Fluid Meets and Thermod (ee yi Ld hinery SIXTH EDITIONFluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery Sixth Edition S. L. Dixon, B. Eng., Ph.D. Honorary Senior Fellow, Department of Engineering, University of Liverpool, UK C. A. Hall, Ph.D. University Lecturer in Turbomachinery, University of Cambridge, UK AMSTERDAM + BOSTON + HEIDELBERG * LONDON NEW YORK + OXFORD + PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO « SINGAPORE + SYDNEY * TOKYO. ELSEVIER Btertot-Henemann san pein of ElsevierButerwont Heineman is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 40, Burtngwon, MA 01808, USA The Boulevad, Langfont Lave, Kidlington, Oxford, OXS 1GB, UK First published by Pergamon Press Lid. 1966, Second edn 1975 “Tid edition 1978 Reprinted 1979, 1982 (wie, 1984, 1986, 1989, 1992, 1995 Fifth ction 2005 (ice) Sixth elton 2010 (© 2010 8.1. Dixon and C. A. Hal. 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In sing sich information oe methods hey shoal he min of their sty an the sfey of cher, incading pats for whom hey ave profesional responsibility “Tosthe fle exe othe a, nie the Publisher nor the autor, coniibuors or eitors, nseme sy Habit foray injury anor damage to persons or propery as mater of roduets abiliy nepligencs or thers, or from any ie or operan of any meds, reduc, insrustns ews contained inthe material herein Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publcation Data Dixon, $.L. Sydney Lawrence) lid mechanics and thrmdyasmice of trbomschiner/S.L. Dixon, C.A Hall, — 6th e pom. Includes bibliographical teteenees and index. ISBN 978-1-85617-79541 (alk. pope) 1. Turtomachines Fu dynamics. Hal, CA (Ceste A) I Til ‘Tn67.s 2010, (621.406- 4522 2009048801 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data ‘catalogue ecard foe thi bok f aval ro the British Library For information on all Buleworti- Heinemann publications visi ow Web ste ak nieleierdiectcom Prine inthe United States of Ameria W213 8 19 RT65432 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries wormelseviercom | www.bookaidorg | wwwsabre.ong PES EAd Let a OTE seen ConContents to the Sixth Edition . os . xi Acknowledgments... soe - eo xiii List of Symbols xv CHAPTER 1 Introduction: Basic Principles .. 1.1. Definition of a Turbomachine 1.2 Coordinate System... 1.3 The Fundamental Laws..... 1.4 The Equation of Continuity : 1.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 1.6 The Momentum Equation... 1.7 The Second Law of Thermodynat 1.8 Bemoulli’s Equation - 1.9 Compressible Flow Relations. 1.10 Definitions of Efficiency 1.11 Small Stage or Polytropic Efficiency ... 1.12 The Inherent Unsteadiness of the Flow References, Problems CHAPTER 2 Dimensional Analysis: Similitude .... mrareeeva 29° 2.1 Dimensional Analysis and Performance Laws .. 29 2.2 Incompressible Fluid Analysis, 30 2.3 Performance Characteristics for Low Speed Machines .....sssessessessnesese 32 2.4 Compressible Fluid AnalySis .....ccsere 33 2.5 Performance Characteristics for High Speed Machines 37 2.6 Specific Speed and Specific Diameter : 5 sare 0! 2.7 Cavitation : screaascave : . 4 RefereciC68 xncescnctstcniininine o . 249 Problems 50 CHAPTER 3 Two-Dimensional Cascades .. 3.1 Introduction 3.2. Cascade Geometry... 3.3 Cascade Flow Characteristics . 3.4 Analysis of Cascade Forces 3.5 Compressor Cascade Performancevi Contents 3.6 CHAPTER 4 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 4a 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 CHAPTER 5 5.1 5.2 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 5.10 S.1t 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 Turbine Cascades References Problems... ‘Axial-Flow Turbines: Mean-Line Analysis and Design .. Introduction Velocity Diagrams of the Axial-Turbine Stage ‘Turbine Stage Design Parameters... ‘Thermodynamics of the Axial-Turbine Stage Repeating Stage Turbines... Stage Losses and Efficiency Preliminary Axial Turbine Design Styles of Turbine . Effect of Reaction on Erficiency Diffusion within Blade Rows ‘The Efficiency Correlation of Smith (1965). Design Point Efficiency of a Turbine Stage Stresses in Turbine Rotor Blades... Turbine Blade Cooling... Turbine Flow Characteristics RERREIEEE senscsccercescremnearonpoamaTe Problems .sessessees sacri Axial-Flow Compressors and Ducted Fans... Introduction Mean-Line Analysis of the Compressor Stage 144 Velocity Diagrams of the Compressor Stage 146 ‘Thermodynamics of the Compressor Stage 147 Stage Loss Relationships and Efficiency 148 Mean-Line Calculation Through a Compressor ROtO? ....:.scessseseesssesanenaee 149 Preliminary Compressor Stage Design 153 Simplified OfF-Design Performance .....cccsesssnsssensenaeisenneenneenaennenseess 1ST Multi-Stage Compressor Performance... : maaimerens SO High Mach Number Compressor Stages 165 Stall and Surge Phenomena in CompressOrs .ocssessesseeieeseesenneenaeesenseess 166 Low Speed Ducted Fans 172 Blade Element Theory .asessseceseeee socinseennasinneneaneenenesnsesee UTA Blade Element Efficiency . sosoesnensnnsantvannsnnsnnsnnsnensenesaesse 176 Lift Coefficient of a Fan Acrofoil 176 References ... ProblemsEs Contents vii CHAPTER 6 Three-Dimensional Flows in Axial Turbomachine: 6.1. Introduction .. 3 6.2 Theory of Radial Equilibrium .. 6.3 The Indirect Problem 6.4 The Direct Problem 6.5 Compressible Flow Through a Fixed Blade Row 6.6 Constant Specific Mass FIOW ..s.ssssscenseenenee 6.7 Off-Design Performance of a Stage 6.8 Free-Vortex Turbine Stage... 6.9 Actuator Dise Approach .. 6.10 Computer-Aided Methods of Solving the Through-Flow Problem... 6.11 Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics to the Design of Axial Turbomachines 6.12 Secondary Flows References... Problems CHAPTER 7 Centrifugal Pumps, Fans, and Compressors . 7A Introduction 7.2 Some Definitions 7.3 Thermodynamic Analysis of a 7.4 Diffuser Performance Parameters 7.5 Inlet Velocity Limitations at the Eye... 7.6 Optimum Design of a Pump Inlet. 7.7 Optimum Design of a Centrifugal Comore Inte. 7.8 Slip Factor 7.9 Head Increase of a Centifugal Pump . 7.10 Performance of Centrifugal Compressors T.A1 The Diffuser System . oe T.A2 Choking In a Compressor Stage .. References Problems CHAPTER 8 Radial Flow Gas Turbines .. 8.1. Introduction 8.2 Types of Inward-Flow Radial Turbine .. 8.3 Thermodynamics of the 90° IFR Turbine .. 8.4 Basic Design of the Rotor 8.5 Nominal Design Point Efficiency 8.6 Mach Number Relations . 8.7 Loss Coefficients in 90° IFR TurbinesContents, 8.8 Optimum Efficiency Considerations 8.9 Criterion for Minimum Number of Blades 8.10 Design Considerations for Rotor Exit. sama 8.11 Significance and Application of Specifie Speed 291 8.12 Optimum Design Selection of 90° IFR Turbines, 294 8.13 Clearance and Windage LOSseS ...scssesseeseesneneens evseess 296 8.14 Cooled 90° IFR Turbines 297 References... seseennenneeneesne cence Problems sssssssseesnsesees oT avaracSa 299 CHAPTER 9 Hydraulic Turbines 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Hydraulic Turbine 9.3 The Pelton Turbine 9.4 Reaction Turbines. 9.5 The Francis Turbine 9.6 The Kaplan Turbine 9.7 Effect of Size on Turbomachine Efficiency 9.8 Cavitation 9.9 Application of CFD to the Design of Hydraal 9.10 The Wells Turbine 9.11 Tidal Power... Turbines References... Problems CHAPTER 10 Wind Turbines ...ssocesssseeeseessseeeseeense esses 387 10.1 Introduction 357 10.2 Types of Wind Turbine 360 10.3 Outline of the Theory ... cscoecencsesstionscencszaioncoennivensis OM 10.4 Actuator Dise Approach ....scseeseseneintnntninnatinnninienenneses 364 10.5 Estimating the Power Output 372 10.6 Power Output Range vosesossseineneennen cscs sone 372 10.7 Blade Element Theory .....-. oes : zien 10.8 The Blade Element Momentum Method 381 10.9 Rotor Configurations... ascinnacecnccicnrarnsssecetsi BBD 10.10 ‘The Power Output at Optimum Conditions 307 10.11 HAWT Blade Section Criteria cvinenennnnsnnennnnnetannenenneesensesee 398 10.12 Developments in Blade Manufacture .....cesseseeesen . 399 10.13 Control Methods (Starting, Modulating, and Stopping) 400 10.14 Blade Tip Shapes ... 10.15 Performance TestingContents ix 10.16 Performance Prediction Codes . 406 10.17 Environmental Considerations... 408 References... 411 Problems 413 Appendix A: Preliminary Design of an Axial Flow Turbine for a Large Turbocharger .. 415 Appendix B: Preliminary Design of a Centrifugal Compressor for a Turbocharger. 425 433 Appendix C: Tables for the Compressible Flow of a Perfect Gas Appendix D: Conversion of British and American Units to SI Units Appendix E: Answers to Problems Index 445 447 451This page intentionally left blankPreface to the Sixth Edition This book was originally conceived as a text for students in their final year reading for an honours degree in engineering that included turbomachinery as a main subject. It was also found to be a useful support for students embarking on post-graduate courses at masters level. The book was written for engineers rather than for mathematicians, although some knowledge of mathematics will prove most useful. Also, itis assumed from the start that readers will have completed preliminary courses in fluid mechanics. The stress is placed on the actual physics of the flows and the use of specialised mathema tical methods is kept to a minimum, ‘Compared to the fifth edition this new edition has had a large number of changes made in style of presentation, new ideas and clarity of explanation. More emphasis is given to the effects of compres- sibility to match the advances made in the use of higher flow and blade speeds in turbomachinery. In Chapter 1, following the definition of a turbomachine, the fundamental laws of flow continuity, the energy and entropy equations are introduced as well as the all-important Euler work equation, which applies to all turbomachines. In Chapter 2 the main emphasis is given to the application of the “similarity laws,” to dimensional analysis of all types of turbomachine and their performance chat- acterisics. The important ideas of specific speed and specific diameter emerge from these concepts and. their application is illustrated in the Cordier Diagram, which shows how to select the machine that will give the highest efficiency for a given duty. Did you realise that the dental drill is actually a turboma- cchine that fits in very well with these laws? Also, in this chapter the basics of cavitation within pumps and hydraulic turbines are examined, ‘The measurement and understanding of cascade aerodynamics is the basis of modern axial turbo- machine design and analysis. In Chapter 3, the subject of cascade aerodynamics is presented in pre- paration for the following chapters on axial turbines and compressors. This chapter has been completely reorganised relative to the fifth edition. It starts by presenting the parameters that define the blade section geometry and performance of any axial turbomachine. The particular considerations for axial compressor blades are then presented followed by those for axial turbine blades. The emphasis is on understanding the flow features that constrain the design of turbomachine blades and the basic prediction of cascade performance. Transonic flow can dramatically modify the characteristics of a blade row and special attention is given to the effects of compressibility on cascade aerodynamics. Chapters 4 and 5 cover axial turbines and axial compressors, respectively. In Chapter 4, new mate- rial has been developed to cover the preliminary design and analysis of single- and multi-stage axial turbines. The calculations needed to fix the size, the number of stages, the number of aerofoils in each blade row, and the velocity triangles are covered. The merits of different styles of turbine design are considered including the implications for mechanical design such as centrifugal stress levels and cool ing in high speed and high temperature turbines. Through the use of some relatively simple correlations the trends in turbine efficiency with the main turbine parameters are presented, In Chapter 5, the a lysis and preliminary design of all types of axial compressors are covered. This includes a new presen- tation of how measurements of cascade loss and turning can be translated into the performance of a ‘compressor stage. Both incompressible and compressible cases are covered in the chapter and it is interesting to see how high speed compressors can achieve a pressure rise through quite a different flow process to that in a low speed machine. The huge importance of off-design performance is xixii Preface to the Sixth Edition covered in some detail including how the designer can influence compressor operating range in the very early design stages. There is also a selection of new examples and problems involving the com: pressible flow analysis of high speed compressors. Chapter 6 covers three-dimensional effects in axi give the reader an understanding of spanwise flow variations and to present some of the main flow features that are not captured within mean-line analysis. It includes a brief introduction to the subject of computational fluid dynamics, which now plays a large part in turbomachinery design and analysis Detailed coverage of computational methods is beyond the scope of this book. However, all the prin- ciples detailed in this book are equally applicable to numerical and experimental studies of turbomachines, Radial turbomachinery remains hugely important for a vast number of applications, such as turbo- charging for internal combustion engines, oil and gas transportation, and air liquefaction, As jet engine cores become more compact there is also the possibility of radial machines finding new uses within aerospace applications. The analysis and design principles for centrifugal compressors and radial inflow turbines are covered in Chapters 7 and 8. Improvements have been made relative to the fifth edition including new examples, corrections to the material, and reorganization of some sections, Renewable energy topics were first added to the fourth edition of this book by way of the Wells turbine and a new chapter on hydraulic turbines. In the fifth edition a new chapter on wind turbines was added. Both of these chapters have been retained in this edition as the world remains increasingly concerned with the very major issues surrounding the use of various forms of energy. There is contin- uous pressure to obtain more power from renewable energy sources and hydroelectricity and wind power have a significant role to play. In this edition, hydraulic turbines are covered in Chapter 9, which includes coverage of the Wells turbine, a new section on tidal power generators, and several new example problems. Chapter 10 covers the essential fluid mechanics of wind turbines, together with numerous worked examples at various levels of difficulty. Important aspects concerning the cri- teria of blade selection and blade manufacture, control methods for regulating power output and rotor speed, and performance testing are touched upon. Also included are some very brief notes concerning and environmental issues, which are becoming increasingly important as they, ultimately, can affect the development of wind turbines To develop the understanding of students as they progress through the book, the expounded the- ries are illustrated by a selection of worked examples. As well as these examples, each chapter con- tains problems for solution, some easy, some hard. See what you can make of them! turbomachinery. The aim of this chapter is toAcknowledgments ‘The authors are indebted to a large number of people in publishing, teaching, research, and manufac- turing organisations for their help and support in the preparation of this volume. In particular thanks are given for the kind permission to use photographs and line diagrams appearing in this edition, as listed below: ABB (Brown Boveri, Ltd) American Wind Energy Association Bergey Windpower Company Elsevier Science Hodder Education Institution of Mechanical Engineers Kvaener Energy, Norway Marine Current Turbines Ltd., UK National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) NREL Rolls-Royce ple ‘The Royal Aeronautical Society and its Aeronautical Journal mens (Steam Division) Sirona Dental Sulzer Hydro of Zurich Sussex Steam Co., UK USS. Department of Energy ith Hydro Inc., Pennsylvania ‘The Whittle Laboratory, Cambridge, UK. I would like to give my belated thanks to the late Professor W. J. Kearton of the University of Liverpool and his influential book Steam Turbine Theory and Practice, who spent a great deal of time and effort teaching us about engineering and instilled in me an increasing and life-long interest in turbomachinery. This would not have been possible without the University of Liverpool's award of the W. R. Pickup Foundation Scholarship supporting me as a university student, opening doors of opportunity that changed my life Also, I give my most grateful thanks to Professor (now Sir) John H. Horlock for nurturing my inter- est in the wealth of mysteries concerning the flows through compressors and turbine blades during his tenure of the Harrison Chair of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Liverpool. At an early stage of the sixth edition some deep and helpful discussions of possible additions to the new edition took place with Emeritus Professor John P. Gostelow (a former undergraduate student of mine). There are also many members of staff in the Department of Mechanical Engineering during my career who helped and instructed me for which I am grateful. Last, but by no means least, to my wife Rosaleen, whose patient support enabled me to meet this new edition to be prepared. S. Larry Dixonxiv Acknowledgments. would like to thank the University of Cambridge, Department of Engineering, where Thave been a student, researcher, and now lecturer. Many people there have contributed to my development as an cadlemic and engineer. Of particular importance is Professor John Young who initiated my enthusiasm for thermofluids through his excellent teaching of the subject in college supervisions. I am also very grateful to Rolls-Royce ple, where I worked for several years. I learned a lot about compressor and turbine aerodynamics from my colleagues there and they continue to support me in my research activities. As a lecturer in turbomachinery there is no better place to be based than the Whittle Laboratory, I would like to thank the members of the lab, past and present, for their support and all they have taught me. I would like to make a special mention of Dr. Tom Hynes, my Ph.D. supervisor, for encouraging my return to academia from industry and for handing over the teaching of a turbomachinery course to me when I started as a lecturer as this has helped me build up the knowledge needed for this book. Since starting as a lecturer, Dr. Rob Miller has been a great friend and colleague and I would like to thank him for the sound advice he has given on many technical, professional, and personal matters. King’s College, Cambridge, has provided me with accommodation and an environment where I have met many exceptional people. 1 would like to thank all the fantastic staff there who have given their help and support throughout the preparation of this book. During the spring of 2009 T spent a sabbatical in Spain, where I worked on parts of this book. I am very grateful to Professor Jose Salva and the Propulsion Group within La Universidad Politecnica de Madrid for their hospitality during this time. Finally, special personal thanks go to my parents, Hazel and Alan for all they have done for me. 1 would like to dedicate my work on this book to my wife Gisella for her love and happiness. Cesare A. HallList of Symbols mUmsss a ae RUST SERRE READ BRzsete Nss area sonic velocity ‘axial-flow induction factor, tangential flow induction factor axial chord length, passage width, maximum camber chordwise and tangential force coefficients lift and drag coefficients specific heat at constant pressure, pressure coefficient, pressure rise coefficient specific heat at constant volume axial and tangen absolute velocity spouting velocity drag force, diameter equivalent diffusion ratio hydraulic mean diameter specific diameter diffusion factor energy, specific energy force, Prandt! correction factor centrifugal force in blade friction factor, frequency, acceleration gravitational acceleration blade height, head effective head head loss due to friction ‘gross head net positive suction head (NPSH) specific enthalpy rothalpy incidence angle wind turbine tip-speed ratio wind turbine local blade-speed ratio constants lift force, length of diffuser wall blade chord length, pipe length Mach number mass, molecular mass rotational speed, axial length of diffuser specific speed (rev) power specific speed (tev) suction specific speed (rev) force coefficients, xvxvi List of Symbols. n number of stages, polytropic index ° throat width P power pressure atmospheric pressure vapour pressure heat transfer, volume flow rate reaction, specific gas constant, diffuser radius, stream tube radius Reynolds number reheat factor universal gas constant radius entropy, power ratio blade pitch, specific entropy temperature time, thickness blade speed, internal energy specific internal energy volume, specific volume work transfer, diffuser width specific work transfer shaft work relative velocity axial force Cartesian coordinate directions tangential force stagnation pressure loss coetficient number of blades, Zweife! blade loading coefficient absolute flow angle relative flow angle, pitch angle of blade circulation ratio of specific heats deviation angle fluid deflection angle, cooling effectiveness, drag-tift ratio in wind turbines enthalpy loss coefficient, incompressible stagnation pressure loss coefficient efficiency blade camber angle, wake momentum thickness, diffuser half angle angle subtended by log spiral vane profile loss coefficient, blade loading coefficient, incidence factor dynamic viscosity v kinematic viscosity, hub-tip ratio, velocity ratio blade stagger angleSubscripts 0 b c a D e h List of Symbols density slip factor, solidity, Thoma coefficient blade cavitation coefficient centrifugal stress torque flow coefficient, velocity ratio, wind turbine impingement angle stage loading coefficient speed of rotation (rad/s) specific speed (rad) power specific speed (rad) suction specific speed (rad) vorticity stagnation property blade compressor, centrifugal, critical design diffuser exit hydraulic, hub inlet, impeller ideal mean, meridional, mechanical, material maximum, minimum nozzle normal component overall ‘optimum, polytropic, pump, constant pressure reversible process, rotor radial reference value relative isentropic, shroud, stall condition stage isentropic turbine, tip, transverse total-to-static total-to-total velocity Cartesian coordinate components, tangential xviixviii List of Symbols Superscript time rate of change average blade angle (as distinct from flow angle) nominal condition, throat condition non-dimensionalised quantityimage not availableimage not availableimage not availablent 4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction: Basic Principles machines the axial flow velocity will be zero and cy» = c,. Examples of both of these types of ines can be found in Figure 1.1 ‘The total flow velocity is made up of the meridional and tangential components and can be written ca Vetdtg= a+. (2) ‘The swirl or tangential, angle is the angle between the low direction and the meridional direction: a@=tan~'(co/¢n). (1.3) Relative Velocities ‘The analysis of the flow-field within the rotating blades of a turbomachine is performed in a frame of reference that is stationary relative to the blades. In this frame of reference the flow appears as steady, whereas in the absolute frame of reference it would be wasteady. This makes any calculations signi- ficantly more straightforward, and therefore the use of relative velocities and relative flow quantities is fundamental to the study of turbomachinery The relative velocity is simply the absolute velocity minus the local velocity of the blade. The blade has velocity only in the tangential direction, and therefore the relative components of velocity can be written as, Wa = co U, We = CW = Cy. (4) ‘The relative flow angle is the angle between the relative flow direction and the meridional direction: B=tan~'(wo/cn). (1.5) By combining eqns. (1.3), (1.4), and (1.5) a relationship between the relative and absolute flow angles can be found: tan = tana—U/eq, (1.6) 1.3 THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS ‘The remainder of this chapter summarises the basic physical laws of fluid mechanics and thermo- dynamics, developing them into a form suitable for the study of turbomachines. Following this, some of the more important and commonly used expressions for the efficiency of compression and expansion flow processes are given, The laws discussed are (i) the continuity of flow equation; (ii) the first law of thermodynamics and the steady flow energy equation: (iii) the momentum equation; {iv) the second law of thermodynamics Al of these laws are usually covered in first-year university engineering and technology courses, so only the briefest discussion and analysis is given here. Some textbooks dealing comprehensivelyimage not availableimage not availableimage not availableSs 8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction: Basic Principles Flow direction FIGURE 1.5 Control Volume for a Generalised Turbomachine at radius 7) with tangential velocity cp) and leaves at radius r2 with tangential velocity cya. For one- dimensional steady flow, ta = inlrvem — neo). (1.17) Which states that the sum of the moments of the external forces acting on fluid temporarily occupying the control volume is equal to the net time rate of efflux of angular momentum from the control volume. The Euler Work Equation For a pump or compressor rotor running at angular velocity ©, the rate at which the rotor does work on the fluid is 44 = tn(Uaeoa — Ure 01), (1.18a) where the blade speed U = Or. ‘Thus, the work done on the fluid per unit mass or specific work is Ww, AW. = (1.186) This equation is referred to as Euler's pump equation. For a turbine the fluid does work an the rotor and the sign for work is then reversed. Thus, the specific work is aw, == Uren — Uren >0 (1.186) Equation (1.18c) is referred to as Euler’s turbine equation. Note that, for any adiabatic turbomachine (turbine or compressor), applying the steady flow energy equation, eqn. (1.13), gives AW, = (hoy — haz) = Uren — Ureen (1.19) Altermatively, this can be written as Aly = A(Ue) (1.19)