The Islamic calendar is lunisolar

Wenceslao Segura
wenceslaotarifa@gmail.com

Abstract.- We verify that the Islamic calendar is not exclusively lunar but is
also related to the movement of the Sun; for this reason, we say that the Islamic
calendar has some lunisolar aspects.

The Islamic calendar is regulated by the relative position of the Moon with respect to the Sun since
the beginning of the month occurs with the first observation of the crescent, few hours after the
conjunction of the Moon and the Sun; when the geocentric ecliptic longitudes of the centers of the
two stars coincide. Therefore, when we observe the first lunar crescent, the Moon and the Sun
are in a close position.

We mean that the Islamic calendar is not strictly lunar but also considers the movement of the Sun;
therefore, to a certain extent, the Islamic calendar is lunisolar.

The islamic calendar adjusts to the synodic period of the Moon, which is determined by the relative
position of the Moon to the Sun. A strictly lunar calendar, for example, would be the one that
follows the sidereal period of the Moon or the tropic period, since in in these cases, it is necessary
to consider the position of the Moon in relation to the equinox, either with or without precession,
without taking into account the movement of the Sun.

The lunar crescent is observed in the twilight sky when the Sun is below the horizon. So to determine
when we will observe the first lunar crescent, it is necessary to know the Sun's position below the
horizon so that the twilight is dark enough to see the crescent (Segura, 2021a).

Determining the first observation of Moon's crescent requires knowing the angular distance between
the Sun and the Moon, which is called arc-light, and the depression of the Sun below the horizon.

As an example of the Sun's influence on the Islamic calendar, we cite the movement of the apex,
which is the easternmost point on the Earth's surface where the Moon's first crescent is visible.
Ilyas (1997, p. 109-155) has suggested using the apex to define the Lunar Date Line, which tells us
that it is a significant concept in the Islamic calendar. The position of the apex changes in each
lunation, both in longitude and latitude, which depends mainly on the difference between the
declinations of the Moon and the Sun (Segura, 2022).

Therefore, the movement of the apex depends on the movements of the Sun and the Moon. In

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Geographical latitude of the apex

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Drawing 1.- Variation of the latitude of the apex or vertex of the zone of first lunar visibility. On the vertical axis
is the latitude of the apex, and on the horizontal axis each mark corresponds to the null ecliptic longitude of
the Sun; therefore, there is a year between consecutive marks. The short period of apex corresponds to
twelve lunations or 354.4 days. Another period modulates the short periods and has a duration of 19 solar
years. In the drawing, we verify that there is great dispersion of the maximum latitudes of the apex in each
short period. The drawing's highest maximum latitudes in a short period are  54º , and the lowest maximum
latitudes are  4º . The periodicity of the drawing is a reflection of the same periodicity of the difference
between declinations of the Moon and Sun. To make the graph, we calculated the ecliptic longitude of the
Sun's center in the geographical position of the apex at the time of the apparent setting of the Sun. To
determine the geographical position of the apex, we use the Moon Calculator software (Ahmed, 2001).

drawing 1, we have represented the latitude of the apex as a function of time. We verify that there
is a short period of duration of one lunar year or twelve lunations and a long period of 19 solar
years.

The 19 years is called the Meton cycle characteristic of lunisolar calendars. The Hebrew calendar
and the Christian ecclesiastical calendar use the Meton period as the basic period. The usefulness
of the Meton cycle in lunisolar calendars is that it contains 235 lunations, which is the average
length of a lunar month.

In the Meton cycle of 19 solar years (which lasts 6,939 days, that is, 16 normal years of 365 days
and 4 years of 366 days because they are leap years), there are 254 tropical months of the Moon
(each of 27.322 days) *. The Moon's declination period is a tropical month (Segura, 2021b), while
the Sun's declination period is a solar year (specifically a tropical year). In the 19 solar years, there
is an integer number of declination periods for the Sun (19 periods) and another integer number of
declination periods for the Moon (254 periods). The difference between the declinations of these
stars determines the geographic latitude of the apex (Segura, 2022); we verify that the latitude of
the apex has a period of 19 years because, after this time interval, the declinations of the Moon

* We must distinguish two cycles of Meton: the one that in 19 years has an integer number of lunations or
synodic periods, and the other that in the same number of years has an integer number of tropical months.

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and the Sun return to have the same values. The same happens with the difference between the
two declinations.

Another example where the position of the Sun must be considered for the understanding of the
Islamic calendar is in the isochrones. Which are curves drawn on the surface of Earth and that join
the points where the first lunar crescent is observed at the same moment; there is an isochrone for
each instant. The isochrones change with the lunation, and their inclinations with respect to the
equator are different in each lunation.

To draw the isochrones is necessary to know the depression of the Sun to start sighting the
crescent near the horizon, in addition to other factors. To find the moment when the Sun has the
required depression is necessary to know the position of the Sun, and again we find the solar
influence in the Islamic calendar.

Empirical criteria for the visibility of the first lunar crescent have been devised (Fatoohi, 1988, p.
94-144), applicable to the simplified situation in which we assume that the atmospheric conditions
are unalterable and the observation conditions are the same (Segura, 2022). To anticipate the
visibility of the Moon, we need to know Moon's apparent altitude, the difference in azimuth between
the centers of the Moon and the Sun, and the position of the Sun. Therefore, we confirm that it is
necessary to know the position of the Sun to anticipate the observation of the first lunar crescent.

Conclusions
The Islamic calendar is not purely lunar, that is, a calendar in which only the position of the Moon
intervenes. The Islamic calendar is dependent on the position of the Sun, among other reasons,
because the average length of the lunar month is the synodic period, which we determine by the
position of the Moon to the Sun.

We have exposed some situations where we confirm that the movement of the Sun and its position
in the sky is essential to knowing some aspects of the Islamic calendar. These considerations lead
us to conclude that the Islamic calendar is lunisolar in some way.

Bibliography
1.- Ahmed, M. (2001). Moon Calculator (MoonCalc). Version 6.0.
2.- Fatoohi, Louay J. (1998). First visibility of the lunar crescent and other problems in historical
astronomy. Doctoral theses. Durham University.
3.- Ilyas, M. (1997). Astronomy of Islamic Calendar. A. S. Noordeen.
4.- Segura, W. (2021a). Predicting the First Visibility of the Lunar Crescent. Academia Letters,
Article 2828.
5.- Segura, W. (2021b). Periods of the Moon. https://www.academia.edu/50779982/
Periods_of_the_Moon.
6.- Segura, W. (2022). Apex of the lunar first visibility zone. https://www.academia.edu/78415798/
Apex_of_the_zone_of_first_visibility_of_the_Moon.

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