1.1.1 The particulate nature of matter.

The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas and these di er
in terms of the arrangement and movement of particles.
Sublimation is the change of state when a substance goes directly
from the solid state to the gaseous state, without going through the
liquid state.
The reverse process (gas → solid) is often called deposition (or sometimes desublimation, reverse
sublimation or occasionally just sublimation).

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1.1.2 Chemical change Elements and compounds.

Chemistry is partly a study of how chemical elements combine to make the world and the
Universe around us.
Gold is an element and all samples of pure gold contain only gold atoms.
An element is a pure substance that contains only one type of atom
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can still be recognised as that element.
The physical and chemical properties of a compound are very di erent to those of the elements
from which it is formed.
Sodium and chlorine are elements – when they are mixed and heated they combine chemically to
form a compound called sodium chloride.
Chemical properties dictate how something reacts in a chemical reaction.
Physical properties are basically all the other properties of a substance – such as melting point,
density, hardness, electrical conductivity etc.
A compound is a pure substance formed when two or more elements combine chemically.
An element is a pure substance that contains only one type of atom.

The meaning of chemical equations.

When elements combine to form compounds, they always combine in xed ratios depending on
the numbers of atoms required.
Mass is conserved in all chemical reactions.
State symbols are often used to indicate the physical state of substances involved in a reaction:
(s) = solid
(l) = liquid
(g) = gas
(aq)=aqueous (dissolved in water).

Mixtures.

A mixture contains two or more substances mixed together.

Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.

A homogeneous mixture has the same (uniform) composition throughout the mixture and consists
of only one phase.
One example of a homogeneous mixture is a solution. No individual particles can be seen in the
solution and its concentration is the same throughout.
A heterogeneous mixture does not have uniform composition and consists of separate phases.
Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated by mechanical means.
One example of a heterogeneous mixture is sand in a beaker of water.

1.2 The mole concept.

1.2.1 Relative masses.

Relative atomic mass (Ar).

The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the averageof the masses of the isotopes in a
naturally occurring sample of the element relative to the mass of 1/12 of an atom of carbon-12.

Relative molecular mass (Mr).

An relative molecular mass (Mr) is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the individual atoms
making up a molecule.
The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a compound is the mass of a molecule of that compound
relative to the mass of 1/12 of an atom of carbon-12.
The relative formula mass is the mass of one formula unit relative to the mass of 1/12 of an atom
of carbon-12.
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Moles.

One mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of particles (atoms, ions,
molecules, etc.) as there are carbon atoms in 12 g of carbon-12.This number is called Avogadro’s
constant, has symbol L (or NA), and has the value 6.02 × 1023 mol−1. So, 12.00 g of carbon-12
contains 6.02×1023 carbon atoms.
The molar mass (M) of a substance is its Ar or Mr in grams. The units of molar mass are
g.mol−1. For example, the Ar of silicon is 28.09, and the molar mass of silicon is 28.09 g.mol-1.
This means that 28.09g of silicon contains 6.02×1023 silicon atoms.
When calculating the number of moles present in a certain mass of a substance, the mass must
be in grams.
Empirical and molecular formulas.

Empirical formula: the simplest whole number ratio of the elements present in a compound.
Molecular formula: the total number of atoms of each element present in a molecule of the
compound. (The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.)
A molecular formula is a whole number multiple of the empirical formula.Therefore, if the empirical
formula of a compound is CH2, the molecular formula is (CH2)n.

Avogadro’s law: equal volumes of ideal gases measured at the same temperature and pressure
contain the same number of molecules.

Gases deviate most from ideal behaviour at high pressure and low temperature.
Volume of gas ∝ number of moles of the gas.
1cm3 is the same as 1ml.
1.3.3 Calculations involving solutions.

Solutions.

Solute: a substance that is dissolved in another substance. Solvent: a substance that dissolves
another substance (the solute). The solvent should be present in excess of the solute.
Solution: the substance that is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent.
When a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution is prepared, NaCl solid (the solute) is dissolved in water
(the solvent).