Numerical Simulation Applied to the

Solfatara-Pisciarelli Shallow Hydrothermal

System

A.Troiano, M. G. Di Giuseppe, A. Fedele, R. Somma, C. Troise and G. De Natale

Abstract The Solfatara-Pisciarelli area represents the most active zone within the
Campi Flegrei caldera (CFc) in terms of hydrothermal manifestations and local seis-
micity. Periodic injections of hot CO2 -rich fluids at the base of a relatively shallow
hydrothermal system has already been correlated to ground uplift in a wide range
of numerical modelling of the CFc unrests, that highlight a strong correlation be-
tween chemical composition of the Solftara and Pisciarelli fumaroles, seismicity
and ground movements. In particular, a new simulation has been realised via the
coupling of TOUGH2 c and Comsol Multiphysics c . Recent uplift episodes in the
in the centre of Pozzuoli Bay have been reconstructed imposing fluid flows in the
system as experimentally recorded. Numerical studies, geochemical data and Mag-
netotelluric (MT) survey have been integrated, to guess the main features of the
shallower part of the hydrothermal system of the Solfatara-Pisciarelli area.

A. Troiano
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italy, e-mail: anto-
nio.troiano@ov.ingv.it
M. G. Di Giuseppe
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italy, e-mail: mariagiu-
lia.digiuseppe@ov.ingv.it
A. Fedele
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italy, e-mail: alessan-
dro.fedele@ov.ingv.it
R. Somma
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italy, e-mail: re-
nato.somma@ov.ingv.it
C. Troise
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italy, e-mail: clau-
dia.troise@ov.ingv.it
G. De Natale
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia Osservatorio Vesuviano, Italy, e-mail:
giuseppe.denatale@ov.ingv.it

1
2 A.Troiano, M. G. Di Giuseppe, A. Fedele, R. Somma, C. Troise and G. De Natale

1 Solfatara and Pisciarelli settings

Campi Flegrei caldera (CFc) has been formed by huge eruptions, occurred 39 and
15 Ky B.p, which have been the largest ones occurred in the Mediterranean since
the beginning of mankind [19]. Up and down ground movements with rates from
centimetres to meters per year characterize the dynamics of this area also during
quiescent periods [10] Since 1969, the area started a new phase of uplift after several
centuries of subsidence dating back to 1538 A.D., when the last eruption occurred in
the area. Recent studies on the interpretation of such uplift episodes point out the ac-
tive role played by the the geothermal system, which is characterized by hydrother-
mal manifestations such as distributed degassing zones and fumaroles [9] [3]. The
Solfatara-Pisciarelli area represents the most active zone within the CFc in terms of
hydrothermal manifestations and nowdays local seismicity. The Solfatara volcano is
located inside the CFc, about 2 km east-northeast of the town of Pozzuoli. It is a tuff
cone formed about 3,7-3,9 Ky B.p., which generated in 1198 AD a low-magnitude
hydromagmatic explosive eruption that ejected tephra over a small area (<1 km2 ).
The crater has a roughly elliptical shape with the two axes of 580 and 770 m, and
a maximum elevation of 199 m asl. The Solfatara crater is located very close to
the area of maximum ground uplift during the last unrest crises. It hosts large and
spectacular fumarole vents, with maximum temperatures in the range 150-160◦ C at
the Bocca Grande (BG) and Bocca Nuova (BN) and about 100◦ C at Le Stufe (LS)
and La Fangaia (LF) ones [8] . Systematic measurements of the gas fluxes from the
soil evidenced up to 1500 tonnes/day of CO2 emission which are well aligned with
the main fault system and temperature up to 95◦ C far from the fumaroles [13] [5].
During the first 16 years of systematic monitoring of the geochemical composition
of the BG and BN fumaroles, spanning from 1984 to 2000, the CO2 /H2 O has shown
three clear anomalous ratios, occurred in 1986, 1991 and 1995-96, with molar ratio
respectively of 0.30, 0.26 and 0.34 over a background average value of 0.17, peaked
about one year later from the corresponding unrest ground deformation. Since 2000
the CO2 /H2 O has progressively increased with a nearly linear trend from the back-
ground value of 0.17 up to about 0.32 [6]. The Pisciarelli area is located outside
the south-east side of the Solfatara crater. It extends from the eastern slopes of the
Solfatara volcano to the western margin of the nearby Agnano crater. The Pisciarelli
area is characterised by a fumarole field, which is affected by near-surface sec-
ondary processes of seasonal character that seem to mask the deeper signals related
to the temperature-pressure changes occurring in the hydrothermal system, clearly
observed, instead, inside the Solfatara crater at the BG and BN fumarole vents [5].
Starting from 2003, the Pisciarelli field has experienced an evident increase of ac-
tivity, which has been marked by a sequence of temperature peaks of the fumaroles
above the average background temperature of 95◦ C, each lasting up to half a year
until early 2011, and exceptionally about one year, from mid 2011 to mid 2012,
the last recorded peak. Furthermore, a nearly linear trend of the peak temperatures,
from about 97◦ C up to around 112◦ C, has been recorded from 2003 up to date. The
increase of activity has also been marked by the opening of new vigorous vents
and degassing pools, also accompanied by intense local seismic activity. Continu-
Numerical Simulation of Hydrothermal System 3

ous monitoring of such phenomena is on-going, by permanent networks for seismic,

ground deformation and geochemical measurements. Geophysical surveys have so
far allowed a quite good knowledge of the subsurface structure of the CFc volcanic
system.

2 Electromagnetic evidences

A 1 km long, nearly W-E directed CSAMT-MT profile crossing the fumaroles field
was realised [21] , carried out with the aim of deducting an EM model of the struc-
tural setting of the hydrothermal system in the first 3 km depth of the Solfatara-
Pisciarelli area. The results allow us to identify three EM zones (Fig. 1).
The first EM zone (A) is characterized by a very shallow, electrically conduc-
tive body localized beneath the westernmost segment of the profile, which, within
a short distance of about 100 m, dips westwards from near surface down to some
hundred metres depth. This shallow zone has been ascribed to a water-saturated,
high-pressurized geothermal reservoir. The second EM zone (B), which has been
localized below the west-central portion of the EM transect, appears as a compos-
ite body made of a nearly vertical plume-like structure arising from about 2 km
depth to the top edge of the east side of a presumably horizontal plate-like body.
Such plume-like structure, centered in correspondence of the Solfatara fumaroles
field, rises up to the free surface whereas the plate-like structure deepens at least
down to the 3 km of maximum EM exploration depth. The plume-like portion is
likely associated with a steam/gas-saturated column and the plate-like portion to
a high temperature (>300◦ C), over-pressurized, gas-saturated reservoir. Finally, a
third EM zone (C), which has been localized beneath the eastern half of the EM
transect, corresponding to the Pisciarelli area, is also characterized by the lowest
resistivity values (1-10 Ω m) from about 1.2 km down to about 3 km of depth. As it
is known, in a volcano- geothermal coastal environment a highly conductive body
can indicate either a hydrothermally mineralized, clay-rich layer [23] , or a cold
seawater-bearing layer [12] , or a highly hydrothermalized water-bearing rock [18].
In order to decide which of this hypothesis is the most reliable, we consider that
in all of the deep wells drilled by AGIP, during the eighties, at the west border
(Mofete area) and north border (San Vito area) of the caldera, the effects of a strong
hydrothermal paragenesis have been detected. Abundance of semi- conducting min-
erals (e.g. pyrrhotite, pyrite, magnetite) and presence of thick argillitic layers, are, in
fact, documented at temperatures ranging between 250◦ C and 350◦ C, in the depth
range between 1 and 3 km, which was the maximum depth reached by the wells [4]
. Therefore we are tentatively allowed to associate the very low resistivity zone (C),
under the Pisciarelli area, with a hydrothermally mineralized, clay-rich body. Alter-
natively, we cannot exclude the presence of a deep hydrothermal aquifer, although
we know from previous drillings that critical temperature is reached in the whole
caldera at depths higher than 3 km. Further consideration arise from the analysis
of the seismic P-wave velocity (vP ) and the P- wave/S-wave velocity ratio (v p /vs )
4 A.Troiano, M. G. Di Giuseppe, A. Fedele, R. Somma, C. Troise and G. De Natale

Fig. 1 Top: aerial view of the Solfatara crater and surrounding urbanized areas. The white area
inside the crater is the vegetation-free degassing area. BG, BN, LS and LF indicate the Bocca
Grande, Bocca Nuova, Le Stufe and La Fangaia main fumaroles, respectively, located inside the
Solfatara crater. PI indicates the Pisciarelli main fumaroles, located outside the crater. Red and
green circlets indicate the CSAMT and combined CSAMT-MT sounding stations, respectively.
Bot- tom: resistivity model obtained from the 1D inversion of the MT data, along the Solfatara-
Pisciarelli profile. A common logarithmic scale is used for the resistivity. Black and green triangles
along the distance scale indicate the CSAMT and combined CSAMT-MT stations, respectively.
Numerical Simulation of Hydrothermal System 5

in the same zones [1]. The conductive C-zone almost completely coincides with a
low v p /vs area (v p /vs ∼ 1, 73). The reason for assuming v p and v p /vs as test pa-
rameters resides in the relationship existing between their variations and reservoir
fluid phases. In detail, low v p /vs values are related to a decrease of v p in areas with
low pore pressure, high heat flow, fracturing and steam/gas saturation in reservoirs,
while high v p /vs values are found in liquid-saturated high-pressure fields [15] . It is
well established, in fact, that the presence of steam/gas in rocks generally changes
the rock compressibility with a v p decrease, whereas waters in rock voids do not
sustain shear stress and decrease the vs without any v p variation [22] . It has also
been ascertained that the v p /vs ratio increases with pressure increase and temper-
ature decrease from vapour-saturated to liquid-saturated conditions [14] , and that
v p is affected by the degree of water saturation [17] [16] . The lowest resistivity
values that characterize this zone, combined with the seismic evidences, allow us to
exclude a water-saturated reservoir, but very likely to admit the presence of a dry
and impermeable hydrothermally mineralized, clay-rich body.

3 Geochemical evidences

An important issue for further discussion is the implication that this EM model,
correlated with the evidences emerging from geochemical analysis, can have on the
understanding of the fluids up- lift in the Solfatara-Pisciarelli area. According to [2]
the peaks of the CO2 /H2 O concentration ratio, occurred in 1986, 1991 and 1995-
96 at the Solfatara crater a few months later an uplift of the ground [6], reflect the
increased component of magmatic gases in the composition of the fumaroles, prob-
ably due to episodes of intense degassing of magma at depth. The Pisciarelli area is
also characterized by emission of gases and fluids through fractures mostly trending
N110-120E and mainly NWSE and NE-SW. The main component of the fumaroles
is H2 O followed by CO2 and H2 S and with a range of temperature between 100-
110◦ C [6]. [11] During field surveys in the Pisciarelli made during the year 2006
were observed, compared to similar surveys conducted in the past (the year 2005),
changes emission style of gases and fluids. Particularly the first are characterised by
several point sources of emission while, along the eastern side of the small hill to
the east, it is a mud boiling characterised by a diffuse and active degassing zone.
A on-line gas monitoring station was localised close the fumaroles field (100 m)
during the period May 16-30th 2012, June 1st-5th, 2012. The main relationships
of good tracer of magmatic fluids injection such us CO2 /CH4 and H2 S/CO2 was
reconstructed due to this continuous monitoring [11]. In particular, the CO2 /CH4
is a good tracer of magmatic fluids injection because CO2 concentration increased,
due to its the higher content of the magmatic component, and CH4 , a gas species
formed within the hydrothermal system, is lowered both by dilution and by the more
oxidizing, transient conditions caused by the arrival of SO2 into the hydrothermal
system [6] [7]. This opposite behaviour causes rapid increases of the CO2 /CH4 ratio
in fumarolic fluids like it showed by the Fig. 2. This trend seems to be confirmed by
6 A.Troiano, M. G. Di Giuseppe, A. Fedele, R. Somma, C. Troise and G. De Natale

the data of GPS ground deformation that show a general tendency to uplift with an
acceleration of the phenomenon in the period spanning from June to August 2012
(25 mm/month in average) and increasing during the last month beginning on De-
cember 2012 (10 mm/month), as also shown in Fig.2.

Fig. 2 On the left CO2 /CH4 ratio from 16/05/2012 to 05/06/2012 measured by Quadrupole Mass
Spectometer. On the right ground deformation (from Osservatorio Vesuviamo website).

4 Discussion and conclusion

In effect, periodic injections of hot CO2 -rich fluids at the base of a relatively shallow
hydrothermal system has been correlated to ground uplift in a wide range of numer-
ical modelling of the CFc unrests, that highlight a strong correlation between chem-
ical composition of the Solfatara and Pisciarelli fumaroles, seismicity and ground
movements [20]. In particular, a new simulation has been realised via the coupling
of TOUGH2 c and Comsol Multiphysics c . Recent uplift episodes in the in the cen-
tre of Pozzuoli Bay have been reconstructed imposing fluid flows in the system as
experimentally recorded. The comparison between numerical simulation, geochem-
ical data and EM survey highlight the main features of the shallower part of the
hydrothermal system of the Pisciarelli area. The high CO2 /CH4 ratio indicate a
plausible magmatic component. For such magmatic origin, the plume identified in
the MT imaging below the Solfatara crater seems to contribute also to fluid flow
uplift below Piasciarelli. The low resistivity values under Pisciarelli, that indicate
a strong local fluid circulation, support this kind of hypothesis. The fluid flow pat-
terns reconstructed by our numerical simulations enforce this interpretation (Fig. 3).
Fluids migrate, in the upper part of our model, from its central part, ideally placed
below the Solfatara crater, toward an area localised some hundreds of meters away,
fitting the Pisciarelli zone. The clear evidence that the thermodynamic condition of
the system in the shallower part results compatible with the presence of convective
cells enforce the idea that the degassing of the magma batch localised under the
Solfatara crater contribute also to fluid circulation under Pisciarelli.
Numerical Simulation of Hydrothermal System 7

Fig. 3 Fluid flows patterns as reconstructed by numerical simulation. Black arrows show the CO2
fluxes migrating from the injection point, placed below the Solfatara crater, towards the sur- face,
ending in the Pisciarelli area. Colour contours shows the CO2 mass fraction.

References

1. J. Battaglia, A. Zollo, J. Virieux, and D. Dello Iacono. Merging active and passive data sets in
traveltime tomography: The case study of campi flegrei caldera (southern italy). Geophysical
Prospecting, 56(4):555–573, 2008.
2. S. Caliro, G. Chiodini, R. Moretti, R. Avino, D. Granieri, M. Russo, and J. Fiebig. The origin
of the fumaroles of la solfatara (campi flegrei, south italy). Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta, 71(12):3040 – 3055, 2007.
3. S. Carlino, R. Somma, C. Troise, and G. De Natale. The geothermal exploration of campanian
volcanoes: Historical review and future development. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 16(1):1004 – 1030, 2012.
4. W. Chelini and A. Sbrana. Phlegraean Fields. Subsurface geology, volume 9. Consiglio
nazionale delle ricerche, 1987.
5. G. Chiodini, R. Avino, S. Caliro, and C. Minopoli. Temperature and pressure gas geoindicators
at the solfatara fumaroles (campi flegrei). Annals of Geophysics, 54:151 – 160, 2011.
6. G. Chiodini, S. Caliro, C. Cardellini, D. Granieri, R. Avino, A. Baldini, M. Donnini, and
C. Minopoli. Long-term variations of the campi flegrei, italy, volcanic system as revealed
by the monitoring of hydrothermal activity. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth,
115(B3), 2010.
7. G. Chiodini, S. Caliro, P. De Martino, R. Avino, and F. Gherardi. Early signals of new volcanic
unrest at campi flegrei caldera? insights from geochemical data and physical simulations. Ge-
ology, 40(10):943–946, 2012.
8. G. Chiodini, F. Frondini, C. Cardellini, D. Granieri, L. Marini, and G. Ventura. co2 degassing
and energy release at solfatara volcano, campi flegrei, italy. Journal of Geophysical Research:
Solid Earth (1978–2012), 106(B8):16213–16221, 2001.
9. G. De Natale, F. Pingue, P. Allard, and A. Zollo. Geophysical and geochemical modelling
of the 1982–1984 unrest phenomena at campi flegrei caldera (southern italy). Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 48(1–2):199 – 222, 1991.
10. J.J. Dvorak and G. Mastrolorenzo. The mechanism of recent vertical crustal movements in
campi flegrei caldera. Southern Italy, Geological Society of America, Special Papers, 263,
1991.
11. A. Fedele. Continuous geochemical monitoring by mass-spectometer in the Campi Flegrei
geo- thermal area. An application at Pisciarelli-Solfatara (diffuse and fumarolic gases) and at
8 A.Troiano, M. G. Di Giuseppe, A. Fedele, R. Somma, C. Troise and G. De Natale

the mud gases dur- ing drilling of the CFDDP pilot hole. PhD thesis, Alma Mater Studiorium
Universit degli Studi di Bologna, 2013.
12. M. Goldman, D. Gilad, A. Ronen, and A. Melloul. Mapping of seawater intrusion into
the coastal aquifer of israel by the time domain electromagnetic method. Geoexploration,
28(2):153–174, 1991.
13. D. Granieri, R. Avino, and G. Chiodini. Carbon dioxide diffuse emission from the soil: ten
years of observations at vesuvio and campi flegrei (pozzuoli), and linkages with volcanic ac-
tivity. Bulletin of volcanology, 72(1):103–118, 2010.
14. H. Ito, J. De Vilbiss, and A. Nur. Compressional and shear waves in saturated rock during
water-steam transition. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 84(B9):4731–4735,
1979.
15. A. Mormone, A. Tramelli, M. A. Di Vito, M. Piochi, C. Troise, and G. De Natale. Secondary
hydrothermal minerals in buried rocks at the campi flegrei caldera, italy: a possible tool to
understand the rock-physics and to assess the state of the volcanic system. Periodico di Min-
eralogia, 80:385, 2011.
16. R. J. O’Connell and B. Budiansky. Viscoelastic properties of fluid-saturated cracked solids.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 82(36):5719–5735, 1977.
17. R.J. O’Connell and B. Budiansky. Seismic velocities in dry and saturated cracked solids.
Journal of Geophysical Research, 79(35):5412–5426, 1974.
18. D. Patella, A. Rossi, and A. Tramacere. First results of the application of the dipole electri-
cal sounding method in the geothermal area of travale-radicondoli (tuscany). Geothermics,
8(2):111–134, 1979.
19. M. Rosi and A. Sbrana. Phlegrean fields, volume 9. Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, 1987.
20. A. Troiano, M.G. Di Giuseppe, Z. Petrillo, C. Troise, and G. De Natale. Ground deforma-
tion at calderas driven by fluid injection: modelling unrest episodes at campi flegrei (italy).
Geophysical Journal International, 187(2):833–847, 2011.
21. A. Troiano, M.G. Di Giuseppe, D. Patella, C. Troise, and G. De Natale. Electromagnetic
outline of the solfatara–pisciarelli hydrothermal system, campi flegrei (southern italy). Journal
of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 277(0):9 – 21, 2014.
22. T. Vanorio, M. Prasad, D. Patella, and A. Nur. Ultrasonic velocity measurements in volcanic
rocks: correlation with microtexture. Geophysical Journal International, 149(1):22–36, 2002.
23. S. H. Ward. Resistivity and induced polarization methods. Geotechnical and environmental
geophysics, 1:147–189, 1990.