SE SS a TP 7 TT Active Matei &asins Memore 52 Chapter 11 AAPG 1994 ¢ ' A New Geologic Model Related to the Distribution of Hydrocarbon Source Rocks in the Falcon Basin, Northwestern Venezuela Tito Boesi Maraven, SA. Caracas, Venezuela Donald Goddard ‘Maraven, S.A. Caracns, Venezuela + ABSTRACT The Falc6n basin, located in northwestem Venezuela, has been intermittently explored since 1912. Since 1912, 200 exploratory wells have been drilled and 12,000 km of seismic lines have been acquired. This exploration effort has resulted in the discovery of eight small producing fields in both onshore and offshore areas. The geologic history of the basin began in the late Eocene, and deposition continued through the Pliocene to the Recent. Because the basin is located at the boundary between the Caribbean and South American plates, sedimentation was controlled primarily by tectonism as evidenced by seismic and well data, Three structural systems developed as a result of east-west dextral crustal movement. The first, consisting of a set of normal faults and associated horsts and grabens, forms the northern extension of the Oligocene-Miocene basin. The second system, known as the Falcén anticlinorium, includes east-northeast— striking parallel folds located in the center of the basin. The third structural system encompasses the active east-striking right-lateral strike-slip faults of which the Oca fault is the most relevant, owing to its regional extent. The stratigraphic discontinuity within the basin is one of its principal features. The two stratigraphic stages that have been recognized are the result of a late Eocene to early Miocene transgression and a middle Miocene to Recent regression The northern flank of the basin, including the offshore area, has generated hydrocarbons from Oligocene and lower Miocene304 © Boesi and Goddard marine source rocks. However, small quantities of crude oils of terrigenous origin have been generated from Eocene source rocks. Based on the tectonic and stratigraphic framework of the Falcon basin, a new conceptual model is proposed that can be applied to future hydrocarbon exploration in the area. INTRODUCTION The FalcSn basin includes the state of Faleén and the northern part of thestate of Lara in northwestem Venezuela (igure 1). The boundaries of the basin have undergone ‘only slight changes during evolution of the basin. The limits ‘of the basin on land are considered to be those areas that include Oligocene and earlier sedimentation, The first regional geological studies took place between 1912 and 1920 with the beginning of petroleum exploration, in the area, The geologists of the British Oil Field Company and Standard Oil Company discovered some cil seeps clote to the villages of Dabajuro, Mene de Mauroa, and Mene de Acosta. They also reported the precence of kerogen- impregnated shales to the east of the basin. The spectacular structures that were present throughout the area eventually ‘aught the attention of various groups within the oil ‘industry. At the same time, the first discoveries were being made in the Maracaibo basin. These discoveries helped to encourage exploratory drilling activity ia the adjacent Falcén basin. The location of the wells was based solely con surface grologicinformation, and these wells were drilled owndip from the structures where the more important cil seeps were found, ‘The first commercial oil field in the Falcon basin, the ‘Mene de Mauroa field, was discovered in 1921. Afterwards, a series of discoveries were msde: Mamén and Hombre Pintado fields in 1926, Mene de Acosta field in 1927, Campo ‘Media in 1928, Cumarebo in 1931 (Payne, 1951), and finally the Tiguaje feld in 1953, when gravity and selsmic methods began to be used in the area. By this time, 126 exploratory wells had been drilled in an area that covered 20000 km?, Reserves were estimated to be 1 billion bbl of oil in place. ‘The gesults of this costly exploration effort did not satisty the expectations of the oil industry. Following prolonged standstill in the systematic exploration, the Corporacién Venezolana del PetrSleo (CVP) began an exploration campaign in offshore La Vela Bay in 1970. The company acquired 4000 km of seismic lines and drilled 26 wells that resulted in the discovery of an additional 200 million bbl of cil in place. The discovery ofthis commercial amount of hydrocarbons was the second, made in the offshore areas of Venezuela after the Gulf of Paria was discovered in 1958 and it led to 2 better Dite Submitted: 4767 Date Accepted: 1/88 understanding of the hydrocarbon habitat in the Falcén basin, Prior to this, however, Zambrano et al. (1971) produced a synthesis of the geological history of the area that provided a stepping stone for future work. ‘At the beginning, of 1980, the exploration effort was renewed in western and eastern Paleén ky Maraven and Corpoven oi companies. Since then, new seismic data has been obtained and 50 additional wells have been drilled, bringing totals to 12,000 km of seismic lines, 200 exploratory wells, and come £00 development wells in the basin, including La Vela Bay. One of the most important aspects of this campaign has boen the results of the i analyses that were aimed at recognizing the source rocks and locating the areas of hy ‘generation. Since 1912, the oil industry has explored the Faloén basin with considerable effort. This has resulted in an enormous amount of unpublished technical and geological reports. Mucssig (1984) has thoroughly documented the more important geological studies that were undertaken by universities, goverrument institutions, and industry. This paper shall deal primarily with the tectonic setting and sedimentary aspects that provided the conditions for hydrocarbon accamslation, ‘The major elements of the geologic history of the Falesn basin, such as its depositional sequences and basin-forming, tectonics, are somewhat comparable with those of the Los. Angeles basin (Barbat, 1956). However, where the minor production of the Faledn basin in no way compares to the extrzordinary production of the Los Angeles basin. ‘Therefore, in light ofthe similarities between the two besins, ‘we shall deseribo the more relevant features of the Faleén basin, GEOLOGIC HISTORY Although the geologic history of the Falcén basin begins during the Tertiary, earlier geologic conditions played an important role in basin formation and must be taken into account. Based on the classification system of Kingston et al (1982), the basin-forming tectonic style is related to plate convergence. With regard to the depositional cycles, two can be described. The first is considered to be pre-ate Eocene time and to have resulted in deposition of basil sediments. The second cycle occurred between late Eocene and Recent and consists of several depositional stages that were later deformed by various tectonic episodes. Little is known about the sediments that belong to the first cycle iDistribution of Hydrocarbon Source Rocks in the Falcon Basin 305 TRUJILLO ans A ns PORTUGUESA © cunuane a Ve 9 VEY LEGEND © comme on SP. Sasae ome Figure 1. Location map of the Falcén basin with its northem offshore extension. Outline shows the basin boundary during the Oligocene. because outcrops toward the northwest and southeast of the basin are of only limited extent. A few wells have penetrated Paleocene-Eocene sediments and have reached ‘what may be an Upper Cretaceous section, ‘The sedimentary rocks that correspond to the second ycleprovide the better known sections in the Falcén basin, This can be attributed to the widespread nature of the outcrops and to the large number of wells drilled into these sedimentary rocks, particularly on the north flank of the basin. Tectonic Evolution and Principal Structures ‘The Faloén basin is located within the area of intoraction between the South American and Caribbean plates. It originated as a pull-apart beginning in the early Tertiary as a result of right-lateral, east-west strike-slip ‘movement along the plate boundary (Muessig, 1984), As a result of single phase of crustal movement, three structural systems developed simultaneously within the basin. Each evolved with a maximum intensity ata different time. The first structural system consists of a set of northwest-striking normal faults located in the northern art of the basin. Theis interpretation is based on Bouguer anomaly gravity maps (Bonini et al, 1977) (Figure 2). This Set of faults forms a series of horst and graben structures, ‘Among these are the Urumaco trough, the Coro-1 High, the La Vela Bay structure (trough with local southern horst), the Aruba High, and similar horsts and grabens to the east (Figure 34) ‘With the integration of seismic and well data, the tectonic ‘evolution of the areas of major exploration activity, such asthe Urumaco trough, can be dated, Seismiclines 80-DU-G snd 80-OC-I were joined to form one section that crosses the trough in a transverse, east-west direction (Figure 4). ‘The western and eastern boundaries of the Unimaco trough are defined by the Lagarto fault and the Sabaneta fault, Gradual subsidence with an eastern tilt started in the Oligocene and continued until the early Miocene. A more homogencous subsidence after this time is evident from the section. ‘The second structural system consists of several east- northeast-striking parallel folds of great length that are situated in the center of the basin. These folds are collectively known as the Falcén anticlinorium and are the result of @ northwest compressive component (Figure 3B). In areas of maximum stress, thrusting developed parallel306 Boesi and Goddard oe 5 Ny Seer SS Ee : SS a) . = _ KD — es Bas Sy |Hanackit / (i ¢ J Woe Coe) p & OS UIE Figure 2. Bouguer gravity anomalies map of the Falcén basin and surrounding areas (after Bonini et al, 1977). Main gravity lows are interpreted as pull-apart grabens trending northwest-southeast. {othe folds. The most notable thrusts the Guadalupe thrust, near the town of La Vela. This defermational system grew in intensity with time, ending in late Miocene with Basin inversion. It is believed that dextral movement of blocks towards the northeast along the Bocohé fault (Schubert, 1980) has played an important role in the folding of the Oligocene Miocene formations in the basin. This movement is also responsible for overthrusting of the Cretaceous motamor- phics on top of Tertiary tusbiditic sediments in the ‘Barquisimeto-Carora area after basin formation (Figure 38) & third structural system of east-striking right-lateral strike-slip faults started developing within the bacin in Ite Eocene and continued through the Tertiary up to the Recent. These faults resulted from ehitting and regional shearing of the entire crustal block in the basin, AS the basin was gradually filled with sediments, the zone of shear as reduced, thus concentrating the intensity of the strike- slip movement along, the Oca fault system (Feo Codecido, 1972 Vasquez and Dickey, 1972) (Figure 3C). The more recent seismic-reflection stadies undertaken in the western part of Faicén State, along the Oca fault system, have detected three right-lateral strike-slip faults forming flower structures that can be observed along parts of the fault zone and that are separated from one another by synelinal blocks. The names of these three faults are (Oca, El Mayal and Ancén de Tturre (Figure 5). A ate Eocene to early Oligocene age was determined for the infill sediments of these synclinal blocks from sparse well data, thus indicating an approximate time for the beginning of the Oca fault system. To the west, the faults come together in the Fl Tablazo depression. To the east they penetrate the basin, where recent movements along the faults cut across the large folds of the Falcén antictinorium (Figure 30), Stratigraphy and Sedimentation Prior to Basin Formation (Cretaccous-Paleocene) ‘The subsurface Cretaceous sequence of the Falcén consists of carbonate sediments in the basal section and clastics above. However, owing to the scarcity of wells that penetrate the Cretaceous in this area, only speculative interpretations can be attempted. From three wells on the Dabajuro platform and one on the Coro-Paraguan’ High, it was determined that the Cretaceous has undergone diagenetic alteration’ and metamorphism, with growing, Intensity towards the east and north. These changes can be attributed to a series of events that took place during the Cretaceous-Paleocene period and should be considered, fn the regional sense, a3 part of Caribbean tectonism inDistribution of Hydrocarbon Source Rocks in the Falcon Basin 307 PPrestiet oay S17 VATION (CA TRANSGURRENT MOVEMERT "PRECOMINATES Leseno STaIE-SUP FUR sven ‘srcuime suet zones DIRECTION oF PLATE woveuenT Hoi Figure 3. Tectonic history of the Falcén basin showing (A) late Eocene, (B) Miocene-Pliocene, and (©) present situation, which voleanic activity played a major role (Stephan, 1977; Pumpin, 1978; James, 1984), At this time, an east-trending volcanic island arc developed as a result of subduction of the Caribbean plate below the South American plate (Burke ot al, 1984). This island are was responsible for controlling the sedimentation into the Cretaceous-Paleocene seas and for setting up environments of deposition of which the La Lune Formation, of middle Lat» Cretaceous age is the most reptetentative and is considered the source rock for most of the petroleum produced in the Maracaibo besin Hedberg, 1931; Blaser, 1979). The sedimentary processes that took place from Late Cretaceous to Paleocene were associated with voleanie and tectonic activity. The igneous intrusions, extrusives, and emplaced ophiolites (Compafia Shell de Venezuela, 1965; Coronel, 1970) occurred simultaneously with sedimentation in an unstable crustal zone that was gradually being deformed owing to subduction to the south (Bellizzia et al. 1972), At the end of the Paleocene and the beginning of the Eocene, the slope angle increased and huge masses of turbidlites as well as volcanic and metamorphic material ‘were transported toward Lara State to the South. Early to Middle Eocene Eocene sedimentation in western Venezuela is character. ized by a predominance of elastics, particularly in Lars and alia states, During this period, regional crustal movements continued. These grew more intense, thus affecting the palcogcographic configuration ofthe region. Two sedimentary provinces existed in northwestern Venezuela during the Paleocene and the Eocene To the West in the Zulia province, Paleocene carbonates of the ‘Goasare Formation were deposited on top of a platform and were covered by deliaic sediments in the early to middle Eocene. To the east in the Lara province: Matstere Formation turbidites from a Caribbean source gradusily filled a large depression that included the FaleSn region +, 1972)Boesi and Goddard 308 Te XT-S2EHN PUR ‘pL WOM ‘XT-LEEN], STII, Jo #20 parioauos om ysues) Yau yBnoM OOeUMIN at SSOD¥ [-3O-08/9-/1d-08 selgord woRPaHar-o;uIsIee peUtguIo “p aunty ew neurons 9-na-o8 solHexonvaan sy T+ t Jnvs vianvavs 1nvs o1avov7 T-o0-08+}+9-n0-08 9-na XT-3YVLIW bI-NOWYW XI-vaun9 30 Distribution of Hydrocarbon Source Rocks in the Falcon Basin “WHSeq woot OU JO BpIs ysaM aUDZ9x9 oy UY ouOZ AMY LO arp ssorse £-NO-94 eigord uopdayar-onusiag -g amnSiy UW NolL¥O07 = 4 ad 3 erao-st/ a ge ¢ fea snozovi aus VV 3Na90: [~~ Rac —~ fae 2{___ 80 = ws 343000710 - 35003 [SSSR SATS 3N3309I70~'303 3NI903 ~ 3N300IN = 3105 ~ Sy0ci OIN-34v7- a¢aIn on v= 37001 / Dnvs yoo €-W30-92 72e e209 1520 Dinvs WwavW 43° sony ayunit 30 NOONY C20 Ost CID OREO aceD acco sere310 Boesi and Goddard, The platiorm sediments of the Zulia province and the turbidites of the FalcOn-Lara depression, of equivalent ages ‘meet in a transition zone commonly known as the “Hinge Line.” This zone is located along, the Bolivar coastal disirct of Zulia State along the northeastern shore of Lake ‘Maracaibo. It contains a shaly sequence of sediments of mixed composition from the two depositional regimes and 's known as the Trujillo Formation. The thick Paleocene Eocene turbidite sequence of Lara State belonging, to the Matatere Formation is believed to be an allacthonous deposit (Renz et al, 1955; Bellizzia and Rodriguez, 1968; Stephan, 1977). Itis interpreted a8 an erosional remnant ‘of an extensive system of nappes derived from the Caribbean area during the middle Facene. These rocks of Cretaceous to middle Eocene age constitute the basal rocks ‘on topo which the sedimentation in the Faleén basin began in the late Eocene. Stratigraphy and Sedimentation during Basin Formation ‘Wheeler (1963) presented the frst stratigraphic compilation ‘ofthe Falcén basin that confirmed some conclusions arrived at earlier by several other geologists (Conzilez de Juana; 1998, Gonwélez: de Juana et al, 1980). These conclusions are based on the description of the boat shape of the basin. with an east-west axis and a narrow central section that is located between the towns of Churuguara and San Luis (igure 0). According to this model, the shape of the basin determined the sedimentary distribution during the Oligocene-Miocene depositional history (Diaz de Gamero, 1977). The sandy and calcareous formations were deposited in shallow water in the western past of the basin. In the center and to the east, finer grained sediments were deposited in a leas energetic marine environment. The sedimentary fil in the basin occurred in two main stages. ‘The frst was a transgressive siage that took place between the late Eocene and middle Miocene and is characterized by continued subsidence and progressive invasion of the sea from the northeast. The second stage is predominantly regressive, beginning in the middie late Miocene as a result ‘of basin inversion that caused the sea to retreat toward the northeast. The stratigraphy in the center of the basin has been determined from surface geology; no wells have been dried. in the area. The ages that were obtained are based on plenktonic foraminiferal and macrofaunal studies (Renz, 1948; Wheeler, 1963; Diaz de Camero, 1977). With the exploration wells drilled onshore before 1960 and offshore in the La Vela Bay in the 1970, en attempt has been mace to corvelate this area with the known surface stratigraphy. Owing to rapid facies changes, correlation between wells, is difficult, especialy between well located in troughs and on horst Blocks Fortunately, in the westem areas, in the Urumaco trough, palynological studies undertaken in 1950, together with more recent studies by Maraven palynologists E. Di, Giacomo and R Pitteli have improved age determinations These data have been integrated with abundant seismic information (Figure 4), and as a result, correlations could ss he 7 FARE 6, TRANSVERSE STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION THRQUGK THe cewTER ‘or Teesusn gan Logo cumuonure Figure 6. (A) The original conceptual model for the basin (after Gonzalez de Juana, 1980) and (B) a stratigraphic compilation (after ~ Wheeler, 1963) based on a transverse section sal ‘through the center of the basin between the villages of San Luis and Churuguara whose zy geographic positions are indicated in Figure 1, * be made between subsurface and surface information thus providing a better understanding of the synsedimentary history. Figure 7 shows the stratigraphic relationship between the facies in the Urumaco trough (Wells Tuara- 1X and Mamén-14) and those on the Coro-Peraguand horst block that was penetrated by the Mitare-1X well. Alzo included here are the results of the La Vela6 well, whese stratigraphy represents the complicated La Vela Bay trough and southern La Vela hors areas (Findlay, 1985), The stratigraphic nomenclature (Figure 8), originally developed for the Falcén besin, combines the work of various authors (Gonzilez de Juana, 1938 Wheeler, 1965 Diaz de Gamero, 1977). A few minor changes have been made fo the existing nomenclature in order to edapt it to current tectonic and stratigraphic ideas (Figures 3 6) based on the latest seismic and well data. Now, a different ‘model for the basin is proposed (Figure 9). This model inclades the northwest-trending horsts and troughs mentioned earlier that are responsible for the northern ‘extension of the central besin sedimentary environment. Combining these areas to the north with the original basin hhasled toa better understanding othe hydrocerbor habitat inthe Faleén basinTt Distribution of Hydrocarbon Source Rocks in the Falcon Basin SuontuoZ poreiaquy j>ojo}uosredoxspuy pue je1Zojoudped £q, auruns9jep uaaq ancy sun auy sjuawtpas Keg PPA 7 Pur USI puenSereg-0105 “yma ooeuman 243 woomieq dysuoHos sudeispensouonp pue sydexsyensoysr] “z ezn3i4 ao Wen vawsn = cml BE Cy Opec mas spe J siouror zo ee > £ atl Re penne S8 Sele 5 i 3 Hl e ui A tits ele gs [6 gia ora 4 & [am anoros Fi ES € |s g 3 & IRS = = 8 lia 5 5 Je ie “4 gle #8 Bf > pe 8 3s a/R a as 2 w “Tas Nova] S-WaA VT XT-aevN I= Now ¥T=vuvnl | nou Wwiwos| HONOYL ¥73A_v7_|HOIK YNVNOVUYE-OHOD Honoul oovwayA Jinweso | 3°¥Boesi and Goddard 32 “3800 0} sam Wor; UISeq UODIEY ay Jo oMyPpPUDWON rYdeSHENS -y ami ul ussaussev Twensvo — visoy waves aoa ae Wuosivid —_Wisva—Hongus = go1e ©=—_yoore —suaiewa ous" 30 Woy oeau¥WINg BATT uc)” WHIN3D © GOWNM —ountVaYa TwYWTa sO NUSHLYON aNaH 13 vianvy zrupwis Ava NoOIw4 Lsv3 NooTv4 1s3Distribution of Hydrocarbon Source Rocks in the Falcon Basin 313 Leoeno 1 eataayne acarrone Figure 9, ‘The proposed conceptual model for Late Eocene In contrast to other regions of Venezuela, the Eocene ‘sedimentation continued from middle tolate Eocene. At the time that the erosional period was starting {s Zulia, Lara, and the Caribbean, the formation of he basin in Faleén was just beginning (Figure 10A). Also, orogenic ‘movements in thesouthern Caribbean were t a peak, These north by a locally uplifted area of the Caribbean, to the west in Zulia by an erosional platform, and to the south by the uplifted Cretaceous metamorphic blocks of Barquisimeto (Pumpin, 1978) (Figuze 10A). These blocks ‘were later thrust upon the Malatere fiysh during the ‘Andean orogeny. Oligocene ‘With increasing subsidence, the basin took the chape of an elongated boat with steeply sloping sides. Northwesterly onlented synsedimentary trenches developed in the northem sector with a narrowing of the central area, This can be attributed to forces from the south that pushed the entire region against an uplifted region to the north, art of which i the Paraguana High (Figure 108), Ngneous intrusions and submarine basalt flows (Coronel, 1970; Muessig, 1978, 1984) are found in the decper parts ‘of the basin, in subsiding trenches, and are common in the northem sector. Miocene ‘The tectonic stresses became increasingly complex during the Miocene and caused successive palcogeographic ‘modifications that in turn were responsible for the complex facies distributions we find today. During theearly Miocene, the northeastern marine transgression came to 3n end. As a result of this transgression, marine sedimentsalso covered the eatice Maracaibo basin, being represented in that basin, by the La Rosa Formation. Well and seismic data show passage termed the “Cabimas strait” that formed a channel between the La Rosa and the Agua Clara seas (Figure 11A} The sediments that were deposited in seas of the Falcén basin during the early Miocene transgression ore represented by the Agua Clara Formation and the lower part of the Agua Salada Group (Figure 8). {nthe central Falcon area, sediment deposition no longer took place. On the northern flank and in the Caribbean region, however, the synsedimentary trenches continued! to fill up as subsidence continued, due to factors related to extensional tectonics. At the same time, the southem, ‘compressional stresses from the Andean region persisted, ‘Tectonic activity partly controlled the middle Miocene ‘sedimentation. The basin inversion that began at this time ‘as responsible for uplift and erosion of the sediments that were deposited in the channel. The position occupied Dy the axis of the basin in Oligocene and early Miocene now became the axis of the mountain range that is known as the Faledn anticlinorium. This wae the initiation of the subbasins and the separation of the area into two distinct ‘sedimentary provinces. To the south, shallow-marine and lagoonal facies and fuviatile sediments predominated, while to the north, a deeper marine to coestal transition At the end of the Miocene, tectonic movements related tolateral movements along the Caribbean-South American plate boundary were evident. The area of deposition was foward the Caribbean Sea and the sediment was derived mainly from the south as recycled deposits (Figure 11). ‘Toward the west, a progradational delta complex gave rise fo the La Puerta Formation, and toward the east, the depositional environments were more marine. The carbonate rocks that belong to the Caujarao and La Vela formations of the eastern area were deposited on top of the horsts and platform highs. A large volume of sands, clays, and calcareous marls found their way intothe troughs igure 118}, Pliocene Later tectonic activity took piace in the Pliocene, affecting ‘mainly the northern Faleén area, and was responsible for the uplift of the current mountain system. The sedimentary processes responsible for the alluvial terraces, beaches, and dunes along the piedmont zone. are believed to have been affected by the tectonic activity. An orogenic period also occurred during the Pleistocene, similar processes were repeated. This repetition resulted in a number af terraces Of different ages but with the same environment of deposition. These can be observed today along the entire coastal plain (Graf 1972)316 Bossi and Goddard nse nga ape iad 2 Seeegre gueremer 1 La ao crvine eats yume Loweracenne.oustiNcTIVE crctaceavs emesroues SEGENO ures OM ‘UITHOLOGY FREE Figure 12. Schematic sections across the Faleén basin. Three northwest-southeast transverse sec- tions (A-A’, B-B, C-C) showing extension and compression and one northeast-southwest longitudi- nal section (D-D’) showing continued extension. ‘The grevity ofthe crudes varies from west toest between 8° API in the Quiré2 area and 48° APL in the Cumarebo field. However, accumulations, both in the west and the ‘ast, ange between 25° and 40° APL Analyses were carried out on six gas samples from the “Tiguaje Feld (well -1-413) and on three nearby wells (Van der Veen and Posthuma, 1983), By plotting carbon isotope values of thete gases versus C/E Cy the results show that the gas is associated with ofl generation and is of thermal origin (Figure 130) SOURCE ROCKS ‘Owing to the complexity of the ares, source-rock locations ‘and their levels of maturity could only be determined by using 4 multidisciplinary approach, Source-rock analyses were carried out on both cuttings and core samples from several key wells using standard geochemical techniques These included pyrolysis \echniques for measuring the amount of organic matter, techniques for determining the ‘ype of organic matter, and finally analyses of total organic carbon and vitrinite reflectance. These data have been wed with stratigraphic, sedimentological, and geophysical information in order to identify the source rocks and to get a feel for their distribution within the Faleén basin, Documented source rocks in the basin ere listed here in order of importance: Formation Age Equivalent of San Luis Oligocene-Miocene ‘Agua Clara ‘Miocene Cerro Pelado Miocene Jariflal Eocene Misoa Eocene Based on all the above information and the new tectonic model (Figure 9}, a map showing mature soarce-rock distribution has been produced (Figure 14), It is apparent314 Boesi and Goddard ' ] ] a WZ wes weer | Figure 10, Paleogeographic situation (A) in the late Eocene and (B) in the Oligocene. The tectonic and stratigraphic history of the basin Is synthesized in the schematiceross sections shown in Figure 12. The first three cross sections (A~A’, B-8", and C-C)show the effect of compression that occurred after the carly Miocene when the basin inverted An important compres- sional component related to these three sections resulted in the strike-slip movement of the Oca fault (Figures 3C. 5), The northem flank of the basin is represented by the longitudinal cross section in D-D’, which shows the effect, of extension that gave rise to the series.of horst3 end troughs where a thick sequence of Miocene-Pliocene sediments accumulated (Figure 4) HYDROCARBONS From earlier geochemical studies (Hartog and Syaps, 1973), it was observed that the Cysaturate composition of the crude oils from the Falcdn basin. in addition to their sulfur, nickel, and vanadium contents, was quite different whenDistribution of Hydrocarbon Source Rocks in the Falcon Basin 315 LEGEND Figure 11. Paleogeographie situation (A) in early Miocene and (B) in the late Miocene. compared to crudes from the Maracaibo basin. This has Jed geologists to consider the Falcon basin as a separaie hydrocarbon province. Additional studies (Ven der Veen and Posthuma, 1983; Buiskool and Van der Veen, 1984) were carried out using state-of-the-art techniques aimed at classifying the crudes and determining their origin. The gas chromatograms of the saturated hydrocarbons and the C-alkane distribution of samples from different areas of the Falcén basin indicate various degrees of bacterial degradation. Most crudes in the western areas ‘are derived from source rocks rich in land-plants deposited in terrestrial (swampy) environments, A typical chromato- gram was obtained from samples of the Tiguaje feld by Buiskool and Van der Veen (1934) (Figure 13A). Chromato- rams of the eastem crudes from the Cumarebo ficld were obtained and interpreted by the same authors as crudes ‘of marine origin (Figure 13B). Sofer’s (1984) approach, using {isotopic relationships, has been applied to the Cumarebo ‘crudes (Lew, 1985), and the results indicate once more that these crudes were derived from a marine organic source.Distribution of Hydrocarbon Source Rocks in the Falcon Basin 317 -t0 © Ol GENERATION 30 oss O80 6,/Een ors Lecenp eease aan aee-soe aueLarasee-ascett soecen ; £ i 070 Figure 13. Gas chromatograms of saturated hydrocarbons of the Faleén basin (after Buiskool and Yan der Veen, 1984). (A) An example of a waxy crude of terrestrial origin from the westers Frienn Lsusie Held (lump in the Co-Cyy region), (B) crudes of marine origin from the eastern Falcon Cumarebo field, and (C) carbon isotopes versus C,/ Z C, plot indicating the association of the gases with oll generation (after Van der Veen end Posthuma, 1983). that the areas of hydrocarbon generation are limited Primarily to the troughs where the migration paths are Short. This concept, for the time being, is supported by the location of commercial fields in the northeastern past of the basin that are located in troughs (Boesi, 1965), Source rocks containing marine organic matter exist ‘mainly in the Oligocene and lower Miocene sequences in the northem part of the basin (Findlay, 1985). These rocks were eventually buried in the Urumaco trough (Lew, 1985) and La Vela Bay to depths greater than 10,000 ft (3080 m), depths at which favorable conditions existed for the maturation of the organic matter, Towaed the center and ‘western part of the basin, the Oligocene and Miocene rocks were exposed and eroded and are therefore of no interest with regard to hydrocarbon generation. However, the El Mene, Media. and Hombre Pintado fields (Figure 14) in the extreme westem Falcén basin produce crude cils of terrigenous origin that were generated from source rocks of Eocene age (Lew, 1985). The possible extension of these Eocene source rocks toward the east could lead to the discovery of additional hydrocarbons in the region north ‘of Carora (Figure 14),318 Boesi and Goddaed Leoewo CELT) Sesetes ta cuecene OSSELE WATURE EOREKE Figure 14. Mature areas and commercial hydrocarbon accumulations in the Falcon basin. CONCLUSIONS During more than 70 years of petroleum activity in the Falcén basin, ome 12,000 km of seismic lines have been ecquized, 1000 wells have been drilled, and numerous technical reports and publications have been produced. ‘With all of this information, it has been possible to obtain 2 fairly complete picture of the tectonic regime and to ‘establish the basic stratigraphic relationships in the basin. Basin formation included subsidence and sedimentary filling of alarge trench beginning in late Eocene and lasting, until middle Miocene, Toward the end of the middle Miocene, the sediments in the basin were compacted, and during the late Miocene-Pliocene orogeny, the basin inverted. This tectonic inversion is responsible for the mountain building and reworking of a large mass of sediments. These sediments have been transported to the north, to the coastal areas, and into the Caribbean See. As a consequence of the latest goological, geophysics, ‘and geochemical findings, the norther flank of the Falcon basin, which encompasses offshore areas, suggests a somewhat different model than previously envisioned. This, new model is based on the existence of northwest-southeast horsts and troughs that are now considered as the northem_ exiension of the basin. Geochemical analyses have shown that crudes from western Falcén basin were derived from source rocks containing terrestrial organic matter. These rocks generated only minor quantities of hydrocarbons. However, the source rocks in the troughs of the northern flank of the basin generated crudes of marine origin. On this flank are located the areas of main hydrocarbon interest. The gas found in the Falcén basin is associated with oil generation and is of thermal origin. ‘The important source rocks are found in the Miocene Agua Clara and Cerro Pelado formations in the Urumaco frough and in the Eocene Jarillal and Misoa formations located in the western part of the basin. The Agua Clara Formation has proven to be the richest in organic material and its burial history indicates favorable conditions for the ‘eneration of hydrocarbons in the Urumaco trough. 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