Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Name: Date Performed: Oct. 21, 2023

Manuel, Keneth Jed
Manuel, Rojan
Maralit, Juan Paulo
Pambid, Xrisha Mae

Course/Section: CHM031L/ C06 Date Submitted: Oct. 28, 2023

Group No: 6 Instructor: Prof. Edgar Magas

REPORT SHEET

Experiment 4
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS

A. Dimensions of the test specimens.

Material Initial dimensions (mm) Final dimensions (mm)

Steel
L 221 mm 230 mm
A 31.17 mm2 7.07 mm2
d 6.30 mm 3.0 mm
Copper
L 225.3 mm 236.2 mm
A 32.17 mm2 7.07 mm2
d 6.40 mm 3.0 mm
Aluminum
L 216 mm 229 mm
A 28.75 mm2 3.14 mm2
d 6.05 mm 2.0 mm
*d = diameter; L = length; A = area

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Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

B. Observation on tested specimen at various loads.

Material: Steel

Ultimate Stress

0.2% Offset Yield

Fracture Stress

Elastic Limit

Proportionality limit

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Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Material: Copper

Ultimate Stress
0.2% Offset Yield
Elastic Limit

Proportionality Fracture Stress

limit

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Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Material: Aluminum

Ultimate Stress

0.2% Offset Yield

Elastic Limit

Fracture Stress
Proportionality limit

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Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

1. Plot the stress versus strain. Make sure to attach the graphs in your laboratory report. Use
this plot to determine the (a) proportional limit stress, (b) elastic limit stress, (c) upper yield
stress and lower yield stress, (d) ultimate stress, and (e) fracture stress. Make sure to label
the plot properly with these points. In the case that the upper and lower yield stresses are
not well-defined, plot the 0.2% offset line on the graph so that 0.2% offset yield stress can be
determined.

C. Summary of the observations on tested specimens at various loads.

Upper Lower 0.2%
Elastic Ultimate Fracture
Proportional Yield Yield Offset
Material Limit Stress Stress
Limit (MPa) Point Point Yield
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Steel 140 MPa 265 MPa NA NA 460 MPa 565 MPa 330 MPa
Copper 175 MPa 280 MPa NA NA 295 MPa 305 MPa 165 MPa
Aluminum 60 MPa 120 MPa NA NA 139 MPa 179 MPa 90 MPa

2. Calculate the nominal fracture stress, actual fracture stress, % reduction in area, %
eleongation, ductility, and modulus of elasticity (slope of the graph on the limit of
proportionality).

D. Properties of tested specimens obtained from stress-strain graph.

Nominal Fracture Actual Fracture % Reduction
Material % Elongation Ductility
Stress (MPa) Stress (MPa) in Area
Steel 330 MPa 1454.89 MPa 77.32% 4.07% 4.47
Copper 165 MPa 750.79 MPa 78.02% 4.84% 1.32
Aluminum 90 MPa 824.04 MPa 89.08% 6.02% 8.65

E. Comparison of the literature and experimental values.

Modulus of Elasticity Yield Stress Ultimate Stress
Material Value
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
Literature 200000 MPa 250 MPa 400 MPa
Steel Observed 65000 MPa 460 MPa 565 MPa
% Error -67.5% 84% 41.25%
Literature 117000 MPa 70 MPa 220 MPa
Copper Observed 57500 MPa 295 MPa 305 MPa
% Error -50.85% 321.43% 38.64%
Literature 69000 MPa 95 MPa 110 MPa
Aluminum Observed 40000 MPa 139 MPa 179 MPa
% Error -42.03% 46.32% 62.73%
Note: Make sure to specify the reference for the literature values of modulus of elasticity, yield
stress, and ultimate stress.

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Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Compare the experimental values with the literature values. Specify the factors causing the
difference in the values, if there is.
It can be observed from the percentage errors of all parameters that there is a clear difference
between the observed values of the metals with its literature values. Several factors can be accounted for
the difference between the two. The most common factor is human error, stemming from errors in the
calculations, and uncertainties in the measurements of the said parameters. Another factor that affects
the observed value is the variations in experimental conditions. These variations in conditions can be
caused by the temperature at which the metal's mechanical properties were assessed, the heat treatment
that metal underwent, as well as the length of atmospheric exposure. Another factor is the sample
preparation. Differences in sample length, geometry, and cutting methods can introduce variations in the
observed values.

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 Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Calculation (show all solutions):

Steel:
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋(6.30 𝑚𝑚)2 𝜋𝑑2 𝜋(3.0 𝑚𝑚)2
𝐴𝑜 = = = 31.17 𝑚𝑚2 𝐴𝑓 = = = 7.07 𝑚𝑚2
4 4 4 4
2 2
10−3 𝑚 10−3 𝑚
𝐴𝑜 = 31.17 𝑚𝑚2 ( 1 𝑚𝑚 ) = 3.117 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2 𝐴𝑓 = 7.07 𝑚𝑚2 ( 1 𝑚𝑚 ) = 7.07 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2

𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑓
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 10286.1 𝑁
330 𝑥 106 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
3.117 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2 7.07 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 10286.1 𝑁 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 1454893918 𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 1454.89 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓 𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜
%𝑅𝐴 = 𝑥 100 %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
𝐴0 𝐿𝑜
31.17 𝑚𝑚2 − 7.07 𝑚𝑚2 230 𝑚𝑚 − 221 𝑚𝑚
%𝑅𝐴 = 𝑥 100 %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
31.17 𝑚𝑚2 221 𝑚𝑚
%𝑅𝐴 = 77.32% %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 4.07%

𝜀𝑢 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠2 − 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠1
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸=
𝜀𝑦 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛2 − 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛1
3.575% 65 𝑀𝑃𝑎 − 0 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸=
0.8% 0.001 − 0
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 4.47 𝐸 = 65000 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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 Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Copper:

𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(6.40 𝑚𝑚)2 𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(3.0 𝑚𝑚)2

𝐴0 = = = 32.17 𝑚𝑚2 𝐴𝑓 = = = 7.07 𝑚𝑚2
4 4 4 4
2 2
10−3 𝑚2
10−3 𝑚
𝐴0 = 32.17 𝑚𝑚 ( ) = 3.217 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2 𝐴𝑓 = 7.07 𝑚𝑚 ( 2
) = 7.07 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
1 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚

𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑓
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 5308.05 𝑁
165 𝑥 106 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
3.217 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2 7.07 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 5308.05 𝑁 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 750785007.1 𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 750.79 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓 𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜
%𝑅𝐴 = 𝑥 100 %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
𝐴0 𝐿𝑜
32.17 𝑚𝑚2 − 7.07 𝑚𝑚2 236.2 𝑚𝑚 − 225.3 𝑚𝑚
%𝑅𝐴 = 𝑥 100 %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
32.17 𝑚𝑚2 225.3 𝑚𝑚
%𝑅𝐴 = 78.02% %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 4.84%

𝜀𝑢 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠2 − 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠1
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸=
𝜀𝑦 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛2 − 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛1
0.925% 115 𝑀𝑃𝑎 − 0 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸=
0.7% 0.002 − 0
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1.32 𝐸 = 57500 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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 Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Aluminum:

𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(6.05 𝑚𝑚)2 𝜋𝑑2 𝜋(2.0 𝑚𝑚)2

𝐴0 = = = 28.75 𝑚𝑚2 𝐴𝑓 = = = 3.14 𝑚𝑚2
4 4 4 4
2 2
10−3 𝑚2
10−3 𝑚
𝐴0 = 28.75 𝑚𝑚 ( ) = 2.875 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2 𝐴𝑓 = 3.14 𝑚𝑚 ( 2
) = 3.14 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
1 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚

𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑓
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 2587.5 𝑁
90 𝑥 106 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 =
2.875 𝑥 10−5 𝑚2 3.14 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 2587.5 𝑁 𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 824044586 𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 824.04 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓 𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜
%𝑅𝐴 = 𝑥 100 %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
𝐴0 𝐿𝑜
28.75 𝑚𝑚2 − 3.14 𝑚𝑚2 229 𝑚𝑚 − 216 𝑚𝑚
%𝑅𝐴 = 𝑥 100 %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
28.75 𝑚𝑚2 216 𝑚𝑚
%𝑅𝐴 = 89.08% %𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 6.02%

𝜀𝑢 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠2 − 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠1
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸=
𝜀𝑦 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛2 − 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛1
4.325% 40 𝑀𝑃𝑎 − 0 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐸=
0.5% 0.001 − 0
𝐷𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 8.65 𝐸 = 40000 𝑀𝑃𝑎

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Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

POST-LABORATORY QUESTIONS
1. Compare the mechanical properties of the materials tested. Briefly discuss the reason
behind the observations.

From the data gathered from the experiment, the mechanical properties of the
materials were observed. Steel exhibited the highest nominal fracture stress and actual
fracture stress, recording values of 330 MPa and 1454.89 MPa, respectively. This suggests
that steel has a remarkable ability to withstand substantial stress before reaching the
point of failure. In contrast, copper and aluminum displayed significantly lower nominal
and actual fracture stress, with copper at 165 MPa and 750.79 MPa, and aluminum at 90
MPa and 824.04 MPa, respectively. This implies that both copper and aluminum are more
prone to failure when subjected to stress compared to steel. They have lower values
because of their atomic structures, which result in weaker metallic bonds.

We can assess the ductility of these materials by examining the percentage of

reduction in area (%RA) and elongation (%elongation). The data reveals that aluminum
exhibits superior ductility, with a %RA of 89.08% and a %elongation of 6.02%. This implies
that aluminum can undergo significant stretching before reaching the point of failure. In
contrast, steel and copper are relatively less ductile as they have lower %RA and
%elongation values. Steel shows %RA of 77.32% and %elongation of 4.07%, while copper
has %RA of 78.02% and %elongation of 4.84%. These numbers suggest that steel and
copper are less capable of undergoing extensive stretching compared to aluminum,
indicating a higher level of brittleness in these materials.

Ductility is a comprehensive concept that pertains to a material's capacity to

experience plastic deformation, including bending and stretching, without experiencing
fractures. It's a qualitative attribute that characterizes a material's malleability or how
effectively it can be altered or shaped without undergoing breakage. Among the
materials, aluminum is the most ductile, followed by steel, with copper being the least
ductile. Their ductility values are approximately 4.47, 1.32, and 8.65, respectively.

2. Which among the tested materials is the stiffest? Briefly explain.

The stiffness of a material is typically characterized by its modulus of elasticity.

Modulus of elasticity measures a material’s resistance to deformation when subjected to
an external force. It is a measure of how rigid or resistant to bending, stretching, or
compression a metal is. Stiffness is one of the fundamental mechanical properties of a
material. A higher modulus indicates greater stiffness. Based on our table steel has a
65000 MPa of modulus of Elasticity, steel is known for its stiffness, which makes it an
excellent choice for applications where structural integrity and load-bearing capabilities
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Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

are essential. It is commonly used in construction, bridges, and high-stress components

in various industries. Its high modulus of elasticity means it experiences minimal
deformation when subjected to mechanical forces, contributing to its structural stability.
On the other hand, the copper and aluminum only had 40000 MPa, and 57500 MPa,
respectively, making these materials less stiff when compared to steel.

3. Differentiate between yield point and yield strength on a stress-strain curve. Which gives
the more accurate indication of a material`s fitness for a particular tensile application?

Yield strength is a constant value representing the stress at which a material shifts
from its elastic to plastic behavior. This transition marks the limit of elastic behavior and
the onset of plastic deformation. It serves as a reliable indicator of a material's ability to
withstand stress. Determining the yield strength involves identifying the point at which
the material exhibits a specific amount of plastic deformation, often around 0.2% strain.
Yield point, on the other hand, is the point in the stress-strain graph which corresponds
to the yield strength. It refers to the point at which the material starts yielding. To assess
a material's suitability for specific tensile applications, using yield strength is more
accurate and dependable. This is because it directly signifies the stress point at which the
material shifts from elastic to plastic behavior, offering more detailed and precise data.

4. Distinguish between the proportional limit and the elastic limit for each material. Which
is the more important indicator of a material’s mechanical behaviour.

The proportional limit corresponds to the highest stress level at which stress and
strain maintain a direct proportion, resulting in a straight line on a graph. At this point,
the material fully regains its initial shape once the applied load is removed, without any
lasting deformation. Experimental data for steel, copper, and aluminum indicate
proportional limits of 140 MPa, 175 MPa, and 60 MPa, respectively. On the other hand,
the elastic limit represents the maximum stress a material can endure without
experiencing permanent deformation. It signifies the stress threshold at which a material
can bear a load while still behaving elastically. According to the experimental data, steel,
copper, and aluminum exhibit elastic limits at 265 MPa, 280 MPa, and 120 MPa,
respectively. Therefore, the elastic limit is a more significant indicator when evaluating a
material's mechanical behavior. It establishes the point at which a material maintains its
original shape after stress, which is crucial in applications where permanent deformation
is unacceptable, such as in structures and components.

5. Differentiate brittle and ductile materials in terms of degree of plastic deformation.

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Experiment 4: Mechanical Properties of Metals

When a force or stress is applied to a material, plastic deformation, sometimes

referred to as plasticity, occurs. When this happens, the material is permanently altered
without significantly changing shape when the force is removed. This is different from
elastic deformation, in which materials temporarily change shape but immediately return
to their original shape when the force is withdrawn.
Brittle materials tend to break with minimal plastic deformation, while ductile
materials undergo significant plastic deformation before failing. The percentage of
elongation before fracture in brittle materials during tensile testing is quite low, while the
ductile materials elongate to a higher percentage before breaking during tensile testing.
It indicates that a brittle material will break much quickly compared to ductile materials.
6. What is the effect of temperature on yield and tensile strengths, and ductility?
Temperature plays a crucial role in a metal's overall mechanical properties. Many metals
undergo a ductile-to-brittle transition that is closely tied to temperature. When temperatures rise,
metals become more ductile, and the degree of change in temperature directly correlates with
the extent of this increased ductility. Conversely, as temperatures drop, metals become less
ductile, making them more susceptible to brittle behavior. In the context of temperature's
influence on mechanical properties, it is commonly observed that the alterations in the yield and
tensile strengths of metals are inversely related to temperature changes. In most metals, an
increase in temperature leads to a decrease in both yield and tensile strength. This reduction in
strength can be attributed to the increased dislocation motion that metals exhibit at higher
temperatures. Conversely, as temperature decreases, both the yield and tensile strengths of
metals tend to increase due to reduced atomic mobility, making it more challenging for the
material to yield or deform plastically.

REFERENCES (cite the references that you used)

Admin. (2022, August 10). Yield Strength - Definition, Examples , Stress-Strain Graph, FAQs. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/physics/yield-strength/
Callister, W. D. & Rethwisch, D. G. (2016). Fundamentals of materials science and engineering: An
integrated approach (5th ed.). Wiley Global Education, USA.
Myrank. (n.d.). Elastic and proportional limit – MyRank. https://blog.myrank.co.in/elastic-and-
proportional-limit/
Modulus of Elasticity. (2023). Instron. https://www.instron.com/en/resources/glossary/modulus-of-
elasticity

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