UNIT-2

1.What is Rou ng Protocol? What are the issues in

designing a Rou ng Protocol?
Rou ng Protocol:
In an ad hoc network, routing is the process of selecting paths for packets to travel
from a source to a destination. The routing protocol is a standard that controls how
nodes decide which way to route packets. The goal is to establish efficient routes
between nodes so that messages can be delivered quickly.

Here are some types of routing protocols:

• Table-driven routing protocols: Each node maintains routing information
tables for every other node in the network.
• Hybrid routing protocols: A combination of distance-vector and linkstate
routing protocols.
• Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol: Intended for
use by mobile nodes in an ad hoc network.

Issues in Designing a Rou ng Protocol:

Designing an effective routing protocol involves addressing various challenges and

considerations to ensure efficient and reliable data transmission across a network.
Some of the key issues that arise in routing protocol design include:

1. Scalability: Routing protocols need to handle large and dynamic networks

with a growing number of nodes. They should efficiently manage routing
tables, update routing information, and adapt to network changes without
compromising performance.

2. Convergence: Routing protocols should quickly converge to a stable state

after network disruptions or topology changes. This ensures that data packets
are not lost or misdirected due to outdated routing information.

3. Loop Prevention: Routing protocols must prevent routing loops, which occur
when packets continuously circulate within a network without reaching their
destination. Loops can significantly degrade network performance and disrupt
communication.
 4. Load Balancing: Routing protocols should distribute traffic evenly across
network paths to avoid congestion and bottlenecks. Efficient load balancing
ensures that no single link becomes overloaded, improving overall network
performance.

5. Security: Routing protocols should incorporate security mechanisms to

protect against unauthorized access, data manipulation, and routing attacks.
This is crucial for maintaining network integrity and confidentiality.

6. Quality of Service (QoS): Routing protocols should support QoS

requirements for different types of traffic, such as prioritizing real-time data
over non-real-time data. This ensures that critical applications receive the
necessary bandwidth and low latency.

7. Mobility: Routing protocols should adapt to networks with mobile nodes,

such as wireless networks. They should handle node movements, maintain
connectivity, and update routing information accordingly.

8. Resource Constraints: Routing protocols should be energy efficient and

minimize resource consumption, especially in resourceconstrained
environments like sensor networks. They should optimize routing paths and
reduce overhead to conserve battery power and other resources.

9. Error Handling: Routing protocols should handle errors and network

disruptions gracefully. They should detect and recover from link failures, lost
packets, and congestion without causing significant packet loss or delays.

Compatibility and Interoperability: Routing protocols should adhere to

standards and support interoperability with other protocols. This allows
seamless integration of different network segments and ensures consistent
data routing across heterogeneous networks.

Link:- https://youtu.be/5du5uniM1DY?feature=shared
2. Briefly explain the classification of Routing Protocol?
Routing protocols are mechanisms that allow routers to exchange information and
make routing decisions. They help computer networks communicate efficiently and
securely.

Routing protocols can be classified by functionality into three classes:

• Distance Vector Routing Protocol
• Link State Routing Protocol
 • Advanced Distance Vector Routing Protocol
Commonly used routing protocols in the Internet include: Distance vector, Link
state, Path vector.
Routing protocols can also be classified by routing algorithm into two categories:
• Adaptive Routing algorithm
• Non-adaptive Routing algorithm
Routing algorithms in ad hoc wireless networks can be classified into nine
categories:
• Source-initiated (reactive)
• Table-driven (proactive)
• Hybrid
• Hierarchical
• Multipath
• Multicast
• Location-aware
• Geographical-multicast
• Power-aware

3. Explain about the Topology based vs Position based

approaches in ad hoc wireless network?

Routing in ad hoc wireless networks can be broadly classified into two categories:
topology-based and position-based approaches. Each approach has its own set of
advantages and disadvantages, making them suitable for different scenarios and
applications.

Topology-based routing protocols rely on the knowledge of the network's topology

to determine the best path for data transmission. They maintain routing tables that
store information about neighbouring nodes and the links between them. This
information is used to calculate the shortest or most efficient path between the
source and destination nodes.

Topology-based routing protocols can be further divided into two subcategories:

• Proactive routing protocols: Proactive routing protocols periodically update

their routing tables by flooding the network with routing information. This
ensures that each node has a consistent view of the network topology and can
 quickly find the best path to any destination. Examples of proactive routing
protocols include DSDV (Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector) and OLSR
(Optimized Link State Routing).

Proactive routing protocol diagram

• Reactive routing protocols: Reactive routing protocols only update their

routing tables when a node needs to send data to a
destination that is not currently in its routing table. This reduces overhead and
conserves bandwidth compared to proactive

protocols, but it can introduce delays when sending data to unknown

destinations. Examples of reactive routing protocols include AODV (Ad hoc
On-demand Distance Vector) and DSR (Dynamic Source Routing).

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Reactive routing protocol diagram
Position-based routing protocols, on the other hand, utilize the location information
of nodes to determine the best path for data transmission. They use techniques such
as geographic routing or geometric routing to select the next hop based on the
relative positions of the source, destination, and intermediate nodes.

Position-based routing protocols offer several advantages over topology-

based protocols:

• Scalability: Position-based protocols do not require maintaining detailed

routing tables, which can become large and cumbersome in large-scale
networks.

• Adaptability: Position-based protocols can adapt to changes in network

topology without the need for explicit updates. This is particularly useful in
dynamic networks where nodes frequently move or join/leave the network.

• Efficiency: Position-based protocols can often find shorter or more energy-

efficient paths compared to topology-based protocols, especially in sparse
networks where nodes are spread out over a large area.

However, position-based routing protocols also have some limitations:

• Positioning accuracy: The accuracy of position information can affect the

effectiveness of position-based routing. Inaccurate positioning can lead to
suboptimal routing decisions or even packet delivery failures.

• Overhead: Position-based protocols may require additional overhead for

acquiring and maintaining location information, which can increase energy
consumption and network latency.

• Security concerns: Position information can be sensitive and may need to be

protected from unauthorized access or manipulation.

In summary, topology-based and position-based routing protocols each have their

own strengths and weaknesses. The choice of which approach to use depends on the
specific requirements of the ad hoc wireless network, such as network size,
topology, node mobility, and resource constraints.
 4.What are the issues and design goals in Transport Layer Protocol?

TCP (Transmission Control TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable, in-order data ensures
Protocol) that all data packets are delivered without corruption or loss, and i the order of
data packets. TCP is a good choice for applications that requir data transfer, such
as file transfers and web browsing.

UDP is a connectionless protocol that provides best-effort data delivery. It

UDP (User Datagram guarantee that all data packets will be delivered, and it does not maintain t data
Protocol) packets. UDP is a good choice for applications that require low latenc throughput,
such as streaming video and online gaming.

SCTP is a connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable, in-order data for

SCTP (Stream Control
multiple data streams. It is designed to provide a more efficient and sca alternative
Transmission
to TCP for applications that require multiple data streams, such multimedia
Protocol)
conferencing and online gaming.

DCCP is a connection-oriented protocol that provides congestion control fo

packets. It does not guarantee that all data packets will be delivered, and i
DCCP (Datagram maintain the order of data packets. DCCP is a good choice for applications require
Congestion Control low latency and high throughput, and that can tolerate some packe as voice over
Protocol) IP (VoIP) and real-time gaming.
5. Write about TCP over Ad-Hoc wireless Network?

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented, reliable transport

protocol widely used in wired networks. It ensures reliable data transmission by
providing in-order delivery, error detection, and congestion control mechanisms.
However, employing TCP in ad hoc wireless networks (MANETs) presents unique
challenges due to the inherent characteristics of these networks.

Challenges of TCP in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks:

1. High Bit Error Rates: MANETs are prone to high bit error rates due to
factors like interference, fading, and mobility. TCP's retransmission
mechanism can lead to excessive overhead and bandwidth consumption when
dealing with frequent packet loss.

2. Frequent Path Breaks: MANETs experience frequent path breaks and

topology changes due to node mobility. TCP's connection-
 oriented nature can lead to connection disruptions and frequent
reestablishments, further increasing overhead.

3. Limited Bandwidth: MANETs typically have limited bandwidth compared to

wired networks. TCP's overhead, including header size and ACK packets, can
significantly reduce the available bandwidth for data transmission.

Impact of TCP Overhead on Ad Hoc Wireless Network Performance:

1. Reduced Throughput: TCP overhead can significantly reduce throughput,

especially in networks with limited bandwidth. The constant retransmissions
and ACK exchanges consume valuable bandwidth, hindering efficient data
transfer.

2. Increased Delay: TCP's congestion control mechanism, which slows down

transmission to avoid network congestion, can introduce additional delay in
ad hoc wireless networks. This is particularly problematic for real-time
applications like voice and video conferencing.

3. Energy Consumption: The increased bandwidth consumption and processing

overhead associated with TCP overhead can drain battery power, especially in
resource-constrained devices like mobile nodes.

Strategies to Improve TCP Performance in Ad hoc Wireless Networks:

1. Optimize TCP Parameters: Adjusting TCP parameters, such as the congestion

window and retransmission timeout, can help adapt TCP behaviour to the
dynamic conditions of ad hoc networks.

2. Employ Hybrid Protocols: Hybrid protocols combine TCP with other

protocols, such as UDP, to selectively use TCP for reliable data transfer and
UDP for low-latency data streams. This can improve overall performance by
reducing overhead for certain types of traffic.

3. Implement Cross-Layer Optimization: Cross-layer techniques coordinate

between the transport and MAC layers to reduce overhead and improve
performance. For instance, the transport layer can inform the MAC layer
about congestion or packet loss, allowing for more efficient transmission
strategies.

4. Employ Adaptive Mechanisms: Adaptive mechanisms dynamically adjust

TCP behaviour based on network conditions and application requirements.
 For example, TCP can adjust its transmission rate based on real-time
feedback from the network.

5. Consider Alternative Transport Protocols: Alternative transport protocols,

such as SCTP or DCCP, may be better suited for the specific requirements of
ad hoc wireless networks. These protocols may offer lower overhead, better
adaptation to dynamic conditions, or improved fairness in resource allocation.

Conclusion:

TCP over ad hoc wireless networks poses unique challenges due to the inherent
characteristics of MANETs. Optimizing TCP parameters, employing hybrid
protocols, implementing cross-layer optimization, and considering alternative
transport protocols can help mitigate the impact of TCP overhead and improve
performance in these networks.

6.Write about the solutions for TCP over Ad-Hoc wireless networks?

TCP is a connection-oriented, reliable transport protocol that is widely used in wired

networks. TCP ensures reliable data transmission by providing inorder delivery,
error detection and congestion control mechanisms. However, employing TCP in ad
hoc wireless networks (MANETs) presents unique challenges due to the inherent
characteristics of these networks.

Challenges of TCP in Ad-Hoc Wireless Networks

• High Bit Error Rates: MANETs are prone to high bit error rates due to factors
like interference, fading, and mobility. TCP’s retransmission mechanism can
lead to excessive overhead and bandwidth consumption when dealing with
frequent packet loss.
• Frequent Path Breaks: MANETs experience frequent path breaks and
topology changes due to node mobility. TCP’s connectionoriented nature can
lead to connection disruptions and frequent reestablishments, further
increasing overhead.
• Limited Bandwidth: MANETs typically have limited bandwidth compared to
wired networks. TCP’s overhead, including header size and ACK packets,
can significantly reduce the available bandwidth for data transmission.
Impact of TCP Overhead on Ad-Hoc Wireless Network Performance

• Reduced Throughput: TCP overhead can significantly reduce throughput,

especially in networks with limited bandwidth. The constant retransmissions
and ACK exchanges consume valuable bandwidth, hindering efficient data
transfer.
• Increased Delay: TCP’s congestion control mechanism, which slows down
transmission to avoid network congestion, can introduce additional delay in
ad hoc wireless networks. This is particularly problematic for real-time
applications like voice and video conferencing.
• Energy Consumption: The increased bandwidth consumption and processing
overhead associated with TCP overhead can drain battery power, especially in
resource-constrained devices like mobile nodes.
Solutions for TCP over Ad-Hoc Wireless Networks
There are a number of solutions that have been proposed to address the challenges
of TCP in ad hoc wireless networks. Some of these solutions include:

• Optimize TCP Parameters: Adjusting TCP parameters, such as the congestion

window and retransmission timeout, can help adapt TCP behaviour to the
dynamic conditions of ad hoc networks.
• Employ Hybrid Protocols: Hybrid protocols combine TCP with other
protocols, such as UDP, to selectively use TCP for reliable data transfer and
UDP for low-latency data streams. This can improve overall performance by
reducing overhead for certain types of traffic.
• Implement Cross-Layer Optimization: Cross-layer techniques coordinate
between the transport and MAC layers to reduce overhead and improve
performance. For instance, the transport layer can inform the MAC layer
about congestion or packet loss, allowing for more efficient transmission
strategies.
• Employ Adaptive Mechanisms: Adaptive mechanisms dynamically adjust
TCP behaviour based on network conditions and application requirements.
For example, TCP can adjust its transmission rate based on real-time
feedback from the network.
Alternative Transport Protocols

Alternative transport protocols, such as SCTP or DCCP, may be better suited for the
specific requirements of ad hoc wireless networks. These protocols may offer lower
overhead, better adaptation to dynamic conditions, or improved fairness in resource
allocation.
Conclusion

TCP over ad hoc wireless networks poses unique challenges due to the inherent
characteristics of MANETs. Optimizing TCP parameters, employing hybrid
protocols, implementing cross-layer optimization, and considering alternative
transport protocols can help mitigate the impact of TCP overhead and improve
performance in these networks.

In addition to the solutions mentioned above, there are a number of other research
areas that are being explored to improve TCP performance in ad hoc wireless
networks. These include:

• Developing new congestion control algorithms that are better suited for the
dynamic and unpredictable conditions of ad hoc networks.
• Designing new mechanisms for handling node mobility and frequent path
breaks.
• Investigating the use of adaptive mechanisms to optimize TCP behaviour for
different types of applications and traffic patterns.

As research in this area continues, we can expect to see the development of even
more effective solutions for TCP over ad-hoc wireless networks.

7. Explain the other Transport Layer Protocols?

 Protocol Description
UDP (User Datagram A connectionless protocol that provides unreliable, best-effort data delivery.
Protocol) UDP is often used for applications that require low latency and do not
require reliable data delivery, such as streaming media and real-time
gaming.

A connection-oriented protocol that provides reliable, in-order data delivery with

SCTP (Stream
multihoming support. SCTP is a more recent protocol than TCP and is designed
Control Transmission
to address some of the limitations of TCP, such as its lack of support for
Protocol)
multihoming.

A connectionless protocol that provides congestion control without

DCCP (Datagram reliability. DCCP is intended for use in applications that require low
Congestion Control latency and some degree of congestion control, but do not require
Protocol) reliable data delivery.