Chapter Foure Type of Photograph Updated

Photogrammetry I
Seng 2128
Haile A (MSc Geomatics)
Chapter four:- Type of photograph
1. Vertical And Oblique Photographs
2. Printed Information On Air Photos
3. Image Displacement On Vertical Photographs (Drift, Crab
And Tilt)
Cont…Types of photographs:
Introduction
Types of photographs:
 vertical and oblique photographs
• Based on the position of optical camera axis used in taking the
photograph, Aerial photography is commonly classified as either vertical
or oblique. .
1. Vertical photograph are taken with the camera axis aimed vertically
downward.
2. Oblique photograph (made with the camera axis intentionally inclined at
an angle between the horizontal and vertical (90 and 180).
1. Vertical photograph
Vertical photos are taken with the camera axis directed as nearly vertically
as possible.
• If the camera axis were perfectly vertical when an exposure was
made, the photographic plane would be parallel to the datum plane
and the resulting photograph would be termed truly vertical.
A photograph taken from aircraft with the (optical) camera axis directed
as vertical or nearly vertically as possible.
• If the optical camera axis is exactly vertical, the resulting
photograph is termed truly vertical.
In practice, camera axis is rarely held perfectly vertical due to unavoidable
aircraft tilts
 When the camera axis is unintentionally tilted slightly from vertical, the
resulting photograph is called a tilted photograph , Unintentional tilts are
usually less than 1° and seldom more than 3°
Why a truly‟ vertical aerial photograph is rarely obtainable? Because of
unavoidable angular rotations, or tilts, caused by the angular altitude of the
aircraft at the instant of exposure (i.e., image acquisition).
For many practical applications, simplified procedures suitable for analyzing
truly vertical photos may also be used for tilted photos without serious
consequence.
Relationships of vertical photograph to ground surface

• When an area is covered by vertical aerial photography, photographs are usually taken
along a series of parallel passes, called flight strips
A vertical photograph has the following characteristics:
 The lens axis is perpendicular to the surface of the earth.
 It covers a relatively small area.
 The shape of the ground area covered on a single vertical photo closely approximates a
square or rectangle.
 Distance and directions may approach the accuracy of maps if taken over flat terrain
(distortion pattern less)
 Being a view from above, it gives an unfamiliar view of the ground.
 Relief is not readily apparent.
Relationships of vertical photograph to ground surface

2. Oblique photograph
• Is an Aerial photographs that are taken with an intentional inclination of the
camera axis
• Oblique aerial photographs are exposed with the camera axis intentionally
tilted away from vertical. It may be:-
 High oblique photographs:- includes the horizon
 Low oblique photographs :-
Low oblique
 This is a photograph taken with the camera are intentional deviation or
inclined about15° to 30° from the vertical .
 It is used to study an area before an attack, to substitute for a
reconnaissance, to substitute for a map, or to supplement a map.
Low Oblique.
 A low oblique has the following characteristics:
 It covers a relatively small area.
 The ground area covered is a trapezoid (having two parallel sides), although
the photo is square or rectangular.
 Parallel lines on the ground are not parallel on this photograph; therefore,
direction (azimuth) cannot be measured
 Relief is discernible (perceptible by sensor) but distorted.
 It does not show the horizon (a line at which the sky and the earth appears).
High Oblique.
 The High Oblique is a photograph taken with the camera inclined about 30° to 60° from the
vertical .
 A high oblique has the following characteristics:
It covers a very large area (not all usable).
The ground area covered is a trapezoid, but the photograph is square or rectangular.
The view varies from the very familiar to unfamiliar, depending on the height at which
the photograph is taken.
Relief may be quite discernible but distorted as in any oblique view.
The relief is not apparent in a high altitude, high oblique.
The horizon is always visible.
High Oblique.
 .
Aerial photographs
High Oblique photograph

High Horizon view

Type of photo Vertical Low oblique High oblique
Characteristics High
Tilt < 3 o
Oblique photograph
Horizon does not appear Horizon appears
Coverage Least Less Greatest

Area Rectangular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal
Scale Uniform if flat Decreases from foreground to Decreases from
background foreground to
background
Difference with Least Less Greatest
map
Advantage High
Easiest Oblique
to map - photograph Economical and
illustrative
Printed Information on Aerial Photographs
1. Fiducial marks for determination of principal
points.
• Fiducial mark or fiducial centre are used to identify
the principal point on the photograph.
principal point.
• Geometric center of a photograph is called as
principal point. It is the intersection point of
two lines joining opposite fiducial point
• Conjugate principal point’ or transferred principal
point’ is appoint which are principal point of one
photograph also lies on the adjacent photographs.
• Every photograph has one principal point and one
conjugate point.

• Fiducial marks are photographed each time

aerial photograph is recorded.
• These marks are of varying shape or form and
may appear in the corners or the middle of each
side of the photo or in all eight locations.
• These marks allow users to locate the precise
center of a photograph, i.e., the principal point
(PP).
• Drawing a line between opposite fiducial
marks locates the principal point of the
photograph
Geometrical element of vertical photograph
1. Serial number: There is a number on all photographs of same strip along the flight
line is called as serial number. At the end of each flight plan serial number are
recorded.
2. Altimeter recording to find flying height at the moment of exposure. It gives the
detail of height of aircraft from mean sea level from which photograph is captured
3. Film (or photograph) number: Separate number is given to photographs taken
from airplane is called as film number
4. Focal length (or principal distance) ‘f ’: The distance between the lens of camera
and film used is called as focal length denote by ‘f ’. Standard focal length of modern
camera is 152mm.
5. Camera number: A number is given to the camera, which is used to take the
photograph. High Oblique
It is automatically photograph
printed on the photograph.
6. Clock: To determine the speed of the aircraft time interval of two successive aircraft
is used. Time when picture is taken is shown by clock. g)
7. Date of photograph: Day, month and year are also displayed on the aerial
photograph under the column of date.
8.Spirit level: Tilt of photograph is shown by spirit level.
9 Watch recording giving the time of exposure.
10 Level bubble recording indicating tilt of camera axis.
11 Principal distance for determining the scale of photograph.
12. Number of photograph, the strip and specification no. for easy handling and
indexing
1. Name of place
2. Name of aHigh country Oblique photograph
3. Coordinate system
Photography Scale
• The scale of a vertical photograph over
flat terrain is simply the ratio of photo
distance ab to corresponding ground
distance AB.
• Scale of a vertical photo is directly
proportional to camera focal length (image
distance) and inversely proportional to
flying height above ground (object
distance).
Photography Scale
• If the photographed terrain 𝒇
Scaleav = 𝑯 − 𝒉𝒂𝒗
varies in elevation, then the object
distance also be variable and the
photo scale will likewise vary.
• For any given vertical photo
scale increases with
increasing terrain elevation
and decreases with
decreasing terrain elevation.
• Provided that the relief is not extremely variable, the average scale of a single
photograph or a set of photographs may be desired to be able to measure distances in
any are of the photograph(s).
𝒇
• It is given by: Scaleav =
𝑯 − 𝒉𝒂𝒗
• The photo scale can also found from the following relation.
Example Printed Information on Aerial Photographs
A vertical photograph was proposed with a 6in focal length camera at a flying
height of 10000ft above datum.
a) What is the photo scale at point a if the elevation of point A on the
ground is 2500ft above datum?
b) For this photo, if the average terrain is 4000ft above datum, what is
the average photo scale?
Solution
𝐟 𝟔𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝐢𝐧
a) S= = = = 1 : 15000
𝐇 − 𝒉𝑨 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐟𝐭 −𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎𝐟𝐭 𝟏𝟐𝟓𝟎𝐟𝐭
𝐟 𝟔𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝐢𝐧
b) S = = = = 1 : 12000
𝐇 − 𝒉𝑨 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐟𝐭 − 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐟𝐭 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐟𝐭
Fiducial mark
Date and unique photo number

Photograph Scale
Date
Image displacement of vertical photograph
• In air photo, central projection is applied.
• All objects are positioned as they were being viewed from the same point.
• This means that most of the ground objects on the air photo have been shifted or
displaced from their correct position.
• This phenomena is called image displacement.
• Relief displacement is the shift or displacement in the photographic position of
an image caused by the relief of the object, i.e., its elevation above or below a
selected datum.
• With respect to a datum, relief displacement is outward for points whose
elevations are above datum and inward for points whose elevations are below
datum
• If the terrain surface and the platform are perfectly horizontal, the nadir
point on the ground is in the accurate position on the principal point of the
air photo.
• All other points are shifted depend on how far the points are away from the
principal point.
• The most significant source of image displacement is relief.
Tilt Displacement: A tilted photograph represents a slightly oblique view
rather than a truly vertical view.
• Because of tilt, pictured objects are displaced by a small amount from the
positions they would occupy in a precise vertical photograph.
• Gaps in the stereoscopic coverage area are due to:
Crab, Tilt, Drift, Flying height variations, Terrain variations
• Crab exists when the edges of the photos in the X direction are not parallel
with the direction of flight
• it causes a reduction in stereoscopic coverage.
• Drift: term applied to a failure of the pilot to fly along planned flight lines;
• often caused by strong winds
• lack of definite features
• objects shown on the flight map which can also be identified from the
air to guide the pilot during photography
Failure to achieve stereoscopic
coverage due to tilt
Failure to achieve stereoscopic coverage Failure to achieve stereoscopic coverage

due to flying height variations due to terrain variations
5. Organization Of Photogrammetric Works
Flight Planning
Obtainable Accuracy
Cont.…flight planning
• Successful execution of any photogrammetric project requires that
thorough planning be done prior to proceeding with the work.
• Planning, more than any other area of photogrammetric practice,

must be performed by knowledgeable and experienced persons who are
familiar with all aspects of the subject.
• The first and most important decision to be made in the planning

process concerns the selection of the products that will be prepared.
And their scales and accuracy and After the product selection
• Flight Planning - planning the aerial photography
• If the photography is to satisfactorily serve its intended purposes, the
photographic mission must be carefully planned and faithfully
executed according to the “flight plan.”
• Flight Plan - gives optimum specifications for a project can be prepared

only after careful consideration of all the many variables which influence
aerial photography
• The client will also naturally be concerned with the anticipated costs of the items as well
as the Proposed schedule for their delivery.
• Therefore, successful planning will probably require several meetings with the client
prior to commencing the work, and depending upon
• Nature and magnitude of the project, continued meetings may be needed as
production progresses.
In addition to selecting the products, their scales and accuracies must be fixed.
• These decisions can only be made if the planner thoroughly understands what the client’s
needs are, so that the best overall products can be developed to meet those needs.
• A variety of products may be developed in a given photogrammetric project, including
prints of aerial photos, photo indexes, photomaps, mosaics, Ortho-photos, Planimetric
and topographic maps\
• Planningphotograph project Successful execution of any
photogrammetric project requires thorough planning.
• Planning the aerial photography
• Planning the ground control
• Selecting instrument and procedures necessary to achieve the
desired results
• estimating costs and delivery schedule
Consideration of flight plan
• Assuming that the photogrammetric products, and their scales and accuracies, have
been agreed upon with the client, the balance of the work of project planning can
generally be summarized in the following categories:
• Project boundaries
• The project area
• Existing and planned control
• Photo scale
• Time schedule
• End lap and side lap
• Scale of flight map
• Direction of strip
• Final product needed
• Coordinate system
• Optimum flying and film type should be
determine
According to these data mentioned above and other common assumption, important parameter
will calculated
• In addition to the wide variation in products that could be developed for
a given project, there are normally other major considerations that will
have definite bearing on procedures, costs, and scheduling. These
include the
• Location of the project
• Its size, shape, topography
• Vegetation cover; the availability of existing ground control; etc.
• Thus, every project presents unique problems to be considered in the
planning stages.
According to these data mentioned above and other common
assumption, important parameter will calculated
• When planning has been completed for these categories, the
photogrammetrists will normally prepare a detailed proposal which
outlines plans, specifications, an estimate of costs, and delivery
schedules for the project.
• The proposal often forms the basis of an agreement or contract for the
performance of the work.
• A flight plan generally consists of two items:
1) Flight Map: which shows where the photos are to be taken; and
2) Specifications: which outline how to take them, including specific requirements such as camera and
film requirements, scale, flying height, end lap, side lap, and tilt and crab tolerances.
• An aerial photographic mission is an expensive operation involving:
a) Air crew: Pilot and co-pilot, camera man
b) Equipment: aerial camera and related instruments, airborne GPS
c) Aircraft: Single or twin engine or jet
why planning required in photograph:- Because of

• re-flight are expensive and cause long delays on the project and thus
mission be Carefully planned and executed according to flight plan.
• It is an ultimate success of any photogrammetric project probably depends
more upon good quality photography than on any other aspect, planning
the aerial photography, also called flight planning, is of major concern.
• An aerial photographic mission is an expensive operation involving two or more
crewpersons, and high-priced aircraft and equipment.
• Failure to obtain satisfactory photography on a flight mission not only necessitates
costly re-flights, but also in all probability will cause long and expensive delays on
the project for which the photos were ordered.
• Other factors affecting aerial photographic missions:
i. Periods of time that are acceptable for aerial photography
ii. Weather conditions
iii. Ground cover conditions
iv. Seasons of the year.
For these reasons, flight planning is one of the most important
operations in the overall photogrammetric project.
Overlap or end lap and side lap
1. Forward overlap known as end lap
• Common area covered by two successive photos or
overlapping successive photos of the same flight line or strip
which usually 55% to60% +-5%, normal 60%
• Percent end lap: PE=(G-B)/Gx100
2. Lateral overlap or side lap
• Common area covered by two adjacent flight line/strips or
overlapping adjacent flight strips About 25-30%+- 10%
• Percent side lap: PE=(G-W)/Gx100
• Normally taken as 30%
• Excessive drift most common cause for gaps in coverage
Overlap or end lap and side lap
The air base of a Stereopair of vertical photos is 1400 m, and flying height above
average ground is 2440 m. The camera has a focal length of 152.4 mm and a 23-cm
format. What is the percent end lap? And assume that the spacing between
adjacent flight strips is 2500 m. What is the percent side lap?
The air base of a Stereo-pair of vertical photos is 1400 m, and flying
height above average ground is 2440 m. The camera has a focal
length of 152.4 mm and a 23-cm format. What is the percent end lap?
And assume that the spacing between adjacent flight strips is 2500 m.
What is the percent side lap?
5.6. FlightCont.…flight
Design planning
In general, Factors which influence flight design are:
A. Considerations features
1. Project boundaries
2. Existing and planned control
3. Time schedule
4. Final product needed
5. Optimum flying season
6. Found cover conditions
B. Objectives of Photographing
1. Determine optimum conditions for spacing of photos along flight lines.
2. Number and spacing of flight lines to cover area.
3. Plan must account for allowable deviations.
4. Distance between flight lines on flight way.
C. Flight Patterns
Totally dependent on overlap and side lap:-
 Under ideal conditions with 9”x 9” photo with 6” focal
length, and overlap of 57%, and side lap of 13% will
provide maximum stereo coverage with no gaps.
 If additional safety factor desired, overlap can be increased
to 70-75% and side lap can be increased to 50%.
Steps in Flight Plan Computation
1. Decide on the flying direction – Choose a direction that will minimize the
number of flight lines.
2. Determine Flying Height
It is the second step of flight plan computation
• Flying height computed from scale relationship; H=f/Sav
• Once the camera focal length and required average photo scale have been selected,
• required flying height above average ground is automatically fixed in
accordance with scale.
• For topographic mapping, flying height normally 500 – 10,000 m
𝒇
𝑺𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝑯 − 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒈
Flying Height
example: Aerial photography having an average scale of 1:6000 is
required to be taken with a 152.4-mm-focallength camera over terrain
whose average elevation is 425 m above mean sea level. What is required
flying height above mean sea level?
1𝑚
𝑓 152.4𝑚𝑚 1
1000𝑚𝑚
Solution: 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = =
𝐻−ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐻−425𝑚 6,000
3. Ground Coverage 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡
• Once average photographic scale and camera format 𝐺=
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔
dimensions have been selected,
• the ground surface area covered by a single
photograph may be readily calculated.
• Stereoscopic neat model area determined once end lap
and side lap known
• Area between adjacent principal points, extending sideways
to middle of side lap
• Represents approximate mapping area of each Stereo-pair
65
3 Determine the ground coverage per photo on a side from film format size and photo
scale
Ground Coverage (GC) on a side = length of one side of photo/Scale in ratio form
=f/Sav
Example:
Aerial photo taken from flying height of 6,000 ft above average ground with camera
having a 6” (152.4mm) focal length and a 9” (23 cm) format. End lap will be 60% and
side lap will be 30%. What is the ground covered by a single photograph and by the
stereoscopic neat model?
66
4. Determine the Ground separation distance (GSD) between the photos on a line
based on the required end-lap percentage
GSD = (100% - end lap %) * length of ground coverage on one side of the photo
5. Determine the time (t) between exposure
T= GSD/ aircraft speed
• If t is a whole number, proceed to next step, Else, round down the time between
exposure to nearest second. By rounding down, required end-lap coverage is ensured.
• Recalculate the GSD between photo centers based on the rounded down value of the
time between exposure (reverse the previous step to get the new ground separation
distance)
New GSD = t * aircraft speed
• 6. Compute the Number Of Photos Per Flight Line (NPL):
NPL = (length of one side of the project area parallel to the flight line / new GSD) +
1 +1
(Round-up to get a whole number to ensure coverage)
Note: the “+ 1 + 1” means that one photo is added to each end of the flight line
7. Calculate the distance between flight lines (DFL) based on the required side lap:
DFL = (100% - side lap %) * G
8. Compute for the Number of Flight Lines (NFL) to cover the width of the area:
NFL = Number of spaces between flight line + 1
where: Number of spaces = ( Project Area Width / DFL )
Note: The division “Project Area Width / DFL” gives the number of spaces between flight
lines; 1 is added to arrive at the final number of flight lines. Round-up to whole number to
ensure coverage
10. Recalculate/adjust the spacing or distance between flight lines (DFL)
based on the computed value of NFL:
New DFL = Project Area Width / (NFL - 1)
11. Find the total number of photos needed
No. of Photos = NPL * NFL
12 Find the Spacing of flight lines on the flight plan map, in mm
(DFLmap):
DFLmap = New DFL * Map Scale
• Example
A study area is 10 km wide in the east-west direction and 16 km long
in the north-south direction. A camera having a 152.4 mm focal
length lens and a 230 x 230 mm format is to be used. The desired
photo scale is 1:25,000 with The nominal end-lap = 60% and The
nominal side lap = 30%. Beginning and ending of the flight lines are
to be positioned along the boundaries of the study area. The only
topographic map available for the area is at a scale of 1:62,500.
Based on the map, the average terrain elevation is 300 m above
datum. Perform the computations necessary to develop a flight
plan.
1. Flight Direction:
North-South flight lines will be used.
Using this direction minimizes the
number of lines required and
consequently the number of aircraft
turns and re-alignments necessary.
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Photogrammetry I

Relationships of vertical photograph to ground surface

Relationships of vertical photograph to ground surface

High Oblique photograph

High Oblique photograph

Coverage Least Less Greatest

High Oblique photograph

• Fiducial marks are photographed each time

Date and unique photo number

Failure to achieve stereoscopic coverage Failure to achieve stereoscopic coverage

• Planning, more than any other area of photogrammetric practice,

• The first and most important decision to be made in the planning

• Flight Plan - gives optimum specifications for a project can be prepared

why planning required in photograph:- Because of

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