEVAC); and
• Any information of casualties including damage caused which may be helpful in the
evaluation of the report.
DO NOT SHOW ANY WRITTEN OPERATIONAL REPORT TO

NON-UN PERSONNEL, AND MAKE SURE YOUR OPERATIONAL
REPORT HAS A “LIMITED DISTRIBUTION”
Appendix F / Personnel Issues 237
APPENDIX F: PERSONNEL ISSUES
Peacekeepers and MILOBS are individuals. The mandate unites them in their purpose
and mission. Each MILOB and peacekeeper is subject to certain regulations that come with
being a member of a United Nations peacekeeping operation. It is important that each individual
clearly knows what the organisation expects from him/her, as well as what he/she may expect
from the UN regarding personnel issues and policies. This appendix aims to prepare the
peacekeeper to understand and abide by the United Nations regulations regarding personnel
issues and policies.
UN Stand-By Arrangement System (UNSAS)
In 1993, the UN Secretary-General established the United Nations Stand-By Forces

Planning Team. This group developed the UN Stand-By Arrangement System (UNSAS). The
system was devised to increase the speed at which the United Nations could react to immediate
crises and to better run on-going peacekeeping operations. UNSAS is used to maintain a
database of personnel, equipment, and resources, which countries maintain at home for possible
deployment as a whole or in parts anywhere in the world. After asking each Member State to list
resources that could be provided in the initial stages of a peacekeeping operation, the information
is entered into a database system.
There are four Levels of Commitment by Member States to UNSAS:
• Provision of a list of capabilities describing what kind of resources may be made

available. This includes what kind of capabilities (tasks that can be performed), number
of personnel, response time, and restrictions, if any.
• Provision of more detailed information on contributions by completing Planning Data

Sheet(s). The Planning Data Sheet is a detailed list describing the contribution, including
a list of major equipment, the level of self-sufficiency, transportation data, the
organisation of the units, and data on individuals. Provision of the Planning Data Sheet is
a key level in the Secretariat's ability to plan.
• A general Memorandum of Understanding on Stand-By Arrangements with the United

Nations. An MOU specifies resources provided, response times, and conditions for
employment. Also attached to the MOUs are technical data or requirements regarding
contributions. MOUs are the formal documents agreed by the United Nations.
• A specific MOU that contains agreement on contingent-owned equipment. This will not
change significantly when the contribution is called out. This level can only be
completed after detailed negotiations with the Member State.
Possible Roles
To provide a UN presence in the crisis area immediately after the Security Council has decided it
should be involved.
To prevent violence from escalating.
To assist, monitor, and otherwise facilitate a cease-fire.
To provide the emergency framework for UN efforts to resolve the conflict and commence
negotiations.
To secure a base, communications, and airfield for a subsequent UN force.
To provide safe areas for persons and groups whose lives are threatened by the conflict.
To secure humanitarian relief operations.
To assess the situation and provide first-hand information for the Security Council so that an
informed decision can be made on the utility and feasibility of further UN involvement.
Selection Criteria for UN Peacekeepers: Military Observers
Nationality. The United Nations Military Observer must be a citizen of the Member State he/she
is representing.
Professional Status. The United Nations Military Observer must be a serving member of the
Member State’s defence forces. This excludes retired military/defence officers. A military
officer nominated as a United Nations Military Observer should be currently working on a full-
time military duty with a minimum of five years of regular military service as an officer.
Rank. Should be in the rank of Captain and/or Major. However, depending upon the nature of
the task, at times, senior officers such as Lieutenant Colonels and Colonels may also be assigned
as United Nations Military Observers. The Chief Military Observer is generally a Brigadier or
Major General. If an officer arrives in the mission area with a higher rank than requested, or is
promoted during his tour of duty, the United Nations will not be obliged to take the higher rank
into consideration in determining the officer's assignments.
Age. Member States must not deploy United Nations Military Observers who are less than 25
years of age. As a rule, a United Nations Military Observer should not be over 50 years old.
The Department of Peacekeeping Operations, if necessitated by special requirements of the
mission, will indicate any change to the above-mentioned restrictions.
Mental and Physical Health. Should be in excellent physical condition and must meet the
established United Nations medical criteria outlined in the Medical Support Manual for United
Nations Field Operations. They may have to live and work in conditions of hardship and
physical danger.
Professional Competencies and Experience. The desired professional competencies and

expertise of United Nations Military Observers are mentioned in mission-specific guidelines or
in the request initiated by United Nations Headquarters. However, the officers must have
essential competencies and expertise, which will enhance their performance on the ground and
reduce the requirement of additional training in the mission area.
The Integrated Training Service (TES) of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations has issued
separate training guidelines for United Nations Military Observers. Some necessary professional
competencies that considered essential for United Nations Military Observers are mentioned
below:
• Previous field/troop unit experience in his/her national armed forces;
• Knowledge of infantry organisations (force structure, equipment, and capabilities) and
operations at company and battalion level;
• Experience or training in light and medium weapons, support equipment, and common
weapon, vehicle, aircraft, helicopter, and ship identification;
• Proficiency in map reading, land navigation (both ground and vehicle), and use of global
positioning systems;
• Use of tactical and basic commercial communications equipment and approved UN radio
procedure;
• Knowledge of basic skills in dismount and vehicle patrolling;
• Knowledge of basic negotiation, mediation and conflict resolution skills, and basic
interviewing techniques;
• Knowledge of basic first aid and stress management techniques;
• Ability to speak, read, and write the working language of the specific United Nations
Peacekeeping Operation and other languages, if specifically described. Officers are
required to write or type their own reports and to communicate on voice radio sets; and
• Being experienced vehicle drivers, capable of supervising the daily maintenance of light
military vehicles and trained in employing self-recovery techniques. United Nations
Military Observers should have at least two years of recent experience in driving and be
in possession of a national, military, or international driving license. Many of the duties
will involve driving four-wheel drive vehicles over rough terrain.
Additional Qualifications. The following qualifications are desirable: combat-experience or

combat troop-training experience, in order to properly evaluate or analyse situations that may
confront United Nations Military Observers in the cause of carrying out their duties and staff
training or staff experience; and troop-experience, operations, map reading, operation of
materiel, communications, patrolling, negotiation, first aid, stress management, language, and
driving.
Selection Criteria for UN Peacekeepers: Civilian Police
Nationality. Citizen of the country he/she represents.
Professional Status. The Civilian Police officer must be a serving member of his/her national
police. In special cases, authorised by the General Assembly, retired members may participate
as Civilian Police in UNPKOs.
Personal Qualities. The observer must realise that he will be performing his duties in an
environment foreign to that of his home nation, usually encumbered by difficult living
conditions, in high stress situations, and often in a language that is not necessarily his mother
tongue. As representatives of the UN and his home country, the individual nominated as an
observer must be carefully selected to ensure that he is capable of performing the tasks required
of him, and that his actions and overall presentation will reflect favourably upon the UN and his
home nation. Accordingly, the policemen selected must be physically fit, of sound mental
character, mature in attitude and outlook, and possess the appropriate career qualifications for the
mission.
Physical Fitness. Observers must operate at peak efficiency for prolonged periods; accordingly,
policemen selected for observer duties are to be in as good health and physical condition as
possible. The Civilian Police observer's duties will often be to patrol on foot, or by four-wheel
drive vehicle, sometimes for several days, during which time he will be dependent upon the local
infrastructure for support (food, accommodation, medical services, etc.). Therefore, he must be
able to cope with the numerous physical demands this type of life-style imposes. It is imperative
that that the policeman selected:
• Is in excellent health and physical condition;
• Has a high level of physical endurance and stamina; and
• Does not suffer from any allergies or other medical conditions which may be difficult to
treat in areas with limited medical facilities.
Mental Fitness. Mental fitness is equally as important as physical fitness. The policeman
selected to be an observer must possess a strong character, be of a well-balanced personality, and
be of good mental health. He must be free of neurotic or other psychological problems, and it is
imperative that he is able to operate in conditions of extreme stress and physical danger.
In many circumstances his actions and words will mean the difference between success and
failure. Thus, he must be scrupulously honest, loyal, brave, and professional. The effective
observer will display the following personality traits:
• Good judgment, supported by a common-sense approach to problem-solving;
• Possess an objective attitude, displaying tact and impartiality;
• Possess a polite demeanour, combined with a firm but flexible and honest approach;
• Demonstrate considerable self-discipline and patience;
• Posses a friendly, open approach to other nationalities, and have a ready sense of humour;
• Possess an ability to influence others, engendered in imaginativeness and persuasiveness;
and
• Demonstrate credibility in leadership.
Maturity. The individual selected for observer duty should be well-trained and experienced, and
accordingly, be of the highest professional calibre. He would preferably be of the equivalent rank
to a Captain or Major and would satisfy the following selection criteria:
• Be representative of his national background; Be competent in the mission language
(usually English, although French and Spanish are common);
• Be comfortable in operational and social environments both of the contributing countries'
policeman and the parties in conflict;
• Have the appropriate operational skills necessary to perform the duties of the
appointment for which he is selected;
• Have the mental capability to enable him to understand the organisation and functional
arrangements of the parties in conflict; and
• Be capable of conducting analytical investigations into alleged incidents, and of
compiling and submitting factual and impartial recommendations.
Selection Criteria for UN Peacekeepers: Military Contingents
National military contingents are selected by their national authorities to deliver the
capabilities required by the UN. Any number of capabilities, and so units, could be required,
including most often infantry, engineers, aviation, logistic and medical units.
The agreed troop figure will be set out in the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
between the Troop-Contributing Country (TCC) and the UN. This MOU will also set out the
agreed equipment arrangements – whether it is national or UN-provided equipment – and the
logistic sustainment arrangements (for fuel, rations, etc).
Although members of national contingents are not subject to the same initial selection
scrutiny as are MILOBS and CIVPOL, they are subject to the same Code of Conduct requiring
exemplary behaviour throughout their tours.
Conditions of Service
Tour of Duty (TOD). Military Observers in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations have a
TOD of one year or up to the end of the mission's mandate, whichever is earlier. Repatriation on
completion of this tour of duty will be at the United Nations’ expense. Any rotation undertaken
during an authorised 12-month mandate period will be at the contributing country's expense.
However, assignments may be extended, subject to the recommendation by the Head of Mission
and the approval of the Secretary-General and the governments concerned. Any exception to
this rule will be mentioned in the United Nations request to the Member States. The same basic
concepts are applied for the Civilian Police; the extension may be granted by the Civilian Police
Commissioner. The Military Units normally rotate every six months. Some specialists remain in
the mission for up to one year. For military units, the rotation policy is a national responsibility
coordinated with the UN.
Leave and Compensatory Time Off (CTO). In addition to the normal 2.5 days that each member
of the United Nations is granted, compensatory time off is granted to United Nations Military
Observers and CIVPOL to provide them with the opportunities for rest after a particularly
demanding period of continuous service. Compensatory time off shall be authorised by the
Force Commander or the Chief Military Observer and is subject to operational requirements and
exigencies of the service. Compensatory time off would normally apply only in those missions
and those locations and functions in which a continuous and active duty for military observers
and civilian police is an essential requirement, i.e., in isolated locations, patrol duties,
observation posts, law enforcement etc., which do not allow for a regular workweek with
scheduled days off. It is granted on a pro-rata basis: for every five days of continuous
duty/service, one compensatory time-off day is earned. For periods of less than five days,
compensatory time off is earned in fractions (x 0.2), which can be accumulated to make a whole
day. A maximum of 56 compensatory time-off days may be granted in a one-year period, and
no more than 12 compensatory time-off days may be taken at any one time. Compensatory time
off can only be granted and taken when the exigencies of the service so permit.
Jurisdiction
The matter of jurisdiction is provided for in the UN Charter and the Status of Forces
Agreement - SOFA (Chapter VI, - Para. 24, 27, and 40-50). In addition to the above provisions,
jurisdiction of UN personnel in the mission areas will be decided by the HOM in liaison with, if
necessary, the local authorities in the host country. For acts of misconduct that are considered to
be outside official UN duties, the respective nation of the military person will apply the host
country’s civil jurisdiction process only for the purpose of investigation and implementation of
appropriate judicial action back in the home country. Criminal or serious misconduct cases,
however, will be dealt with by the host country’s judicial system as appropriate and co-
coordinated with the respective nation on the matter of repatriation and eventual conclusion of
the matter.
Procedures. For the disciplinary action taken to be fair, all activities including reporting,
investigation, and disciplinary action must be expeditious, just, and consistent in its application,
regardless of rank or nationality. It is also implicit in the SOFA that all disciplinary action
deemed serious enough to warrant repatriation is to be undertaken by the Member State. In order
to retain its own impartiality and credibility, UN Headquarters retains the right to know the
results of such action (i.e., punishment awarded or how the case was concluded by the Member
State).
Pre-induction Briefings. Upon assignment to a mission area and prior to deployment to a duty
location, all uniformed peacekeepers will receive a briefing. It will include, as a minimum,
notification of the types of misconduct prohibited; an outline of the investigation process; and a
warning of the liability for repatriation should the mission’s investigation, endorsed by DPKO,
so decide. Particular attention is made to all personnel to be aware of any local sensitivities,
such as local religious laws and customs, and the United Nations standards of conduct, which
may differ from those allowed in the host nation and which should not be compromised.
Immediate Follow-up to a Disciplinary Incident. Once the Force Commander or Chief Military
Observer becomes aware of an allegation of serious misconduct, he/she will immediately
suspend the person or persons involved from his/their daily duties until an initial informal
investigation can be completed. This initial investigation is to be carried out expeditiously by the
Military or Civilian Police in the mission area in conjunction with the individual’s National
Contingent Commander as stipulated in the SOPs.
Repatriation
The SRSG must initiate the authorisation upon the request of the Force Commander or
Civilian Police Commissioner. The repatriation must be approved by DPKO.
Early Repatriation. If a Military Observer is repatriated for either failure to meet the necessary
requirements or for disciplinary reasons, all costs associated with his travel home and arrival of
his replacement to complete the tour of duty will be at the expense of the Military Observer’s
government.
Compassionate Repatriation. When a Military Observer has compassionate reasons to return

home either temporarily or permanently, the United Nations will pay for the travel. However, it
will be the responsibility of the Military Observer's government to pay for his replacement's
return/arrival to the mission area. The only exception is when the replacement of a Military
Observer will complete the repatriated Military Observer's time of duty and serve a full year of
service of his own. In this case, the United Nations will cover the replacement Observer's travel
costs.
Medical Repatriation. When a Military Observer is repatriated for medical reasons, the United
Nations will cover all travel costs, both for him/her and his/her replacement. Before a decision is
made, the United Nations Medical Service will determine whether the condition was pre-
existing.
Appendix G / United Nations Logistics 244
APPENDIX G: UNITED NATIONS LOGISTICS
This appendix discusses the logistics support in United Nations peacekeeping operations.
It will provide basic information on the UN's logistics policies and procedures and the support
that peacekeepers will receive in accordance with the components that they belong to when
deployed in the field. This appendix will explain how the responsibility may be shared between
the TCC and the UN, as well as what each peacekeeper may expect and request from the UN
Logistics system.
Logistics in the Home Country
For the future MILOBS and peacekeepers working in his/her national environment in
his/her mother country, logistics seldom create problems. He/she gets daily food in the mess hall
or in the field; the water from the tap is potable; maintenance and fuel supply is routine; when a
uniform is worn out he/she gets a new one; he/she has his/her bed in a proper accommodation;
and if he/she gets sick, the base hospital has a medical doctor and dentist. Extra supplies are
stored at depots close to the barracks and can quickly be brought forward. If items are needed
and are not in the military stock, the Chief Logistics Officer may be authorised to buy directly
from the civilian economy. Similar conditions generally apply for the Civil Police. They will be
fed and provided uniforms in their own organisations, or they will receive an amount of money
for food and clothing.
Logistics in UN Peacekeeping Missions
Serving in a UN mission may not be very different. However, if the peacekeepers deploy
to a mission just being established, they may face some hardships. All the facilities mentioned in
his/her own country have to be established in the mission area, which is normally a shared
responsibility between the UN and the Troop-Contributing Country (TCC). UN operations are
rather complex with respect to logistical support. No two missions are the same, since the
support to the UN from host nations, TCCs, and contractors differs.
Basic Logistics Concepts
Many definitions of “logistics” may be found, and each organisation may have its own
variation. A MILOB or peacekeeper should know that the supplies and services needed in the
field will be provided on time and to the proper place by a complex support system. These
include a human being’s basic needs, which are water, food, clothing, and shelter.
Organised societies also provide a higher level of safety and care to its members.
Medical support is always expected to be present, and other needs include transport, fuel, tools,
spares, recreation items, and other materials. Consumption of certain supplies is limited, but
each individual requires an important volume of food and water, just as each machine or vehicle
requires large quantities of fuel.
These items are to be brought where the persons are, and they are to be stored and
distributed, as well as maintained and managed. Thus, the logistics system includes not only the
material and supplies, but also the procedures for the management of the system, including the
transport activities and materials.
Medical support includes the facilities, the evacuation system, the specialists at all levels,
the pharmacy supplies, special instruments, and many others aspects. Logistics is one of the
most difficult activities for the human societies. This difficulty is highlighted in areas of conflict
or humanitarian crises where peacekeepers are deployed. Also, armed forces require special
supplies that individuals may not need.
Logistical support is not only the provision of supplies needed for the human being to
survive and move, but also the people, procedures, and organisations and services needed to
ensure the requisition, transport, and distribution of supplies.
UN Logistics Concepts and Systems
The Office of Mission Support of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations of the

United Nations is responsible for logistic and administrative support to the field missions.
Logistics Services Division, O

OMMS
Aviation Safety UNLB
Unit Logistics Services Division Brindisi
P4 D2 D1
Operational S upport Com m unications & IT Specialist Support

Service Service Section
D1 P5 D1
Programme Supply Section

Support Unit Systems Section
Contracts Surface T ransport

Management Unit Information Section
Technology Section
Property
Management Unit Engineering
Comm unications Section
Logistics O perations Section
Section
Air T ransport
Section
SDS and Rapid
Deployment Unit
Medical Support
Section
Logistics areas defined by the DPKO include:

• Supply;
• Transport;
• Air Operations;
• Movement Control;
• Medical;
• Communications and Information Technology; and
• Engineering.
Special Considerations for Peacekeeping Logistics
In peacekeeping, special considerations have to be taken due to deployment in areas

where there are no roads, bridges, and communications due to their destruction by war or grave
crisis. Planning prior to the deployment of the peacekeepers is a must and should be very
detailed. The Brahimi Report included many lessons learned from the field, which have resulted
in a revised UN Logistic concept.
All UN peacekeeping operations include contingent from many different troop-

contributing countries. Small missions may have only a few Military Observers and some
civilian staff for support. Complex operations may include tens of thousands of troops supported
by hundreds of military observers and a large civilian staff. The logistics demands are common
for the basic needs: food, water, fuel, and medical support. But complexity grows for the support
of spare material and transport. Due to this complexity, the United Nations has developed a
unique approach for the support of its peacekeepers. Individuals receive a specific amount of
money to buy their basic needs in the mission area. Medical support is fully provided due to the
very sensitive and technical requirements of health care.
Memorandum of Understanding
For each peacekeeping mission, a logistics support methodology will be agreed upon
between the troop-contributing country and the UN. Depending on the special conditions in the
mission area, the characteristic of the contribution, and other logistic, financial, and legal factors
an agreement (Memorandum of Understanding) will be signed. In the Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU), the UN will state which logistics support and equipment will be provided
by the United Nations (UN-Owned Equipment, or UNOE) and which must be brought from the
home country (Contingent-Owned Equipment, or COE) and paid for by the UN.
Who can spend UN logistics money? It must be stressed that only certain UN officials
have the authority to commit UN financial resources for any purpose. Depending on the lease
contract signed, requests may have to be forwarded to the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO)
via the Chief of the Integrated Support Service (CISS). Therefore, in the UN, the CAO may be
considered as the boss. Neither the Force Commander nor the highest UN civilian chief (Special
Representative of the Secretary-General) can spend money without the principal permission of
the CAO. This is, of course, a big difference, as in many troop-contributing countries money is
more easily accessible.
However, under the new COE methodology, if a TCC is providing major equipment or
self-sustainment via a MOU, that country is responsible for providing all minor equipment and
consumables, as well as a re-supply of the consumables.
Self-Sustainability for the First 30 to 90 Days
In a formed unit, if you deploy to an established mission, logistics support has been
coordinated and established. That means the UN, through contractors, delivers rations to your
religious, dietary, or national preference. Reserves of rations will be stored in menu types
requested by contingents, such as Western-style, Halal, beef-free, or pork-free menus.
Commercial contract for the supply of diesel for generators and vehicles is in place.
However, being the first contingent in a mission is different. The UN may not have had
time to establish its logistics system. Therefore, contingents must deploy self-sufficiency
according to the agreement with the UN (MOU). Thus the unit will generally bring the
following levels of stock to the mission area:
• 30-90 days supply of rations and drinking water;
• 30-90 days of canteen supplies;
• 30-90 days of repair parts; and
• 30-90 days of diesel consumption.
Teams that go to a newly-established mission must expect hardships. In established

missions, camps will be prepared and UN contractors deliver fresh raw-materials for your
kitchens, water, and diesel for vehicles and generators. If deployed as an individual, the support
received will not only depend on the status of the mission but also on the status one may have.
Wet-Dry Lease
One of the major difficulties for multi-national military operations is the standardisation
of the equipment. If achieved, the standardisation allows for easy and simplified logistic
support. If there is only one type of vehicle, then there will be only one line of supply and
maintenance. The UN does not posses the resources to provide all peacekeepers with the
required standardised equipment. As a policy, MILOBS and CIVPOL are provided with UN-
property vehicles and other materials; however, formed units participate with their national
material.
The solution to the logistic problem of providing supplies to all has been the
establishment of the “Wet-Dry lease” system. When a country provides any material system to
the UN, an agreement will be signed stating in which logistic condition it will be leased to the
peacekeeping mission.
Wet-lease means that the UN will pay a larger amount for each item, but the country
assumes complete responsibility in providing the logistic support for the sustainment of the
system, except fuel. Dry-lease means that the UN will assume full logistic support
responsibility, but the country will be subject to a significant reduction in the amount paid for the
material.
The UN has a set of basic reimbursement guidelines, which clearly establish the “fair
market value” of each item of equipment. This document is the starting point for negotiation on
the lease reimbursements with the UN.
Sources of Supplies
The main sources of supplies for peacekeeping are:
Troop-Contributing Country. The TCC, depending on the type of Agreement

(Memorandum of Understanding) signed with the United Nations, will provide the material and
the logistic flow of supplies to ensure the operational condition of the material. The clothing and
ammunition are also normally provided by the TCC.
UN Logistics Base (Brindisi). A certain amount of UN property items (vehicles,

communications sets, computers, medical stores, tentage, etc) is stored at the UNLB in Brindisi,
Italy. These supplies are ready for distribution and use and are normally employed as a start kit
for new peacekeeping operations. This allows for a reduction in the time required for the
deployment of new peacekeeping operations.
Contractors. Either in the area of the mission or from outside it, the UN will contract
the support needed to civilian businesses. This allows the United Nations to obtain the needed
supplies in a relatively short time, saving a large amount of money in storage and maintenance.
The main supplies provided by the UN to the mission are normally basic items (food, water, fuel,
medical, and computers) that are largely available in the civilian market. The UN will try to
have the contractor deliver the supplies as close to the peacekeeper as possible. It may be routine
to receive food and water directly from a civilian contractor, even in isolated positions.
Other TCCs in the Mission Area. Many small TCCs do not posses the logistic
capability to support their contingents far away from their home base. An agreement may be
made with another TCC present in the mission area, who posses extra logistic capability, to
provide the requested support. The logistic support is thus coordinated among three parties: the
supported TCC, the supporting TCC, and the United Nations. In this case, part of the leasing
reimbursement is paid to the supporting TCC.
Reimbursement to Governments
The UN does not expect to get the support of formed units for free. It is paid for by the
UN member countries, which all pay their part. In a popular fashion, one may say that the UN
“leases” the military contingents. The UN, in an agreement with governments, “leases”
individuals for a task during a certain period of time.
There is a special rate for this, which is paid to the national government of the Troop-
Contributing Country. This reimbursement does not constitute an individual entitlement or
salary. It is a reimbursement to the government for raising, training, and sustaining each
peacekeeper. Reimbursements are of logistic aspects, not for personnel entitlements. Any
allowance that a country pays to their peacekeepers is based on sovereign decisions on national
conditions of service.
How does the UN make sure that it gets what it pays for? Reimbursements are approved
by a verification procedure that may include inspections:
• Arrival and Inspection Report
• Periodic Verification Report
• Operational Readiness Inspection Report
• Repatriation Inspection Report
The reimbursement procedure has been improved since the beginning of the
reorganisation of the DPKO. However, the costs involved in the deployment and sustainment of
a peacekeeping force are very important for troop-contributing countries.
Logistics Support to Different Components
Logistics to Individuals. UN Military Observers (UNMOs or MILOBS) and Civilian

Police Monitors (CIVPOL) join UN peacekeeping operations as individuals. Their deployment,
even when travelling in a group, is based on individual names and ranks. In the field they are
deployed in small teams, normally away from the main centres of support. Thus, logistic support
for MILOBS and CIVPOL is different from Formed Military or Police Units.
Meal and Subsistence Allowance (MSA). To compensate the lack of a full logistic
support in certain supplies, the UN provides a certain amount of money to each MILOB and
CIVPOL. This amount is called MSA, and it is designed to allow them to buy food and pay for
lodging. The amount paid depends, among other factors, on the average cost of living in each
mission area, as well as the availability of local or UN sources of supply for these items. As a
general guide, the less sources of local or UN supply, the higher the MSA. In certain mission
areas, due to special conditions (i.e., desert in MINURSO), the MILOBS are fed and lodged by
the UN Logistic System. In this case, the MSA is considerably lower than in other mission areas
were they are expected to obtain their own supply.
UN Limited Support. To support their mission, main and expensive articles are provided
in a standardised form by the UN logistic system. Transport, vehicles, communication
equipment, and generators are the most visible items of UN-Owned Equipment supplied to
MILOBS and CIVPOL.
Support from Formed Units. Formed units will always support MILOBS and CIVPOL.
However, when mandated or needed, formed units may have to employ their logistic capabilities
to support individuals deployed in the field. Examples are the provision supplies (rations, water,
and fuel), or services support (communications, transport, and maintenance).
Formed Units. Logistic support in formed units remains very similar to the support in
their home country. For the individual peacekeeper, this means that he/she will have the same
installations and persons in his support, as if he/she was at home base. For the unit logisticians,
support from the UN Logistics System will depend on the level of self-sufficiency of the unit.
This level will have been planned and agreed upon with the UN before deployment.
The type of wet/dry lease agreement between the TCC and the UN will also influence
greatly the support to be received from the UN system. Basic supplies that will normally be
provided by the UN are food and fuel. These are supplies easily available everywhere. The fuel
and oils, with the exception of special lubricants, are also items available in the open market at
low cost. The large volume of these supplies result in the convenience of local or regional
acquisition through civilian contractors.
Medical Support in the Field
In every UN mission, a medical support system will be established. Depending on the

size of the mission, the conditions of the area of operations, and the probabilities of casualties,
the system may include different elements and capabilities. As a rule, MILOBS and
peacekeepers will be supported by medical support at least to the standards in their own country.
Training
Preventive medicine will prepare and support peacekeepers to be in the best physical
condition possible. This will decrease the possibilities of getting sick or injured, as a healthy and
alert peacekeeper is much less prone to suffer accidents. Regardless of rank, position, or
component, it is possible that incidents and accidents will happen far away from medical
facilities. A peacekeeper will either have to be evacuated to a medical facility or the medical
support will have to reach him/her. This will imply time; thus, the peacekeeper’s best immediate
medical support is his/her own training.
The UN and host country will provide the best medical support possible. Casualties’ first
medical support is:
• Level I: Medical Clinics In formed Units
• Level II: Field Hospitals Special units
• Level III: Field Hospitals Major capabilities
• Level IV: Hospitals Definitive care
Level I Medical Clinics
Every formed unit is requested to deploy with a Level I Medical Clinic. These facilities
include a team of doctors, nurses, and medics. They are to be able to provide resuscitation and
stabilisation of casualties. For this, they are trained and equipped to perform minor surgery and
emergency procedures. In large mission areas, they are part of an Air Ambulance system,
normally based on MEDEVAC Helicopters.
Level II Field Hospitals
Surgical expertise is available in Level II Field Hospitals. In the mission area, it is

normally known as the field hospital and also normally organised in a formed unit of a national
or multi-national contingent.
Level III Field Hospitals
Rarely deployed, Level III Field Hospitals combine the capabilities of Level I and II, with
the additional capability of providing specialised treatment and surgery, as well as extensive
diagnostic services. Normally the UN obtains this class of support from a civilian hospital in the
mission area or a neighbouring country.
Level IV Hospitals
They are normally contracted in the host country, neighbouring countries, or the troop-
contributing country. They provide definitive medical treatment unavailable or impractical to
the mission area, such as treatments of long duration.
Frequently Asked Questions
Will the UN provide me with uniforms?

No, your country is paid 73 USD monthly by the UN to provide you with clothing and
equipment. However, the UN will provide you with a few clothing items to distinguish you as a
UN peacekeeper. These are:
• One blue beret;
• One blue field cap;
• One metal hat badge;
• Six cloth shoulder patches;
• Two olive drab armlets; and
• Two UN blue scarves.
How about my welfare?

Normally, welfare is a national responsibility. A full-time welfare person is then included in
each contingent. Canteen stores are also a national responsibility. However, everything depends
on the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between your nation and the UN.
How do I send letters back to my family?

The UN will normally provide you with the possibility to send up to five letters per week at no
cost to you.
How much equipment or luggage may I bring on the deployment flight/rotation flight?
The max total weight including your personal military gear is normally 45 kilos. However,
details will be issued in the “Guidelines…”
How about the medical service in the mission area?

It is the aim of UN medical support to provide a standard of medical care in peacekeeping
operations that approaches that prevailing in the times of peace.
End-of-Course Examination Instructions 252
End-of-Course
Examination Instructions
The End-of-Course Examination is provided as

a separate component of this course.
The examination questions cover the material in

all the lessons of this course.
Read each question carefully and

follow the provided instructions to submit your exam for scoring.
End-of-Course Examination Instructions 253
INFORMATION ABOUT THE END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION
Format of Questions
The End-of-Course Examination consists of 50 questions. Exam questions generally give

you a choice of answers, marked as A, B, C, or D. You may choose only one response as the
correct answer.
Time Limit to Complete the End-of-Course Examination
Because your enrolment in the course is valid for one year only, the examination must be
submitted before your enrolment expires.
Passing Grade
A score of 75% is the minimum score required for a passing grade. You will be
presented with an electronic Certificate of Completion when you pass your exam. If your score
is less than 75%, you will be informed that you have received a failing grade. You will be
provided with an alternate version of the End-of-Course Examination, which you may complete
when you feel you are ready. If you pass the second version of the examination, you will be
presented with an electronic Certificate of Completion. If you fail the second time, you will be
informed and dis-enrolled from the course.
TO VIEW OR SUBMIT YOUR EXAMINATION,

PLEASE VISIT THE WEBSITE FOR YOUR
TRAINING PROGRAMME.
IF YOU ARE UNSURE OF YOUR

PROGRAMME’S WEBSITE, VISIT
HTTP://WWW.PEACEOPSTRAINING.ORG/JOIN.
End-of-Course Examination 254

ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Phyllis J. Mihalas enlisted into the United States Army Reserve in July 1979.
Commissioned as a First Lieutenant in the Civil Affairs branch in 1982, she eventually went on
to branch transfer into Military Intelligence and become a Counterintelligence Officer.
Throughout the years, her assignments have included various positions in the Training and
Operations arena, as well as two Psychological Operations Commands and one Joint Command
as the Senior Military Observer (MILOB) for the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
(UNMEE).
Prior to going from Reserve to Active duty (1992), Dr. Mihalas had 20 years as a Teacher
and Administrator in the Baltimore City Public Schools, with a specialty in the Administration of
Special Education programmes.
In June 2002, Lieutenant Colonel Mihalas deployed to UNMEE as the Senior American
MILOB and G5 (Civil Military Officer) for the Force Commander. As the G5, she managed a
staff of 14 international officers and non-commissioned officers from 11 different countries in
the development and execution of over 200 Quick Impact Projects (QIPs). The QIPs were
located throughout the vicinity of the Temporary Security Zone (TSZ) between Ethiopia and
Eritrea and stretched from the Sudan in the west to Djibouti to the east. Projects such as water
delivery, medical services, educational programmes, HIV/AIDS awareness, economic
development, road improvements, and others were accomplished during the six-month tenure.
LTC Mihalas is a graduate of Duquesne University (BS History/Education), Loyola

College (MA Special Education), Morgan State University (MS Educational Administration),
Defense Intelligence College (MS Strategic Intelligence), and Walden University (PhD,
Education). Currently, she is a student at the Army War College studying Strategic Studies. She
serves as an Instructor for the Advanced Joint Professional Military Education course at the Joint
Forces Staff College in Norfolk, Virginia.
MILOBS 090201
Courses Offered by the Peace Operations Training Institute
As of January 2012
COURSE NAME ENGLISH FRENCH SPANISH

An Introduction to the UN System   
Civil-Military Coordination (CIMIC)   
Commanding UN Peacekeeping Operations   
The Conduct of Humanitarian Relief Ops   
Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration   
Ethics in Peacekeeping   
Gender Perspectives in UN Peacekeeping Ops   
History of UN Peacekeeping 1945–1987   
Human Rights 
Implementation of SCR 1325 (2000) in Africa 
Implementation of SCR 1325 (2000) in LAC 
International Humanitarian Law   
Logistical Support to UN Peacekeeping Ops   
Operational Logistical Support   
Advanced Topics in UN Logistics (COE)   
Mine Action   
Peacekeeping & International Conflict Resolution   
Preventing Violence Against Women   
Principles and Guidelines for UN Peacekeeping Ops 
United Nations Military Observers   

United Nations Police   
Thank you for your interest in our courses.

We are committed to bringing essential, practical knowledge to our students, and
we are always working to expand our curriculum. The most up-to-date course list
complete with available translations, including Arabic and Portuguese,
may be found on our website.
For the latest announcements and to enrol in our courses,

please visit our website at http://www.peaceopstraining.org/.
®
www.peaceopstraining.org

Manual Del Observador Militar

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manual Del Observador Militar

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

United Nations Military Observers:

Methods and Techniques for Serving

Lieutenant Colonel Phyllis J. Mihalas

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

Peace Operations Training Institute

Lieutenant Colonel Phyllis J. Mihalas

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

Peace Operations Training Institute

Peace Operations Training Institute

First edition: 1997 by LCOL Christian Hårleman

LESSON 1 – INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LESSON 2 – UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS (UNPKO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

LESSON 3 – STRUCTURE OF UN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

LESSON 5 – STRESS MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

LESSON 6 – ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOURS OF MILOBS AND PEACEKEEPERS . . . . . . 73

LESSON 7 – PERSONAL SECURITY AWARENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

LESSON 8 – LANDMINE AND UXO AWARENESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

LESSON 9 – MEDICAL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

LESSON 11 – COMMUNICATION AND NEGOTIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

LESSON 12 – UN CIVIL-MILITARY COORDIATION (CIMIC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

LESSON 13 – MEDIA RELATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

APPENDIX A: TABLE OF ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217

APPENDIX B: COMMUNICATION AND VOICE PROCEDURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

APPENDIX C: DAILY ROUTINE AND OBSERVING TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225

APPENDIX D: REPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

APPENDIX E: REPORT WRITING STYLE GUIDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

APPENDIX F: PERSONNEL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

APPENDIX G: UNITED NATIONS LOGISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

END-OF-COURSE EXAMINATION INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

LTC Phyllis J. Mihalas

This course is designed for independent study

Course format and materials permit:

The student is responsible for:

• Learning course material

Please consult your enrolment confirmation email or the end of

• The material should be logical and straightforward. Instead of memorizing individual

• Set up guidelines regarding how you want to schedule your time.

INTRODUCTION TO THE UN SYSTEM

1.1 Background History of the UN

• Outline the background history of the United Nations;

1.1 Background History of the UN

The forerunner of the United Nations

The name “United Nations,” coined

The United Nations Charter

WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to

1.2 The Purpose and Principles of the UN

1.3 The Six Principal Organs of the UN

The Six Principal Organs of the UN

TRUSTEESHIP GENERAL SECURITY

INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SECRETARIAT

The General Assembly

• First Committee - Disarmament and International Security

Economic and Social Council

International Court of Justice

The Trusteeship Council

The Charter established the Trusteeship Council in 1945 to provide international

By 1994, all Trust Territories had attained self-government or independence, either as

The Secretariat is the administrative organ of Member States and is staffed by

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE

DEPARTMENTS INDEPENDENT OFFICES OVERSEAS OFFICES

Department of Office for the Coordination of UN Office at Geneva

Department for Office of the Iraq Programme UN Office at Vienna

Office of the UN Security