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C O M P U T E R F U N D A M E N T A L

Definition
Computer is an electronic device which accepts data from the user,
process it and gives meaningful information.

Data-Data is the collection of numbers, alphabets, facts and figures.

Process-The work that is done on data is called process.
Information-The processed data or finished data is called as information.
For example:-(1) “12+3”-data
“Calculation” is the process
“15” is the information
(2) “Tea dust, sugar, water, milk, pot, heater” -data
“Preparation”-Process.
“Tea”-Information.
Application
We use computer in the field of defence, homes, science and engineering,
entertainment, transportation, business and finance, hospitals and medicines,
commerce, industry, administration, education, social and legal organizations etc.

Classification of Computer
Computer can be classified into 3 types. They are (1) Digital computer (2)
Analog computer (3) Hybrid computer.

(1) Digital Computer:-It performs only calculation. The mathematical data is

represented in the form of binary digits (0 & 1). These are widely used for
commercial purposes and in graphics, analysis, payroll, and washing
machine etc.
(2) Analog Computer:-It can perform the job measurement and can
compare to jobs and things. It works on the principle of current or voltage
signal. It works very fast.
(3) Hybrid Computer:-It is a combination of both analog and digital
computer. It can be used in scientific applications and industries.

According to application computer is divided into 2 types-(1)

General purpose computer and (2)Special purpose computer.
(1) General purpose computer -These are the ordinary computers. All the
software programs are designed by the user.
(2) Special purpose computer -These are used for particular job. These
have been programmed at the manufacturing stage for doing a particular work.
Automatic Cash tellers, Telephone terrifs,analyzer and billing machines etc.. are
the examples.
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Based on processing and storing capabilities, Computers are divided

into 4 types.(1)Micro computer, (2)Mini computer, (3)Mainframe computer,
(4)Super computer.
(1) Micro Computer-
Speed- 100 kilo instructions per second.
Function- Word processing and graphics, science etc.
Word length- 8 to 16 bits.
It is based on cheap system.
Examples – IBM PC,PC-AT etc..
(2) Mini Computer-
Speed-500 kilo instruction per second.
Functions- Engineering, scientific, time-sharing.
Word length- 16 to 32 bits.
It is used in Local Area Networks.
(3) Mainframe Computer-
Speed-1000 to 10000 kilo instruction per second.
Function-Scientific, engineering, designs, railway
and airline reservation etc.
Word length- 32 to 60 bits.
Examples-DEC,ICL and IBM 3000 series etc..
(4) Super Computer-
Speed- 10000 kilo instructions per second.
Functions- Space research, weather, designing etc.
Word length- 64 to 96 bits.
It is based on multiprocessing technique.
It is the fastest and most expensive machines.
Examples-CRAY YMP,CRAY2,NEC SX-3,CRAY XMP and PARAM
100,1000,10000 etc..

History of computer
(a) Calculating Machines:- It took over generations for early man to
build mechanical device for counting large number. The first calculating device
called ABACUS Was developed by the Egyptian and Chinese People.
The word ABACUS(Abundant Beads Addition Calculation Utility System)
means calculation board. It consisted of sticks in horizontal positions on which
were inserted sets of pebble. It has a number of horizontal bars each having ten
beads. Horizontal bars represent units,ten,hundred,etc.
(b) Napier’s Bones:- English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical
device for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 A D.The device was known as
Napier’s bones.
(c) Slide Rule:- English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide
rule. This machine could perform operations like
addition,subtracting,multiplication and division. IT was widely used in Europe in
16th century.
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(d) PASCAL’s adding a subdirectory Machine:- Blasé Pascal developed a

machine to help his father on 1642,that could add and subtract. The machine
consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
(e) Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine:- The German
philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built around 1673 a mechanical
device that could both multiply and divide.
(f) Babbage’s Analytical Engine:- It was in the year 1823 the a famous
English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine to do complex
mathematical calculations. It was called different engine Later he developed a
general-purpose calculating machine called analytical engine. Charles Babbage
is called the father of computer for this contribution.
(g) Abstract Device:- Alan Turing, the British mathematician developed a
device called as Turing device which method is used to create the frame of real
computer.
John von-Newman developed a map on data storing of a computer.
(h) Mechanical and Electric Calculator:- In The beginning of 19th century the
mechanical calculator was developed to perform all sorts of mathematical
calculation. Up to the 1960s it was widely used. Later the rotating part of
mechanical calculator was replaced by electrical motor. So it was called the
electric calculator. Later it was so developed.

Generation Of Computer

The evolution of computer started form 16 th century and resulted in the

form that we see today. The present day computer, however has also undergone
rapid change during the last fifty years. The period, during which the evolution of
computer took place, can be divided into five distinct phases known as
Generations of computer.
1st Generation:- (1964-1955)
1st generation was based on vacuum tube technology. Some
Computers of this generation were
(1) ENIAC: - Electronic numerical integrator and calculator.
ENIAC came in 1946.It weighted 30 tons and it contained 19,000
volume tubes. It occupied a space of 800 sq feet. It was used to solve calculation
and number studies.
(2) EDSAC: - Electronic delay storage automatic calculator.
(3) UNIVAC: - Universal automatic computer. It Came in 1952.
(There are many disadvantages)
i. Vacuum tubes created several problems.
ii. It produced too much heat.
iii. It consumed much electricity.
iv. It occupied too much place.
v. Its Programming language work binary.
vi. It was costly.

2nd generation :- (1956-1964)

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It was based on transistor. It was faster then the first generation

computers. Also it was smaller in size and shape.Transister is smaller than vacuum
tube. So the circuit is small and produced less heat.
Example: - I.B.M.-1401,Larc etc.

3rd generation :- (1964-1975)

In this generation the work of transistor was integrated with silicon
chips. It was too small and needed less electricity. It was based on chips or
integrated circuit(IC) The famous computer of this generation was IBM-360.Its
software able to do many works at a time.

4th generation :- (1975-Now)

The integrated technology of 3rd generation grew and developed. So
th
the 4 generation computer was highly developed. It works too fast and has a high
volume of storage capacity.
We use it now or we are in this generation. All its work is now limited in
a micro processor. When it was managed using more than one lakh circuits. It was
called very large scale integration (VLSI) when the electronic components of a
computer concentrated in a piece of circuit. It was called IC or Micro processor.

5th generation :-
It will make with intelligence. So it will think and feel like a human
being. It will based on KIPS(Knowledge information processing system) While the
computer making idea of now a days based on DIPS(Data information processing
System) Or LIPS(Logic information processing system) The scientific of USA and
Japan Labor hard for it now.

Characteristics of Computer

Computers provide an extraordinary performance in comparison to

other machines. These are given below: -

(i)Speed-Computer can perform its work in a high speed. It can be measure in

millie second (10-3 sec), micro second (10-6 sec), nano second (10-9 sec), pico
second(10-12 sec) etc. It can calculate over than 1 lakh calculations in a second.
So, it has the best capacity of speed.

(ii) Storage-It has a high volume of storage capacity that can be measured in bits,
bytes, kilobytes, mega bytes etc.
8 bits= 1 byte
1024 bytes= 1 Kilobyte
1024 kilobytes=1 Megabyte
1024 megabyte=1 Gigabyte
Tera, Peta, Exa, Zetta, Yotta etc.

(iii) Accuracy-The computer anytime produces accurate results. Some errors can
be occur due to insufficient data, low programming concept mechinary failure.
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(iv) Versatility – A computer is capable of performing almost any task like

preparing the list of students of an examination in one moment or preparing
electricity bills in the next moment.

(v) Automation-It performs almost the works of its own. It doesn’t require
supervision and carries on the task independently and interactively.

(vi) Diligence-A computer doesn’t suffer from human traits of tiredness, boring
feeling, lack of concentration etc..

Basic computer operations:

Input unit Memory unit output unit

Control unit

(CPU)

ALU unit &

Logical Unit

Family of Computer
Three main components of computer systems are hardware, software and
user.
Hardware-All the physical parts of a computer system to which we can see and
touch is called hardware.
Examples- Monitor, keyboard, mouse, C. P. U, printer, scanner etc.
Software-All the internal functions of a computer system to which we cannot
touch is called software.
Examples- MS Word, MS Paint, MS Excel, MS Dos, PowerPoint, Internet etc.
User-The person who uses the computer is called user.

HARDWARE
According to the use of the hardware it is divided into 3 categories. (1) Input
device (2) Output device (3) Processing device.
:-
(1) Input device Through which device we can enter our data is called as
input device.
Example: - (i) keyboard (ii) mouse (iii) MICR (iv) OCR (v) BCR (vi) OMR (vii) light
pen (viii) touch screen (ix) scanner (x) joystick etc.

(i) Keyboard- It is a flat plastic board having a number of switches

arranged on it. Generally a keyboard has 101 to 108 keys. But
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now a days 120-124 keys keyboard are popular. Keys on a

keyboard are divided into 4 parts like (a) function keypad (b)
alphanumeric keypad (c) special keypad (d) numeric keypad.
(a) Function keypad-It consists of 12 switches (f1 to f12) and
an escape key according to the current application.
(b) Alphanumeric keypad- It consists of alphabet and numbers
with some extra function keys like tab, caps lock, shift, ctrl,
alt, window, right click, enter and back space.
Tab: - It is used for tabulation. (Long space)
Caps lock: - It is used for write capital letter.
Shift:- It is used to write capital letter also but at
a time we have to press on both switches.
New<shift+n>+e+w =>new
Ctrl:-It is used for key combination.
Alt: -To activates the hot key. (File, View)
Window:-To activate the start button.
Right click:-Alternate of mouse right click.
Enter:-To accept the information or move towards the next line.
Back space:-It is used to erase the previous letter.

(c) Special keypad-It is consists of some special keys like power, sleep, wake up,
print screen, scroll lock, pause, home, end, insert, delete, page up, page down
and some navigation keys like up, down, left and right.
Power- to shut down the computer.
Sleep-to stop.
Wake up-to start.
Print screen- to copy the entire screen.
Scroll lock- to lock the scrolling (write Ori/Eng)
Pause-pause the running screen.
Home- move the cursor to the beginning of the line.
End- move the cursor to the end of the line.
Insert- used for over write mode (write on left)
Delete- to erase the next letter.
Page up- to view the next page.
Page down- to view the previous page.
Arrow keys(Navigation keys)- to take the cursor up, down, right and left.

(d) Numeric keypad- As the name goes it is consists of numbers with some
mathematical symbols like +, -, *, / and others like num lock key which used for
the substitute of special keypad and an enter key. It also contains all the keys like
the special keypad.

(ii) Mouse- It is an input device to point out any option on the screen or input our
data. It is the most necessary part for window based operating system. There are
various kind of mouse like button mouse, optical mouse etc. According to the
functions of the mouse it divided into two types i.e. mechanical mouse and optical
mouse.
According to connection there are many type of mouse such as ps/2
mouse, serial mouse, USB mouse, E-mail mouse, wireless mouse etc.
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(iii) MICR- It stands for magnetic ink character reader. It is most commonly used
in banks to read the bank cheques.

(iv) OCR- It stands for optical character reader. It is used to read the handwriting
or typed text. It can read 2400 characters per second. It works in bank publishers
and to correction examination copy.

(v) BCR- It stands for bar code reader. It is used to read the bar code of any
product. The bar code identifies the product quality, name, rate and detail
information about the product. It mostly uses in business places and retail sales.

(vi) OMR- It stands for optical mark reader. It is used to read the optical mark or
spot. The results depend upon the absence or presence of the spot. Most
commonly it is used for competitive examination copy correction.

(vii) Light pen- It is a special type of input device, which can be used directly on
screen as a pen to point out any option. It is used for highly developed
architecture designing.

(viii) Touch screen- It is a special type of sensitive screen that is used by fingers.
It can be activated by a single touch. It is most commonly used in ATM, railway
station to enquiry.

(ix) Joystick- It is also called as game controller. It is commonly used to play

games and also as a pointing device like mouse.

(x) Scanner- It is used to input graphics into the computer. It is used in photo
studios and DTP works.

(2) Processing device-

A machine which used to process the data of a computer is called
as processing device. The big box of CPU (Central processing unit) which is the
processing device of a computer. It is the brain of computer. It has 3 units
(i)Control Unit (ii) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (iii) Memory Unit
(i) Control unit (C.U.):- It controls all over the activities on a computer. The input
system, output system of the computer are manage by the C.U.whenever we are
entering any data to computer. At first it goes to ward the C.U and as per the
direction of the C.U it goes towards the A.L.U. or M.U.
The main function of the C.U. is programme execution. At first it
divides the whole programme into steps of instruction and then perform one by
one operation.

(ii) Arithmetic and Logical Unit (A.L.U.)- Its stand for arithmetic and logical unit. It
is divided into 2 categories. (a) A.U. & (b) L.U.

(a) A.U. – Its stands for arithmetical unit. It performs all over
the arithmetical operations like +, -, *, /, etc.
(b) L.U. – Its stands for logical unit. It performs all over the
logical operation like
and, or, not, =, <, > etc.
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(ii) Memory unit (M.U.):- Memory means storage capacity. Memory

of computer means, how we can measure the storage of a
computer.

(3)Output device-
Through which device we can view the result or output of a computer
is called as output device. It occurs in two ways. (a) Soft copy way (b) hard copy
way.

(a) Soft copy way :-

The output or a monitor is called as soft copy way. Because the data inside
the monitor can be changed.

Monitor-Monitor is called V.D.U.(Visual Display Unit).The V.D.U consist of 25

rows and 80 columns. It has 200*640 pixels. It is based on CRT (Cathodes ray
Tube) method. It produces a beam of electrons that makes the pictures on the
screen.The screen is represented by an array of dots, which is called as pixel.
There are various types of monitor like MGA, CGA, EGA, HGA, VGA & SVGA
etc..
(i)(MGA)Monochrome Graphics Adopter: - Which monitor can display
single back ground colour is called as monochrome monitor. It is a text-
only adopter. It works only with an IBM monochrome display screen or its
equivalent.
(ii) CGA (Colour graphics adopter): - It is introduced by IBM in 1984, which
has colour capability, and it has 640*200 pixels. It works in both text and
graphics mode.
(iii) EGA (Enhanced graphics adopter)- It is introduced by IBM in 1984
which can support 16 colours at a time.
(iv) HGA (Hercules graphics adopter)- It is introduces by Hercules
computer technology in 1982. Which can display 750*350 dots.
(v) VGA (Video graphics Array)- It is introduced by IBM in 1987 and it has
256 colours supports at a time with high resolution. It has 768*1024 pixels.
(vi) SVGA (Super video graphics adopter)- It is introduced a group of
American companies in 1988. It had 56% more pixels than VGA.

(b) Hard copy way-

Hard copy produces by printer, which is divided into two types like impact
printer and non-impact printer.

Impact printer-Which printer has direct mechanical contact with the print media is
called as impact printer. It operates like a typewriter, pressing a type face against
paper and inked ribbon. It is two types line printer and serial printers.
Line Printer Prints line by line and speed vary from 150 to 2500 per minute. It
is also 2 types 1. The drum printer and 2. chain printer. The drum printer prints 96
to 160 characters on a 15” drum. Where chain printer prints with a rotated band
with a hammer has activates to strike the embossed characters.
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Serial printers are also called as character printer, prints one character at a
time. It prints 30 to 300 characters per second. It is also two types 1. Daisy wheel
printer 2. Dot matrix printer.
Daisy wheel printer has a motor to spin the wheel rapidly and hammer strikes
against the inked ribbon to print. It is an excellent quality. But due to low
speed(25 to 60 character per second) It is rarely used.
Dot matrix printers consists and arrangement of tiny pins. It prints character
by character and from left to right or like right to left. It is usually faster and Less
expensive then daisy wheel printer(50 to 480 character per second).

Non-impact printer-Which printer doesn’t have any mechanical contact with the
medium is called as non-impact printer. It is electrostatic chemical and run with
ink jet technology. Two Examples are Laser printers and ink jet printers.

Laser printers are looks like a photocopier machine. It uses laser been to
create image. These laser exposed areas attract a toner(an ink powder). It can print
4 to 12 page per minute with the finest qualities.
Inkjet printers are like dot matrix printer but it has no pins but microscopic
holes. The droplets of ink are electrically charged. Its print qualities are good. It has
cartridge to fill ink.

Memory of computer

Memory is used for storage and retrieval of instructions and data in a

computer system. The CPU consists of several registers for storing data and
instructions.
Memory is divided into two parts like primary memory & secondary memory.
(A) Primary memory – Which gets the first chance to store the data is called
as primary memory. It communicates directly with the processor. it comprises a
couple of integrated chips mounted on a printed circuit board plugged directly on the
motherboard. It is divided into 2 types:- RAM & ROM.

RAM – It stands for Random Access Memory. It is divided into two parts like
dynamic and static RAM. It is volatile because it is temporary by nature to store data.
(i) Dynamic RAM – The dynamic RAM contains a transistor, a capacitor
and an on-off switch. It has larger storage capacity than Static RAM.
(ii) Static RAM – The three main function of static RAM is a transistor, a
capacitor and a regenerator circuits. It is mainly used for specialized
applications.

ROM – It stands for read only memory. It is non-volatile because it is permanent.

As the name goes it is fully permanent which has 3 categories. (i)P.ROM (ii)
E.P.ROM (iii) E.E.P.ROM

(i) P.ROM – Programmable ROM allows to create program on it, which can’t be
erased or changed in anyway.
In case of programmable ROM the programs are store inside the
P.ROM-chips.
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(ii) E.P.ROM – Erasable programmable ROM. The data on E.P.ROM can be erased
by the manufacture by ultra violet rays in a special frequency. Also the chip can be
reprogrammed .The difficulty is that it will erase the whole program.

(iii) E.E.P.ROM – Electricity erasable programmable ROM can be erased in an

electrical process ,even the selected portions can be erased and re-written.

(B) Secondary memory- Whenever saving a document in a computer it goes

towards the secondary memory. It is otherwise called as auxiliary memory. Example:
- floppy disk, zip disk, CD ROM, pen drive, hard disk, magnetic tapes.

(i)Magnetic tape- It consists of magnetic materials that store data permanently .It can
be 12.5 mm to 25 mm wide plastic film-type and 500 to 1200 meter long which is
coated with magnetic material. It is like a cassette of tape recorder.
(ii) Floppy disk – It is developed in the early of 1970. It made of magnetic oxide cover
with the flexible plastic and disk surface in more track and sector. It is two types: -
mini floppy & micro floppy.
(a)Mini floppy – It is also called as 5¼” floppy. According to this size it already
varnished from the market. It is covered with a flexible rexine and many positions
have no cover. So, it hasn’t a projected from dos. Its storage capacity is 1.2
megabytes.
(b) Micro floppy – It is also called as 3½” floppy. It is smaller in size than but it
has higher storage capacity of 1.44 megabyte.

(ii) Zip disk – It is also a storage device. It is 100% more powerful than floppy disk.
But when the CD ROM came to market people didn’t use it.

(iii) CD ROM – (Compact disk read only memory) as the name it is goes permanent
in nature. Once data stored on CD can’t be erased, so it is called as WORM. (Write
once read many) It is commonly used to store computer programs, music, MP3,
video etc. Those, which are re writable, called CDRW. (Compact disk re writable)
A leisure beam is used to read or write the data on a CD ROM where the
storage capacity of a CD is 600-700 megabytes.

(iv) Pen drive – It is a storage device. It is just look like a pen cap. The storage
capacity of a pen drive is more than 1 GB.

(V) Hard disk – It is the mother storage device of a computer, which is used inside
the cabinet of CPU. Whenever we are storing something or any data in computer it
goes towards the hard disk. All the internal programs on a computer are generally
inside it. The storage capacity of a hard disk is 240-160 GB.
It is safer to use because it is used inside the CPU cabinet. The data
(rotating) open / close speed is faster. It has a high volume of disk space.
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Languages of Computer

A language is a means of communication. The programmer makes use of a

computer language to communicative with the computer, which being a machine, is
receptive only to simple, unambiguous bracts.
Computer languages are of three types,
1. Machine language
2. Assembly language
3. High-level language
Machine Language
Although computers can be programmed to understand many different
computer languages, three is only one language understood by the computer without
using a translation program. The language is called the machine language of the
computer. The machine language of a computer is normally written as strings of
binary 1s and 0s. The circuitry of a computer is wired in a manner that it immediately
recognizes the machine language instructions, and converts them into the electrical
signals needed to execute them.
Assembly Language
The language, introduced in 1952, allows instructions and storage locations to
be represented by letters and by symbols, instead of numbers, is called an assembly
language. A program written in an assembly language is called an assembly
language program or a symbolic program. It is easier to understand and modify.

High-level language
Both machine and assembly languages have some limitations: They are
machine dependent. A machine language program, or an assembly language
program, cannot be executed on any computer other then the one for which it is
written. They require the programmers to have a good knowledge of the internal
structure of the computer being used. It is difficult, error phone and time consuming
to write programs in machine languages or assembly language, because they deal
with machine-level coding, Requiring one instruction to be written for each machine-
level operation.
Due to these limitations, machine and assembly languages are often referred
to as low-level programming languages. High-level programming languages were
designed to overcome these limitations of low-level programming languages.
A program written in a high-level language can be executed on many different
type of computers with very title or practically no effort of porting it on different
computers.
High-level languages are easily to learn, because they are very similar to the
natural languages used by us in our day-today life.
This allows the programmer to concentrate more on the logic of the program
under development. All these factors lead to fewer programming errors during
program development.
Writing programs in high-level languages requires less time and effort.
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SOFTWARE
It is the collection of a related set of program and program is the collection
of a related set of instruction. Software divided into two types – (I) system software
(II) application software.

(I) System software – The software, which is most necessary for the system,
is called system software. It is divided into three types- (A) language translator, (B)
operating system,(C)utility program.
Computer has three types of languages
(1) Machine level language
(2) Assembly level language
(3) High level language – Ex- C, COBOL, BASIC, FORTRAN,
PASCAL etc.
COBOL – Common business oriented language
BASIC – Biggners of all symbolic instruction
FORTRAN – Formula translation
PASCAL – Scientist name Pascal

(A) Language Translator – It is divided into 3 types –(a) interpreter, (b) compiler,
(c) assembler.

(a) Interpreter – It is a computer program written machine level language which can
translate machine level language to high level language and vice-verse. It can
translate any one line on a time so making programs consumes more time. It allows
to write an other line after completion of a successful barrowful line.
(b) Compiler – It is also a computer program written a machine level language used
to converted the machine level language to high level language and vice-versa. It
can compile the whole program at a time for which making a program is easier or
time saving.

(c) Assembler – It is a computer program written in assembly level language use to

translate the machine level language to assembly level language.

(B) Operating system – It is a system of software that always help the user to
operate and control all the input or output system of the computer. An operating
system is a necessary program to full a computer.
It is a platform for software operating device. It is divided in to 3
types like single user operating system, multi user operating system and graphical
user operating system.
(i) Single user operating system- It allows the user to run only one program at a time
like Ms DOS, PC DOS, DR DOS.
(ii) Multi user operating system - It allows the user to run more than one computer at
a time like Unix, Linux etc.
(iii) Graphical user operating system- Which operating system represents
graphical instead of operating system like windows 98, windows 200,
windows xp, logarithm etc.
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(C) Utility program –It is the system software which is supplied by the
manufacturer for the user. Painting program, Textwritting Program etc are some
examples.

(II) Application software- These software are designed for some extra work
on a computer. It is divided into two types like (i) normal product and (ii) standard
product.
(i) Normal product- These software are designed by the programmer to perform a
specific task. It cannot perform out of difference scope.
Example-Railway reservation software,
Bank management software,
Library management software,
Financial accounting etc.
(ii) Standard product- It allows the user or provides a basic environment to design
moral product software.
Example-Oracle, visual basic, Fox- Pro , C programming etc…