HYDROTHERMAL BRECCIA PIPES E.M. Baker, D.J. Kirwin and R.G. Taylor EGRU CONTRIBUTION 12 JULY, 1986 Department of Geology JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY OF NORTH QUEENSLANDNational Library of Australian Cataloguing in Publication Data Baker, E.M., Kirwin, D.J. and Taylor, R.G. Hydrothermal Breccia Pipes Bibliography. Includes index. ISBN 0 86443 172 4 1 Petrology, Structural. 2. Breccia. I. Kirwin, D.J. (Douglas J.). Il. Taylor, Roger G. HI James Cook University of North Queensland. Geology Dept. IV. Title. irc) ISSN 0816-0147 Wholly set up and printed within the University Manuscript received July 1985TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Approach ‘o Studying Breccias and Breccia Nomenclature Examination of Breccia Textures HYPABYSSAL BRECCIA PIPES Description Processes involved in Hypabyussal Breccation Explosive Brecciation Non-explosive Brecciation Related to Magmatically Derived Volatiles Fluidisation Late-stage Modification of Breccias ‘A Model for Hypabyssal Breccia Pipe Formation Lower Portion of Pipe Middle Portion of Pipe Upper portion of pipe Shallow Expression of Hypoabyssal Breccia Pipes Modifications to the Model Confusion Between Various Textures MAAR VOLCANOES Description Base Surge Deposits Vent Development by Phreatomagmatic Eruptions and Subsidence Fluidisation Relationship to Kimberlite Pipes Model of a Typical Maar Volcano Tuff Rings, Tuff Cones and Maar Crater Lakes Middle to Lower Vent Upper Vent Confusion Between Various Textures: HYDROTHERMAL EXPLOSION BRECCIA PIPES. Description Processes Involved in Hydrothermal Explosion Brecdation Form: ‘Model for Hydrothermal Explosion Breccias. Explosion Crater and Associated Breccia Fallout Apron Confusion Between Various Textures: FAULT-RELATED BRECCIA PIPES Description. Problems of Recognition Page 16 20Table of Contents (Continued) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MINERALISATION AND BRECCIATION Introduction Mineralisation in Hypabyssal Breccia Pipes Mineralisation in Maar Volcanoes Mineralisation Associated with Hydrothermal Explosion Brecclas Mineralisation in Fault-Related Breccias ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES APPENDIX 1. SUMMARY OF MAJOR FEATURES OF HYDROTHERMAL BRECCIA PIPES WITH EMPHASIS ON THOSE CHARACTERISTICS RELATING ‘TO THEIR RECOGNITION APPENDIX 2. EXPLANATION OF BRECCIA TERMS USED IN THIS PAPER. PLATES Page 26 30, 32 3 40,INTRODUCTION This contribution aims to provide a practical manual for exploration geologists concerned with the recognition of textures present in breccia pipes and the processes likely to have produced them. Baker (1984) proposed that breccia pipes which formed at different depths, or by different mechanisms at around the same depth, should exhibit diagnostic combinations of textures by which they can be broadly categorised. Baker proposed a classification of breccia pipes which is adopted herein, with addition of a further cate- gory, fault-related breccia pipes. The classifica tion is as follows. Hypabyssal Breccia Pipes: small to large- scale bodies formed at depths of around 0.5 to 2km, associated with the escape of volatile rich fluids from a crystallising mele. Maar Volcanoes-Diatremes: large-scale shal- low level structures produced by the explosive interaction of an ascending magma body with groundwater. Hydrothermal Eruption Breccias: relatively small structures produced at shallow levels by the explosive release of superheated steam and ot involving any direct" magmatic Fault-Related Breccia Pipes: small to moder- ated sized pipe-like forms of brecciated rock resulting fron fauhing. Approach to Studying Breccias and Breccia Nomenclature In practicea particular feature ofa breccia such. as clast shape is commonly considered an ade- ‘quate criterion for recognition of a breccia type. ‘On this basis the breccia is then labelled with a genetic name, e.g. collapse breccia. The term “collapse breccia” implies that the breccia being described is formed by the process of collapse, but the presence of slab-shaped clasts is commonly the only feature on which this connection between texture and process is made. In reality slab-shaped clasts can be produced by aay one of several processes, and unless other features such as the nature of the breccia matrix and relation: ships with other elements of the breccia pipe are considered, itis impossible to identify which pro- cess is responsible for brecciation. This loose usage of genetic terms fails to pro- vide a framework in which textures can be inter- preted interms of processes. If however a particu- lar combination of textures can be related to @ process, it then becomes possible to formulate a model of breccia pipe formation. By a process of induction a tentative model can be postulated on the basis of initial observations and its validity then tested against further observations, thereby leading to progressive refinement of the model To facilitate this approach, processes capable of ‘brecciation and the textures they produce are dis- ‘cussed within the context of the four proposed categories of breccia pipes. Another problem encountered by those work- ing on breccias is one of nomenclature: should genetic, or purely descriptive terms be used? A selection of process-related terms is used here in. preference to descriptive terms, in an attempt to relate the various textures to the processes that may have produced them. A form of process- related nomenclature is currently entrenched in both field usage and the literature, and we have adopted and clarified many of these terms. A glos- sary of the terms used herein forms Appendix 2. Toavoid loose usage of process-related terms it is necessary to discuss in detail the textures and processes responsible for the observed features. Features which may assist in distinguishing between superficially similar textures formed by different processes are discussed at the end of each section Examination of Breccia Textures At outcrop scale the two main elements of a Dbreccia are the fragments and the matrix. An initial observation required is the size range and. relative proportions of the two, and whether the ‘breccia is clast- or matrix-supported. A clast- ‘supported breccia commonly has cavities which. may be filled by later hydrothermal minerals. Ina poorly sorted matrix-supported breccia a conti- ‘nuum of material sizes may exist, ranging from large blocks many metres in diameter down to a fine rock flour. The degree of sorting and the matrix:clast ratio is an approximate measure of the degree of brecciation and may help in deter- mining the processes that produced the pipe. The angularity of clasts indicates the degree of com- ‘minution by milling. Shape is important in con- junction with angularity as an indication of pro- cess of formation; note that irregular polygonal lasts can show a considerable degree of rounding ‘of corners. Angular clasts may fit back together in a jig-saw pattern, indicating that only minor ‘movement of material has taken place, or clasts may be exiremely well-rounded suggesting in some circumstances that prolonged milling of fragments within a breccia column may have occurred. The composition of clasts and matrix material isalso important. Is the matrix derived from mil- ling of clast material or is it of hydrothermal origin? Are the clasts of an exotic composition? Doclasts show signs of pre-breccia alteration and ‘mineralisation, perhaps indicating the presence ‘of economic mineralisation at depth? What is the relationship of clastsand matrix to the host rocks? Is there any intrusive material in the breccia, and do the intrusives pre- or post-date the brecciation?HYPABYSSAL BRECCIA PIPES Description Hypabyssal breccia pipes are cylindrical to carrot-shabed bodies of brecciated wallrock and intrusives, ranging in diameter from tens of metres to over one kilometre and with a vertical extent up to several orders of magnitude larger than the diameter. The geological setting of many of these bodies suggests they formed between 0.5, and 2km below the surface in intimate relation with late stage magmatic processes (e.g. Figure 1). ‘The formation of hypabyssal breccias does not necessarily involve explosive venting of the pipe to surface since examples have been described which appear to terminate upward into undrec~ ciated rock (Sillitoe and Sawkins, 1971; Jacobsen. etal., 1976; and Sharp, 1978). The considerable textural variation present within hypabyssal breccias suggests that a number of different processes are involved. Also, some textures are restricted toa particular portion of the pipe, indicating that different processes may be active at different localities within the pipe and at different times during its formation. ‘The model proposed below involves examples where acid to intermediate intrusives are int mately associated with brecciation. Similar brec- cia pipes with no obvious relationship to such. intrusives do exist: in such examples, the textures ‘observed, their relative distribution, and the over- all shape of the pipe are surprisingly similar to those discussed in our intrusive-related model (Jacobsen et al, 1976; see Figure 2) Because hypabyssal breccia pipes form at com- paratively deep levels, they are generally asso- ciated with porphyry-style mineralisation Processes involved in Hypabyssal Brecciation Unlike hydrothermal eruption breccias and maar volcanoes where breccia formation can be directly observed, our understanding of the pro- cesses involved in hypabyssal breccia formation is ‘necessarily based on interpretation of the textures present. Ideally these textures should be inter- preted in terms of known geological or industrial processes. Where possible the experimental and. physical limitations of such processes should be considered before a particular texture is inter- preted. Because of these limitations the origin of hypabyssel breccia pipes associated with igneous activity agd ore deposits has intrigued and con- fused geologists for decades. ‘The most popular and commonly conflicting theories in the literature are summarised in Table 1. {t appears that many interacing pro- cesses contribute to the formation and upward propagation of hypabyssal breccia pipes. Often the processes are repetitive and considerable vari- ation might exist at different times within one pipe or cluster of pipes. Many ore deposits illus- 2 tate multiphase and complex episodes of breccia- tion e.g. Torquepala (Richard and Courtright, 1959) and Ardlethan (Clarke, 1979). Explosive Brecciation Hypabyssal breccias are commonly considered to be simply caused by the explosive release of ‘volatiles from the apical portion of acrystallising ‘melt, with no consideration of the effect that depth of formation may have on the effectiveness ‘of this process. Based on observations made on nuclear and chemical blasts, Nordyke (1961) demonstrated that the crater produced by a par- ticular strength of blast decreased in size with increasing depth. At depths greater than several hundred metres the explosions failed to producea crater and disruption of the rock was restricted to melting and cataclasis immediately adjacent to the blast site. Burnham and Ohmoto (1980) arrived ata similar conclusion from theoretical ‘modelling of magmatic systems (Figure $); note that the depth limit of explosive brecciation is dependent on the size and shape of the magma body. Although it is difficult to apply these results directly to breccia pipe formation, it seems likely that increasing depth tends to inhibit explosive brecciation, since the amount of material that ‘must be displaced upward to make space for brec- ciation is proportional to (depth}®. Therefore, any alternative to explosion as a brecciation mecha nism at depth must also explain how therequired space was produced, as a space must be present or rock fragments cannot be displaced relative to each other. Following this it seems likely that for breccia pipes formed by processes other than explosion, the volume of a breccia pipe will hea function of the original space available, Non-explosive Brecciation Related to Magmatically Derived Volatiles Norton and Cathles (1973) discussed the space problem inherent in brecciation at deeper levels. They proposed a model for breccia pipe forma: tion whereby escape of volatiles from the apical portion ofa erysallising melt produced a void or more accurately afluid-rich reservoir with conse- quent collapse of the overlying host rocks and formation of the breccia column. Pichavant (1979) demonstrated experimenvally that boron- ich melt could coexist with a volatile-rich hydrous phase in which the solubility of silica and aluminium was greatly enhanced. Such a hydrous phase could contain upto 15% boron by ‘weight and even more water. Escape of such a quantity of volatiles would be sufficient to initiate the collapse situation envisaged by Nor- ton and Cathles (1973). Escape of volatilerich fluids from the overpressured area via fractures results in a substantial pressure drop within thisRhyotive Rhyolite porshyry Aplite Terticry sediments Oa@Smg8 Gronite porohyry Mesezoie sediments Felsive Queternory talus Horntels Figure 1. The Redwell Basin intrusive and breccia complex, Colorado (from Sharp, 1978).Figure 2. Chiee dimensional const pipe, at Messina (hom Jacob a) the “L”" lade breccia pipe. b) the West Lode breccia 976).TABLE 1 THEORIES OF BRECCIATION MECHANISMS FOR HYPABYSSAL BRECCIA PIPES (after Kirwin, 1985) Solution stoping (Butler, 1918) Mineralisation stoping (Locke, 1925) ‘Oxidation subsidence (Wisser, 1927) Chemical brecciation (Sawkins, 1969) Solution collapse (Mills, 1972) Magmatic bubble collapse (Norton & Cathles, 1973) Magmatic heating of meteoric water (Lindgren and Bastin, 1922) ‘Magmatic water converted to steam (Emmons, 1938) Volcanic explosion pipes (Walker, 1928) Explosion collapse (Sohnge, 1968) Phreatomagmatic explosions (Wolfe, 1980 & 1988) Hydrothermal explosions (Scherkenbach, 1988) Magmatic explosion (Bashkirov, 1983) ‘Solutions at fault intersections (Kuhn, 1941) ‘Collapse mechanism (Perry, 1961) ‘Structural dilations (Park & MacDiarmid, 1964) Hydraulic ramming (Kents, 1964) Multiplane fault dilations (Mitcham, 1974) Fluidisation (Reynolds, 1954) Gas bubbling (Douglas, 1957) Fluidisation (Bryant, 1968) Fluidised meteoric water (Gustafson & Hunt, 1975) Fluidisation (Sharp, 1978) Injection breccia (Konstantinov, 1978) Fluidisation (Goode & Taylor, 1980) Fluidisation (Bryant, 1983)Mech. Energy (PAV;) , Ergs km’? of Magma x 1079 lous 20s. i D T 2000 1500/- 2 Moderato dg gg Z Fracture a 3 - Intensity ee ® oot 3 aa 500] : 7 Explosive NY 10 20 30 40 50 cy AV, (% Expansion of magma body) Figure 3. Thechange in volume (lower abscissa) and mechanical energy released (upper abscissa) in the yecond-boiling reaction; H.O-saturated melt — crystals + “vapour”. Values of Vrand P Vr ane for complete crystallisation of granodioritic magma with an initial H3O content of 2.7 The depth of transition beoween “explosive” volcanic eruption and “strong” fracture nes is approximate, as it depends upon the size and shape of the magma body (from Brunham & Ohmoto, 1980), Figure ¢. Diagrammatic illustration of experiments modelling the development of a fluidised cell. (A) Compressed air entering from below rises through fractures and begins to circulate in fluidised ells below voids produced by fracturesand uplift, Surface is domed and uplifted. (B) Lange cell has broken through to surface. (C) Continued escape of gas and solid fragments build rim anound sacer-shaped exer (alter Woolsey et al, 1975),zone. The fluid within the pores and fractures of the intrusive and adjacent host rocks, still over- pressured provided the escape is rapid enough, ‘causes tabular and wedge-shaped clasts to burst ‘off the adjacent walls into the reservoir recently ‘evacuated by the fluid. Bursting of detached blocks within the fluid reservoir could result in their concentric exfoliation. This process is commonly referred toas decompressive shock and. ‘was discussed by Farmin (1937) and Fletcher (1977). In the case of a boron-rich hydrous melt the pressure drop and loss of volatiles may result in freezing of the residual portion of the melt, producinga breccia showing textures characteris: lic of decompressive shock cemented by @ quarz- tourmaline matrix. Allman-Ward et al. (1982) described this type of tourmaline-cemented brec- ciaat Wheal Remfry, Cornwall, associated witha boron-rich intrusive as evidenced by the presence of pre-consolidation tourmaline-rich bands within the granite. Other volatiles such as chlorine, carbon diox- ideand phosphorus may act like boron to varying, degrees in assisting breccia pipe formation. Bai- ley (1977) and Shannon et al. (1982) considered that fluctuations in the partial presure of fluo rine within a crystallising melt is responsible for the formation of crenulate quartz-layered rock in the upper portions of some intrusives. Generally the initial presence of other volatiles in a crystal- lised melt is not as obvious as for boron and fluorine; and even where textures indicating high initial volatile content occur, brecciation is by no means always present. Examples where crenulate quartz textures are associated with breccias include Kidston (Mustard, 1988)andSeventy Mile Mountain (Claussen, 1984), Presumably a certain amount of ovepressuring of these volatiles must occur before conditions become favourable for breeciaticn, Ina situation where brecciation at depth is related to magmatically derived volatiles the volatile-rich phase must escape or contract in order to provide the initial space necessary to enable brecciation to occur. Burnham (1979) des- cribed how volatiles that become concentrated during crystallisation of the melt boil due to the effect of the latent heat of crystallisation. The resulting overpressure from boiling may be suff cient to fracture the surrounding rock hydrauli cally, resulting in the stockwork veining com- monly present in deposits. Overpressuring is enhanceé by an increase in the unit volume of crystal plus hydrous phase compared to the initial silicate melt. Norton (1982) calculated that the hydraulic fracturing may cause an increase in permeability of two orders of magnivude. Wherea considerable portion of the volume of the rock twas occupied by such fluid, its rap.d evacuation from the fractures might produce sufficient space 10 initiate rebrecciation. Brecciation may cease at this early stage if the amount of volatile-rich fluid within the overpres- sured zone is relatively minor. However, a sub- stantial initial void might produce an elongate column of collapse breccia above the intrusion. ‘The resulting collapse breccias have sharp-edged ‘lasts with commonly tabular shape, although the shape of clastisalso influenced o some extent ‘by the pre-existing fabric of the rock. These brec- ‘as are typically clast-supported, with insuffi- ‘cient rock flour matrix tofill theexisting cavities, which may be filled by later hydrothermal minerals In the majority of breccia pipes however the clasts are rounded to subangular and are sup- ported in a rock flour matrix. In these examples, an additional process other than simple collapse has probably been active during breccia pipe for- ‘mation;a process capable of milling the clasts to produce rounded edges and a rock flour matrix. Fragments of earlier breccias are commonly pres- ‘ent as clasts indicating that brecciation was a ‘multiphase process. Fluidisation Reynolds (1954) recognised the similarity between textures in breccias showing a fair degree of milling, and industrial materials which had undergone fluidisation. Fluidisation occurs when either a liquid or gas is passed upward through a particulate bed initially buoying the particles up in a condition similar to that observed in quicksand. With increasing fluid velocity particles become agitated and then become transported by the gas or liquid upward through the centre and down along the margins of the fluidised cell. Particles become abraded during this process, with rounding of clasts and. production of a significant amount of rock flour matrix. Prolonged milling may produce near- spherical clasts. Less-rounded clasts which are either more resistant to abrasion or have been undergoing {luidisation for a shorter period of time are commonly mixed with the more rounded clasts within the breccia column, This type of breccia is referred to as mill breccia. When fluidisation takes place in a restricted space, such asa fracture along which volatiles are escaping, milling may produce a pebble breccia dyke in which the majority of clasts are spherical and supported in a rock flour matrix, Milling of breccia material may also be pro- duced by other mechanical processes, e.g. Fyfe et al. (1978) suggested that the high pore fluid pres- sure and generation of steam at the head of an intrusion may result in the disaggregation of the wallrocks by cataclastic flow and grain boundary sliding, enabling a viscous magma to bore its way upward, Such a breccia would be unlikely to con: tain rounded clasts and instead of forming an elongate breccia column above the intrusion ‘would probably form a sheath or cap around the top of the intrusive, The experiments of Woolsey et al. (1975) pro- Vide a useful understanding of the sequence of events likely to be involved in the formation of a breccia column. Initially a stationary bubble ‘must form before any movement of material can ‘occur (Figure 4 (A)). Because Woolsey's experi- 7Stress rotio O_Girch _éveth bee 6h 3s tem Depth h en k [ IN AN (\\ Figure 8. Sketels of the sa studies (rom Hock & Brown, 1980). of sertital (v) anid horizontal (2) sues9 ratios from various mineshetier breccia et pebble, baci (Plote 8) + imbricated Breccia (Plote 6) “ ‘ tourmelire breccia Htockwork veining ‘ i. [> showing decomprestive (Prote 1) thock tecture (Ploter 243) shyolite Figure 6. Generalised model of a aypabyssal breccia pipe illustrating the position ol various breccia types swithin the pipements were conducted in lightly compacted sand, the void formed close to surface with the initial fluidised cell below. With continued supply of gas the fluidised cell in the experiments eventu- ally breached the surface and ejection of material from the column built up an apron of material around the pipe similar to the tuff apron observed around maar volcanoes (Figures 4(B) and 4(C)).. In the case of hypabyssal breccias forming in. nature the position of the initial void is likely to be in the upper portion of the intrusion; thebrec: cia column would then stope its way upward by collapse. If the fluidised cell collapses at this stage, for example, due to the depletion of vola- tiles, the resulting breccia pipe may fail to explo- sively breach the surface. Pipes may not breach the surface because of the transition from domi- nantly vertical to dominantly horizontal stress regimes within the depth range 1.0 to 0.5km as indicated by the rock mechanics experiments of Hoek & Brown (1980) (Figure 3). This change could possibly inhibit brecciation by the above processes as the system approaches shallow depths. A pressure differential through the column is necessary to sustain the fluidised cel, such as might result from the escape of volatiles 1 surface via a network of fractures. ‘The relevance of these experiments to maar volcanoes will be discussed below. However hypabyssal breccias presumably explosively breach the surface in some instances, particularly if an influs of meteoric water is involved, as in some Bolivian examples (Grant et al., 1980), Where they breach the surface or format relatively shallow depths, explosive brecciation” may hecome the dominant process making it difficult to distinguish a breccia pipe that was initiated as aa hypaby sal breccia from atypical maar volcano, Late-Stage Modification of Breccias During and after the waning stages of fluidisa- tion, considerable modification may take place the breccia column and adjacent host ‘One major factor affecting this is the com- petency contrast between the host rock and the unlithified breccia, often resulting in britilefail- ‘cof the unsupported host rock during compac- tion of the breccia material. A zone of sheeted fractures is commonly described in the margins of pipes. with slabby blocks of the spalled pipemar- gin present avithin the breccia (Sillitoe and Saw- Kins, 1971, and Jacobsen et al., 1976). Where the Muidised breceia column fails to breach the sur face the overlying rock may gently subside into, the pipe forming a zone of shattering (Baker and Horton, 1982), In the upper portions of this zone whee the amount of movement hay been min- imal, clasts shove very litle diyplacement relative toy ea bother and can sll be phued back in their original positions, Fhespace benween the clasts is generally filled by hydrotleaimal mineraly such as quate 10 A Model for Hypabyssal Breccia Pipe Formation Figure 6 is a schematic model of a hypabyssal breccia pipe. The Plates referred to are discussed below. Lower Portion of Pipe In the proposed model the lower portion of the pipe will be in close proximity to the site of the volatile-rich melt. Due to the initial overpressur- ing of the volatiles the intrusive and adjacent wallrocks may contain stockwork mineralisation (Plate 1), Theescape of overpressured fluids from the pores and fractures of the intrusive and adja- ‘cent host rocks would cause tabular and wedge shaped clasts to explosively burst off the adjacent rocks into the area recently evacuated by the fluids, producing a breccia with decompressive shock textures (Plate 2). Similar bursting of large detached blocks would result in clasts becoming concentrically exfoliated (Plate 3). Ia the case of boron-rich systems this process of decompressive shock may result in freezing of the residual por- tion of the hydrous melt, producing a breccia cemented by tourmaline-rich matrix. During subsequent activity parts of the tourmaline brec- cia may become re-brecciated and incorporated as clasts into later breccia. Presumably at this level a significant proportion of the clasts present willl be derived from the intrusive. Middle Portion of Pipe ‘The middle portion of the pipe ischaracterised by a “mill breccia” consisting of subangular to rounded, tabular to cube-shaped clasts supported by a rock flour matrix produced by the milling of, the clast material (Plate 4). In a large body of breccia a mixture of clasts of various shapes, sizes and compositions would be expected in this sec tion of the pipe due to the effect of mixing during fluidisation. The margins of the pipe may show sheeted fracturing concentric to the pipe where the unsupported wallrocks have started to subside into the breccia (Plate 5). Fractures in the walls of, the pipe may also form by hydraulic fracturing of the wallrocks from overpressured fluids prior to brecciaformation. The palling of these fractured. wallrocks into the breccia may resu't in an imbri- cated layering of the clasts with a near vertical orientation near the margin, becoming rotated into the horizontal further into the pipe as they become compacted (Plate 6) Upper Portion of Pipe In the upper portions of the breccia pipe, large blocks of host rock showing varying degrees of displacement and rotation may be present within, the breccia. Where a significant amount of host rock material has subsided into the breccia ‘out undergoing much mixing it may be possible to trace the pre-breccia host rock stratigraphy hough the pipe, e.g. Kidston (Baker, in prep.) Subsidence of the walls and roof of the breccia pipe may also produce shattering of the adjacenthost rocks resulting in the formation of shatter breccia (Plate 7). Clasts show only minor dis- placement relative to each other and may fit back together in a jig-saw pattern. The amount of dis- placement between fragments may increase downwards grading into an angular clast- supported breccia commonly referred to as “col- lapse breccia”. Where the escape of volatiles upalong fractures has been prolonged fluidisation may occur, pro- ducing pebble breccia dykes consisting of rounded clasts of mixed assemblages in a rock flour matrix (Plate 8). Pebble breccia dyke forma- tion is intimately associated with the escape of volatiles during brecciation ane therefore they are likely to be synchronous with the main stage of breccia pipe formation and preserved in the upper portions of pipe above the column, Within por- phyry systems (after Walker & Cregheur, 1980) pebble breccia dykes are generally observed to be late-stage cutting the stockwork mineralisation, Thisis consistent with the proposed model wher- eby hydraulic jacking resultingin stockwork frac- turing is a precursor to brecciation. Shallow Expression of Hypabyssal Breccia Pipes In areas of shallow erosion where hypabyssal breccia pipes are not exposed their presence at depth may be indicated by any of the features present in the host rocks adjecent to the upper portions of these bodies, e.g. pebble breccia dykes land shattered and cemented wallrocks. At surface some evidence of subsidence structures may be present if the diameter of the top of the pipe was roughly equal to or greater than its depth below surface, Sillitoe and Sawkins (1971) described arcuate fracture networks above some Chilean breccia pipes, and Sharp (1978) referred to similar features in a model of the Cave Peak intrusive/ breccia complex (Figure 1). Modifications to the Model A summary of breccia textures commonly found in hypabyssal breccia pipes and the pro cesses they might reflect is contained in Appen- dix 2, As discussed in the model (Figure 6) partic- uular texture types or combinations of textures are often characteristic of a level within the pipe. However any number of variables such as wall- rock and ‘or intrusive nature end depth of forma- tion, may result in variations to this model. For example where the initial amount of fluid present was insufficient to initiate any significant col lapse, or if volatile pressure was too low to susiain a fluidised cell, the proportion of breccia showing a significant amount of milling is likely to be small, Features normally present in the middle section of the pipe where fluidisation appears to be the dominant process are not likely to be strongly developed. Ifa hypabyssal breccia pipe was to breach the surface, the morphology of the pipe might be similar to that of a maar volcano. However we know of no breccia pipes where such a situation has been demonstrated. Perhaps this is because at shallow depths explosive brecciation becomes the dominant process and therefore their {inal char acter becomes that of a maar volcano. Features which may characterise such maar volcanoes include the presence of clasts showing porpkyry- type mineralisation, and the lack of any shallow intrusives which are an integral part of normal maar volcano formation (see below). Confusion Between Various Textures Asiscommon in most geological environments textures can easily be misidentified. This can be avoided by examining them in the light of the processes likely to have produced them. ‘The sheeted fractures and associated slabby breccia havea texture somewhat similar to that of the breccia produced by decompressive shock in a boron-rich system. However in the former the clasts are supported in a rock flour matrix rather than a tourmaline-rich cement and are mixed with and grade in to typical “mill breccia”. This relationship suggests that the sheeted fracturing and slabby breccia form adjacent to the fluidised cell and are subsequently incorporated into the fluidised column, probably during its waning stages. Sheeted fractures could be confused with stockwork. However the former have concentric orientations whereas the latter have a more ran- dom orientation and consist of multiple genera- tions of cross-cutting fractures or veins, Stock- work veining could also be confused with the “shauer breccia” although in detail the latter consists of brecciated rock with one generation of hydrothermal fill rather than the multiple fractu- ring’ veining typical of stockwork veining. nMAAR VOLCANOES Description Maar volcanoes consist of low-lying circular vents ranging from several hundred metres toover one kilometre in diameter. They are commonly filled with waterand surrounded by a narrow ring of ejecta composed of a mixture of brecciated host rock and juvenile volcanic material. Lorenz (1975) observed that maars at Eifel in Germany and in the Massif Central in France are commonly associated with cinder cones, and that the cinder cones which erupt along a fissure invariably I on the hills or valley slopes whereas the maars lie on the intersection of the fissure with the valley floor. Presumably in the valley floors the ascend= ing magma encounters a substantial amount of ground water resulting in an explosive eruption. Cas and Wright (1983) considered that though the term maar voleano has been used loosely to describe all broad low-rimmed volcanic centres including tuff ringsand tuff cones, a clear distine- tion is required between these terms, eg. Wood (1980), Sheridan and Woblev (1983) differen- tiated between these structures in the following way: “Tuff ings have low topographic profilesand gentle external slopes whereas tuff cones have high profiles and steep outerstopes. Ifthe floor extends below the original ground surface they ‘may be called maars Tuff rings are more commonly associated swith maars than tuf{ cones. The difference in slope of tuff rings and tuff cones is due to the cohe- sion of the wet ash that constructs the latter structure.” The term maar volcano has been adopted for general use here because exploration is normally ‘concerned with epithermal mineralisation in tke croded lower portions of these pipes The terms diatreme and maar volcano have been used synonymously by many authors including Gloos (1941) and Lorenz (1975). Com- monly diatreme is used when referring to the partly eroded breccia-filled vent of an original maar vo'cano, Diamond-bearing breccia pipes (e.g. kimberlite pipes and diatremes) also have: shape, sie and features very similar to maar voleanoes. Processes Involved in Maar Volcano Formation Maar volcanoes form by the eruption of meteo~ ric water explosively flashing to steam when it comes into contact with an ascending magma. ‘The process has been referred to as phreatomag- maticeruption by Lorenz (1975) andas hydrovol- canis by Sheridan and Wohletz (1983). The process envisaged for maar volcano forma tion is summarised as follows. When ground- water within a fissure comes into contact with a 2 body of iniruding magma, the water is heated. If the temperature anywhere in the water column above the magma surpasses the pressure- ‘controlled boiling point it will flash to steam. ‘Theresulting pressure relief will cause the level of steam formation to propagate downwards (Lorenz, 1975). The eruption of this steam up the fissure ejects pyroclastic debris and steam and perhaps water, depending on the water:magma ratio, The later ratio largely controls the energy of hydroexplosions (Sheridan and Wohletz, 1988), Moore (1967) described a series of debris-laden eruption clouds moving out radially from the base of a phreatomagmatic eruption column at Taal volcano in the Phillipines in 1965. Similar clouds, referred to as base surges, have been observed in shallow underground nuclear tests. ‘The base surge apparently forms as the expand ing gases at the explosive centre first vent verti cally and then with continued expansion, rush ‘outwards horizontally over the rim of the crater. ‘The base surge cloud moves horizontally with an, initial velocity of around 50 metres per second and is capable of carrying clastic material many ‘kilomettes from the vent. Breccia clasts deposited, ‘by base surges at Taal were up to nearly a metre in, diameter and were mixed with a poorly sorted matrix of ash and lapilli along with shredded wood and twigs from sand-blasted trees Base Surge Deposits Pyroctastic material forms an apron of base surge deposits surrounding the vent. This mate- rial is deposited by high energy surge eruptions, giving rise to thin sheets of unconsolidated but well-stratified breccia and uff beds. The fine- grained tuff beds characteristically contain accre- tionary lapilli and dune-form bedding. Accre- tionary lapilli form by accretion of dust particles on to small fragments of rock or water droplets which condense due t adiabatic cooling of expanding base surge clouds. Low angle (less than 15°) dune-form cross-bedding isa character istic of density-flow deposits, commonly in the finer-grained beds associated with accretionary lapilit Vent Development by Phreatomagmatic Eruptions and Subsidence At the end of an individual eruption the pres- sure inside the vent is lower than the surrounding lithostatic pressure. ‘The resulting pressure gra dient leads to spalling at depth and a more gentle slumping near surface (Shoemaker et al., 1962). The enlarged fissure is choked with wallrock debris and refilled with water initiating another cycle of eruption. With continued eruptions the vent increases in diameter and propagates downwards, As long as there is a supply of magia and water, phrealomagmatic eruptions and subsidence will continue. Ifthe water supply is cut off, the magma may intrude the vent mate-rial in the form of plugs, sills, dykes and ring dykes, When the vent reachesa crtcial diameter, large blocks of wallrock and overlying pyroclastic debris may subside into the brecla pipe. Circular, steep inwardly-dipping faults referred toas "ring faults" form around the crater rim during subsi- dence. This enlarges the vent and leads to forma- tion ofa maar crater lake in which sediments may then be deposited. At Wau, Papua New Guinea, Sillitoe etal. (1984) report the presence of large blocks of basement and overlying tuff ring mate- rial with horizontal dimensions in excess of 300 metres, which appear to have slid gently down- slope 3-400 metres into the cenireof the pipe. The base of such blocks is underlain by a zone of sheared vent breccia and basement. Compaction and subsidence of the vent material may result in steepening of dips and local slumping and over- tuming of the strata Fluidisation As discussed previously the observations of Nordyke (1961) on nuclear and chemical blasts tend to indicate that hydrovolcanism/phreato- ‘magmatic eruptions are unlikely 10 produce breccia pipes with a vertical extent of more than several hundred metres. Since maar volcanoes are known to have a vertical extent well in excess of this (Lorenz, 1975; Sillitoe et al., 1984), other pro- ‘cesses may be more important at depths below several hundred metres. Lorenz (1975) suggested that fluidisation within the vent may be an active process responsible for milling of the subsided rocks into lapilli- to ash-sized material. He did not consider that fluidisation actually enlarged the vent directly, but that this resulted from sub- sidence along ring faults, Lorenz (1975) and ear- lier workers including Cloos (1941), referred to the fluidisation as “tuffisation” and to the mate- rial produced as tuffsite. Tuffsite appears to have many features characteristic of fluidisation, eg. intrusion into fracturesand faults within the vent breccia and clasts as well as intrusion into the wallrocks and the presence of well-rounded lapilli-sized fragments within the tuffsite Itscems likely then that in the deepr portions of the vent, where explosive brecciation is inhibited by the sheer weight of the overburden, fluidisa- tion may become the dominant process. Presum- ably fluidisation results from the rapid escape of superheated steam under pressure up along faults and fractures or in extreme cases directly upward through the breccia column, Relationship to Kimberlite Pipes The model for kimberlite pipes in Africa con- structed by Hawthorne (1975)on the basis of field observations, is similar to thatfor maar volcanoes described by Lorenz (1975). The kimberlite model consists of a pipe from 300 to 1500 metres in diameter, with sides dipping steeply inward at around 80° and with a vertical extent in excess of one kilometre. The original surface expression consists of an apron of kimberlite ejecta sur- rounding the vent referred toas a tuff cone by the author. The upper portion of the vent fill consists ‘of epiclastic and sedimentary kimbetlite. The ‘vent breccia is comprised of country rock and kimberlite in roughly equal proportions and Support large blocks of country rock which have subsided into the pipe. The lower portion of the vent narrows down and roots off a dyke or sill of magmatic kimberlite. Lorenz (1975) considered that kimberlite pipes may form by a process sim- ilar to that of maar volcanoes, involving the interaction of groundwater with a kimberlite magma. This is strongly supported by the fact that they pass downwards into dykes and sills. Isotopic results on minerals in kimberlitebrecda matrix by Sheppard and Dawson (1978) suggest involvement of groundwater at elevated tempera- tures (T>75°C). Model of a Typical Maar Volcano Figure 7 is a generalised model for a typical ‘maar volcano showing the distribution of various breccia types within the system. The annulus width of the tuff ring is characteristically similar to the vent diameter. Tuff Rings, Tuff Cones and Maar Crater Lakes In cases where only minor erosion has taken place since maar formation, the tuff ring sur- rounding the vent is likely o be preserved more or less intact, and is characterised (Plate 9) by tuff beds of uniform thickness (100m) interbedded with massive breccia, beds of which may be up to tens of metres in thickness. Tuff interbeds consist of fine-grained ash-to lapilli-sized material, with blocks up to several tens of metres in diameter deposited by the base surge. These blocks depos- ited by base surges show no impact sag craters, in contrasto those that have been deposited ballisti- cally (Plate 10). The tuff beds maintain a rela- Lively uniform thickness over distances of several hundred metres. Convolute bedding is present locally and may result {rom slumping, or from direct blast overturning earlier deposits at the cater rim. Accretionary lpilli (Plate 11) and low angle (less than 15°) dune-form cross-beds are characteristcally present in the finer-grained vufl beds (Plate 12). Close to the pipe beds dip inwards, but further out they dip gently away from the vent (Figure 7) ‘The wavelength of dune-form bedding decreases outward from the explosive centre and the crests of dunes tend to be perpendicular to the surge direction (Moore, 1967). Accretionary lapilli extend medial distances from the vent where len- soid massive beds are common. Distal planar beds lack cross-stratification, but display reverse grad- ing due to their emplacement by grain flow. Tuff cones are thick, well-indurated, near-vent deposits. Beds are generally thick, with indistinct stratification. Large slump and mega-ripplesdue to post-depositional deformation are common on, steep slopes. Heiken (1971) reported that the steep inner slopes of the crater walls in most of the tuff 13carious brecciacones he studied are covered with near-vertical wwell-bedded tuff. The beds are less than one metre thick and show normal or reverse grading, and must have been plastered on to the crater wall during the waning phases of eruption, The cen ters of such vents are commonly filled with mas- sive tuff breccia, Tuff ringsand tuff cones deposited under water are characterised by tuff breccias which lack bed- ding, accretionary lapilli, dune-form cross- bedding and bomb sag crates. Middle to Lower Vent At deep levels the vent breccia is commonly massive to crudely layered, and large blocks of hostrockand tuff ring material may be suspended within it. The breccia whichis similar in appear- ance to the massive interbeds of brecdia within the tufFapron, consists of angular fragments gener- ally around one to several centimetres in diameter supported in a rock flour matrix of similar composition. Layering where present is on a gross scale, reflecting differences in average clas size and clast and matrix composition, and contacts between such layers are generally gradational. Less com- monly up to two or three bands per metre of intercalated clastrrich and clast-poor horizons may be present. Grading where discernable is generally not consistent even along one horizon, and internal structures are absent. Dips are gene ally fairly steep in the middle to lower portion of. the pipe (Figure 7 & Plate 18). Around the mar- sins of the pipe zones of sheared vent breccia and brecciated host rocks are common. This breccia may be either clast- or matrix-supported With increasing depth evidence of fluidisation. is likely to be more pronourced. In some instan- ces dyke-like bodies of fluidised breccia material ‘may be found intruding the earlier vent breccia and large included blocks. Breccias produced or ‘modified by fluidisation characteristically con- tain abundant small (less than one centimetre) well-rounded clasts The bottoms of these pipes commonly pass downward into the intrusive body which was responsible for the initiation of hydrovolcanism. Commonly more than one intrusive phase is present, with dykesand domes intruding the vent breccia at various stages in its development. Upper Vent ‘The upper portion of thevent commonly con- tains sedimentary sequences consisting of inter- bedded tuffaceous siltstone and coarser epiclastic breccia layers (Figure 7 and Plate 13). Compac- tion of the vent material may result in steepening ‘0{ dips and local overturning of the strata. Where ‘subsidence has been relatively uniform through- ‘oat the pipe the strata will dip radially inwards in the outer part ofthe pipe, while toward the centre dips may flatten outand change inflection. In the inner portion of the pipe, slump folds may be present. Subsidence of large blocs into the pipe and emplacement of domes up through the pipe ‘may also lead to disruption of layering within the pipe. Where domes have intruded the contempor- ary surface they are commonly surrounded by aprons of talus or crumble breccia consisting of blocks of intrusive material in a matrix of similar ‘composition, Confusion Between Various Textures Since deposition within maar crater lakes ‘occurs in a quiet lacustrine environment and ‘most of the material is derived from erosion of uff tring material, the layering in crater lake sequen- ‘ces may be confused with coarse surge deposits. “These subaqueous lake beds can be distinguished by the lack of dune-form bedding and accretion- ary lapilli, and by the presence of rhythmic layer- ing of fire tuffaceous and organic-rich horizons. In cases where steeply-dipping layering reflects either successive deposits of ejecta which have settled back into the vent after each eruption or maar {ill sediments, beds show a gradual shallow- ing in dip towards the center and a change in inflection at that point. The internal structuresin base surge deposits and maar sediments serve 10 distinguish tuff apron material formed by base surge [rom breccias with other types of layering (discussed below). Heiken (1971) reported the presence of steep 10 vertcally-dipping concentric tuff beds inthe upper portion of a vent. Apparently these beds were plastered onto the crater walls during the waning stages of eruption. The absence of inter nal structures in these layers distinguishes them from those discussed above. Whereconcentric layering is steeply-dipping to vertical everywhere within the pipe it is likely to have formed as a result of differential shear pro- duced by flow within a fluidised breccia column. In such cases the inner layers will be successively. younger and may show intrusive relationships, and may not show any internal structure.HYDROTHERMAL EXPLOSION BRECCIAS Description Hydrothermal explosions are common phen ‘omena in most boiling springareas of geothermal fields such as the Taupo volcanic zone of New Zealand and Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A. Hydrothermal explosion breccias are also found in other geological situations; for example Sill tocet al (1384) report the presence of gold miner- alisation associated with hydrothermal explosion breccias in the tulf ring of a maar volcano. Explosion craters have diameters ranging from several metres up to several hundred metres, anda limited vertical extent of less than 200 metres, The fallout apron or “debris ring” forms a circular mound up to 200 metres wide around the peri- phery of the crater and is comprised of material ejected in the explosive vents responsible for crater formation. Processes Involved In Hydrothermal Explosion Breccia Formation Muffler et al. (1971) considered hydrothermal explosions to form by the following mechanism: Hydrothermal explosions are produced when water contained in near-surface rocks at temperatures as high as 250°C flashes to steam and violently disrupts the confining rocks. Hydrothermal eruptions are not a typical volcanic explosion. All the required energy probably comes from a deep igneous source; this energy is transferred to the susface by cir- culating meteoric water rather than a magma. The energy is stored as heat in hot water and rock within a few hundred metres of surface. Temperatures much higher than surface boil- ing may be achieved at shallow depth because of the increase in boiling point with pressure. If near-surface permeability is decreased by depos tion of hydrothermal minerals or bya caprock the energy may build up until it is explosively released, When water at the top of the column is removed the effective weight of the column. decreases, seam formsand displaces water further reducing the confining pressure at depth and leading to a chain reaction. Unconfined systems may only lead to geyser eruptions, but confine: ment and the build up of fluid pressure results in less frequent but more powerful eruptions to pro- duce explosion craters. Successive explosions result in the formation of a breccia-filled crater from several tens of metres to over one kilometre in diameter (Muffler et al., 1971). Nairn and Wiradiradja (1980) report that at Kawerau, New Zealand, such explosions may extend to 190 metres below surfaceand have explosion volumes of as much as one to ten million cubie metres. In geothermal fields hydrothermal explosion craters are commonly grouped along major line- 16 aments. Hydrothermal fluid overpressures along ‘normal fault planes or beneath an impermeable ‘caprock leads to local inerease in pore fluid pres sure adjacent to the fissure (Phillips, 1972); when the fluid pressure within the fault exceeds thesurm ‘of the confining pressure and the rock tensile Strength, the fault and associated fractures will propagate, The new space created, provided the kinetics are favourable, may cause pressure drop within the fault and the fractures, in turn causing, the overpressured wallrocks to explode inward, producing an angular breccia. The high velocity attained by upward-moving pressurised fluids ‘might result in transport and milling of the frag ments to produce a breccia with somewhat rounded clasts in a hydrothermally altered rock flour matrix Deposition of hydrothermal minerals in newly created fracture spaces can cause self-sealing of the system and may prestage another episode of hydraulic fracturing. Eventually the host rock within the lower part of thesystemmay becutbya Hockwork vein network. Clasts in the debris rim and the breccia pipe commonly show signs of repeated fracturing and recementing, indicating extlic overpressuring and explosive release in the Tower partof the system. Model For Hydrothermal Explosion Breccias Figure & shows the relationship between hydrothermal explosion breccias and other fea- ures typically found in geothermal fields. Explosion Craters and Associated Breccias Nairn and Wiradiradja (1980) suggest that crat- ers larger than several hundred metres probably result from the coalescence of two or more smaller structures. The breccia pipes underlying these craters generally have a limited vertical extent of less than 200 metres, reflecting the depth at which boiling takes place. Breccia material within the crater is similar to that observed in the associated fallout aprons but can be distinguished by the lack of internal bedding structures. At Wau (Silli- toe et al., 1984) the crater and the associated hydrothermal breccia do not forma discrete pipe, but manifest themselves as a ramifying set of planes and small anastomosing zone of hydroth- ermal breccia intruding the host rocks. Brecciation occurs preferentially along pre- existing structures such as faults. In moderately to shallowly dipping faults the brecciating fluids preferentially penetrate into the hanging wall, resulting in multiphase stockwork veining and hydrothermal brecciation of the overlying host. rock. The breccia typically consists of rectangular rather than thin slabby clasts in a matrix of hydrothermal mud or epithermal gangue miner- als (Plates 14 & 15). Commonly hydrothermalcus Jo uonysod ayy Sunensnyqt e199219 uorsojdxe peuLs21104 yim saddr epoo1q snorser 40} Japous pasipeauas ‘g anSry NR ratuitjau onan: vorto4 wait eutjodo 0129019 wousnse Puseyiouphy Ye exdoii0> Wwbreccias contain clasts of stockworked host rock and earlier breccia which are in wrn cut by a further generation of stockwork veining. Where hydrothermal explosion breccias have their roots in fault zones the faults themselvesare commonly filled with similar gangue minerals. Veins within these faults may also show repeated brecciation and recementing by gangue minerals, reflecting the cyclic build-up and explosive release of hydrothermal fluids (Plate 16). Hydrothermal brecciation may also occur below and within an impermeable caprock horizon such as a shale bed ‘ora zone of opaline silica deposited 2t the base of a boiling water-table (Figure 8) Above such a zone of opaline silica minor brecciation not related to hydrothermal eruptions may result irom collapse within the zone of acid and steam leaching, Fallout Apron The fallout apron or “debris ring” as it is commonly called consists of airfall and base surge deposits. These are typically poorly sorted and consist of large angular blocks up (o 2 metres in diameter supported in a muddy sand matrix con- taining a high proportion of hydrothermal clay (Plate 17), Blocks may be hydrothermally altered and shew evidence of early hydraulic jacking and recementing by gangue and ore minerals. Layers representing individual auptions may be up to 12 menes thick (Nairn & Wiradiradja, 1980), Compositional variations beaween succes sive layers reflect variations in the source of indi- sidual eruptions, Bedding is generally absent to poorly developed. Nairn and Wiradiradja (1980) a Kawerau report individual bedding generally more than one metre in thickness, while at Wate individual beds are up to several metres thick (Plate 18). Bedding structures include wedging, pinch and swell structures, and dune-form bed- ding as well as more common subparallel bed- ding. The wave-form bed structures and lack of impact sags associated with many large blocks within the breccia beds have been interpreted as evidence of deposition by base surges. Elsewhere within the apron impact sag craters associated with large blocks indicate an air-fall origin. At Wau, the original thickness of the fallout apron was in excess of 50 metres. According to Nairn and Wiradiradja (1980) the fallout apron thins rapidly away from source, although some large diameter blocks travel further than lapilli and ash-sized material. Itappears that large ejecta rapidly separate from the explosion jet above the vent into ballistic trajectories, Confusion Between Various Textures ‘The presence of hydrothermally altered clasts and hydrothermal clay in the matrix of the fallout apron contrasts with the breccia found in tlt Fings surrounding maar volcanoes which is generally unaltered, Commonly hydrothermal breccias contain clasts of stockworked host rock and earlier breccia which are in turn cut by a further generation of stockwork veining. This style of stockwork vein- ing differs from porphyry-type deposits in that individual veins are thicker and show features typical of epithermal mineralisation such as ciustiform banding,Figure 9. Zone of brecciated rock produces by movement alon, Note that the movement cai above. Examples are comm: 18 an inregularly-shaped fault surface. in be in any direction and not necessarily horizontal ae depicicd 1on in almost any brittle fracture’ vein system, Figure 10. Zone of brecciation produced at a fault weds ige. Fragments are frequently large and only slightly rotated. Note that movement may be in any direction,FAULT-RELATED BRECCIA PIPES Description Pipe-like forms of brecciated rock are very ‘common along fault zones both simple and com- plex. The brittle fracture and fault movement result in a combination of block jostling and small fragment rotation which formsa column of anastomosing permeable zones available for min- cralising fluids. Most such pipes are small in size but mineralised pipes in places form ore bodies of several million tonnes, Recognition of this styles frequently difficult because of three common problems, 1, Confused concepts concerning the variety of mechanisms which produce this style of breccia. 2, Difficulty in establishing the scale of breccia tion in the field. 3, Difficulty in recognising brecciation through a mask of overprinting hydrothermal altera- tion, erratically distributed infill, and super- imposed later fault movements. This problem is {urther compounded by weathering oxida- tion in the near-surface environment. Iris not possible to cover in brief the many fault variations responsible for forming brecciated zones of rock that eventually adopt a pipe-like form, Some of the most common fault types and mechanisms of brecciation are: 1. Pipes of brecciated material forming within a single fracture zone (Figure 9) 2. Pipes of brecciated material forming as a result of one or more phases of movement long muluple fracture cones: Wedge adjustment (Figure 10) 2. i) Pipes of brecciated material formed at fault Intersections (Figure 11) This commonly invoked mechanism is in fact relatively rare, However, the intersection zone is ‘commonly a zone of both small and large scale jostling, which may be reactivated by any regional or local tectonism. (i) Pipes of brecciated material formed by black shaffle accompanied by intersection and wedge adjustment (Figures 12 & 13). This stele is exuemely common and although occurring at all. scales, fre- quently produces large jostled fragments swith onlt local areas of small scale grossly rorated fragments. The resulting fluid pathways are complex, 2c, Block shulfle caused by refraction cymoid. looping of fractures as they cross competent incompetent layers (Figure 14). Pipes of this nature can occur av any orientation and may ry between horizontal or vertical depend: ing on circamstance. They commonly vanish along pli 1g toa change of fracture angle (Figure 13) While theexamples given above appear simple chough, there is frequently a problem in 20 ‘establishing scale. When brecciation occurs at a relatively large scale, itis difficult to gain a clear perspective in the field. The central region is cha- racteristically a 20ne of alteration, commonly overprinted by later barren fault readjustment. Individual major blocks are only mildly jostled andextremely difficult o recognises they exceed. the scale of abservation in small mine openings. ‘The best field approach is to assume that any pipe-like form is potentially of fault origin and to seek appropriate evidence. If possible one should move to the outer zones of the pipe where altera~ tion is less intense, and a circumnavigation of the ‘mineralised zone will then reveal the nature of the fracture zones entering the pipe region. Small- scale pipes form very commonly via the above mechanismsand thus any small pipe isa favoured candidate fora fault related origin. Figures 910 16 show the scale typical of each breccia type Pipe forms resulting from large block shutle- faulting of uncertain origin have been illustrated in Figure 16, This is typical of the rather unusual W-Mo pipe forms found at Wolfram Camp, Bam- ford Hill, Eight Mile Hill and other localities in north Queensland (P. Blevin, pers. comm.). Problems of Recognition Problems of recognition of structural pipes are commonly due to alteration, irregular infill and oxidation. In many cases the multiple fluid pathways created by block jostling allows such easy access for fluids that wallrock alteration becomes elfec- tively pervasive, Within rocks susceptible to mas- sive alteration replacement (carbonate, basalt, tuff etc.) the ore zone may be extremely large and iseffectively acombination ofa breccia pipeanda replacement deposit. Intense alteration/replace- ‘ment masks the nature of the fragments. As men- tioned above some assistance in recognition is provided by moving to the periphery of the min- ralised zone, but the central parts require care in identifying the main fluid pathways and distin- guishing infill rom alteration. Alteration and/or ‘oxidation may mask the breccia blocks from cas- ual observation but the rocks normally retain. their fracture textures. Intensely broken zones Took more blocky, knobbly, and fractured than do areas of large fragments. Shear zones are still vis- iblealthough individual faults may be only short and seemingly in random directions. The open spaces created by brecciation are infilled to pro- duce patches, vughs, short lenses, minor veins ete. which fail to interconnect at the observational scale. Thus isolated pockets of mineralisation raise suspicion, and in practice this may be manifest as "gopher-style” excavation where small-scale mining has occurred. In some cases the alteration minerals are the same as the infill minerals (sericite*quartz’sericite*quartzetc.) and although infill is normally coarser. than alteration extensive rock slabbing may be required to gain a good perspective,(A) Foultng] (maior (8) Fouling 2 (maior) (E) Post rinerlistion readjustment (minor) frocture propogotion = (C) Foulting 3 (minor reodiustments) Figure 11. Development of pipe-shaped ore body via renewed movement on intersecting fractures ‘mall and large scale (from Taylor, 1979)Figure 12. Pipes of brecciated material formed by block shuffle at fault intersections with wedge adjustment ‘hulle blocks Figure 1. Block shuttle when a single fault becomes a zone of multiple faulting, In some eases the Dock shulfle may be duc to an under Iving intrusive.Figure 14, Expansion of a fracture as it crosses a different unit with resultant block jostle and irregular, expanded ermeability. Figure 15, Two sections or plan views of the seme fa intersecting at bed of different competency, Note that breeciated sone (A) nay vanish (Bp Long ity len on changesThe problem of recognising breccias and dis- tinguishing alteration from infill at the hand specimen scale can be approached via compre- hensive rock slabbing. It is essential to collect large specimens in the field, {rom several locali- ties within the suspected breccia, Vughs recognis- able in hand specimen can be used as a base point for infill recognition. The vughs are characteris- tically triangular elongate and cuspate in outline and commonly contain indications of euhedral crystallisation. Even where vughs are fully infilled, the later phases become interstitial between previous euhedral phases and again ri angular textures are common. Careful observa- tion of the local geology provides valuable clues to fragment identification as most alteration reflects both the grain size and the original rock texture. In particularly difficult cases itis worth- while etching the specimen with hydrofluoric acid, or investigating selected staining tech- niques. It is also wise to carefully observe wea- thered surface exposures in the field, since this isa natural etching process which often highlights the zones of infill from alteration,Figure 16, (A) Large scale jostling produces irregular cavities which are subsequently infilled by fluids. The result is irregular tortuous pipes of infill which are often seemingly blind and of unpredictable orientation. Pipes of this type are suspected at Wolfram Camp, North Queens- land (B).RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MINERALISATION AND BRECCIATION Introduction Rarely does the mineralisation hosted by brec- cia pipes appear to be exactly synchronous with and intimately related to brecciation. Normally the breccia pipe merely provides a favourable structural setting for the mineralisation. Often similar-style mineralisation with a different structural setting e.g. vein, replacement or dis- seminations, is present elsewhere in the region, not associated with brecciation. The grade of mineralisation within a breccia pipe appears o bea function of permeability and porosity. Where a breccia is permeable hydroth- ermal fluids can pass through the pipe reacting with the matrix and clasts to produce an sltera- tion assemblage. Ore minerals may be deposited as disseminated grains within the matrix. If the brecciated rock is reactive it may become com- pletely replaced by the alteration/ore assemblage. In this situation where a proportion of the origi- nal breccia material can be removed the grade of core is likely to be proportionally higher. Grades are also likely to be higher in the case where Cavities or open fracturesare present, asthe spaces may be filled by ote minerals. Since systematic permeability and porosity differences beween various breccia types influence the grade of min- eralisation, the models discussed in the previous sections can providea useful guide to theexplora- tion of breccia pipes Mineralisation in Hypabyssal Breccia Pipes Mineralisation in hypabyssal pipes generally shows one or more of the characteristics asso- ciated with porphyry-type deposits, eg. Kidston (Baker, in. prep.) and Redwell Basin (Sharp, 1978), Pre-breccia mineralisation, where present, commonly consists of stockwork veinlets and/or dissemination within the early intrusives and. host rocks. Clasts of this mineralisation may be present within the breccia, and if no sign of such mineralisation is present at the level of erosion then presumably it occurs at greater depth. The bulk of the pipe may be comprised of altered but only poorly mineralised mill breccia The reason for the generally low grade of miner- alisation throughout this breccia is the relatively low porosity (space available) in spite of suffi- cient permeability to allow hydrothermal fluids to pass through and alter the matrix and clasts. Ore-grade mineralisation is likely to be localised in areas of higher initial porosity within the pipe (Figure 17 (A), In the upper section of the pipe the areas of high porosity are likely 10 be the zone of shatter and collapse breccia immediately above the main column of breccia. The zone of sheeted fractures surrounding the pipe is a possible site for ore in the middle section of the pipe (Sillitoe and Sawkins, 1971), Ore-grade breccia may also 26 bbe present along the margins of the pipe where imbricate¢ breccia fragments with a vertical orientation are abundant (Llambias and Maloi- ‘epithermal vein im close ct ¢ cciated in places stockwork veining ond brecciotion inthe hanging wall of vein Figure 19. Relationship bevween epithermal mineralisation and hydrothermal explosive breccia- tion (from Baker, 1984, and in prep.). For details of geology refer to Figure 8.‘open and become filled with ore (Figure 18) (Silli- toe et al., 1984). Other styles of epithermal miner- alisation common to geothermal terrains and not necessarily related to brecciation may also be present within maars. Mineralisation Associated With Hydrothermal Explosion Breccias Hydrothermal explosion breccias are an inte- gral part of many geothermal systems and as such are likely to be associated, at least spatially, with epithermal mineralisation. Figure 19 shows some of therelationships likely to exist between brecci- ation and mineralisation. Epithermal veins ‘commonly show signs of repeated brecciation due to cyclic self-sealing and overpressuring. In shallowly-dipping faults the hanging wall may contain stockwork mineralisation due to repeated hydraulic jacking by the overpressured hydroth- ermal fluids trapped in the vein (Sillitoe et al., 1984). The breccia pipes themselves are likely to be small, irregular in shape and consist of clasts supported in a matrix of hydrothermal clay. They may contain clasts of mineralised vein material. ‘The nature of these pipes does not make them particularly favourable hosts to mineralisation unless they become modified by later stockwork- ing or acid leaching processes. Mineralisation in Fault-Related Breccias Figure 20 shows a generalised sketch of the relationships beween brecciation and miner sation in fault-related breccia pipes. On a broad scale alteration and mineralisation are often most intensely developed in the central part ofthe pipe. However, in detail, the ore shows an anastomos- ing distribution reflecting original variations in permeability and porosity. Large barren areas within otherwise ore grade rock may represent uunbrecciated blocks, The presence of reactive rocks may locally enhance the grade of ore. The faults adjacent 10 the breccia pipe may contain similar mineralisation. Where high grade veins ‘were mined in tne past, lower-grade but higher- tonnage breccia hosted mineralisation may have been left unexploited. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge Austamax Resources and Ms J. Lumsden for assistance in drafting of ment. We also wish to acknowledge W.P. Lai frs. S. Downing for typing the text, and Mrs P. Bristow and Mrs L. Laivins for typesetting the RM. Canter, P. Pollard and G.W. Morrison of the Geology Department at James Cook University of North Queensland for offering many improvements to the manuscript. We hank W.C. Lacy formerly of James Cook University of North Queensland for making tus aware of the nature and role of breccias in the first place. 30Toriton — Figure 20. Generalised relationship between brecciation and alteration’ mineralisation in a fault related breccia pipe. The density of stipple represents the intensity of alteration and minerali- sation ((rom Baker, 1984, and in prep.). 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