G2.WARNING) The E-Notes is Proprietary & Copyrighted Material of NCERT KAKSHA. Any reproduction in any form, physical or electronic mode on public forum ete will lead to infringement of Copyright of NCERT KAKSHA and will attract penal actions including FIR and claim of damages under Indian Copyright Act 1957. $- ica NCERT KAKSHA & aifeort sik attase arnt @ | ada te conf uy fret aft eo site or sctagite ats A fret off axe that @ MCERT KAKSHA & arthase a7 sever eT si adits aidkge afaiaa 1967 & dea Wrath sik anf & ard ala estore Gras Fl seth | NOTE - go ait 3 a Alea Ser fed 8 on es Tera A A eT eC a TT fans args ardarel it on zt @ saferg aia ara ica fereft & oft sta + Ri ry oe aca ty FORMULA SHEETClass XIl - 2023-2024 = Inox == UNITS COURSE STRUCTURE UNITS-1 | Reproduction’ Chapten 1: Sexual Reproduction in Flowening Plants Chapten 2 > Human Repnoduction Chapten 3: Reproductive Health UNITS - tl Chapten 4: Principles of Inhenitance and Vaniation Chapten 5: Moleculan Basis of Inhenitance Chapten 6: Evolution UNITS-IN | Biology in Human Welfane Chapten 7: Human Health and Disease Chapten 8: Micnobes in Human Welfane UNITS -1V | Biotechnology Chapten 9: Biotechnology : Principles and Processes Chapten 10: Biotechnology and its Applications UNITS-V | Ecology Chapten ||: Onganisms and Populations Chapten 12: Ecosystem Chapten |3: Biodivensity and Consenvation www.ncertkaksha.comcHaeter-4 UNIT-| (REPRODUCTION) Sexual Reproducton in Flowening Plants "© FLOWER): Fiowen is'a modified:stem which functions as a reproductive organ and produces ova and/on pollen. A typical Signa ther angiospenmic Flower consists of Foun whorls of Flonal appendages attached on the receptacle: calyx, conolla, andnioeciuen (male neproductive ongan Consisting oF stamens) and gynoecium (composed of sy ovany style and stigma) . DODO + Smallest Flowen occurs in weltia micnoscopia , while the langest in thal of RafFlesia. MOM: National Flowen of India is Lous : (Nelumbium) ice Cis of A Flower PRE — FERTILISATION : STRUCTURES AND EVENTS :- © Sevenal stnuctunal and honmonal changes lead to Formation and development of the Floral prtimondium. Inflonescence is Fonmed ‘that beans Flonal buds and then Flower © In Flosens, male (andnoecium) and Female (gynoecium) differentiate and develops in which male and Female gametes ante produced. (@) STAMEN 3 Stamen consists of long and sienden slalk called Filament and genenally Anthen bilobed anthens . Each lobe contains two theca (dithecious) . Pollen f Sac ) STRUCTURE OF ANTHER = iene The anthen is four - sided stnuctune AN BY Filament consisting oF Foun micnosponangia, ‘two in each lobes CH ak Gains Stamen a www.ncertkaksha.com -1= (9G CERT Keksha = Umesh Vaishalivascular sricrospore bundle Mother cells > Epidermis © STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORANGIUM :- © Micnasponangium develop Furithen and become pollen sacs which conlain (pollen grains. e Micnosponangium is genenally ‘Sunnounded by Foun layened walls - the epidenmis , endotheciam , middle layer and tapetum . Innenmost layen tapeturs nounishes the developing pollen grains @ STRUCTURE OF MICROSPORE (POLLEN GRAINS) * the process of the Formation and diffenentialion of rnicrospones (pollen grains) From micnospone mothen cells (MMC) by neductional division is called maicnosponogenesis . The cells of sponegenous tissues undengo meiotic division to Fonm micnospone tetned . As the anthen mature and dehydnale, the micnospone dissociate and develops into pollen grains. @MOM®:- MMC = Micnospone Mothen cells © DEVELOPMENT OF MALE GAMETOPHYTE * tative pen const o cells with nucleus (Vegetative and Genenalive) 9) VEGETATIVE CELL © Biggen © Abundant Food resenve © Lange innegulan nucleus © Responsible fon the development of pollen grains GENERATIVE CELL © Small © Involves in syngamy (Fuse with an egg) ea © Dense cytoplasm and nucleus BG NCERT Kaksha - Umesh Vrishols= THE PISTIL * Gynoecium may consists of single pislil (monocanpellany ) tigre om mone than one pistil (polycanpellany) which may be Fused (syncanpous) on Pree (apocapous) . €g Multicanpellany and syncanpous pistil- Papaven. Multicanpellany and apocanpous isl - Style Michelia . © Each pistil has three pant the stigma, style and ovary. Inside the ovary is ovanian cavity (locule). the placenta is located inside the ovaxian cavity. Megasponangia (ovules) axis From placenta. Pis ti | : fedicel Ovary > (@) MEGASPORANGIUM OVULE :- © Ovule is a small sinuctune attached to placenta © Funicle- stalk by which owle is attached, to placenta © Hilum - junction between ovule and Funicle © Integuments protective envelops © Micropyle - small opening at the tip of ovule into whene pollen tube entens © Chalaza - basal pant of ovule © Nucellis (2n)- mass of cells enclosed in integuments. Has abundant Food nesenve. Micropylar end. Micropylar end. Micropylar end. ‘Nucleus Meqaspore tetrad Megaspore dy O A Micropylar end, CHatzal end intipodals www.ncertkaksha.com A Synegid 9g Gaal folar Nuclei polar Central Celt Nuclie Egg i B Antipodal spn Filsform -2= 9G WCERT Kaksha = Umesh Vaishali pparius Micropylar_ end.() MEGASPORANGIUM : the process of fonmation of megaspone From megaspone mothen cell by meiotic division is known as megasponogenesis This process takes place in ovule . Owule differentiates a single megaspone mothen cell (MMC) in the micnopy! negion of nucellus. MMC undergoes meiotic division that nesults into the production of Foun megaspones © In most of the Flowening plants thee megaspones degenerate. tmegaspone develops inlo Female gametophyte (embryo sac). © The nucleus of Functional megasponte divides mitotically to fonm two nuclei which move to opposite poles to Fonm 2- nucleate embryo sac. Tao mone sequential mitotic division nesulls into 8 - nucleate embryo sac. © DEVELOPMENT OF FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE :- © Six of the eight nuclei sunmound by cell wall and nemaning tio nuclei (polan nuclei) ane situated bellow the €4g appanatus © Three cells ane guouped at micropylan end to constitute eqgvappanatus and three cells at chalazal end Forms antipodal cells. At maturity, embryosac is 8-nucleate and 7 celled . ™ POLLINATION * the process of tnansfen of pollen grains From anthen to stigma is . called as pollination is called as polination . Pollination is oF two types - () AUTOGAMY SELF POLLINATION :- The process of twansFen of pollen guain From anthen to stigma of same Flasen is called as sel Pollination () GEITONOGAMY : the process of tnansfen of pollen grain of anthen of one Flowen to stigma of anothen Flowen having same plant is called as Geitonogamy © XENOGAMY (CROSS POLLINATION) :- The process of tnansfen of pollen gnain of anthen of one Flowen to stigma of anothen Flowen having Diffenent plant is called as Geitonogamy (Pun Something Pollination New Evenyday BEG NCERT Kaksha = Umesh WrishaltPollination Seif Folination Cnoss Pollination (enogamy) Autogamy Greitonogamy (Same Flower) (DifFenent Flowen ‘ e Flow) of the same plant) Abiotic Agencies Biotic Agencies 1. Anemophil 4. Entomophil ea i Orca 2. Hydntophily 2 cee cence ca (waten) ats) 3. Malacophily Gnails and slugs) 4% Onnithophily (Gina) " OUT BREEDING DEVICES (CONTOIVONIES) = any plants have mechanisms that discourage on prevent self pollination . To priomole cnoss pollination and incnease genetic diverisity . Thus plants have developed many devices to encourage cross pollination the examples of out breeding devices ane as Follows Onisexuality = In this case the plant beans eithen male Female Flowens it is also called as monoecius. IF Flower ane unisexual selF- pollination is not possible Dichogary = When anthen and stigma mature at diffenent times ina bisexual Flowers as to prevent Seif pllinaion «sandy 23. pootegyry e.g, Sunflowen £.g. Gloriosa Pnepotency = Pollen gnains of othen Plaens germinate napidly oven the stigma than the same Flowen eg. Apple. Hetenostyly (hetenomonphy) = Thene ane two on thnee types of Flower in which stigma and anthen ane placed at diffenent . It is mechanical device to prevent selF pollination ina bisexual Flowen. In plants nratunal physical barwien is pnesent between two sex ongans ovoid contact of Pollen grain and stigma . SelP stenility (self incompatibility ) = This is genetic mechanism due to which the germination oP pollen on Stigma of same Flowen is inhibited . ™ DOUBLE FERTILISATION = Aten entening the one of the synengids , each pollen gnaih releases two male gameles. One male gameles Fuse with egg (Syngamy) and othen male gametes Fuse with two polan nuclei (twiple Fusion) to produce tniploid pnimany endospenm nucleus (PEN). Since two types of Fusion Lakes place in an embryo sac the phenomenon is called double Fentilisation. The PEN develops in -3= ©) G NCERT Kaksha - Umesh Vaishaltlo the endospenm and zygole develops inlo embryo. Post Fentilisation events include endospenm and embryo development , matunation of ovules into seeds and ovany into Fruits. Aften entening the one of the synengids, each pollen grain releases two male gametes. One male gametes Fuse with egg (Syngamy) and cthen male gametes Fuse with two polan nucle’ (triple Fusion) to produce triploid pnimany endospenm nucleus (PEN). Since two types of Fusion takes place in an embnyo sac the phenomenon is called double fentilisation . The PEN develops linto the endospenraand zygote develops into embriyo. Post Fentilisation events include endospenm and embryo development , maturation of ovules into seeds and ovany into Fruits. a (@) ENDOSPERM the primany endosperm cell divides many time to Forums tniploid endospenm tissue having nesénve’ Pood) materials. > w nuclean type Thnee types of endospenm development ——————>_® Cellulan type w Hebobial type () EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT :- Eribryo develops al the micnopylan end of the embryo sac whene the zygote is located Embnyogeny - early slages of embryo development. The 2ygole gives ise to the proembnyo and subsequently lo the globulan , heart-shaped and mature embnyo. Embryo consists of : embryonal axis = cotyledons = plumule» nadicle © POLYEMBRYONG) = * Occurnence of mone than one enbnyp ina seed » Often associated with apomixes. Ex: Citnus , groundnut “> POLLEN PISTIL INTERACTION : 4) It is the intenaction of pollen gnains with sponophytic tissue (stigma). 2) It begins with pollination and ends with Fertilization. 3 All the events From the deposition of pollen grain on stigma to the entny of pollen tube in the Ovule (Synengid) one nefenned as pollen- pistil Inienaction 4 Pollination does not guanantee the tnansfen of night type of pollen guain, aFten wnong type also land on stigma © The pistil has the ability to necognize the species thus wnong lupe oF pollen is discanded to the pollen -pistil is detenmined by special proteins. This puocess involves necognition Followed by promotion on inhibition of pollen. It also plays impontant tole in sexual nepnoduction & seed Fonmation © Due to pollen pislil intenaction , intense competition develops even in the compatible pollen gain Incompatibility is the inability of Functional male and Female % INCOMPATIBILITY. gametes to affect fertilization in panticulan combinations . Incompatibility is the integnal pant of pollen pistil intenacation. Incompatibility openates between species (intenspecific) as well as within species (intnaspecific) EG NCERT Kaksha = Umesh Voishali© PARTHENOCARPY = the Fruit is nonmally Fonmed by stimulus of fextilzation. Sometimes Fruits may be Formed without the act of Fertilization. This is called panthenocanpy.. " PARTHENOGENESIS = thus is a type of apogamy. In Solanum nignum development. of haploid egg into embryo has been obsenved . It leads to Fonmation of haploid embnyo and plant. This type of panthenogenesis is called haploid panthenogenesis = SEED = Festilized and mature ovule develops into seed. seed consists of : = catyledon (S)_ = embryonal axis Seed coat- double layened - Fonmed by integuments © Testa. Outen coat) * Tegmen (innen coat) MOD O:- © Micnopyle small opening on seed coat ,it Facilitates entry) of H20& 02 into seeds (Fon genmination) © Hilum scan on seed coat © Seed Albuminous / Non- Albuminous * Penispenm remnants of nucellus that is pensistent. Ex: Black peppen © Donmancy state of inactivity to the developing seeds Fruits protect seeds in immature conditions. seeds senve as imponting propagating ongans of plant. Seeds and Fruits developed devices For thein dispersal and this help in the distnibution of the species = PERICARP * the wall of ovary develops into wall of Fruits called penicanp. Ih true Fruits only ovany contnibutes in Fruit Fonmation by in False Fruit thalamus also contnibutes in Fruit fonmation. Fonm of asexual nepoduction - mimics sexual nepnoduction - seed Fonmed without Fentilisation Fonmation of apomictic seeds : © diploid cell (Fonmed without meiosis)-develop into embnyo without fentilization © cells of nucellus (2n) sunnounding embryo sac- protnude into embnyo sac - develop into n instagnary offous us ncentkaksha =4= 3 G NCERT Kaksha = Umesh VaishaliUNIT-1 (REPRODUCTION) Human Reproduction ™ THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM = It consists of - @ Primany sex ongans ie. a pain of testes suspended in a scnotum CHAPTER -2. Gi) Secondany sex ongans i.e. a pain of ducts each diffenentiated into nete testis, vasa effenentia, epididymis and vas deferens, ejaculatony duct and the associated glands Gi) External genitalia @ The testes ane situated outside the abdominal cavity in a pouch called senotum, which help in maintaining the low temperature of testes necessany fon spermatogenesis. ® Each testes has about 250 testicular lobules and each lobule contain highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms ane produced . Each seminiferous tubules is lined by two types of cells, spenm- atogonia (male germ cell) and sentoli cells . ®@ Leydig cells on interstitial cells present around the seminiferous tubules synthesize and secnete andogen hormone © Ejaculatony duct stone and tnanspont the sperm from testes to outside though uxethna which oniginate from urinary bladden and extend ‘thnough penis to its external opening unethnal meatus. © The penis is male extennal genitalia. The enlarged end of penis is called the glans penis is covened by a loose fold of skin called foneskin ® Male accessany glands include pained seminal vesicles , pnostnate and pained bulbounethnal glands. Secnetion of these glands forums the seminal plasma which contains fnuctose , calcium and enzymes. The secnetion of bulbounethnal glands also helps in lubnication of the penis . Uneten: 7 Epididymis Vasa effenentia Rete testis Testiculan lobules’ www.ncertkaksha.com BEG WERT Kaksha - Umesh Vaishali™ THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM :- (@ The primary sex ongan that is a pain of ovanies (b) Secondany sex organs - the duct system consisting of a pain of fallopian tube , a utenus, cenvix and vagina. © External genitalia @ Mammany glands © Ovanies ane primary female..sex ongan that produce the female gamete and several stenoid honmonoes. Each ovany is covened by thin epithelium which encloses the ovanian stuoma, which is divided © Fallopain tube extends from penipheny of ovany to the uterus. The pant closen to ovany is) a’ funnel » shaped” stnuctune called infundibulum having fingen like pnojection called fimbniae ®@ Infundibulum leads to ampulla and join with utexus with isthmus. Uterus is pean shaped stnuctune also called womb. © Utenus open vagina thnough a nannow cervix. The cavity of cenvix (cenvical canal) along with vagina fonms the “binth canal . @ The wall of uterus has thnee layens of tissue I. Penimetnium - external membxane I. Myometnium - middle thick layer of smooth muscles which exhibit stnong contnaction duning delivery of baby TL Endometnium = line the utwine wall and undergo cyclic changes duning menstnual cycle. = FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITALIA INCLUDES :- © Mons pubis - cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin and pubic hain . ® Labia majona - fleshy fold that sunvound the vaginal opening . ® Labia manona - paired fold of tissue unden labia majona. © The opening of vagina is often pantially covered by a membuane called hymen. The tiny fingen like pwojection present at the uppen junction of two labia manora above the unethnal opening is called clitonis. 5 = © WERT Kaksha - Umesh VaishaliUtenine fundus -Ampulla, Rare F emale oan § Fimbriae Repnoductive System = MAMMARY GLANDS = Mammary glands are pained structunes that» contain glandulan tissues and variable fats. Each glandulan tissue contains 15-20 mammaxy lobes containing alveoli that “secnete milk. Mammany ducts join to fonm mammany ampulla Mammany lobe Mammany aleolus Mammany duet pat ipl — nu yam Lactifenous duet Pectonalis ~ majon muscle = GAMETOGENESTS :- the gametogenesis is the process of foumation Of gametes in sexually Heproducing animals * Spenmatogenesis % OOgenesis = SPERMATOGENESIS :- ® The process of fonmation of the male gamete spenm from the gen- minal epithelium of testis called .... @ AL the puberty hypothalamus begins secnetion of gonadotnopin sele- asing honmone (GnRF) © It inniates the significant incnease IN secnetion of follicle stimulating honmone (ESH) © spenmatogenesis involves thnee phases. %* MULTIPLICATION PHASE = Ihe primordial genm cell (2m) of semi- nifenous tubules undexgo nepeated mitotic division to produce spermatogonia (BG ACERT Keksha = Umesh Vaishali% GROWTH PHASE :- Some Spenmatogonia stop dividing and grow in size to develop Spenmatocytes due to accumulation of food %* MATURATION PHASE = Tt involves (meiosis) to formation of two haploid cell Secondany spermatocyte undergoes (meiosis I) to fonm foun haploid spermatid »tnansfeninto.-function..spenmatozoa by Spermiogenesis % OOGENESIS = It is the process of formation of the haploid female gamete egg fnom geminal epithelium. %* MULTIPLICATION PHASE = The primary genm cells (2n) of ovany undergoes nepeated Mitotic division to foxm oogonia (2n) % GROWTH PHASE :- Some of the oogonia stop division and begin to incnease in size and fom the primary oocytes (2n). %* MATURATION = The diploid primany oocytes undengoes (meiosis I) to from 2 haploid daughten cells. Hut due to unequal division of cytoplam one is lange cell body called secondany oocyte anothen small cell called as Ist polan body . last phase usally complete in the fallopain tube at the time of fentilization lange ovum (n) 2nd polan body . CHROMOSOME i At Pubext per cell ae : erty CELL ne urna 46 | |e it [te ito Fetal life Primany oocyte Primany spenmatocytes | Ast meiotic division 4st meiotic ; division St a a = Secondany spenmatocytes eat) 2nd meiotic Sonor Coc division L Spenmatids , Ovum eee) eel ihe second | \ j J 4 pola body Spenmatozoa Schematic Repnesentation of @ Spenmatogenesis 1») Oogenesis -6= 9G ACERT Kaksha - Umesh Vaishali= STRUCTURE OF SPERM :- Spenm is the male gamete it is a motile, microscopic elongated cell. It divided into thnee pants % HEAD : The spenm head to oval in shape contain haploid nucleus Thene is cap like stnuctune called acnosome contain hydnolytic enzyme like zona lysine & corona penetnating enzymes %* NECK = It is a veny shont negion having two centmiole i.e. proximal centuoile & distal centniole Plasma membyiane Acnosome Nucleus containing chnomosomal material Neck Middle piece Mitochondnia (energy Sourice fon swimming) Tail * MIDDLE PIECE = It has an axial filament sunnounded by 10-74 Head spinal tuxnns of mitochondria It provide enengy to spenm It is long slenden and tapening pant. The pant sunnounded by plasma membnane is main piece & End piece without plasma membrane = MENSTRUAL CYCLE MENSTRUAL PHASE :- © Ina 28 days menstnual cycle, the menses take place on cycle days 3-5 © The production of LH from the antestion lobe of the pituitany gland is neduced. © The withdrawal of this honmone causes degenenation of the conpus luteum and therefore progestrione production is neduced. © Production of oestuogen is also seduced in this phase © The endometnium of utenus breaks down & menstnuation begins . © The cells of endometnium secnetions , blood & unfentilised ovum constitutes the menstnual flow . FOLLICULAR PHASE © This phase usually includes cycle days 6-13 on IH in a 28 days cycle. © The follicle stimulating honmone (FSH) secnected by the antenion lobe of the pituitany gland stimulates the ovanian follicle to secnete oestnogens © Oestnogens stimulates the polifenation of the endometnium of the Utenine wall . www.ncertkaksha.com BG WERT Kaksha - Umesh Vaishali© The endometnium becomes thickens by napid cell multiplication and this is accompained by an incnease in utenine glands & blood vessels. OVULATORY PHASE :- Both LH & FSH attain a peak level in the middle of cycle (about tH day). © Oestnogen concentuation in blood increases . © Rapid secnetion of LH induces nuptuning of gnaffian follicle and thene by the nelease of ovum © In fact LH causes ovulation. LUTEAL PHASE :- Includes cycle days |5 to 28 Conpus luteum secnetes pnogestnone Menst Endometnium thickens Utenine glands become secnetony re Be 2: & 2 4 Developing Regnessing © | Developing follicle Matune follicle Compus luteum comps lutpum ij-e@ s fo} 3 gf Estnogen 7 Pnogestenone 8 & £ 4 Days | Menstwuation Folliculan phase Luteal phase Next cycle (Proliferative phase) (Seenetony phase) begins -#= 9G NCERT Kaksha = Umesh VeishollHORMONAL CONTROL IN MALE REPRODUCTION HYPOTHALAMUS INHIBITS GnRH AND $ ane LH PRODUCTION ANTERIOR NEGATIVE PITUITARY FEED BAK S 4, Ttstts LEYDIG CELLS SERTOLI CELLS TESTOSTERONE \qstimutates SPERMATOGENESIS TESTOSTERONE oe to INHIBIN REPRODUCTIVE TRACT AND OTHER ORGANS —> INHIBITs —+ STIMULATES ™ FERTILISATION AND IMPLANTAION :- © During coitus, the semen is weleased into the vagina, passes thriough the cenvix of the utenus and Heaches the empullarty- isthmic junction of the fallopian tube © The ovum is also neleased into the junction fon fentilisation to occun © The process of fusion of the spenm and the ovum is known as fentilisation © Duning fentilisation, the spenm induces changes in the zona pellucida. and blocks the entny of othen spenms. This ensunes that only one spenm fentilises an ovum @ The enzymatic secretions of the acnosomes help the spenm enten the cytoplasm of the ovum, © This causes the completion of meiotic division of the secondary oocyte, nesulting in the formation of a haploid ovum (ootid) and a sécondany polan body ®@ Then then haploid sperm nucles fuses with the haploid nucles of the ovum to from a diploid zygote AG WERT Kaksha - Umesh Vaishali© Mitosis stants as the zygote moves thnough the isthmus of the oviduct (cleavage) and fonms 2,4,8,16 daughten cells called blastomenes . © The 8-16 cell embxyo is called a monula ,which continues to divide to fonm the blastocyst . The monula moves funthen into the utenus. © The cells in the blastocyst ane annanged into an outen tnophoblast and an innen cell mass . © The t#ophoblast gets attached to thesutenine endometrium, and the process is called implantation. This leads to pregnancy . © The innen cell mas gets diffenentiated to form the embnyo | " PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT :- the fingen-tike Projections on tnophoblaste aften implantation called is called chnonic villi that along with uterine wall fonms functional, unit between developing embryo and matennal body called placenta, Placenta is attached with fetus with an umbilical “cond that twanspont food and oxygen to embnyo © Honmons hCG (human chostionic gonadotnopin), (human placental lactogen and nelaxin ane produced in woman only during preg- nancy by placenta © Aften implantation, the innen cell mass (embryo) diffenentiates into an outen layen called ectodenm and an innen layer called endodenm A mesodenm soon appears between the ectoderm and the endodenm. These three layens give nise to all tissues (ongans) in adults. It is impontant to note that the innen cell mass contains centain cells called stem cells which have the potency to give xise to all the tissues and ongans ®@ In human, aften one month of pxegnancy the embnyo’s heant is fonmed. By the end of 24 month limbs and digits ane formed. By the end of 12 months, majon ongans and extennal genital ongans ane well developed. The finst movement of foetus is obsenved in 5 month. By the end of 24 weeks body is covened with fine hain, eye lids and “eyeless ane fonmed. At the end of 9 month fetus is fully developed . Placental. villi Cavity of utenus Yolk sac Embnyo Umbilical cond with foetus nus its vessels ~ Plug of mucus www.ncertkaksha.com in cenvix $= B= © G NCERT Kaksha = Vmesh VaishaliPARTURITITION AND LACTATION :- @ Human pregnancy has the dunation of 9 months. This called the gestation peniod © At the end of this peniod, vigonous uterine contnactions lead to the delivery of the foetus. This process is called pamtunition © Pantunition»is a neuno - endocnine -mechanismyand is stasited by the signals from the developed foetus and the placenta, which produce the foetal ejection neflex © This causes the nelease of oxytocin fom the pituitary, which causes stnongen utenine contnactions. © This lead to the expulsion of the baby» along»with the placenta. © During pregnancy, the mammary glands undengo diffexntiation , and milk is produced duning the end of pregnancy. © The milk produced duxing the fixst few days of lactation is known as colostuums. It contains sevenal antibodies that aid the newboxn to develop nesistance. earch on ana oo Neent Kaksha - Umesh Vaishali www.ncertkaksha.com OBE NCERT Kaksha = Umesh VaishalsUNIT- | (REPRODUCTION ) ve Health => Repnoductive health : According to WHO, neproductive health means total well- being in CHAPTER-3 all aspects of nepnoduction i.e. physical , emotional, behavional and social. => Repnoductive health pnoblem and sinatgies = © India was amongst the Firtst countnies in the wonld to initiate to the programme “Family planning” initiated, in 1951. © Reproductive health in a society Fnom a cnucial pant of genenal health . © Improved pnognams covening widen reproduction... related aneas ane cunnently in openation unden the populan name “Repnoductive and child health cane (RCH) ® Health and education of young people and mayniage and child beaning during mone matune stages of life ane impontant attyibutes to the nepyoductive health of a society © WHO = Wonld health organization * RCH = Reproductive and child health cane launch in octoben 1997 > Measunes taken by Qovenenment :- © Thnough the help of audio - visuals & print media © Even Family membens, close melations ane involved in the awaneness © Sex education was intwoduced in school to provide awareness © Pnopen information about nepmoductive organs , adolescence & elated changes, safe & hygienic sexual pactices , sexually transmitted diseases , AIDS etc m Demography + the scientiPic sludy of human population is called demognaphy. while the pensons involved in the Scientific studies of human population ane called demognaphy . = World human population since 1804 A.D. Yean Population 1804 A.D. | billion 1927 A.D. 2 billion 1960 A.D. 3 billion 1965 A.D. 3.5 billion Apnil, 1974 A.D. 4 billion lJuly , 1987 A.D. S billion 120¢l., 1999 A.D. 6 billion 310ct., 201 A.D. 00 billion -9= ©9 © NCERT Kaksha - Umesh Vaishali™ Population Explosion OR Population Holocaust :- Such a high growth nate of human population is called “Popution Explosion on population Holocaust ” i © World's population day I July © U:P. has the langest popution in India © Sikkim has the smallest popution in India . # Acconding to.201 census.,.India's population was. 1210-2 million . © According to 2023 most populan countny in the world - India 2) China) United states © State with the highest litenacy nate equal to kerala = Detenmination of Human population growth nate :- ene & = Population size of pnevious census 8 = Population size of present census N= Numben of yeans between the two census Annual growth nate (%) = ( = Amniocentesis :- It is a technique used to Find out chromosomal abnonmalities in developing embryo by using amniotic Fluid © It is also misused to check Foetal sex detenminalion based on the chnomosomal pattenn in the ammiotic Fluid sunnounding the developing embnyo. ™® Birth Contnol meaunes :- Birith Contnol meaunes involve usage of ideal contnaceptives These measunes include : Mechanical barmiens (¢.9. use of condoms , diaphragms , cenvical caps vaults and Intna-utenine devices) which prevent meeting and Cusion of gametes ; Natunal method like peniodic absitence (especially nisk peniod From lth to 7th day of menstmual cycle), coitus intenmuptus and lactational amenonnhoea; Physiological on onal contnaceptives (€.g. combined pills like Saheli and Mala-D which contain pnogestenon- estrogen combinations); Sungical methods (¢.9. vasectomy and castnation in male; and tubectomy and tubal ligation in Female) AG NCERT Kaksha = Vmesh VaishaltFallopian Tubes tied and cut Vas deferens ied and cut Vasectomy Tubectomy. = Medi¢al Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) = Medical Tenmination of Pregnancy was aimed to get rid of unwanted pregnancy on, when. Foelus vis sufFening »From some incunable Congenital disonden on a threat to mothen on Foetus on both. Due to its misuse, it was legalised in 1971. ™® Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) ~ Serually Transmitted Diseases ane those communicable diseases which ane spread through unprotected sexual contact. Due to changing sexual behavioun and increasing antibiotic- resistant pathogens , these axe incneasing at high nate especially in the age-group of 15-24 yeans. These may be caused by baclenia (e.g. Syphilis , Gonownhoea and chlamydiasis ), on vinuses (€q. AIDS , Hepatitis -8, Gerital wants , Genital henpes, etc) on Protezoans (eg, Leuconnhoea) on yeast (e.g. vaginal candidiasis), etc. These can be puevented by avoiding multiple sexual conlacts , use of condoms, etc. IF untneated, these may lead to PID, still binth , infentility , etc &® Infentility % Infertility is inability to conceive even aFten two years of unprotected sexual co- habitation . It may be due to male on Femal causes which may be physical, congenital , pharmaceuticals , psychological , etc. The measunes like test tube baby, GIFT, ICSI and AntiFicial insemination ane available to neat infentility cases and ane collectively called Assisted Repnoductive Technologies (ARTs). Test tube baby production involves in -vitno fentization (IVF) Followed by Embryo Transten (ET) . MOMO- © HPV = Human Papilloma Vitus GIFT = Gamete Intna - Fallopian Transfen © ICST = Intna- Cytoplasmic Spunm Injection © AIH = Antificial Insemination Husband © IUL = Inina- Utenini Insemination © ZIFT = Zygote Intna- Fallopian THansfen © ARTs = Assisted Reproductive activities www.ncertkaksha.com =10= ©) © NCERT Kaksha = Vmesh Vaishalicommen UNIT: (GENETICS AND EVOLUTION) Principles of .Inhenitance i and Vaniation = MENDEL's LAWS OF INHERITANCE :- Mendel’s expeniments involved Foun steps - Selection, hybnidization, selfing and CHARACTER DOMINANT TRAIT RECESSIVE TRAIT Seed shape @ calculations . Mendel expenimented on pune breeding plant of Pea (Pisum lar Stem ‘n pea 9? hieght \ 5 by et xudied s dd Nv ' Tall Dwanf We BG WERT Kaksha = Umesh Vaishali= INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE (MONOHYBRID CROSS) :- It is a cnoss involving single pain of contnasting tnaits of a chamacten. All the contnasting tnait used by Mendel studied 7 chanactens on 7 pain of constnasting tnaits. In a monohybnid cross, when a cross is a made between pune tall and pune dwanf plant in F1 genenation, all plants will be tall When Ft plants ane self - pollinated , than in F-2 genenation both tall and dwanf plants ane found) in apponx . Ratio of 3:1. F, natio obtained in monohybnid, cross by selfing of .F1 individuals. Phenotypic natio is 3:4 (dominant : necessive) bul genotypic natio is 1:2:1 (pune dominant : hybrid dominant : necessive). P Pune Tall X Pune Dwanf (Genotypes) TT tt a Vv Types of gametes Fy Monohybnid Hybnid Tall Types of gametes by Fy Selfing /Inbneeding Female gametes = T t T TT Tt F, Male gametes | Tall | Tall t Tt tt & Tall | Qwanf Punnet’s square on checkan boand Phenotypic natio Genotypic natio in F, 3Tall : 1 Dwanf Pune Tall : Hybnid Tall Pune Dwanf WL: 25% 11T att 1tt @ LAW OF DOMINANCE * “when two homozygous individuals with one on mone sets of contnasting chanactens ane cnossed , the alleles (chanactens) that appean in F1 ame dominant and those which do not appean in F1 ane recessive” () LAW OF SEGRATION (PURITY OF GAMETES) = [Me law of segnegation states that when a pain of contnasting Factons on allelomonphs on genes ame brought togethen in a hybnid (hetenozygote), these Factons do not blend on mix-up but simply associate themselves and nemain togethen and sepanate the time of gamete Fonmation. ‘= © G NCERT Keksha = Umesh VaishaltIncomplete Dominance Co - Dominance 1. Effect of one of the two alleles is | 1. Effect of both alleles ane equally mone conspicuous conspicuous 2. It pnoduces a mixture of the exp-| 2 Thene is no mixing of the effect of the nession of two alleles two alleles 3. The FL doesnot nesemble eithen of | 3.The F1 nesembles both the panents thespamentss E.g.t ABO blood grouping in humans €.g.1 Flowen coloun in dog Flowen. = INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES = LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT + The law states that “When hybnid possessing tio (on mone) pains of contnasting Factons (alleles) Fonms gametes, the Factons in each pain seqnegate independently of the othen pain”. Mal Female Yel PARENTS ‘yy Giametes of . Panents (YR) (YR fy) (yn Eggs Fy Genenation All Yellow 8 Fy Giametes YR) (yn) yR) yn 7 Eggs Yn Yn yk yn Fallen YYRR YYRn YyRR —-YyRn YR Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Round = Round Round Round YYRn = YYnn — YyRn Yynn Yn Yellow Yellow — Yellow Yellow Round = Wninkled — Round Wninkled YyRR = -YyRn ~—yyR yyRn Yellow Yellow — Gineen Gneen YR Round — Round — Round Round YyRn = Yynn ——o-yyRn yynn nn Yellow Yellow Gneen Gneen Y" Round —Wninkled Round —Wninkled BG WERT Kaksha -Vmesh VaishaliCHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE = Chnomosome as well as gene both occurs in pain The two alleles of a gene pain ane located on the same locus on homologous chnomosomes. Sutton and Boveni angued that the paining and sepanation of a pain of chnomsomes would lead to segregation of pain of Factons (gene) they cammied. Sutton united the knowledge of chnomosomal segnegation with mendelian pninciples and called it the chnomosomal theony of inhenitance ™ MULTIPLE ALWELES : when more than two allelic Fonm of wild type ane located on the same locus in a given pain oF chno- mosomes , they ane known to compose the senies of multiple alleles ™ PLEIOTROPY + Responsibility of a single gene Fon mone than one phenotypic effect , often seemingly unnelated is known as pleiotnopy ™% MUTATION = Mutation a phenomenon ihich nesults in altennation of DNA sequence and consequently nesulls in the change in the genotype and phenotype of an oxganism. The mutations that anise due to due to change in single base pain of DNA ane called point mutation e.g Sickle cell anaemia = PEDIGREE ANALYSIS = the analysis of tnaits in sevenal of genenation of a Family is called the pedignee analysis . the inhenitance of a panticulan tnait is nepnesented in Family tnee oven sevenal genenations. It is used to tnace the inhenitance of panticulan trait, abnonmality and: disease. Redgneen Phenylkelonunia colounblindness ‘eky) Sickle cell Anemia. Haemophilia, Cystic Fibnosis “Mendelian Disondens I GENETIC DISORDERS $ L Chnomosomal Disondens YY iG 1 Autosomal Chnomosomal cee ene : Disondens KlineFelten's Syndnome Down's Patau's —Cni- du - chat Syndnome — Syndnome Syndrome Monogolism ‘www.ncertkaksha.com —$=11 = ©9 G WERT Kaksha = Umesh Vaishali= SEX DETERMINATION ~ » IN HUMAN BEINGS = © The chuomosomal mechanism of sex- detenmination is of XX-Y¥Y¥ type © The human nucleus of each cell contain 46 chromosomes on 23 pains of chnomosomes of these 23 pain ane autosomes . (Responsible Fon detenmination of body charactens) and tpain is of sex chnomosomes © (Responsible Fon detenmination of sex) © In Female two homomonphic sex chnomosomes ane xx & in male two hetenomonphic ex chnomosomes ane xy. thus the genotype of Female and male is Female - 46 chnomosomes = 44 Autosomes + XX (sex chnomosomes) Mate - 46 chnomosomes = 44 Autosomes + XY (sex chnomosomes) XY Sex Detenmination in humans 2) MECHANISM OF SEX DITERMINATION -- © Duning gamete Fonmation the diploid genm cells the testes and ovanies undengo meiosts to pnoduce haploid gametes (Spenm & eggs). The human male is helenogametic and produce to types of spenm -one type of spenm contain 22 autosomes and one X- chnomosomes and the othen type of sperm contain 22 autosomes and one Y- chnomosomes . * The human Female is homogametic and pyoduce only one type of eggs cont- aining 22 autsomes and one X- chnomosomes . * Duning Fentilization if X- containing spenm Fentilizes the egg having X~-chnomosome then nesulting offspring with Xx chromosome is a Female BG WERT Kaksha = Umesh VaishaltFathen Mothen © IF Y- containing spenm Fentilizes the 99 having X-chnomosome then nesulting offspring with XY chnomosome is a male © This indicates that the sex of the child depends on the types of spenm Fentilizing the egg and thus the Fathen is nesponsible Fon sexof theschild and) not.the»mothen, © Chnomosomal mechanism of sex detenmination is called hetenogamesis . It may be male Daughtes Sons hetenogamety on Female is hetenogamety (807) (50%) IN HONEY BESS = In honey bees, chnomosomal mechanism of sex determination is haplo= diploidetype In this type, sex of individual is determined b the numben of set of chnom osomas neceived. Females ane diploid (2n=32) and males ane haploid (n-'6) Female produces haploid eggs (n=16) by meiosis & male produces haplaid spenms (n=16) by meiosis IF the egg is Fentilized by spenm, the zygote develops into a diploid Female (2n=32) (queen and wonken) and unfentilised egg develops into haploid male (n=16) (Dnone) by way of panthenogenesis. Panents Female 2n=32 Meiosis Gametes (n= 16) @= 16) without Giametes Fentilization Panthenogenesis Fy n=lé 2n=32 (Haploid ) (Diploid) male Female offous us on instagnary ncentkaksha -13= 9 G WCERT Kaksha = Vmesh Vaishali| cumsee-s UNIT-II (GENETICS AND EVOLUTION) Moleculan’ Basis of Inhenitance = The DNA Structure OF folynucleotide Chain ~ © A ‘nucleotide has three components -a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose in Case of RNA, and deoxyribose for DNA), and a phosphate group . Jhere are two types Of nitrogenous bases - furines (Adenine and funnine), and pyrimidines (Cytosine , Urasil and. Thyming). Cytosine is common for both DNA and RNA and thymine is present in DNA. Urasil Is present in RNA at the place of thymine Afolynucleotide Chain A nulrogenous base is linked to pentose sugar with N-glycosidic Linkage fo form to fore @ nucleoside. When phosphate group is linked 5"Oh of a nucleoside through phospho- esler linkage ‘nucleotide is formed. Jiwo nucleotides are linked through 3'8 phospho - isle linkage to form dinucleotide More nwucleotide joins together to form polenucleot- ide In RNA, nucleotide residue has additional -OH group present at 2-position in ribose and uracil is found at the place of thymine hate 5 phogpha! 4 athydroseyl Tet) garynucree Coit Double Helix Structure of DNA *DNA is made of two polynucleotide chains in which backbone is made up of sugar-phosphate and bases projected inside it © uo chains have anti-parallel polarity. One 5'03 and with 305 dhe bases in two strands Gre paired through H-bonds. Adenine and Thymine forms double hydrogen bond and guanine Gnd Cylosine forms triple hydrogen bonds Jo chains are Coiled in right handed fashion. dhe pitch of heli is 34nm and roughly 10 bp in each turn. B] tox ©) y www.ncertkaksha.com CAG NCERT Kaksha - Umesh Vaishali© Jhe plane of one base pair slacks over the other in double helix to confer Stability. y Whe iOin © s , Qo gree tar eie Gant | : r T “qahtvdrogen Gorynvcre fo Ble toa, — oN replication “Base fais oH Cm transcription nanan, protein gS. ‘Adenine Thyonne Central dogma ONA double helin > 4 fackaging OF DNA heli = : * Distance between two consecutive base pairs in a DNA= 034mm = 034 X 10"'m © Jotal number of base pairs in a human DNA =6.6 X10" bp Total length of human DNA=0:34XI0™"X 66X10" = 2200 °22m is too large to be accomodated in the melts a Hane © Organisation 0 in prokaryotes: Pre od hy do not have ‘nucleus. ow is scatferedore OF histone Moleevies > Gn certain regions called nucleoids, DNA (negatively charged) is organised in Large loops and is held by some proteins (positively charged). * Organisation Of DNA in eukaryotes : > Shey have positively charged basic proteins called histones (positive and basic due to presence of positive and basic Gmino acid residues, lysine and argining. > Histone octamer Unit of eight molecules of histone > DNA (negatively charged) winds around histone octamer (positively charged) to form Grane Cylosine Sugar fhosphate back bone HI HISTONE HISTONE CLAIMER N= 9 G NCERT Keksha = Umesh Vaishalinucleosome. >I nucleosome has approx. 200 bp of DNA >Nucleosomes in Q Chromatin resemble beads present on strings »Beads on sfring Slructure in chromatin are further packaged to form chromatin fibres, hich further coil and condense to form Chromosomes during metaphase Non- histone chromosomal proteins-Additional set of proteins required for pack- aging of chromatin at higher Level. =» The Search for Genetic Material Jransforming Principles + eGiriffith performed experiments with the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae This bacterium has two strains S-strain and k-strain $ strain bacteria R strain Bacteria *Produce smooth clonies — ff* Produce rough clonies on Culture plate . on culture plate. Have a polysaccharide > Do re have a polysaccharide co coat. : © Virulent (causes pneumonia) f° Non-virulent (does not cause pneumonia. Griffith Experiment = 5 strain (reat- killed) +R strain (Live) Ingect info rice > mice die Griffith concluded that R strain bacteria have somehow transformed by heat killed S sirain bacteria. Some transforming principles transferred from S strain to R sirain Gnd enabled the R strain to synthesise a smooth polysaccharide coat and become Virulent. This must be due to the transfer of the genelic material “Biochemical Characterisation Of Transforming, Frinciple + Oswald Avery colin Macleod and Maclyn McCarty worked oul to determine the biochemical nature of transforming “principle of Griffith * Shey purified bio-chemicals (proteins, DNA ,RNA, efc) from the heat killed S cells to See which ones could transform lve R cells into S cells. They discovered that DNA alone from S bacteria caused R bacteria caused R bacteria to become transformed. So, they concluded that DNA Js the genetic material. ™% The Genetic material is DNA- * Sn one preparation, the protein part was made radioactive and in the other nucleic acid (DNA) was made radioactive hese too phage preparations were Qllowed to infect the culture of E.coli. Soon after infection, before Lysis of Cells, the E.coli cells were gently agitated in a. blender, to loosen the adhering phage particles and the culture Was centrifuged. BG WERT Kaksha = Umesh Vrishalt©The heavier infected bacter ial cells pelleted to the neaneee bottom and the Lighter viral tdonneD farlicles were present in the supernatant. 3t was found that 6 rat KC hen bacteriophage containing — 1 Sect radioactive DNA vas used to Co infection infect E.coli, the pellet contained ' radioactuity Q | f i a o 2 Blending elf bacteriophage containin radioadive’ ven coat a L | l used. to infect E.coli, te, | 3 Centrifugation Supernatant contained most No Radivacii oe the eg sit tu'S) | fadlactve) | fade) ‘no Radioactivity dleeced in Supernatant detected in Supernatant xl cnt a a oe Of Genetic Material (ONA versus RNA) Properties Of Genetic Material * Gt should be able to generate its replica St Should chemically and structurally be stable. *4t should ‘provide “the scope for slow changes (mutvation) that are required. for evolution. © 4 should be able to express itself in the form of ‘Mendelian Characters’ =» RNA World = RNA was the first genetic material. Shere is noW enough evidence to Suggest that essential life processes (such as meabolism, translation, splicing etc) evolved around RNA. RNA used fo act as @ genetic material as well as a catalyst (there are Some imporfant biochemical reactions living systems that are catalysed by RNA catalysts and mot by protein enzymes Replication = The experiment Proof - Matthew Meselson and franklin staht performed the _fotloning experiment in 1958 They grew E.coli in a. medium containing NH,CL(°N is the heavy isotope of nitrogen) as the only nitrogen source for many Generations . The result was that "N was incorporated info newly synthesised DNA (as well as other =15= 9 © CERT Kaksha = Umesh Voisholsnitrogen containing compounds) Jhis heavy DNA ‘molecule could be disting- ished from the normal DNA by Centrifugation in a cesium chloride (CsCl) density gradient. Please ‘ote that "Nis mot the radioactive isotope, and it can be separated from"N only based on densities Then they transferred the cells info a medium with normal “NHCL Gnd took samples at Various definite time intervals as the cells ‘multiplied Gnd extracted the DNA that remained as dovble~ stranded helices dhe various Samples were separated independently on CsCL gradients to measure the densities of DNA © Jhus,the DNA that was extracted from the culture one generation after the transfer from "N medium (that is after 20 minutes ; . coli divides in 20 minutes) had a hybrid or intermediate density. DNA extracted from the culture after another generation (that s after Yo minutes, II generation] was composed of equal mount of this hybrid DNA and of ‘Light’ DNA . Generation | Generationll - “N-DNA—N-DNA e_"N-DNA N-DNA NEDA SOS 20 vin: 40 mj Eee — ort, N-DNA fravttoral PO OK ™* SSSEnl dorce DNA MNISN MyN NSN f Heavy Hybrid Light Hybrid Separation OF DNA by Centrifugation. The Machinery and the enzymes - Replication occurs in S phase of cell cycle Enzyme involved ~ DNA polymerase (DNA dependent DNA polymerase) Replication requires energy. * Source of energy Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (ONTPs) *DNTR have dual purpose —Act as substrates and provide energy also. Replication initiates at specific regions in DNA called origin of replication @DNA polymerase polymerises O large number of mucleotides in ©AG NCERT Kaksha = Umesh VaishaliVery short time During the course of replication, two parent strands do not compl- ‘eenplate DNA elely open, but a small openings (parental sands) form in which replication occurs This small openings forms a replication fork. Continuous S Discontinuous © DNA polymerase can polymerise Synthesis Synthesis only in one direction that is 53" © Therefore, replication occurs smoothly Y Qt 3'5’ end of DNA. Continuous 3°5" Newly Synthesised “3 Teplication , but occurs discontinuously at 4° 8 3 end) Strands © Jhe discontinuous fragments so ; formed are joined by DNA ligase. Geico = Jranscription = @Jhe process of Copying of genetic informatic from one strand of DNA info a single siranded RNA called transcription © DNA is located in tne vnucleoid of prokaryotic cells in vucleus Of Eukaryotic cell DNA transcription takes place in ‘nucleus and translation occurs in cyloplasm DNA has promofer and terminator sites Transcription start at prom- oter sites and stop at terminator site © Jranscription in both prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell involves three Slages = > Initiation > Elongation > Jermination Sranscriptional Unit = A transcriptional unit has primarily three regions + > Promoter Marks the beginning of transcription ;RNA polymerase binds here > Structural gene~Part of the DIA that is actually transcribed >Jerminator-Marks the end of transcription gchematic Transcription start site giructure Promoter |ctructural gene Template strand Terminator 3 of Reo ronse® 5° Coding strand, a\ gait -16= ©9 G NCERT Kaksha - Umesh VaishaliJranscription unit And the Gene Cistron is a segment of yn for a polypeptide When @ Single structural Ohere as long segment of gene in transcriptional DNA having set of various unit Ig said t be Structural gene is referred ‘monocistronic as polycisionic Structural gene in Evkaryotes have interrupted ‘non-Coding sequence (ntrons) and having coding sequence called (exons) So that the Introns removed by following process and result in forma- tion OF hy RNA ypes OF RNA And The frocess OF Jranscription- © dranscription has three 3, 3 seps-inttiation, elongation roe Oe! iti Promoter BNA helix 43nd tematon Sain tc >RNA polymerase binds ’ : withy the promoter to Elongation Tenn initiate the process of Rua @ lerminator transcription a if > Association with initiation Jerminatior DDODO” >! factor() alters the Hi ns 3 RNA Specificity Of RNA polyme- re EE inns rase { initiate the frans~ RHO factor crition frocess OF Jranscription in Bacteria * Elongation : >RNA polymerase uses nucleotide triphosphate as subslrate, and polymerisation occurs according fo complemenia- rity. © Yermination: > Jermination occurs when termination factor (P) alters the specificity of RNA polymerase fo terminate the transcription. @ As the RNA Polymerase proceeds fo perform elongation, @ short Stretch of RNA remains bound to the enzyme. As the enzyme reaches the termination region, this nascent RNA falls of and terminated. = Gienetic Code + Genetic code is the relationship of amino acids sequence in a poly- peptide and ‘nucleotide / base sequence in mRNA. St directs the sequence = oo CERT Kaksha - Umesh Vaishaliof amino acids during synthesis of profeins. *eorge Gamow suggested that genetic code should be combination of 3 nucleotides to code 20 amino acids. ©HG: Khorand developed chemical method to synthesising RNA ‘Mole- cules with defined combination of bases Marshall Nirenberg’s cell free system for protein synthesis finally helped the code fo be deciphered. Salient features OF tnenetic Code are* ©The code is triplet. 61 codons code for amino acids and 3 codons do not code for any amino acids called stop codon (VAG, UGA and UAA) Codon is unambiguous and specific, code for one amino acid ©The code is degenerate. Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon © Ihe codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous fashion without any punctuation. © She codon is nearly universal. AUG has dual functions. It codes for meihionine and also act as initiator codon. Mutvations And Genetic code ~ A change of single base pair(point mutation) in the 6” position of Beta Globin chain of Haemoglobin results due to the change of amino acid residue qlutamate fo valine. Shese results info diseased condition called Sickle cell anaemia Gnsertion and deletion of three or its multiple bases insert or delete one or multiple codons hence one or more amino acids and reading frame remain unaltered from that point onwards . Such ‘mufvations are called frame-shift insertion or deletion mutuations. eS t-RNA ~the adapter Molecule © Jhe RNA called as adopter 1 ‘molecules. $t has an anticodon loop that has bases complem- 4RNA— 4RNA— entary. to code present on mRNA and also has amino IAT Anticodon acid acceptor fo ahich AE Y Codon PES mana amino acid binds . t-RNA is Specific for each amino acids enh nach col 0 = OG WERT Kaksha - Vmesh nish ctThe secondary Structure of t-RNA is depicted as clover-leaf. §n actual Structure, t-8NA Is @ compact molecule which looks like inverted L. » dranslation = © dranslation is the process in which translating the sequency of m-RNA to sequence of Amino Acid © Process of translation requires Gmino acids mRNA, tRNA, Ribosomes , ATP, Mg’* ions enzymes About 20 different types of amino acids are known To form proteins. @RNA serve a5 intermediate molecules between DNA and frotein DNA ion am RIA translation, folype ptide *Ribosome serve as site for protein synthesis Ribosome Consist of two subunit. large rst © Uhese occur separately to cytoplasm only during protein synthesis these tio subunit get associated together. © A ribosome has one binding site for +-RNA and three binding sile for tRNA . Requlation OF Gene Expression - All the genes Gre not needed consiantly. Jhe genes needed only. Sometimes are called regulatory genes and are made to function only when required and remain ‘mon-functional at other fimes. Such regulated genes, therefore required to be sisifched ‘on’ or ‘off? when a particular function is t begin or stop. ‘The Lac Operon= lac operon consists of one regulatory gene (i) and three structural genes (y,2 anda). fene i code for the repressor of the lac operon. She z gene code for bela - galactosidase , that is responsible for hydrolysis of disaccharide , Lactose into monomeric units, galactose and glucose. Gene y code for permease, which increases permeability of the cell. Gene a encode for fransacetylase. lactose is the subtrate for enzyme beta - galactosidase and it regulates Switching on and off of the operon, soit is called inducer. AG ACERT Keksha - Umesh VaishaliRegulation of LAC open by repressor is referred as megative regulation Operation of Lac operon Is also under the control of positive regulation *Human thenome Project was launched in 1990 to find out the complete DNA sequence of human genome using genetic engineering technique and bio informatics fo isolate and Clone the DNA segment for determining DNA segment for determining DNA sequence In absence of inducer Repressor mRNE Repressor In presence of Inducer rg? Repressor miRNA Tac mRNA roe hi re os eee terse Transacelylase d € vas (ace repress) Ri Oo Q C Homan Genome Froyect + Per O” @ dhe human genome project (Hi) as mitiated in 1990. his project was co-ordinate by the vs department of energy and national institute of health @ Uhis project have IS year plan but completed m [3 year (1490 fo 2003) © dn ihe HGP, countries are participated. © By human genome project we identify and map Originally 80,000 - 100,000 genes. Jn human beings scientist have indicated that the actual mo: of the human gene may be 20,000 fo 25,000. © dhe complete sequence of human genome has been described as the “blue print of humanity’ Goals OF H&P: © Jdentify all the approximately 20,000 -25,000 genes in human DNA “Determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA © Store this information in databases; © Improve fools for dafa analysis; ai www.ncertkaksha.com =18= 9 © NCERT Kaksha - Umesh VaishalilL © Yransfer related technologies fo other sectors, such as industries; @Address the ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project. Salient features of Human Genome + @ dhe human genome contains 31647 million bp. © The average gene consists of 3000 bases, bul sizes very greatly , with the Largest Rnown human gene being dystrophin at 24 million bases. @Uhe folal number of genes is estimated at 30,000-much lower than previous estimatels of 80,000 fo 440,000 genes. Almost all (99.9 percent) nucleotide bases are exactly the same in ll people. © dhe functions are unknown for over 50 percent of the discovered. genes © Less than 2 percent of the genome codes for proteins Repeated sequences make up very large portion of the human genome. *Chromosome | has ‘most genes (2968) and the Y has the fewest (231) © Scientists have identified about 4 million locations Where singlebase DNA differences (SNPs - single nucleotide polymorphism pronounced as snips!) occur in humans. dhis information promises fo revolutionise the processes of finding chromosomal locations for disease - associated sequences and fracing human history. »DNA Finger printing + DNA finger printing is a very quick Way to compare the DNA sequence of any fio individual, $+ includes identifying differences in some Specific region in DNA sequence called as repetitive DNA because in this region, a small Stretch of DNA is repeated many times © Depending upon the base composition, length of segment and number of repititive Units Satellite DNA is classified info many categories . © fonymorphism in DNA sequence Is the basis for genetic ‘mapping of human genome as Well as fingerprinting ©The technique of fingerprinting Was initially developed by Alec jeffery He used a Salellite DNA as probe to so high polymorphism was called Variable number of Tendon Repeats (VNTR) CAG ACERT Kaksha - Umesh VaishaliUNIT-I1 (GENETICS AND EVOLUTION) olution = ORIGIN OF LIFE :- The onigin of life is considened unique events in the histony of univense. Huge clusten of galaxies compnises the univense. Galaxies contain stans and clouds of dust and smoke. CHAPTER - 6 %* Big Bang Theony attempts to explain.the onigin of universe. Acconding to this theony,a huge explosion occuns that fonms the difFenent galaxies # In solan system of milky way galaxies, eanth has (been Supposed! to be Formed about 4.5 billion yeans ago. Thene was no atmosphene in eanly eanth. Waten vapoun, methane , canbon dioxide and ammonia neleased From molten mass covened the earth sunface * UV nays From sun splits the waten into hydnogen and oxygen. Life appeared 500 million yeans aften the Fonmation of eanth. ™ THEORIES OF REGARDING THE ORIGIN OF LIFE AN EARTH = © Some scientist believes that life comes Fuom othen planets. Early Gmeek thinken thoughts that unit of life is called spones tnansFenned Fnom othen planets © Acconding to othen theony ,life comes out of dead and decaying mattens like stnaw and mud. this theony is called theony of spontaneous onigin © Louis Pastune expenimentally proved that life anises only From pne-existing life Spontaneous theony of onigin of life is dismissed aften that © Opanin and Haldane pnoposed that the Finst Fnom of life could have come have come From pre-existing non - living onganic molecules like RNA and protein etc The Formation of life preceded by chemical evolution. At that time condition on eanth were-high tempenatune , volcanic enuption , neducing atmosphene containing CHy and NH3 . = MILLER EXPRIMENT OF ORIGIN OF LIFE :- + S.L. Millen in 1953, conducted an expeniment to show the onigin of life on eanth in the physical envinonment similan to condition prevails at that time -19= 9 © NCERT .eksha - Umesh Vaishali